Part III Groups in the Organization

CHAPTER 9 - COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Define communication and list its four functions.
2. Describe the communication process.
3. Contrast the three common types of small-group networks.
4. Identify factors affecting the use of the grapevine.
5. Define knowledge management and explain its importance.
6. Describe common barriers to effective communication.
7. List four rules for improving cross-cultural communication.
8. Outline behaviors associated with providing effective feedback.
9. Identify the behaviors related to effective active listening.

LECTURE OUTLINE
I.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
A. Communications Four Major Functionscontrol, motivation, emotional expression,
and information. (ppt 4)
1. Control. Communication controls member behavior in several ways.
a) Employees are required to follow authority hierarchies and formal
guidelines.
b) Informal communication also controls behavior.
(1) When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much,
they are informally communicating with, and controlling, the members
behavior.
2. Motivation. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying for employees what
is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve
performance.
a) The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and
reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require
communication.
3. Emotional expression. For many employees, their work group is a primary source
for social interaction.
a) Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which
members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction.
b) Communication provides an avenue for expression of emotions and
fulfillment of social needs.
4. Information. The final function that communication performs is related to its role
in facilitating decision making.
a) It provides the needed information.
5. None of these four functions should be seen as more important than the others.

II.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

A. The Model (ppt 5)
1. A purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, is needed to begin the
process.
2. It passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver.
3. The message is encoded (converted to a symbolic form).
4. It is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver.
5. The receiver retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender.
116

Part III Groups in the Organization

6. The result is a transference of meaning from one person to another.

7. See Exhibit 9-1, the communication process.
a) The sender encodes the message.
b) The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding.
c) The channel is the medium through which the message travels. (ppt 6)
(1) Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit
messages that are related to the professional activities of members.
(2) Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow the informal
channels in the organization.
d) The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed.
e) Before the message can be received, the symbols in it must be translated into
a form that can be understood by the receiverdecoding of the message.
f) The final link is a feedback loopthe check on how successful we have been
in transferring our messages as originally intended.
III.

DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION
A. Direction (ppt 7)
1. Communication can flow vertically or laterally.
2. The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward
directions.
B. Downward
1. Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower
level.
a) Managers communicating with subordinates.
2. Used by group leaders and managers to assign goals, provide job instructions,
and inform underlings of policies and procedures, point out problems that need
attention, and offer feedback about performance.
3. Not only oral or face-to-face; letters, e-mails, and so on, sent to employees are
also downward communication.
C. Upward
1. Communication that flows to a higher level in the group or organization.
2. Used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals,
and relay current problems.
3. Upward communication keeps managers aware.
4. Examples of upward communication are performance reports prepared by lower
management for review by middle and top management, suggestion boxes,
employee attitude surveys, grievance procedures, superior-subordinate
discussions, and informal gripe sessions in which employees have the
opportunity to identify and discuss problems with their boss or representatives of
higher management.
D. Lateral
1. Communication among members of the same work group, among members of
work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any
horizontally equivalent personnel.
a) Horizontal communications are often necessary to save time and facilitate
coordination.
b) Lateral relationships are formally sanctioned.
117

Chapter 9 Communication

c) Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and
expedite action.
d) Lateral communications can, from managements viewpoint, be good or bad.
IV.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (ppt 8)

