1

PSCAD/EMTDC Based Dynamic Modeling and

Analysis of a Variable Speed Wind Turbine
Seul-Ki Kim, Eung-Sang Kim, Jae-Young Yoon and Ho-Yong Kim

Abstract-- The paper presents dynamic modeling and

simulation of a grid connected variable speed wind turbine
(VSWT) using PSCAD/EMTDC, a widely used power system
transient analysis tool. A variable speed wind generator with
power electronics interface is modeled for dynamic simulation
analysis. Component models and equations are addressed and
their incorporations into the EMTDC are provided. Controllable
power inverter strategies are intended for capturing the
maximum power under variable speed operation and
maintaining reactive power generation at a pre-determined level
for constant power factor control or voltage regulation control.
The component models and control schemes are constructed by
user-define function provided in the simulation program.
Simulation case studies provide the variable speed wind
generator dynamic performance for changes in wind speed. This
modeling work can be employed to evaluate impacts on power
grid as well as the control scheme and output performance of a
variable speed wind power system at the design state.

base of built-in components available in the program but also

user-defined models are used for assembling the wind turbine
system. Overall control strategy and some major part of the
system elements, i.e. wind turbine, are modeled by the userdefine functions. The study results demonstrate the modeling
work provide a reliable and useful simulation tool for
evaluating the dynamic performance of a variable speed wind
turbine integrated into power system.
VSWT

Wind

Rectifier

VSI

Transformer

Power Grid

SG
DC link

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of modeled VSWT

II. EMTDC BASED MODELING

Index Terms Grid connection, Maximum power capture,
Power electronics interface, Reactive power control, Variable
speed, Wind turbine

The variable speed wind turbine model consists of the

following components.
-

I. INTRODUCTION

RIABLE speed operation yields 20 to 30 percent more

energy than the fixed speed operation, providing benefits
in reducing power fluctuations and improving var supply.
Falling prices of the power electronics have made the variable
speed technology more economical and common [1]. Such a
wind turbine system as other types of dispersed generation is
mostly connected to distribution feeders and the generation
system cannot be easily connected to the electric power
network without conducting comprehensive evaluations of
control performance and grid impacts. This requires a reliable
tool for simulating and assessing dynamics of a grid
connected variable speed wind turbine.
The purpose of the work is to provide the capability of
simulating and analyzing the dynamic performance and grid
impacts of a variable speed wind energy conversion system
using a reliable power system transient analysis program,
PSCAD/EMTDC. The modeled system includes a fixed-pitch
type wind blades, a direct-drive synchronous generator
without a gear-box, and a controllable power electronics
system, which consists of a six-diode rectifier and a IGBT
voltage source inverter. The entire schematic diagram of the
modeled wind generation is shown in Fig. 1. Models of the
elements and the system control scheme are proposed in the
form of mathematical equations and graphical control blocks
and implemented in PSCAC/EMTDC [2]. Not only the large

Wind model
Wind turbine
Synchronous Machine
Rectifier and voltage source inverter
Power electronics control

Fig.2 depicts the component blocks of a VSWT model.

VBASE

WE

VGUST
+
+

VWIND

WT

SG

TM

POWER
ELECTRONICS

+
WM

VRAMP

EF

VDC

IF

PWT, QWT,

VEX_REF
VNOISE

EXC
CONTROL

VWT, IWT

Fig. 2 Components of a VSWT simulation model

For modeling the shaft and synchronous generator, models

provided by the EMTDC program are used, and models of the
wind speed, the wind turbine, power electronics block and the
control block are built into the program by user define
function of coding in FORTRAN or assembling the built-in
elements and modules.
A. Wind Model
A wind model selected for this study is a four-component

model [3], and can be described by equation (1).

VWIND = VBASE + VGUST + VRAMP + VNOISE

(1)

value of is set to a constant value. Fig. 3 shows a userdefined wind turbine component and windows for entering
data and parameters in this study.

