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Applied Energy
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h i g h l i g h t s
" The latest developments in solar thermal applications are reviewed.
" Various types of solar collectors are summarised.
" Thermal energy storage approaches and systems are discussed.
" The current status of existing solar power stations is reviewed.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 24 July 2012
Received in revised form 18 November 2012
Accepted 20 November 2012
Available online 23 December 2012
Keywords:
Solar collectors
Thermal energy storage
Heat transfer enhancement
Metal foam
Solar power stations
PCM
a b s t r a c t
Thermal applications are drawing increasing attention in the solar energy research eld, due to their high
performance in energy storage density and energy conversion efciency. In these applications, solar collectors and thermal energy storage systems are the two core components. This paper focuses on the latest
developments and advances in solar thermal applications, providing a review of solar collectors and thermal energy storage systems. Various types of solar collectors are reviewed and discussed, including both
non-concentrating collectors (low temperature applications) and concentrating collectors (high temperature applications). These are studied in terms of optical optimisation, heat loss reduction, heat recuperation enhancement and different sun-tracking mechanisms. Various types of thermal energy storage
systems are also reviewed and discussed, including sensible heat storage, latent heat storage, chemical
storage and cascaded storage. They are studied in terms of design criteria, material selection and different
heat transfer enhancement technologies. Last but not least, existing and future solar power stations are
overviewed.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
CO2-induced global warming has become a pressing issue, and
needs to be tackled. Efcient utilisation of renewable energy resources, especially solar energy, is increasingly being considered
as a promising solution to global warming and a means of achieving a sustainable development for human beings. The Sun releases
an enormous amount of radiation energy to its surroundings:
174 PW (1 PW = 1015 W) at the upper atmosphere of the Earth
[1]. When the energy arrives at the surface of the Earth, it has been
attenuated twice by both the atmosphere (6% by reection and 16%
by absorption [1]) and the clouds (20% by reection and 3% by
absorption [1]), as shown in Fig. 1 [2]. Another 51% (89 PW) of
the total incoming solar radiation reaches the land and the oceans
[1]. It is evident that, despite the attenuation, the total amount of
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 21 34204541.
E-mail address: Changying.zhao@sjtu.edu.cn (C.Y. Zhao).
0306-2619/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.11.051
539
Fig. 2. Schematic of the double-passage solar collector with porous media in second
channel [25].
540
541
Fig. 5. Hourly variations of the short-circuit currents of the PV module: the rear
face alone (curve 1), the front face (curve 2) and the total (curve 3) [55].
Fig. 4. Optical spectra of water and Silicon parameters [55]: (1) transmission
characteristics of a water layer with thickness of 1.5 cm, (2) absorption characteristics of a typical c-Si layer with thickness of 50 lm.
542
Table 1
Typical design values of receiver peak ux.
Heat transfer uid
Conguration
Peak ux (MW/m2)
Liquid sodium
Liquid sodium
Molten nitrate salt
Liquid water
Steam vapor
Air
In
In
In
In
In
In
1.50
1.20
0.70
0.70
0.50
0.22
tubes
heat pipes (transferring to air)
tubes
tubes
tubes
metal tubes
design is shown in Fig. 6b. The ux from the heliostat eld is reected through an aperture (about one third to one half of the
internal absorbing surface area [60]) onto the absorbing surfaces
which form the walls of the cavity. The aperture size is minimised
to reduce convection and radiation losses without blocking out too
much of the solar ux arriving at the receiver.
The primary limitation on receiver design is the heat ux that
can be absorbed through the receiver surface and transferred into
the heat transfer uid, without overheating the receiver walls and
the heat transfer uid within them. A survey of typical design peak
values is given in Table 1 [60]. The average ux over the entire absorber wall is typically one half to one third of these peak values.
Two other important considerations when designing heat ux are
(1) limiting the temperature gradients along the receiver panels
and (2) the daily heat cycling of the receiver tubes.
Fig. 6. Two types of solar towers [60]: (a) external receiver and (b) cavity receiver.
Inuencing factors
Technical criteria
Cost-effectiveness
criteria
Environmental
criteria
1. Operation strategy
2. Maximum load
3. Nominal temperature and specic enthalpy drop in
load
4. Integration to the power plant
543
3.2. Materials
The materials used for solar thermal energy storage are classied into three main categories according to different storage
mechanisms: sensible heat storage, latent heat storage and chemical heat storage (with their storage capacity in ascending order).