A. Oral Communication (ppt 9)
1. The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication.
a) Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor
mill or grapevine.
2. The advantages are speed and feedback.
3. The major disadvantage is that whenever the message has to be passed through a
number of people there is a potential for distortion.
B. Written Communication (ppt 10)
1. Written communications include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax transmissions, organizational periodicals, notices placed on bulletin boards, or any
other device that is transmitted via written words or symbols.
2. Advantages
a) Theyre tangible and verifiable.
b) Both the sender and receiver have a record of the communication.
c) The message can be stored for an indefinite period of time.
d) Written communications are more likely to be well thought out, logical, and
clear.
3. Drawbacks
a) Time consuming because it is more precise.
b) The lack of feedback.
C. Nonverbal Communication (ppt 11-12)
1. Verbal messages also impart a nonverbal message.
2. In some instances, the nonverbal component may stand alone.
3. Nonverbal communication includes body movements, the intonations or
emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between
the sender and receiver.
4. It can be argued that every body movement has a meaning and no movement is
accidental.
a) We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language.
b) Body language conveys the extent to which a individuals like one another,
and the relative status between the sender and receiver.
5. We may disagree with the specific meanings of the movements, but we cannot
deny that body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication.
a) A body position or movement does not by itself have a precise or universal
meaning, but when it is linked with spoken language, it gives fuller meaning
to a senders message.
b) Intonations can change the meaning of a message.
c) Facial expression conveys meaning.
d) Space in terms of physical distance also has meaning.
6. Look for nonverbal cues as well as listen to the literal meaning of a senders
words.
7. Particularly be aware of contradictions between the messages.

118

Part III Groups in the Organization

8. We misinform others when we express one emotion verbally, such as trust, but
nonverbally communicate a contradictory message that reads, I dont have
confidence in you.
a) Actions usually speak louder than words in a contradictory situation.
V.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
A. Formal Small-Group Networks
1. There are three common types of small-group networks.
a) See Exhibit 9-2. (ppt 13)
b) The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command.
c) The wheel relies on the leader to act as the central conduit for all the groups
communication.
d) The all-channel permits all group members to actively communicate with
each other and is most often characterized in practice by the self-managed
team.
2. The effectiveness of each type of network depends on the goals of the group. (ppt
14)
a) See Exhibit 9-3.
b) If speed is important, the wheel and all-channel networks are most effective.
c) For accuracy use the chain or wheel.
d) The wheel is best for allowing leaders to emerge.
e) If member satisfaction is important, the all-channel network is best and the
wheel worst.
B. The Informal Group Communication Network
1. In an informal system information flows along the well-known grapevine and
rumors can flourish.
2. A classic study of the grapevine investigated the communication pattern among
sixty-seven managerial personnel in a small manufacturing firm.
a) The grapevine was an important source of information; only 10 percent of
the executives acted as liaison individuals. (ppt 15)
b) Information on events of general interest tended to flow between the major
functional groups.
c) No evidence surfaced to suggest that any one group consistently acted as
liaisons; rather, different types of information passed through different
liaison persons.
3. Replication found that only 10 percent act as liaison individuals.
4. Grapevine accuracy
a) The grapevine carries information that is 75 percent accurate.
5. Rumors emerge as a response to situations that are important to us, where there is
ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety.
6. A rumor will persist either until the wants and expectations creating the
uncertainty underlying the rumor are fulfilled or until the anxiety is reduced.
a) The grapevine is an important part of any group or organizations
communication network.
b) It identifies for managers those confusing issues that employees consider
important and that create anxiety.
c) It acts as both a filter and a feedback mechanism, picking up the issues that
employees consider relevant.
d) For employees, the grapevine is particularly valuable for translating formal
communications into their groups own jargon.
119