Where, VBASE = base wind speed [m/s]

VGUST = gust wind component [m/s]
VRAMP = ramp wind component [m/s]
VNOISE = noise wind component [m/s]
Vwind

The base component is a constant speed and wind gust

component can be usually expressed as a sine or cosine wave
function [4]. In this simulation, a combination of different
cosine functions is used for wind gust. The ramp wind
component can be represented by the built-in ramp function
model of the program. The noise component of wind speed is
defined in this study by a triangle wave function, of which
frequency and magnitude are adjustable. Since there is a
triangle wave generator available in the commercial version, it
is used as a noise generator.
Based on the four components, a wind speed model is
constructed by integrating the built-in functions and logic
circuits provided in the program.
B. Wind Turbine
The wind turbine is described by the following equation (2),
(3) and (4).

M R
VWIND

1
R 2C PVWIND 3
2
3
1

= R 5C P M3
2

PM
TM =

(2)

PM =

(3)

(4)

where = tip speed ratio

M = blade angular speed [mechanical rad/s]
R = blade radius [m]
VWIND = wind speed [m/s]
PM = mechanical power from wind blades [kW]
= air density [kg/m3]
CP = power coefficient
TM = mechanical torque from wind blades [Nm]
The mechanical torque obtained from equation (4) enters
into the input torque to the synchronous generator, and is
driving the generator. CP may be expressed as a function of
the tip speed ratio (TSR) given by equation (2) [5].
C P = (0.44 0.0167 ) sin

( 2 )
0.00184 ( 2) (5)
13 0.3

where is the blade pitch angle. For a fixed pitch type the

WIND TURBINE
w

Tm

Fig. 3. User defined component (wind turbine)

C. Synchronous Machine
The PSCAD/EMTDC provides a fully developed
synchronous machine model, which is based on generalized
machine theory [2] and with this model both sub-transient and
transient behavior can be examined. It is considered that the
synchronous generator is equipped with an exciter identical to
IEEE type 1 model [6]. The exciter plays a role of meeting the
dc link voltage requirement, as may be described by equation
(6), for the three-phase voltage source inverter to create
voltage waveforms with a nominal value of magnitude.

VDC

2 2 V AC _ RMS
DMAX

(6)

where VDC = dc link voltage of power electronics

VAC_RMS = RMS value of the AC line to ground voltage
of the inverter
DMAX = maximum duty cycle
Since the synchronous generator is a direct drive type with
low speed and a high number of poles, the wind turbine and
the generator are rotating at the same mechanical speed via
the same shaft. Therefore, shaft dynamics can be
characterized by a swing equation on a single mass rotating
shown in equation (7). The shaft dynamics and the rotating
mass can be represented by multi-mass torsional shaft model
of PSCAD/EMTDC, which can be easily interfaced with the
synchronous machine model.

JM

d M
= TM TE D M
dt

(7)

where JM = a single rotating inertia [kgm2]

TE = electric torque produced by generator [Nm]
D = damping [Js/rad]
In variable speed operation, the rotating speed of the wind
generator is not consistent with the electrical synchronous
speed of the electric network and generally much slower than
the speed. The electrical base frequency of the machine in the
built-in models must be set to a value corresponding to the
rated mechanical speed of the wind turbine specified by a
manufacturer or a designer. Equation (8) and (9) give the
value for the electrical base speed of the synchronous
machine, B.

P RPM TUR
fB =
2
60
B = 2f B

= P

RPM TUR
60

(8)

controllable reactive power. For the modeling study, DQ

control method that is widely used for VSI current control is
employed. Variables in the ABC three phase coordinates may
be transformed into those in the d-q reference frame rotating
at synchronous speed by the rotational d-q transformation
matrix [2]. In the three-phase balanced system, the
instantaneous active and reactive power outputs, P and Q, of
the wind turbine are described by equation (10).

P=

3
3
(V D I D + V Q I Q ) , Q = (V D I Q V Q I D ) (10)
2
2

where VD = d-axis voltage at the wind turbine

VQ = q-axis voltage at the wind turbine
ID = d-axis current at the wind turbine
IQ = q-axis current at the wind turbine.
Here, VQ is identical to the magnitude of the instantaneous
voltage at the wind generation system and VD is zero in the
rotating d-q coordinates, so the equation (10) may be
contracted into simpler equation (11).

