54

Maximum number of cycles per hour, 60 min -;- 0.883-min cycle - 68

Maximum volume per hour (68 cycle

33 cu ft) I 27

= 83 lcy

If the unit operates at a 45-min-hour efficiency, the probable production will be

83 lcy ' 4 5
60

62 lcy I hr

(3. IE) HYDRAULIC

EXCAVATORS

General Information
Machines which make use of hydraulic pressure to develop bucket penetration into
mate1i.als are classified by the digging motion of the bucket. l11e hydraulically controlled boom
and stick, to which the bucket is attached, may be mounted on either a crawler or a \Vhc:el
tractor base. A downward arc unit is classified as a "hoe." It develops excavation breakout force
by pulling the bucket toward the machine and curling the bucket inward. An upward motion

unit is known as a "front shovel. 11 A shovel develops break out force by crowding mate1ial mvay
from the machine. The doVv'Jlward swing of a hoe dictates usage for excavating below the nmning.
gear. l11e boom of a shovel swings upward to load; therefore, the machine requires a material
face above the ru1111mg gear to work against.
Front Shovels
Front shovels are used predominately for hard digging above track level, and loading
haul units. The loading of shot rock would be a typical application. A shovel is capable of
developing a high breakout force. The material being excavated should be such that it will stand
with a faiTly ve1tical face. Crawler-mounted shovels have very slow travel speeds, less than 3
mph. Figure 8-1 illustrates a crawler-mounted shovel.

:i- ,
.. -~~?!',~~:> '''.

FIGURE 3.11
A hydraulic-operated front shovel loading material into a truck. (Caterpillar Inc.)

55

(3.13) Size of a Front Shovel

The size of a shovel is indicated by the size of the bucket. e\pressed in cubic yards
1l1ere are three different bucket rating standards, PCSA Standard No. 3. Society of Auto1110tive Engineers (SAE) Standard J-296, and the Committee on European Construction Equipment
(CECE) method. All the methods are based only on the physical dime11sions of the bucket and
do not address tbe "bucket loading motion" of a specific machine. For buckets greater
3-cu-yd capacity. ratings are on

1
/4

cu-yd inte1vals and they are on 1/8 cu-yd intervals for

tll;111

btH.:kL~ts

less than 3 cu yd in size.

Strnck capacity. The volume actually enclosed by the bucket Vvith no allowance for bucket kcth
is the stmck capacity.
Heaped capacity. Both PCSA and SAE use a I: I angle of repose for evaluating heaped capiilit\
CECE specifies a 2: l angle of repose.
Fill factors. Rated heaped capacities represent a net section bucket volume: therefore. they

m11s1

be conec,ted to average bucket payload based on the charac,te1istics of the mate1ial being handled.
Manufacturers usually suggest factors, commonly named "fill factors," for making such corrections. Fill factors are percentages which, when multiplied by a rated heaped capacity. adjust tlie
volume by accounting for how the specific material will load into the bucket
lt is always best to conduct field tests based on the weight of rnate1ial per bucket lucid

to validate fill factors.

TABLE 3.7

Fill factors for front shovel buckets

Material

Fill factor
(%)

B<lllk clay; eanh

100-110

Rock-earth mixture

105-115

Rock-poorly blasted

85-100

Rock-well blasted

100-110

Shale. s8ndstone-standing bank

85-100

3.14) BASIC PARTS AND OPERATION OF A FRONT SHOVEL

The basic pa11s of a front shovel include the mounting, cab, boom, stick. and bucket.
With a shovel in the con-ect position, near the face of the mate1ial to be excavated, the
bucket is lowered to the floor of the pit, with the teeth pointing into the face. A crowding force
is applied by hydraulic pressure to the stick cylinder at the same time the bucket cylinder rotall's
the bucket through the face. lf the height of the face is just right, conside1ing the type of material
and the size of the bucket, the bucket will be filled when it reaches the top of the face If
the height of the face, refoned to as the "height of cut", is too shallow. it will not be possible
to fill the bucket completely without making a second pass at the face If the height of the face

is grea1er than required to fill the bucket, it will be 11ecessa1y to reduce the depth of' penet 1at in11
of the bucket into the fuce if the full fuce is to be excavated in one pass or to stai1 the excavation
above the floor of the pit. Material left near the floor of the pit will be excavated after the
upper po1tion of the face is removed.