Chapter 9 Communication

C. Computer-Aided Communication (ppt 16)

1. Includes electronic mail (e-mail), intranet and extranet links, and videoconferencing.
2. E-mail
a) Uses the Internet to transmit and receive computer-generated text and
documents.
b) A recent study found that the average U.S. employee receives thirty-one email messages daily.
c) Benefits
(1) Message can be quickly written, edited, and stored.
(2) Messages can be distributed to one person or thousands.
(3) Messages can be read, in their entirety, at the convenience of the
recipient.
(4) The cost of sending formal e-mail messages is a fraction of the cost to
print, duplicate, and distribute a comparable letter or brochure.
d) Drawbacks
(1) Information overload.
(2) Time consuming to read, absorb, and respond to messages daily.
(3) Messages lack emotional content. The nonverbal cues in a face-to-face
message or the tone of voice doesnt come across in e-mail.
(4) Messages tend to be cold and impersonal.
(5) Not the best means to convey certain information such as layoffs, plant
closings, or other messages that might evoke emotional responses and
require empathy or social support.
3. Instant Messaging (ppt 17)
a) Instant messaging is essential real-time email.
b) The advantages over email include no delay, no in-box clutter, and no
uncertainty as to whether the message was received.
4. Intranet and Extranet Links
a) Intranets are private, organization-wide information networks that look and
act like a Web site but to which only people in an organization have access.
b) Extranet links connect internal employees with selected suppliers, customers,
and strategic partners.
5. Videoconferencing
a) Permits employees in an organization to have meetings with people at
different locations.
b) Live audio and video images of members allow them to see, hear, and talk
with each other.
c) Unlike previous specially-equipped rooms, cameras and microphones are
now being attached to individual computers, allowing people to participate
without leaving their desks.
6. Summary
a) It is no longer necessary for employees to be at their workstation to be
available. Pagers, cellular phones, and personal communicators allow
location flexibility for employees.
b) Organizational boundaries become less relevant as a result of computer-aided
communications. Networked computers allow employees to conduct
business on a broader basis.
7. Knowledge Management (ppt 18-22)
120

Part III Groups in the Organization

a) The process of organizing and distributing an organizations collective

wisdom.
b) Important for three reasons.
(1) Intellectual assets are now as important as other assets.
(2) As boomers leave the workforce, there will be a wealth of knowledge
lost if there are no attempts to capture it.
(3) A well-designed system will reduce redundancies.
c) Involves developing a database of pertinent information that employees can
readily access.
VI.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (ppt 23)

A. Filtering
1. Filtering refers to a senders purposely manipulating information so that the
receiver will see it more favorably.
2. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organizations
structure.
a) The more vertical levels, the more filtering.
b) Filtering occurs wherever there are status differences.
B. Selective Perception
1. Selective perception occurs when the receiver in the communication process sees
and hears things in a selective way based on his needs, motivations,
experience/background, and other personal characteristics.
2. The receiver also projects his interests and expectations into communications as
he decodes them.
C. Information Overload
1. Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data.
2. When individuals have more information than they can sort and use they tend to
weed out, ignore, pass over, or forget information.
D. Gender Styles
1. Men and women use oral communication for different reasons.
2. Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it to create connection.
a) For many men conversations are primarily a means to preserve independence
and maintain status in a hierarchical social order.
b) For many women conversations are negotiations for closeness in which
people try to seek and give confirmation and support.
c) When men hear a problem, they want to assert their desire for independence
and control by providing solutions.
d) The women present the problem to gain support and connection, not to get
the males advice.
E. Emotions
1. How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication message will influence how he or she interprets it.
2. Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication.
F. Language
1. Age, education, and cultural background are three of the more obvious variables
that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he gives to words.
121

Chapter 9 Communication

2. In an organization employees usually come from diverse backgrounds.

3. Grouping employees into departments creates specialists who develop their own
jargon or technical language.
4. In large organizations members are also frequently widely dispersed
geographically.
5. The existence of vertical levels can also cause language problems.
6. Speaking a common language, English, does not prevent differences in usage of
that language.
7. The problem is that members in an organization usually dont know how those
with whom they interact have modified the language.
VII. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
A. Cross-Cultural Factors
1. The greater the differences in backgrounds between sender and receiver, the
greater the differences in meanings attached to particular words or behaviors.
B. Cultural Context (ppt 24)
1. High-Context CulturesChina, Vietnam, Saudi Arabiarely heavily on
nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others.
a) What is not said may be more significant than what is said.
b) A persons official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable
weight in communication.
2. Low-Context CulturesEurope and North Americarely essentially on words
to convey meaning.
a) Body language or formal titles are secondary to spoken and written words
3. See Exhibit 9-4.
4. Communication in high-context cultures implies considerably more trust by
parties.
5. Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high-context cultures.
6. Enforceable contracts will tend to be in writing, precisely worded, and highly
legalistic in low-context cultures.
7. Low-context cultures value directness; managers are expected to be explicit and
precise in conveying intended meaning.
C. A Cultural Guide (ppt 25)
1. Four rules to reduce misperceptions, misinterpretations, and misevaluation are:
a) Assume differences until similarity is proved.
b) Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation.
(1) Description is less based on the observers culture and background than
on the interpretation or evaluation.
c) Practice empathy.
(1) Before sending a message, put yourself in the receivers shoes.
d) Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis.
(1) Once youve developed an explanation for a new situation treat your
interpretation as a hypothesis that needs further testing.
VIII.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION: IS IT WRONG TO TELL A LIE?