(9)

where fB = electrical base frequency of the generator [Hz]

P = number of poles
RPMTUR = mechanical rated speed of the turbine [rpm]
D. Power Electronics Control
Several types of power electronics interfaces have been
investigated [7]. In this study, a combined system of a sixdiode rectifier and a six-IGBT switch voltage source inverter,
which is less expensive than others and commonly put into
industrial use, has been modeled for AC-DC-AC conversion.
The VSI is a voltage harmonic source in the point view of ac
system and a harmonic filter need be placed appropriately to
reduce the voltage harmonics it generates[8]. A L-C harmonic
filter consisting of a series interconnection inductor and a
parallel capacitor is located at the VSI terminal. Fig. 4 shows
a rectifier and VSI system model that has been implemented
in PSCAD/EMTDC. The six diodes rectifier converts ac
power generated by the wind generator into dc power in an
uncontrollable way and so control has to be implemented by
the power electronics inverter. Current-controlled VSIs can
generate an ac current which follows a desired reference
waveform so can transfer the captured real power along with

3
VO I Q ,
2

P=

3
Q = VO I D
2

(11)

where |VO| is the instantaneous voltage magnitude of the wind

turbine system. Since the voltage remains at a level of the grid
AC voltage and the voltage variation is very small compared
to changes in the magnitude of IQ and ID, P and Q are mainly
subject to the d-axis current and q-axis current respectively.
Fig. 5 illustrates DQ control decouples real and reactive
components and enables real power and reactive power to be
separately controlled by specifying the respective reference
values of PREF and QREF for the both power outputs and
independently adjusting the magnitude of the d-axis current IQ
and that of the q-axis current ID. The reference values PREF
and QREF of the wind generation are specified by what VSIs
control strategies are taken for real and reactive power output.
The firing signals are generated by the sine pulse width
modulation (SPWM) technique. The desired current vector
IABC_REF and the actual output current vector IABC_WT of the
wind system are compared and the error signal vector IERR is
compared with a triangle waveform vector to create the
switching signals.
IQ_UPPER
PREF

PI

WTUR

PREF & QREF

generator

PWT

QREF
QWT

OR
VMAG

IABC_REF

PI

IA_REF

ID_UPPER

IQ_LOWER

IQ_REF

ID_REF

DQ
to
ABC

IB_REF

IC_REF

ID_LOWER

IERR

firing
signals

+
-

IABC_WT

SPWM
generato r

comparator
SPWM

Triangle signals

Fig. 4. Rectifier and VSI model

g enerato r

Fig. 5. Current control scheme of a voltage source inverter

Firing
Signals

Fig. 6. Current control block

Fig. 6 shows the current control model for this modeling

study and Fig. 7 depicts the window boxes of the user-defined
component of the real and reactive power reference generator
to enter the basic parameters of the wind turbine, options of
control modes and some desired values. Fig. 8 presents the
SPWM switching signal generator to give firing pulses into
the IGBT switches of the VSI.

E. Capturing the maximum power

The maximum aerodynamic power available from wind
energy can be described by equation (12) and it can be
depicted by Fig. 9. This simply means that the maximum
power may be achieved by varying the turbine speed with
varying wind speed such that at all times it is on the track of
the maximum power curve [1], [9]. One way of enabling the
maximum power capture is to specify the reference value of
real power for the inverter control as the available maximum
power multiplied by the inverter efficiency, as shown in
equation (13).

C MAX
1
3
PMMAX = R 5 P3 M
OPT
2
PREF = PMMAX

(12)
(13)

Where CPMAX = the maximum power coefficient

OPT = value of where CPMAX = CP (OPT)
= electrical loss in generator and inverter
PM

P M MAX

re
wo
pl
aic
na
hc
eM

V1

V2

V3

Tu rb in e s p e e d [ ra d / s ]

Fig. 9. Power vs turbine speed curve

Fig. 7. User defined component of P and Q reference generator

Fig. 8. SPWM switching control

F. Reactive Power Control

Various control modes can be used for determining the
amount of reactive compensation to provide. Possible control
modes include power factor, kvar, current and voltage.
Constant power factor mode and voltage regulation mode are
implemented in this analysis.
In constant power factor control (PFC) mode, the reference

Fig. 10. VSWT implemented in PSACD/EMTDC

value of the reactive power of the wind turbine, QREF, may be

specified by equation (14).