Sensible heat storage is the most developed technology and there
are a large number of low-cost materials available [7072], but it
has the lowest storage capacity which signicantly increases the
system size. Latent heat storage has much higher storage capacity,
but poor heat transfer usually accompanies if not employing heat
transfer enhancement. Chemical storage has the highest storage
capacity, but the following problems restrict its application: complicated reactors needed for specic chemical reactions, weak
long-term durability (reversibility) and chemical stability.
544
Table 3
Solid-state sensible heat storage materials [11].
Storage materials
Working
temperature (C)
Density
(kg/m3)
Thermal conductivity
(W/(m K))
Specic heat
(kJ/(kg C))
Specic heat
(kW ht/(m3 C))
Cost per kg
(US$/kg)
Cost per kW ht
(US$/kW ht)
Sand-rock minerals
Reinforced concrete
Cast iron
NaCl
Cast steel
Silica re bricks
Magnesia re bricks
200300
200400
200400
200500
200700
200700
2001200
1700
2200
7200
2160
7800
1820
3000
1.0
1.5
37.0
7.0
40.0
1.5
5.0
1.30
0.85
0.56
0.85
0.60
1.00
1.15
0.61
0.52
1.12
0.51
1.30
0.51
0.96
0.15
0.05
1.00
0.15
5.00
1.00
2.00
4.2
1.0
32.0
1.5
60.0
7.0
6.0
Table 4
Molten salts and high temperature oils [11].
Storage materials
Working
Temperature (C)
Density
(kg/m3)
Thermal conductivity
(W/(m K))
Specic heat
(kJ/(kg C))
Specic heat
(kW ht/(m3 C))
Costs per kg
(US$/kg)
Costs per kW ht
(US$/kW ht)
220600
120500
200300
250350
300400
250450
270530
265565
450850
1899
1992
770
900
900
1825
850
1870
2100
n.a.
0.52
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.57
71.0
0.52
2.0
1.5
1.4
2.6
2.3
2.1
1.5
1.3
1.6
1.8
0.79
0.77
0.56
0.58
0.53
0.76
0.31
0.83
1.05
0.93
1.19
0.30
3.00
5.00
1.00
2.00
0.50
2.40
10.7
13.1
4.2
43.0
80.0
12.0
21.0
3.7
11.0
545
Phase change
temperature (C)
Density
(kg/m3)
Thermal conductivity
(W/m K)
Specic heat
(kJ/kg K)
Latent heat
(kJ/kg)
Latent heat
(MJ/m3)
RT100 (parafn)
RT110 (parafn)
E117 (inorganic)
A164 (organic)
NaNO3
KNO3
KOH
AlSi12
MgCl2
NaCl
LiF
Na2CO3
K2CO3
48%CaCO345%KNO37% NaNO3
KNO3NaNO2NaNO3
LiNO3NaNO3
MgCl2KClNaCl
100
112
117
164
307
333
380
576
714
800
850
854
897
130
141
195
380
880
n.a.
1450
1500
2260
2110
2044
2700
2140
2160
n.a
2533
2290
n.a
n.a
n.a
2044
0.20
n.a.
0.70
n.a.
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.6
n.a.
5
n.a
2
2
n.a
n.a
n.a
0.5
n.a.
n.a.
2.61
n.a.
n.a
n.a
n.a
1.04
n.a.
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
124
213
169
306
172
226
149.7
560
452
492
n.a
275.7
235.8
n.a
275
252
149.7
n.a.
n.a.
245
459
389
477
306
1512
967
1063
1800
698
540
n.a
n.a
n.a
306
Table 6
Materials used as chemical energy storage media.
Materials
Chemical reaction
180
200250
200300
400500
500
5001000
800900
20002500
21002300
2.6 GJ/m3
n.a.
4 GJ/m3
67 kJ/mol
3 GJ/m3
n.a.
4.4 GJ/m3
n.a.
n.a.