A. Most of us differentiate between real lies and little white lies, the latter being an
acceptable, even necessary, part of social interaction.
B. Employee transfer example
122

Part III Groups in the Organization

IX. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS (ppt 26)

A. Suggestions for Making Communication More Effective
B. Use Multiple Channels.
1. You improve the likelihood of clarity if multiple channels are used to convey a
message because you stimulate a number of the receivers senses, and people
have different abilities to absorb information.
2. Repeating a message by using a different channel acts to reinforce it and
decreases the likelihood of distortions.
C. Use Feedback.
1. Many communication problems can be attributed directly to misunderstandings
and inaccuracies.
2. These are less likely to occur with effective feedback.
a) See Exhibit 9-5.
b) The manager can ask a set of questions relating to a message in order to
determine whether the message was received as intended.
c) Performance appraisals, salary reviews, and promotion decisions represent
important but more subtle forms of feedback.
3. Feedback does not have to be conveyed in words.
a) Actions can speak louder than words.
D. Simplify Language.
1. Structure messages in ways that will make them clear and understandable.
2. Words should be chosen carefully.
3. Jargon can facilitate understanding when it is used with other group members
who speak that language, but it can cause innumerable problems when used outside that group.
E. Listen Actively.
1. See Exhibit 9-6.
2. Many of us are poor listeners because it is difficult and because its usually more
satisfying to talk.
3. Listening, in fact, is often more tiring than talking. It demands intellectual effort.
a) The average person speaks at a rate of about 150 words per minute, whereas
we have the capacity to listen at the rate of over 1,000 words per minute.
4. Active listening is enhanced when the receiver develops empathy with the
sender, that is, when the receiver tries to place himself in the senders position.
5. Because senders differ in attitudes, interests, needs, and expectations, empathy
makes it easier to understand the actual content of a message.
6. An empathetic listener reserves judgment on the messages content and carefully
listens to what is being said.
F. Constrain Emotions.
1. If were emotionally upset over an issue, were likely to misconstrue incoming
messages.
2. The best approach is to defer further communication until composure is regained.
G. Use the Grapevine.
1. You cant eliminate the grapevine, therefore use it and make it work for you.
123

Chapter 9 Communication

2. The grapevine is a valuable source of feedback.

3. The grapevine can carry damaging rumors that reduce the effectiveness of formal
communication.
a) To lessen this destructive force, make good use of formal channels.

SUMMARY (ppt 27-28)