FIGURE 3.12
Basic parts of a hydraulic front shovel
:ii.15) Selecting a Front Shovel

ln selecting a shovel, the user should consider the probable co11centnitio11 of Hork

10

be perfo1med. Two fundamental factors which should be taken into account are the cost per
cubic yard of mate1ial excavated and the job conditions under which the shovel will operate

In estimating the cost per cubic yard, one should consider the following factors

I.

The size of the job. as a larger job may justify the hjgher cost of a lart>:e shm el

2.

The cost of transpo1ting the machine (a large shovel will involve more cost than a s111all
one).

3.

The combined cost of drilling, blasting, and excavating. For a large shovel these co-;ts
may be less than for a small shovel as a large machine will handle more massive rocks
than a smalJ one. Large shovels may permit savings in d1illing and blasting costs.

The direct w1it cost per cubic yard for the excavation (less for a large shovel than J()r
a small one).
The following job conditions should be considered in selecting the size of a shovel:

I.

If the mate1ial to be excavated is hard and tough, the bucket of the large shovel.
which exe1ts higher digging pressures, will handle the material more easily

If blasted rock is to be excavated, the large-size bucket will handle bigger indi\ idual
pieces.

3.

lf the time allotted for the completion of a project requires a high hourly production.
either multiple small shovels or a large shovel must be used.

57

4.

n1e size of available hauling w1its should be considered in select in,?- the size of' a slim d.
If small hauling units must be used, the size of the shovel should be small_ whereas if
large hauling units are available, a large shovel should be used.
Manufacrw-ers' specifications should always be consulted for the exact values

or nrncliine

clearances. The maximum bucket dumping height is especially irnponant when the shovel is loading
haul units.

f3 .16) Shovel Production

There are four elements in the production cycle of a shovel:

I.

Load bucket

2.

Swing with load

3.

Dump load

4.

Return swing
lt should be noted that a shovel does not travel during the digging and loading cycle

Travel is li.rnjted to moving into or along the face as the excavation prngresses
Typical cycle element times under average conditions, for 3-to "- cu yd SI/.e

sli1)\

el-;.

will be:

I.

Load bucket

7-9 sec

2.

Svving with load

4-6 sec

Dump load

2-4 sec

Return swing

4-5 sec

4.

The actual production of a shovel is affected by numerous factors, including the.

1.

Class of material

2.

Height of cut

3.

Angle of swing

4.

Size of hauJjng units

5.

Operator skill

6.

Physical condition of the shovel

111e production of a shovel should be expressed in cubic yards per hour based on ha11k-

measure volume (bey per hour). 'll1e capacity of a bucket is based

011

its heaped volu111t: 111

order to obtain the bank-measure volume of a bucket of material, the average loose \ olu111e
should be divided by I plus the swell, expressed as a fraction. For example, if a 2-cu-yd bucket,
excavating mate1ial whose swell is 25%, vvill handle an average loose volume of 2.25 cu yd,
the bank-measure volume will be 2.25/I .25

= 1.8 cu yd. If this shovel can make 2.5 cvl'les

per min, which includes no allowance for lost time, the output will be 2.5 , 1.8 = 4.5 bey
per min, or 270 bey per hour. TI1is is an ideal production, which will seldom_ if e\'er. be
ex'}Je1ienced on a project. Ideal production is based on digging at optimum height with a LJ0
swing and no delays.

58

The actual production of a shovel vviJI be significantly lower than the ideal because
operators do not operate continuously at peak efficiency, nor do they operate a full ()0 minutes
every hour. Machines require minor repairs, haul units tend to bunch together and other 111inor
delays always affect production.
Ideal production assumes no intenuption of the loading cycle. Transp01tation Research
Board (TRB) studies have sh0Vv11 that actual production times for slim els used in higll\\ ay
construction excavation operations are 50- 75% of the available \>..orki11g tillle Tlie1efo1 e. p1 oduction efficiency is only 30-45 min per hour. The factors causing tlii:-. loss of productio11
I.

Shon moves to position for digging

2.

Handling oversize rnate1ial

3.

Cleanup of the loading area

4.

Haul-unit exchange

5.

Lack of haul unit to load

6..