546
Fig. 7. Use of carbon bres to enhance heat transfer: (a) bre cloth, (b) bre brush, (c) no carbon bre, (d) bre cloth of 142 g/m2 and (e) bre cloth of 304 g/m2.
foams. They found that both of these increased heat transfer rate
signicantly, but metal foams showed better performance than expanded graphite, which is shown in Fig. 11. The reason is that the
structures inside the expanded graphite are sparse, whilst metal
foams have much more continuous matrix than expanded graphite, which means heat can be easily transferred to PCMs. Tian
and Zhao [27] analysed how different metal foams affect heat
transfer in PCMs. Their investigation was based on the two-equation non-equilibrium heat transfer model, and the coupled problem of heat conduction and natural convection was solved for
phase change heat transfer in metal foams. Their results showed
that heat can be quickly transferred through the metal foam solid
structure to the whole domain of PCMs. However, at the two-phase
547
zone and liquid zone, metal foams were found to have large ow
resistance, thus suppressing the natural convection in PCMs. Nonetheless, the overall heat transfer performance of the PCMmetal
foam sample was still superior to that of the pure PCM samples,
which implies that the enhancement of heat conduction offsets
or exceeds the natural convection loss.
Fig. 11. Temperature differences (DT) between metal foams and expanded graphite
[87].
Fig. 12. Comparison of stored heat between sensible heat storage and latent heat storage [89]: (a) With a single PCM; (b) With cascaded latent heat storage.
548
Fig. 13. Comparison between a single-stage storage system and a 5-stage cascaded storage system [70,59].
of the storage where the heat transfer uid outows. For the discharging process, the problem is that the PCM at the end of the
storage might not be used for latent heat storage as the temperature of heat transfer uid rises. By using cascaded thermal energy
storage, such problems can be all solved. Fig. 13 gives a comparison
between a single-stage PCM system and a ve-stage cascaded PCM
system [70,59]. For charging process, a PCM with a lower melting
temperature can be placed at the end of the heat exchanger, so that
the temperature difference can be large enough to ensure all PCMs
to be melted. The cascaded storage system also works efciently
for discharging process. Michels and Pitz-Paal [90] investigated
cascaded latent heat storage for parabolic trough solar power
plants, and they found that a higher portion of the PCM can run
through the phase change process and a more uniform heat transfer uid outlet temperature was achieved during the discharging
process than in the traditional single-stage storage system.
As the research by Michels and Pitz-Paal [90] suggested,
Cascaded Thermal Energy Storage (CTES) was found to have higher
energy utilisation efciency than the traditional Single-stage Thermal Energy Storage (STES). Very recently, Tian and Zhao [91] examined and compared STES, CTES and their newly-proposed Metal
Foam-enhanced Cascaded Thermal Energy Storage (MF-CTES).
Their research showed that the CTES cannot only achieve higher
energy efciency (up to 30%) than STES but can also achieve higher
exergy efciency (up to 23%) than STES. Other ndings from their
research are: Firstly, MF-CTES can further increase heat transfer
rate of CTES by 27 times, depending on the properties of the metal-foam samples used (higher pore density and lower porosity can
achieve a better performance). Secondly, MF-CTES cannot improve
exergy efciency of CTES, but can help CTES to nish melting more
quickly by having higher heat transfer rates (melting time reduced
by 6787%). Thirdly, exergy transfer rate of CTES is further
increased by 27 times if MF-CTES is used.
It has been reported that several new solar thermal power stations of even greater installed capacity are under construction in a
variety of locations. They are listed in Table 8, all of which will have
a capacity of more than 100 MW. It can be seen that parabolic
troughs are still the mainstream technology because of its
549
Name
150
Solnova
Country
Location
Technology
type
Thermal storage
Notes
Seville
Parabolic
trough [92]
Granada
Parabolic
trough [96]
Spain
Palma del
Ro
Spain
Alczar de
San Juan
Parabolic
trough
[101]
Parabolic
trough
[104,105]
Valle solar
power
station
Parabolic
trough
[106]
n.a.
Spain
Helioenergy
solar power
station
cija
Spain
Parabolic
trough
[109]
Aste solar
power
station
Spain
Alczar de
San Juan
Parabolic
trough
[101]
El Carpio
Parabolic
trough
[101]
Parabolic
trough
[116]
Parabolic
trough
[101]
Parabolic
trough
[121]
Parabolic
trough
[122]
Diphenyl/Biphenyl oxide
(304 C 391 C) [120]
n.a.