1. Organizations use communication for four primary purposes or functions: control,
motivation, emotional expression, and for exchanging information.
2. The communication process model consists of a purpose, expressed as a message that passes
between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is encoded (converted to a
symbolic form). It is passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver. The receiver
retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the sender. The result is a transference of
meaning from one person to another.
3. Communication can flow in two primary directions in an organizationvertically or laterally.
The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward directions.
4. Managers have a number of channels of communication available to them, but each has its
own unique strengths and weaknesses. The chief means of conveying messages is oral
communication. It is fast and provides feedback. The major disadvantage is that whenever the
message has to be passed through a number of people there is a potential for distortion.
Written communications are tangible and verifiable. But they are time consuming and often
lack in feedback. Verbal messages also impart a nonverbal message.
5. Organizations have both formal small group networks; the chain, wheel, and all-channel
networks but also information networks like the grapevine.
6. Communication in todays organizations is enhanced and enriched by computer-aided
technologies including electronic mail, instant messaging, intranet and extranet links,
videoconferencing, and knowledge-management systems. Each technology has its
advantages and its drawbacks.
7. There are six common barriers to effective communication. Filtering refers to a senders
purposely manipulating information so that the receiver will see it more favorably. Filtering
occurs wherever there are status differences. Selective perception occurs when the receiver in
the communication process sees and hears things in a selective way based on his needs,
motivations, experience/background, and other personal characteristics. Information overload
is the result of individuals having a finite capacity for processing data, and the information to
work with exceeds the processing capacity. Gender styles: men use talk to emphasize status;
women use it to create connection. Emotions reflect how the receiver feels at the time of
receipt of a communication message and will influence how he or she interprets it. Language
age, education, and cultural background are variables that influence the language a person
uses and the definitions he gives to words.
8. Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences the meaning that
individuals take from what is actually said or written. High-context culturesChina,
Vietnam, and Saudi Arabiarely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when
communicating with others. Low-context culturesEurope and North Americarely
essentially on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondary to
spoken and written words. See Exhibit 9-4.
9. There are four rules for improving cross-cultural communication: 1) Assume differences until
similarity is proved. 2) Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation. 3)
Practice empathy. 4) Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis.
10. Many communication problems can be attributed directly to misunderstandings and
inaccuracies. These are less likely to occur with effective feedback. The steps for effective
feedback are listed in Exhibit 9-5. The manager can ask a set of questions relating to a
message in order to determine whether the message was received as intended.
124

Part III Groups in the Organization

11. Many of us are poor listeners because its difficult and because its usually more satisfying to
talk. Listening, in fact, is often more tiring than talking. It demands intellectual effort. Active
listening is enhanced when the receiver develops empathy with the sender, that is, when the
receiver tries to place himself in the senders position. See Exhibit 9-6.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. How do managers use communication in an organization?
Answer - Communication controls member behavior by requiring employees to follow
authority hierarchies and formal guidelines. Informal communication also controls behavior.
Communication fosters motivation by clarifying for employees what is to be done, how well
they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance. Emotional expression as
communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show their
frustrations and feelings of satisfaction. Communication provides an avenue for expression of
emotions and fulfillment of social needs. The final function that communication performs is
related to its role in facilitating decision making. No one of these four functions should be
seen as more important than the others.
2. Describe the communication process in terms of a student asking a professor for permission
to take an examination later than the rest of his or her class.
Answer - In their answers have students give special thought to encoding and decoding.
What encoding would be especially persuasive, what is the likely decoding of the professor?
The student begins with a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, that is needed to
begin the process: I need to take the exam late because Ive been ill and unable to keep up
on my studies. The message passes between a source (the student) and a receiver (the
professor). The message is encodedconverted to a symbolic form (this is the wording
chosen by the student). The message then is passed by way of some medium (channel) a note,
a face-to-face meeting, to the receiver (the professor). The receiver (professor) retranslates
decodesphrases into words he or she understands, the message initiated by the sender
(student). The result is a transference of meaning from one person to another. The question is
did the encoding and decoding match?
3. Describe the three types of communication flows that exist within organizations.
Answer - Communication can flow vertically or laterally. The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward directions. Downward communication flows from
one level of a group or organization to a lower level, as in managers communicating with
subordinates. It is used by group leaders and managers to assign goals, provide job
instructions, and inform underlings of policies and procedures, point out problems that need
attention, and offer feedback about performance. Upward communication flows to a higher
level in the group or organization. It is used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them
of progress toward goals, and relay current problems. Upward communication keeps
managers aware. Lateral communication occurs among members of the same work group,
among members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or
among any horizontally equivalent personnel.
4. As a manager you have a number of means of communicating to employees. What ways are
at your disposal and why would you use one rather than another?
Answer - The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication. The advantages are
speed and feedback. The major disadvantage is that whenever the message has to be passed
through a number of people there is a potential for distortion. Written communications
include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax transmissions, organizational periodicals, notices
placed on bulletin boards, or any other device that is transmitted via written words or
125