Operator breaks

;i1

In the field the machine vvill require time to move into the digging. position as the !i1ce

is advanced. One study found this type of motion to be required after about 20 bucket lnads.
and on the average it required 36 sec. When handling shot rock. carefltlly evaluate the amount
of oversize mate1ial to be moved .. A machine vvith a bucket whose bite width and pocket arc
satisfactory for the average size pieces may spend too much time handling individual O\ersize
pieces A larger bucket_ or a larger machine, or changing the blasting pattern should be

con-

sidered when there is a large percentage of oversize material

The use of auxiliary equipment in the loading area, such as a dozer. can reduce clea11up
delays. Control of haul units and operator break are within the comrol of field management.

17) The Effect of the Height of Cut on Shovel Production

If the height of the face from which a shovel is excavating. lll<lle1ial is too shallu\\. it
will be difficult or impossible to fill the bucket in one pass up the foce. rhe operator will l1ave
a choice of making more than one pass to fill the bucket, which will increase the time per cycle.
or with each cycle be may cany a pa11ly filled bucket to the hauling unit. In either case the
effect will be to reduce the production of the shovel.
If the height of the face is greater than the minimum required tu Jill the bucket with
favorable crowding and hoisting forces, the operator may do one of three things. He may reduce
the depth of the bucket penetration into the face in order to fill the bucket in one full stroke
ll1is vviJl increase the time for a cycle. He may start digging above the base of the face_ and
then remove the lower po1tion of the face later. Or he may mn the bucket up the full height
of the face and let the excess eaith spill down to the bottom of the face, to be picked up
later. ll1e choice of any one of the procedures will result in lost time, based on the time rcqttiiccl
to fill the bucket when it is digging at optimum height.

59

n1e PCSA bas published findings on the optimum height of cut based on data from studies
of cable-operated shovels (see Table 3-8). In the table the percent of optimum height of' cut

is obtained by dividing the actual height of cut by the optimum height for the given mate1ial and
bucket then multiplying the result by !00. Thus, if the actual height of cut is 6 ft and the opti1nurn
height is 10 ft. the percent of optimum height of cut is ( 6/10) I 00 --, 60%.
TABLE 3-8
Factors for height of cut and angle of swing effett on shovel produrtion

45

60

Angle of swing
(degrees)
75
90
I 20

0 CJ3

0.89

0.85

0.80

0 72

0.96

0.91

0.81

1.04

0.98

0.73
- - - - - 0.86
077

Percent of
optimum depth
40

--

60

- - - - - - - -

80

--

1.10
1.03
- - - - -- 1.22
1.12

- -

- -

--------

180

150

0 5q

0.65

- -

0.66

- - -

06lJ

100

1.26

1.16

1.07

l.00

088

07CJ

071

120

I 20

l 11

1.03

0 q7

() 8(l

0 77

() 7()

l.+0

I 12

10-i

0 97

0.91

081

073

160

l.03

0 96

0.90

0.85

0.75

0 67

Much of the PCSA work concerned smaller size machines. less than 3 cu vd. In 11ll1st
cases those small shovels have been replaced by other t)1)eS of e....:ca\ at ors. track or rubber
tire loaders Hut some general guidelines can still be g.kaned from the siudies.
The optimum height of cut ranges from 30 to

50~o

of the ma\'.irnum digging height. \\ ith

the lower percentage being representative of easy to load mate1ials. such as loam. sand, or grm el.
Hard to load materials, sticky clay or blasted rock, necessitate a greater optimum height, iu the
range of 50% of the maximum digging height value. Common ea1th would require-slightly less
than 40% of the maximum digging height.

(3

18) The Effect of the Angle of Swing on Shovel Production

rue angle of swing of a shovel is the horizontal angle, expressed in degrees, between
the position of the bucket when it is excavating and the position when it is discharging the load.
ll1e total time in a cycle includes digging, swing to the dumping position. dumping, and returning

to the digging position. lf the angle of swing is increased, the time for a cycle will be increased.
whereas if the angle of swing is decreased, the time for cycle will be decreased. The ideal
production of a shovel is based on operating at a 90 swing and the optimum height of cut.
The efiect of the angle of swing on the production of a shovel is illustrated in Table 3.8. The
ideal production should be multiplied by the proper conversion factor in order to conect the
production for any given height and swing angle. For example, if a shovel which is digging at
optimum depth has the angle of swing reduced from 90 to 60, the production will be increased

by 16%.