Diphenyl/Biphenyl oxide
(293 C 393 C) [121]
No storage [121]
Diphenyl/Biphenyl oxide
(298 C 393 C) [123]
Parabolic
trough
[101,124]
Parabolic
trough
[125]
Diphenyl/Biphenyl oxide, up
to 393 C [124]
Fresnel
reector
[127]
Solar power
tower [129]
Completed in 2009
Seville
Solar power
tower [129]
Murcia
Fresnel
reector
[127]
Parabolic
trough
[133,134]
n.a.
Spain
150
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
50
Andasol solar
power
station
Solacor solar
power
station
Extresol solar
power
station
Ibersol
ciudad real
Spain
Spain
Spain
Spain
Alvarado I
Torre de
Miguel
Sesmero
(Badajoz)
Puertollano,
Ciudad Real
Badajoz
Spain
50
La Florida
Spain
50
50
Majadas de
Titar
Caceres
Spain
La Dehesa
Spain
30
20
11
1.4
354
Puerto
Errado 2
Spain
PS20 solar
power tower
Spain
PS10 solar
power tower
Spain
Puerto
Errado 1
Spain
Solar energy
generating
systems
Alvarado
(Badajoz)
La Garrovilla
(Badajoz)
Murcia
Seville
USA
Mojave
Desert
California
Diphenyl/Biphenyl oxide
(298 C 393 C) [126]
Alvarado I: aka La
RiscaCompleted in 2009
[121]
Completed in 2010
Completed in 2010
Completed in 2010
Completed in 2012
550
Table 7 (continued)
Capacity
(MW)
Name
75
Martin next
generation
solar energy
center
Nevada solar
one
Location
Technology
type
Thermal storage
Notes
USA
Florida
Parabolic
trough, ISCC
[136]
No storage [136]
USA
Boulder
City, Nevada
Completed in 2007
Kimberlina
solar thermal
energy plant
Sierra sun
tower
Keahole solar
power
USA
Bakerseld,
California
Water
No storage [139]
Completed in 2008
USA
Lancaster
No storage [140]
Completed in 2009
USA
Hawaii
Xceltherm-600 (93 C
176 C) [141]
Completed in 2009
1.5
Maricopa
solar
USA
Peoria,
Arizona
n.a.
No storage [142]
Completed in 2010
Saguaro solar
power
station
Yazd
integrated
solar
combined
cycle power
station
Shiraz solar
power plant
USA
Red Rock
Completed in 2006
Yazd
Iran
Parabolic
trough
[134]
Fresnel
reector
[138]
Solar power
tower [134]
Parabolic
trough
[141]
Parabolic
Dish
Stirling
[142]
Parabolic
trough
[143]
Parabolic
trough
[144]
No storage [144]
Iran
Shiraz
Italy
near
Siracusa,
Sicily
64
5
2
17
0.25
Archimede
solar power
plant
Liddell power
station solar
steam
generator
Jlich solar
tower
1.5
Country
Australia
Parabolic
trough
[145]
Parabolic
trough
[146]
New South
Wales
Fresnel
reector
[147]
Jlich
Solar power
tower [149]
Germany
Name
Country
400
Ivanpah solar
power facility
USA
280
250
Solana
generating
station
Genesis solar
USA
USA
250
110
100
Ashalim power
station
Crescent
dunes solar
energy project
Solaben
Location
Technology
type
Thermal storage
Expected
completion
Notes
San
Bernardino
County,
California
West of Gila
Bend, AZ
Solar power
tower
[134,152]
Water (249 C
566 C) [153]
2013
Parabolic
trough [154]
Material: n.a. up to
371 C [154]
2013
Blythe,
California
Negev desert
Parabolic
trough [155]
Parabolic
trough [156]
Therminol VP-1,
up to 393 C [155]
n.a.
2014
Nye County,
Nevada
Solar power
tower [157]
2013/14
Logrosan
Parabolic
trough [158]
2013
Navalvillar de
Pela (Badajoz)
Parabolic
trough
[159,160]
Molten salts,
(288 C 566 C)
[157]
Thermal oil
(296 C 393 C)
[158]
Thermal oil
(296 C 393 C)
[159,160]
2013
Israel
USA
Spain
100
Termosol
Spain
2013
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