Chapter 9 Communication

symbols. Advantages: theyre tangible and verifiable. Written communications are more
likely to be well thought out, logical, and clear. The drawbacks are it is time consuming
because it is more precise, and it creates a lack of feedback. Nonverbal communication
verbal messages also impart a nonverbal message. Nonverbal communication includes body
movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the
physical distance between the sender and receiver.
5. There are a number of common small-group networks. What are the strengths and
weaknesses of each?
Answer - The three common types of small-group networks are shown in Exhibit 9-2. The
chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command. The wheel relies on the leader to act as
the central conduit for all the groups communication. The all-channel permits all group
members to actively communicate with each other and is most often characterized in practice
by the problem-solving task force. The effectiveness of each type of network depends on the
goals of the group. If speed is important, the wheel and all-channel networks are most
effective; for accuracy, the chain or wheel. The wheel is best for allowing leaders to emerge.
If member satisfaction is important, the all-channel network is best and the wheel is worst.
6. What is the grapevine, and what important functions does it fulfill for managers and
employees?
Answer It is an informal system. Information flows along the well-known grapevine and
rumors can flourish. A classic study of the grapevine found that the it was an important
source of informationonly 10 percent of those involved acted as liaison individuals.
Information on events of general interest tended to flow between the major functional groups.
The grapevine was about 75 percent accurate.
Rumors emerge as a response to situations that are important to us, where there is ambiguity,
and under conditions that arouse anxiety. A rumor will persist either until the wants and
expectations creating the uncertainty underlying the rumor are fulfilled or until the anxiety is
reduced. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organizations communication
network. It identifies for managers those confusing issues that employees consider important
and that create anxiety. It acts as both a filter and a feedback mechanism, picking up the
issues that employees consider relevant. For employees, the grapevine is particularly valuable
for translating formal communications into their groups own jargon.
7. What are the common barriers to effective communication and how do they distort the
communication process?
Answer - Filtering refers to a senders purposely manipulating information so that the
receiver will see it more favorably. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels
in an organizations structure. Selective perception occurs when the receiver, in the
communication process, sees and hears things in a selective way based on his needs,
motivations, experience/background, and other personal characteristics. The receiver also
projects his interests and expectations into communications as he decodes them. Individuals
have a finite capacity for processing data, and when the information we have to work with
exceeds our processing capacity, the result is information overload. Gender styles: men and
women use oral communication for different reasons. Men use talk to emphasize status;
women use it to create connection. Emotions reflect how the receiver feels at the time of
receipt of a communication message and will influence how he or she interprets it. Extreme
emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication. LanguageAge, education, and
cultural background are variables that influence the language a person uses and the
126