60

Ex:11nple 3.5 : A 5-cu yd shovel having a maximum digging height of 34 ft is being u~ed to

load poorly blasted rock. The face being worked is 12 ft high and the haul units can be
positioned so that the swing angle is only 60. What is the adjusted ideal production if the ideal
cycle time is 2 I sec.
Optimum height for this machine and material (poorly blasted rock):
0.50

34 ft (max. height)= 17 ft

Fill factor Table 3.7: 85-100%, use 90%

Ideal production per 60 min hour.
(60 min hr + (21 sec/60 sec-min)
Percent optimum height,

5 cu yd

0.9

77 l Icy/hr

12 ft = 0.71
17 ft

CoITecting for height and swing, from Table 3. 8, by interpolating, 1. 08

The adjusted ideal production of the shovel is
771

l .08 = 833 Icy per 60-min lu

Although the infonnation given in Tables 3. 7 and 3.8 is based on extensive field studies.
the reader is cautioned against using it too literally without adjusting for conditions which will
probably exist on a pa11icular project.

( 3. N) Production

Efficiency Factor

As eve1y constructor knows, no two projects are alike. ll1ere are ceitain conditions at
every job over which the constrnctor has no control. These conditions must be considered

111

estimating the probable production of any piece of equipment including shovels.

A shovel may operate in a large, open quany situation with a fom well-drained floor.
where trucks can be spotted on either side of the machine to eliminate lost time waiting for
haul units. The tenain of the natural ground may be unifonnly level so that the height of cut
will always be close to optimum. The haul road is not affected by climatic conditions, such as
rains. These would be excellent workillg conditions.
Another shovel may be used to excavate mate1ial for a high way cut through a hill. TI1e
height of cut may vaiy from zero to considerably more than the optimum height. The sides of
the cut must be carefully sloped. The cut may be so nanow that a loaded trnck must be moved
out before an empty truck can be backed into the loading position. As the truck must be spotted
behind the shoveL the angle off swing will approximate 180. The floor of the cut may be muddy,
which will delay the movement of the trucks. On a project of this type the shovel will have
a severely reduced productivity.
Besides project-specific factors, there are constructor or management factors which \\ill
suppress or enhance production efficiency. The advance planning and foresight of the constructor in controlling the work and orgacizing the job will affect production. Factors that should
always be considered and addressed are :

61

I.

Maintenance of equipment

2.

Availability of repair paits

3.

Project housekeeping

4.

Haul-road condition

5.

Loading area layout

6.

Haul-unit sizing and number

7.

Competency of field management

The estimator must consider all these factors and decide upon an efficiency factor with

which to adjust peak production. To select the precisely coITect efficiency factor eve1y time is
very difficult. Expe1ience and good judgment are essential to selecting the approp1iate efficiency
factor. Sometimes it will be found that actual job production is below the estimated production:

in such cases the selected factor should be reconsidered to guide titture estimating, but the.: job
conditions should also be carefully examined.

Example 3.6 : A 3 cu yd shoveL having a maximum digging height of 30 ft, will be used on
a highway project to excavate well-blasted rock. The average face height is expected

22 ft. Most of the cut will require a 140 swing of the shovel in order

10

10

he.:

load the haul units

Detennine the estimated production in cubic yards bank measure.

Fill factor, From table 3. 7, well-blasted rock 100-110%, use 100%

Load

9 sec (because of mate1ial)

Swing loaded

4 sec

Dump

4 sec (into haul units)

Swing empty

4 sec

21 sec or ,35

lTI1ll

Ideal production:

(60 min-hour/0.35 min)

Optimum height, 50% of max: 0.5
Percent optimum height 22 ft
15 ft

3 cu yd x l 0

30 ft

= 5 I 4 lcy/hr

15 ft

= 14 7%

Height ClUd swing factor: from table 3.8, for 147% and 140, by interpolation, 0.73

Adjusted production:

514 Icy x 0. 73

Percent swell, Table 1. l:

Well-blasted rock
375 Icy/hr

16

375 Icy/hr

= 60%
=

234 bey/hr

lf the TRB information is used, the efficiency would be 30-45 working minutes per hour
234 bey/Jn ' 45 = 175 bey/hr
60
The best estimating method is to develop specific histo1ical data by type of machine and
project factors. But infonnation such as the TRB study, which presents data from thousands of
shovel cycles, provides a good bench mark for selecting an efficiency factor.

FIGURE 3.13
Crawler-mounted hydraulic hoe loading a truck.