QREF = PREF

1 PF 2
PF

(14)

Where PF is power factor and PREF is the reference value of

real power output of the VSWT.
In voltage regulation (VR) mode, reactive power
compensation is controlled in such a manner that the voltage
magnitude of the VSWT-connected bus being kept constant at
a specified level. The reference magnitude of the voltage to be
regulated must be set as the nominal voltage of the AC grid
where the wind turbine is considered as being interconnected.
Whether the mode controls constant power factor or
voltage, the reactive power capability of a VSWT is limited.
Such a limitation is required to be considered in the modeling
study. The reactive capability limits of the wind turbine used
in this study are determined by MVA rating of the inverter
which may be described by equation (15).
2
2
QLIMITS = S INV
PINV

(15)

Where QLIMITS, PINV and SINV are the reactive power limits, the
real power output and MVA rating of the inverter
respectively.
III. SIMULATION RESULTS
The proposed model is implemented into PSCAD/EMTDC
software and simulated for analyzing the dynamic behaviors
of a wind turbine with varying wind conditions. Fig. 10 shows
a VSWT model implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC. Also, both
types of reactive compensation, constant power factor control
and voltage regulation control, were simulated to compare the
impacts on the bus voltage of the wind turbine. In power
factor control the set value is unity and in voltage regulation
the desired voltage is set to 1.005 pu. A high pole modular
synchronous generator which has 42 pole pairs is considered
as the wind generator. The rating capacity is chosen to be
1MVA. The rated speed of the rotor is chosen to be 26.8 rpm.

The rated wind speed is 12.35 m/s. the cut-in and cut-out
speeds are 6 m/s and 25 m/s respectively. The switching
frequency of the grid interface inverter is 7.2 kHz. It is
assumed that the system operates in a balanced condition.
The VSWT has been connected to the power grid at 0.5
[sec]. The wind speed curve used for this study is shown in
Fig. 11. The turbine angular speed variation respoding to
varying wind speed is shown in Fig. 12(a). It is observed that
at the instance when the wind turbine was integrated
oscillations in the turbine speed occurred and gradually
damped. The speed swings still remained as subsychronous
oscillations, whose frequency is approximately 20[Hz], as
shown in Fig. 12(b). The phenomenon comes from the
interaction between the mechanical torque applied on the
wind turbine and the electrical torque produced by the power
system. Such oscillations can be damped below the
appropriate level by employing damping factors. Fig. 13
presents the power coefficient profile corresponding to
change in the turbine speed. It can be demonstrated by
observing the power coefficient reaching the maximum value
of 0.44 that the turbine speed has been well controlled to
capture the maximum energy with varying wind speed. Fig. 14
shows the mechanical torque into and electrical torque from
the wind generator. The real and reactive power output of the
wind turbine in power factor control with varying wind speed
is shown in Fig. 15. Inertia smoothing effects are apparent in
the real power curve. Fig. 16 presents magnitude of the
voltage at the terminal of the wind turbine in constant power
factor. It should be noted that the voltage is varying with
power fluctuations and the power variations result from
changes in wind speed. Fig. 17 shows the dc link voltage. The
current reference is well being tracked by the actual current,
as shown in Fig. 18. The voltage waveforms at the primary
busbar (0.69kV side) of the VSWT transformer are shown in
Fig. 19.
In order to see the voltage control capability in VR mode, a
sudden increase of reactive load by 600kVar at the second
winding busbar (22.9kV side) of the VSWT transformer was
applied. In such a case, the terminal voltages and reactive
power outputs in PFC and VR modes were compared. Figs. 20
and 21 show the results of PFC and VR operation respectively.
At the moment of adding the additional load, the terminal

6
Wind Speed
14.0

Terminal voltage (PFC mode)