Part III Groups in the Organization

definitions he gives to words. The problem is that members in an organization usually dont
know how those with whom they interact have modified the language.
8. In your organization you are the individual who will be acting as the information contact to
the visiting international team from one of your major buyers. The relationship between the
buyer organization and your organization is quite important, so you must represent your
company as well as possible. This includes your communication style. If the visiting
international team is from Saudi Arabia, would your nonverbal and subtle situation cues be
more or less important than when you are communicating with a U.S. colleague? (Hint:
think in terms of cultural context). Now answer the same scenario, however, the visiting
international team is from England. Would your nonverbal and subtle situation cues be more
or less important in this situation?
Answer - The nonverbal and subtle situation cues would be much more important and require
more attention when communicating with the visitor from Saudi Arabia because the Saudi
Arabian culture is a high-context culture which places more significance on what is not being
said than what is being said. In contrast, the visitor from England reflects a low-context
culture. The English visitor would rely essentially on words to convey meaning. Body
language or formal titles are secondary to the spoken and written words when communicating
with the English visitor. (See Exhibit 9-4.)
9. If you were given an overseas assignment with your company, what cross-cultural factors
would you need to consider regarding your communication with others in that new culture?
Answer - The greater the differences in backgrounds between sender and receiver, the greater
the differences in meanings attached to particular words or behaviors. Four rules to reduce
misperceptions, misinterpretations, and misevaluation follow:
Assume differences until similarity is proved.
Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation. Description is less based
on the observers culture and background than on the interpretation or evaluation.
Practice empathy. Before sending a message, put yourself in the receivers shoes.
Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis. Once youve developed an explanation
for a new situation, treat your interpretation as a hypothesis that needs further testing.
10. You are given the task of conducting communication training for new first line supervisors.
What suggestions would you offer them for being more effective communicators?
Answer - Use feedback. Many communication problems can be attributed directly to
misunderstandings and inaccuracies. Simplify language. Structure messages in ways that will
make them clear and understandable. Jargon can facilitate understanding when it is used with
other group members who speak that language, but it can cause innumerable problems when
used outside that group. Listen actively. See Exhibit 9-4 for the steps. Constrain emotions. If
were emotionally upset over an issue, were likely to misconstrue incoming messages. The
best approach is to defer further communication until composure is regained. Watch your
nonverbal cues. Assume that actions speak louder than words. Use the grapevineYou cant
eliminate the grapevine, therefore use it and make it work for you. The grapevine is a
valuable source of feedback.
11. If most of us agree that telling lies is wrong, how do we justify continuing to do it?
Answer Most of us differentiate between real lies and little white lies, the latter being
an acceptable, even necessary, part of social interaction. You might also discuss the ethical
implications of lying for the common good. For example, is it OK to tell your manager

127

Chapter 9 Communication

that a project is going well, when in fact, there are problems? You may lie because you feel it
is easier to fix the problems yourself, rather than involve your manager. Is this ethically OK?
12. Outline behaviors associated with providing effective feedback.
Answer - See Exhibit 9-3.
13. Identify the behaviors related to effective active listening.
Answer - See Exhibit 9-4.

EXERCISES
A.
Are You Listening?
The purpose of this exercise is to give students the opportunity to both practice and experience
active listening.
1. Conduct a mini-lecture on active listening emphasizing the key elements and then
demonstrate it with a student in front of the class. Have the student talk about something he
or she is comfortable with family, roommate, food service at the school, and so on. The
listener should exhibit the following active listening behavior:
Make eye contact.
Exhibit affirmative facial expressions.
Ask questions.
Paraphrase.
Avoid interrupting.
2. Using birth month, pair the students.
Ask everyone who was born in January and July to hold up their hands. Pair them.
Everyone born in February and August, etc. Its simply a different way to make pairs.
3. Have students sit facing each other with their backs to the left and right walls of the room.
4. Tell the students with their backs to the left wall that they are the speakers. The students with
their backs to the right wall are the listeners.
5. Tell the speakers to think for a minute about their topic. They can choose anything
appropriate [caution them to not discuss anything too personal, illegal, and so on, even as a
joke].
6. Tell the listeners they are to actively listen and facilitate the conversation through their active
listening.
7. Tell them they have five minutes and have them begin.
8. Call time have them reverse roles. Have the new speakers talk for five minutes.
9. Call time.
10. Now ask them to prepare to answer two questions.
As the speaker, how did it feel to be listened to?
As a listener, what was the hardest thing about being an active listener?
11. Facilitate a discussion of their experiences. You will probably discover that:
Students are surprised at how good it felt to be listened to.
Students had a hard time not interjecting their own thoughts and ideas when listening.
B.