FIGURE 3.14
Crawler-mounted hydraulic hoe handling 72-in reinforced concrete pipe

63

(3.?0)Hoes
Hoes are used p1inmily to excavate below the irntural sudace of the grouud

011

\\hicl1

the machine rests. A hoe is sometimes refened to by other names. such as backhoe or hack
shovel. Hoes are adapted to excavating trenches and pits for basements, and the smaller machines
can handle general grading work. Because of their positive control, they are supe1ior to draglines in operating on close--range work and loading into haul units (see Fig 3.13). In stonn drain
and utility work the hoe can pe1fonn the trench excavation and handle the pipe, eliminating. a
second machine.

The Basic Parts and Operation of a Hoe

The basic pai1s and operating ranges of a hoe are illustrated in Fig 3. 15.
Table 3. 9 gives representative dimensions and clearances for hydraulic crawler mounted
hoes. Buckets are available in va1ying widths to suit the job requirements.
Wheel-mounted hydraulic hoes are available with buckets up to I Y2 cu yd. The maximum digging depth for the larger machines is about 25 ft. With all four out1iggers dow11, the
large machines can handle 10,000 lb loads at a 20 ft radius. These are not production excavation machines. They are designed for mobility and general puq)Ose work.
The penetration force into the material being excavated is achieved by the stick cylinder
and the bucket cylinder. ll1e maximum crowd force is developed when the ~1ick cylinder operates
perpendicular to the stick (see Fig 3.16). As in the case of the dragline (see Fig 3.7), the best
digging is therefore at the bottom of the arc because the geomet1y of the boom, stick, bucket,
and the Liydraulic cylinders at that point exe11s the maximum force drawing the stick in and cmling
the bucket.

TABLE 3.9
Representative dimensions, loading clearance, and lifting capacity for hydraulic crawler hoes

I
I

Sit<
buC~\'I
(CU ~di

'
I

I!

\laximum
reach
'II

:--1irh

lt'll;'.ill

lf!J

Lifting capacity

15 fl

----

lnel
(fl I

depth

\la\imum
loading
height

(ft)

(ft)

ground

(o

\la\imum
digging

Shor! Mick
Fron I
(lb)

Side
(lb)

Long stirk
Front

Side

(lb)

(lh)

)-

19-22

12-15

14-16

2.900

2,600

2.900

2,600

'

11

I/

U>-1 S

17-19

7. JOO

5.:lOO

7.200

.~. \()()

I~

f,..

- .. J.j

2427
26-33
27-35
29-38

J~-27

19-24

21.400

14.500

21.600

~~

7-111

32-40

20-29

20-26

32,600

21,400

31.500

10-1 I

38-42

25-30

24-26

S I 2

.\6- .J

23-27

21-22

32.900'
:n.200

24.600'
21.900'

30.700'
32.400'

26.200

>!

44

29

47.900'

33.500'

-111--1(,

~h- ~2

27
:5-2()

34.100

27.)(){I'

.11.Wll

27.li(J()

'
Liftin~

~- I'

I'

II

'

,,

1..ip;u..11~

2r

'Lif11n~t..Jp.11.11;.

11

~.;'.1

1:

16-2.<

17-25

12.800

9.000

9.300

'J.:'00

17-21

18-23

17.100

10.100

17.700

I I. I00
14.200
24.400
22.000'

64

FIGURE 3.15
Basic parts and operating ranges of a hydraulic hoe. A, dumping height B, diggrng reach~ C, max. digging
depth.

1.i z1.;_i.:r
I

l I I:'\ I Ji' I~

.. ~

FIGURE 3.16
Arrangement of a hoe's hydraulic cylinders to develop digging forces.

65

(3 . .27)Bucket Rating for Hydraulic Hoes

Hoe buckets are rated like shovel buckets by PCSA ru1d SAE standards using 1: 1 angle
of repose for evaluating heaped capacity. Buckets should be selected based on the material being
excavated. The hoe

CaJ1

develop high penetration forces. By matching bucket width and bucket

tip radius to .the resistance of the material, one can take full advantage of the hoe's potential.
For easily excavated mate1ials wide buckets should be utilized. When excavating rocky mate1ial
or blasted rock, a nanow bucket with a short tip radius is best. In utility work the width of
the required trench may be the critical consideration. Fill factors hydraulic hoe buckets are
presented in Table 3.10.
Hoe Operating Efficiency and Production
The same elements which affect shovel production are applicable to hoe excavation
operations. 111e optimum depth of cut will depend on the type of material being excavated and
bucket selection. As a rule, the optimum depth of cut for a hoe is usually in the range of 3060% of the machine's maximum digging depth. Table 3.11 presents cycle times for hydraulic track
hoes based on bucket size and average conditions.
Example 3.7 : A 311 cu yd crawler hoe is being considered for use on a project to excavate
very hard clay from a bonow pit. 111e clay will be loaded into trucks having a loading height
of 9 ft 9 in. Soil-b01ing information indicates that below 8 ft the mate1ial changes to an unacceptable silt material. What is the estimated production of the hoe in cubic yards bank measure,
if the efficiency factor is equal to a 50 min hour ?
Fill factor: From table 3. l 0, hard clay 80-90%, use 80%