Wind Speed

13.0

1.0150

12.0

1.0100
voltage [pu]

m/s

11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0

1.0050
1.0000
0.9950
0.9900

7.0
6.0
[sec]

Vmag

1.0200

0.9850

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

Fig. 11. Wind speed for case study

[sec]

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

Turbine Speed

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

DC link Voltage
V_dc

2.80

2.80

2.60

2.60
[kV]

[mech. rad/s]

25.0

Fig. 16. Terminal bus voltage in PFC mode

Wtur

2.40

2.40

2.20

2.20

2.00
[sec]

20.0

2.00

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

Fig. 17. DC link voltage

(a) Turbine angular speed (0-40 sec)

Turbine Speed
Wtur

Currents

2.280

Actual Current (phase A)

350
300

2.240
2.220

250
200

[mech. rad/s]

2.260

150
100

2.200
[sec]

Reference Current (phase A)

450
400

50

15.00

15.10

15.20

15.30

15.40

15.50

15.60

15.70

15.80

15.90

16.00

.
.
.

(b) Subsynchronous oscillation (15-16 [sec] period of curve (a))

Fig. 12. Turbine speed of wind turbine

0
-50
[sec]

4.0000

4.0010

4.0020

4.0030

0.400

1.3k
1.0k

0.350

0.8k

0.300

0.5k

Va

Vb

-1.0k

0.000

-1.3k
5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

Fig. 13. Power coefficient CP

[sec]

4.000

4.020

4.060

.
.
.

2.50

3.00

.
.
.

2.50

3.00

.
.
.

4.040

Fig. 19. Voltage waveforms at primary busbar of VSWT transformenr

Terminal voltage (PFC mode)

Torque
Mechnical Torque

Electrical Torque

Vmag

1.0150

1.00

1.0100

0.80

1.0050
voltage [pu]

[PU]

Vc

-0.8k

0.050

0.60
0.40
0.20

1.0000
0.9950
0.9900

0.00
0.0

.
.
.

-0.5k

0.100

[sec]

4.0080

-0.3k

0.150

1.20

4.0070

0.3k
0.0

0.200

0.0

4.0060

Voltage Waveforms

Cp

0.250

[sec]

4.0050

Fig. 18. Current reference and actual current

POWER COEFFICIENT
0.450

4.0040

0.9850

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

Fig. 14. Mechanical and electrical torque

[sec]

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

(a) Terminal voltage magnitude

Reactive Power (PFC mode)
100

VSWT OUTPUT
1.2k

Real Pow er of VSWT

Reactive Power of VSWT

-100
-200
[kVar]

kW / kVar

0.8k
0.6k
0.4k

-300
-400
-500

0.2k

-600

0.0

-700

-0.2k
[sec]

-0.4k
0.0

Reactive pow er into Grid

1.0k

[sec]

Reactive Pow er of VSWT

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Fig. 15. Real and reactive power of VSWT in PFC mode

30.0

35.0

40.0

.
.
.

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

(b) Reactive generation of VSWT and reactive injection into grid

Fig. 20. Case of PFC operation with reactive load connected at 1 [sec]

7
[2]

Terminal voltage (VR mode)

Vmag

1.0150
1.0100

voltage [pu]

1.0050
1.0000
0.9950
0.9900
0.9850
[sec]

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

.
.
.

(a) Terminal voltage magnitude

Reactive Pow er (VR mode)
400

Reactive Pow er of VSWT

Reactive pow er into Grid

300
200

[kVar]

100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
[sec]

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

.
.
.

