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1. Transformation process of Lafarge cement

Step 1: Raw Materials Preparation

The raw materials needed to produce cement (calcium carbonate, silica,
alumina and iron ore) are generally extracted from limestone rock, chalk,
shale or clay. These raw materials are won from the quarry either by
extraction or through blasting. These naturally occurring minerals are then
crushed through a milling process. At this stage, additional minerals are
added to ensure the correct chemical composition to make cement is in
place. It is then dried and ground to the correct chemical composition and
stored in silos for the next process. Lafarge recognized that such raw
materials are non-renewable resources and as such, the mining and
processes are fully in line with Lafarge's sustainability actions and
commitments.
Wherever possible, we would substitute natural resources
with by-products from other industries.
Step 2: Raw Grinding and Burning
Grinding produces a fine powder, known as raw meal, which is preheated
and then sent to the kiln. The kiln is at the heart of the manufacturing
process. Once inside the kiln, the raw meal is heated to around 1,500C - it
is of a similar temperature to molten lava. At this temperature, chemical
reactions take place to form cement clinker, containing hydraulic calcium
silicates.
In order to heat the materials to this very high temperature, a 2,000C flame
is required, which can be produced through the use of fossil and wastederived fuels. The kiln itself is angled by 3 to the horizontal to allow the
material to pass through it, over a period of between 20-30 minutes.

Upon exiting, the clinker is cooled and stored ready for grinding to produce
cement.
Step 3: Cement Grinding and Shipping
A small amount of gypsum (3-5%) is added to the clinker to regulate how the
cement will set. The mixture is then very finely ground to obtain pure
cement'. During this phase, different mineral materials, called additions',
may be added alongside the gypsum. Used in varying proportions, these
additions, which are of natural or industrial origin, give the cement specific
properties such as reduced permeability, greater resistance to sulfates and
aggressive environments, improved workability, or higher-quality finishes.
Finally, the cement is stored in silos before being shipped in bulk or in bags
to the sites where it will be used.
2. Compare/contrast quality control and quality assurance. How to improve
QC/QA?
Quality control is a system of maintaining standards in manufactured
products by testing a sample of the output against the specification. Quality
assurance is the maintenance of a desired level of quality in a service or
product, especially by means of attention to every stage of the process of
delivery or production.
Basically, the difference between the two is that quality control focuses on
the products while quality assurance refers to the process in making such
products.
Quality assurance makes sure you are doing the right things, the right way.
The purpose of QA is to prevent defects from entering into the solution in the
first place. Quality control makes sure the results of what you've done are
what you expected. It is a reactive means by which quality is gauged and
monitored.
QC is detection. QA is prevention.
3. What are the components of good manufacturing practices (GMP)?
There are many important parts of GMP compliance. Of these, the most
critical are:

Proper documentation and records - 'if it is not recorded it never

happened' according to the inspectors. It is important that all actions,
events and decisions relating to the quality of the product must be
recorded at the appropriate level of detail in a controlled way.
Control of materials. This refers to ensuring that all materials used,
whether they be the raw materials, components such as bottles or
stoppers, and packaging materials, are of the sufficient quality and are
traceable.
Thorough housekeeping and cleaning. GMP requires that people work
in an orderly and methodical way and that work areas are neat, tidy
and there is segregation between tasks where required. This will
reduce the potential for errors and mix-ups to occur
Responsible personnel behavior. This includes such areas as reporting
incidents and errors immediately, behaving appropriately in controlled
areas (e.g. minimizing particles and microbial contamination in clean
rooms)
Process control at all steps. This level of control relates to ensuring that
all parameters are in control throughout the manufacturing process
(e.g. time, temperature, pH) and reporting immediately if there is a
noticeable drift or adverse trend.
Maintenance of equipment. This involves ensuring all equipment used
in the manufacture of product is 'fit for purpose' and is cleaned,
maintained,
calibrated
and
verified
as
appropriate
and
labeled/recorded as such. This is supported through initial and on-going
validation. Any equipment not fit for purpose should ideally be
removed or clearly labeled.

4. Give substantial examples and definitions of statistical process techniques

used in quality control.

Developing control charts - A control chart (also called process chart or

quality control chart) is a graph that shows whether a sample of data
falls within the common or normal range of variation.
Check Sheets - Check sheets are simply charts for gathering data.
Histograms - A histogram is a snapshot of the variation of a product or
the results of a process.
Pareto Charts - The Pareto chart can be used to display categories of
problems graphically so they can be properly prioritized.

Cause and Effect Diagrams of Fishbone Diagrams - The fishbone chart

organizes and displays the relationships between different causes for
the effect that is being examined.