Cycle time: From table 3.11, 3 1/2 cu yd machine, 22 sec or 0.37 mm

Ideal production:
(60 min-hr/0.37 mm cycle)

x 3Y2 cu

yd

0.8

454 Icy/hr

From table I. I.

Percent swell dry clay = 0.35

Adjusted production:
454 cy/hr
1. 3 5

50 nun hr
60 mm hr

= 280 bey/hr

Check : optimum depth, 30-60% maximum digging depth from Table 3. 9, 23-27 ft
8/23

34% > 30% okay

8/27

30%

30% okay

Maximum loading height, from Table 3.9, 21-22 ft

9 ft 9

< 21 okay

66

Table 3.10
Fill factors for hydraulic hoe buckets

Fill factor

Mate1ial

(%)
100-110

Moist loam/sandy clay

95-110

Sand and gravel

Rod\.-poorly blasted

40-50

Rock-well blasted

60-75

Hard. tough clay

80-90

Table 3.11
Excavation cycle times for hydraulic crawler hoes under average conditions
Bucket
size
(cu yd)
I

<
J

I 12

2 21 2

Load
bucket
(sec)

loaded
(sec)

Dump
bucket
(sec)

Swing

Swing
empty
(sec)
,.,
.)

,.,

Total
cycle
(sec)
14

.)

15

.)

17

,.,

.)

20

31::

22

22

.:;

24

Hoe cycle times are usually of greater duration than those for shovels, because, alter
making the cut, the hoe bucket must be raised above the g:roWld level in order to load a haul
unit or to get above a spoil pile. lf in Example 3.7 the trncks can be spotted

011

the floor of

the pit the bucket will be above the truck when the cut is completed. Then it would not be
necessary to raise the bucket any higher before swinging and dumping. 1l1e spotting of haul units
below the level of the hoe will increase production.
Factors to be carefully considered in selecting a hoe and planning its utilization are:
I

Maximum digging depth required

2.

Minimum digging depth available

3.

Working radius for digging and dumping

4.

Dumping height required (trench operations)

5.

Digging with required (trench operations)

6.

Clearance for canier, superstrncture, and boom

7.

Hoisting capability
In trenching operations the prirruuy concern is to match the hoe's ability to excavate linear

feet of trench per unit of time with the pipe laying production. Usually, the volume of mate1ial
moved is not the question.

67

'.: / 2"(. J\Gradalls

( ../.
n1e gradall is a utility machine which combines the operating features or the hoe. dragline, and motor grader. TI1e full revolving superstructure of the unit can be mounted

011

either

crawler tracks or wheels. The unit is designed as a versatile machine for both excavation and

cation.

FIGURE 3.17
Grad;:dl shaping the side slopes of a ditch.

The bucket of a gradall can be rotated (that is, the gradall's arm can rotate) 90 or
more, allowing it to be effective in reaching restricted working areas and where special shaping
of slopes is required. Note its use in Fig 3.17. The three-pait telescoping boom can be hydraulically extended or retracted to vary digging or shaping reach. It can exert breakout force
both above and below ground level
When used in a hope application to excavate below the mnning gear, its production rate

\Viii be less than a hoe equipped with an equal size bucket. Similarly, it can perfonn draglinetype tasks, but it does have limited reach compared to a dragline. Because the macillne pro-
vides the operator with positive hydraulic control of the bucket it can be used as a finishing
tool frn fine-grading slopes and confined areas, tasks which would normally be motor grader
work if there were no space constraints.

3.?3) Loaders
General Information
Loaders are used e\.1:ensively in construction work to handle and transport bulk rnate1ial
such as ea1th and rock, to load trucks, to excavate earth, and to charge aggregate bins at asphalt
and concrete plants.

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FIGl;RE 3.18
Tr::ick-tvpe loader

FIGURE 3.19
Wheel-tractor loader