(b) Reactive generation of VSWT and reactive injection into grid

Fig. 21. Case of VR operation with reactive load connected at 1 [sec]

voltage made a sudden drop in Fig. 20(a). Its just because the
VSWT produced zero reactive generation as programmed to
generate unity power factor and the power system supplied
such amount of reactive power, as shown in Fig. 20(b). On the
other hand VR operation kept the voltage at the specified
level, as shown in Fig. 21(a). It should be noted in Fig. 21(b)
that the VSWT shared the added reactive demand by
supplying about 300kVar to the power grid.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
A dynamic model of a variable speed wind generation with
power electronic interface was proposed for computer
simulation study and implemented in a widely used power
system transient analysis program, PSCAD/EMTDC.
Component models of a VSWT and its control scheme have
been built by using user define functions and built-in
components provided in the software. A wind model was
integrated into the modeling to see the wind impact. Dynamic
responses of the wind turbine to varying wind speeds and
under different reactive control schemes were simulated and
analyzed based on the modeled system.
In the view point of electric utilities, grid interface of
intermittent generation sources such as wind turbines has
been a challenge that can cause lower power quality in power
systems. So comprehensive impact studies are absolutely
necessary before wind turbines being added to real networks.
Also, users who intend to install wind turbines in networks
must ensure their systems meet the requirements for grid
connection. Therefore, the work done in this study provides a
reliable tool for evaluating the performance of variable speed
wind turbines and their impacts on power networks in terms
of dynamic behaviors as a preliminary analysis for their actual
integrations and operations.
V. REFERENCES
[1]

Mukund R. Patel, Wind and Solar Power Systems. CRC Press, USA.
,1999, pp. 81-82.

Manitoba HVDC Research Center, PSCAD/EMTDC Power System

Simulation Software Users Manual, Version 3, 1998 release.
[3] P. M. Anderson and Anjan Bose, Stability Simulation of Wind Turbine
Systems, IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and systems, Vol. PAS-102, No.
12, pp. 3791-3795, December 1983.
[4] Reynolds, Michael G.. Stability of Wind Turbine Generators to Wind
Gusts, Purdue University Report TR-EE 79-20.
[5] A. Murdoch, R. S. Barton, J. R. Winkelman, S.H. Javid, "Control Design
and Performance Analysis of a 6 MW wind Turbine Generator", IEEE
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-102, No. 5, pp.13401347, May 1983.
[6] IEEE Committee Report, Computer Representation of Excitation
Systems. IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-87,
no. 6, June 1968.
[7] Z. Chen and E. Spooner, Grid Power Quality with Variable Speed Wind
Turbines, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversions, vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 148-154,
June 2001.
[8] Z. Chen and S. B. Tennakoon, Harmonic filter considerations for voltage
source inverter based advanced static Var compensator, UPEC92, Bath,
UK, pp. 640-643, Sept. 1992.
[9] Eduard Muljadi and C. P. Butterfield, Pitch-Controlled Variable-Speed
Wind Turbine Generation, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol.
37, No. 1, pp. 240-246, January/February 2001.
[10] E. Spooner, A. C. Williamson, and G. Catto, Modular design of
permanent-magnet generators for wind turbines, IEE Proc. B, Electric
Power Applications, vol. 143, no. 5, pp. 388-395, Sept. 1996.

VI. BIOGRAPHIES
Seul-Ki Kim received B.S and M.S degree in electrical engineering from Korea
University, korea in 1998 and in 2000 respectively. Since 2000, he has been
working as a researcher in power system research group of Korea
Electrotechnology Research Institute (KERI). His research interests are gridconnection of wind turbines, voltage stability analysis and power flow analysis.
Eung-Sang Kim received B.S degree in electrical engineering from Seoul
National University of Technology, and M.S and Ph. D degree in electrical
engineering from Soong-sil University. Currently, he has been working as a
principal researcher in power system research group of Korea Electrotechnology
Research Institute. His research interests are power quality, dispersed generating
system integration and grid-connection of dispersed generations.
Jae-young Yoon is the head of the Power System Research Group at the Korea
Electrotechnology Research Institute . He received his BSc., MSc. and Ph.D
degree in electrical engineering from Busan National University. Since 1987, he
has been working in the research field of power system analysis including
custom power systems. His research areas are power system modeling, analysis
and evaluation including system interconnection study.
Ho-yong Kim is with the Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute as a
Principle Research Engineer since 1986. He is currently a Director of Power
System Research Lab. He received BS degree from Seoul National University,
Korea in 1979 and MS, Ph.D. from University of Texas at Austin ,USA in 1982
and 1985 respectively. His main research areas are distribution automation and
AI applications to power systems and Power System Interconnection.