Nonverbal Communication

Ask for several student volunteers to participate in a role-playing exercise to demonstrate the
value and important that nonverbal communication plays in the decoding of messages. Have
128

Part III Groups in the Organization

different scenarios and roles written on notecards that can be easily given to each actor. The
following scenarios and roles are some examples, but could be easily adapted and expanded.
Scenario 1:
SupervisorYou are a supervisor for an accounting department with a mid-sized manufacturing
company. You have an employee, Roger, who is a good employee overall. However, Roger has
one bad habit that has continually gotten worsehe is late for work regularly. The lateness has
gotten to the level that Roger will be latefifteen minutes or moreat least three days every
week. However, Roger has worked for you for four years, and his work is quite high quality and
completed in a timely manner. In general Roger is a good employee, and you would like to keep
him. However, but his lateness is beginning to affect office morale, as other employees are
beginning and wonder (and talk about) why Roger is given the preferential treatment of being
able to come in late and yet still leave on time. You have called Roger into your office to have a
visit with him and indicate that he must to work on time, or you will be forced to let him go.
Your overall nonverbal messages need to convey a professional attitude of concern, but authority;
you need to convey the message that Rogers behavior is not acceptable, and must be changed. So
how is he to change it?
RogerYou have worked for Acme for four years, and you are a good employee (at least you
think you are, and your past evaluations have reinforced this opinion), but you have a problem
getting to work on time. You are truly trying to be an exemplary employee, but your wife has
recently left you (you did not tell anyone at work because you dont believe in bringing your
home problems into the workplace), and you are now a single parent responsible for getting your
7 year old to school. You must be a work by 8 a.m., but the school where your son attends will
not allow him to be in the building until 8 a.m. He cannot ride the bus because you live too close
to the school, and he is not eligible to be a bus rider. You have a high school student who is
available to pick your son up from school in the afternoon, but she cannot take him in the
morning, and you have not found a babysitter who could. Now, your boss is angry because you
are late, and has called you into her office. You certainly dont want to lose your job, so you must
communicate very openly with her about your changed home status.
The nonverbal messages that you need to convey are a sense of embarrassment about having your
wife leave you; a sense of remorse for being late, but you dont know any other way to get your
son to school; a sense of urgency because you do not want to lose your job. Suggestions: be very
polite to the boss, sit up straight, sit on the forward part of your chair with your hands folded
neatly; be sure that your appearance is as spit and polished as possible.
Scenario 2:
Supervisor--Same as above.
Roger--You have worked for Acme for four years, and you are a good employee (at least you
think you are, and your past evaluations have reinforced this opinion), but you have a problem
getting to work on time. You are truly trying to be an exemplary employee; in fact you are good
enough that another company has approached you with a potential job offer. This would be a nice
step up for your career, and you were getting tired of Acme anywaytime to move on to bigger
and better. And, anyway, whats the big deal about being fifteen minutes late? You give Acme
enough output, so get off the issue. Pick about something really important. And, now your boss
has called you into his office, and you know hes going to chew you out about being late.
129

Chapter 9 Communication

The nonverbal messages that you need to convey are basic apathy for the job and the importance
of being on time. Suggestions: you may even want to be a big sloppy by untucking a shirt or
turning a hat around backwards; slouch down in the chair and look downnot at the supervisor
while he is talking.
Other scenario suggestions:
Introduce an international issue such as personal spacehave one of the actors stand
too close to the other.
Use language that includes jargon that a person of another culture or age group would not
understand correctly.
Have the actors role play different facial expressions and/or intonations.
Analyzing Your Organization
Discuss with various members of your organization where they think the communication
breakdowns occur, either in their department or organization-wide. Analyze their answers in the
context of Exhibit 9-1 to try and diagnose the details on where the breakdowns occur.
Second, in your organization, examine how technology has changed the communication systems
in your organization. Do you use email or instant messaging on a regular basis? If so, has this
made things more efficient due to less meetings or phone calls? Keep a log of various
communication breakdowns or misinterpretations that occur during the coming week. This may
be a simple as an email that was mis-interpreted, or as complex as a meeting that totally got out
of hand.
Examine the impact that these new forms of communication have on worker perceptions due to
the lack of non-verbal communication. For example, have you ever been mis-interpreted in an
email because the receiver could not see your facial expressions or hear your tone of voice? If so,
discuss this with others in your organization and see if they have had the same experience. Be
prepared to discuss this with the class.

130