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Constitutionalism
& Democracy:
A Political Biography
of Iranian Ideologue
Mehdi Bazargan
Saeed Barzin
University of Exeter, Phd. 1992
Islam in Defence of
Constitutionalism
& Democracy:
A Political Biography
of Iranian Ideologue
Mehdi Bazargan
Submitted by Saeed Barzin to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Politics in the Faculty of Social Studies, May 1992.
The thesis is available for library use on condition that anyone who consults it is understood
to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation taken from the thesis
norany information derived from it may be published without the author's written consent.
1 certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own has been identified and that no
material is included for which a degree has previously been conferred upon me.
Contents ... 3
Acknowledgements ... 5
Summary ... 6
1 Introduction ... 8
For the preparation of this thesis I have had the good fortune of
Dr. Tim Niblock and Dr. Nazih Ayubi (both of the Department of
Eastern Studies was vital for my work. I would also like to thank
and pay my respect to all those scholars whose work I have used
of men and women whose efforts have shed light on the contemporary
of my work. This study would not have been possible without the
progress is a way of life for them and I can only hope to maintain
their standards. Last but not least I would like to thank my wife,
work to her.
Summary
the modernist rule of the Pahlavis and then the religious republic
this aim the study sketches out the general course of contemporary
7
8
Introduction
every aspect of its social heritage. The events of the past one
ideas.
10
context of contemporary Iran. However it was a matter of great
has insured him a part in all history books and political studies
it. In his lengthy eight-year study Dr. Chehabi has done great
justice to the movement and I have made ample use of his research.
thinkers and reformers, not only in Iran and other Middle Eastern
has not been included for a lack of time and space. By all
12
injustice which has to be addressed in future reviews of this
work.
Azarbaijan at the age of eighteen to marry and had five sons all
literally merchant. 3
attitude, and (as we shall see) agreeing to have his son sent to a
traditional order, the 1906 revolution, the first world war, and
tensions to near total collapse of the state. By the time his son,
the view of the Aqa Tabrizi's family what must have been of
place him within the ranks of the emerging modern classes of early
twentieth century Iran. During the rule of Reza Shah, when both
the religious and the merchant classes were under pressure, Aqa
monarch, the symbol and ruler of the new order. 15 In many ways he
the other he would familiarize the mind of the student with the
Flammarion.20
the modern world might rob the young man of religious and moral
cities and rural areas, life had only started to change since the
other let alone the outside world. There was little chance of
travel for there were no proper roads. The telegraph system was
there were only some 700 modern European style schools for Iran's
10 million population.
the ideas and perceptions of the people. Even the merchant guilds
Persian poetry.
Reza Khan to power, the press flourished and European ideas began
of the ideas that were filtering into Iran. 24 The majority of the
perceptions.
of the former. The young man left for France via the Soviet Union
in 1927. 25
Prance (1927-34)
period. Even when forty years later Bazargan wrote his memoirs,
Europe:
28 Jalal-Khaleq!
27 Bazargan, Defence p.42.
28 A quote popularized by Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh (1879-).
Taqizadeh was educated in Egypt, member of the first Iranian
Parliament (1906), leader of the Democratic Party, held a number
of ministerial posts, ambassador to Britain, lecturer at Cambridge
University. Chand Pardeh Az Zendegi Rejal Scenes From the Life of
the Elite (amid Publications, Tehran, 1945).
24
The Roots
creativity. 29
the former ones. Rather a new combination of the old and the new
was created.
conservative right and the latter that of the centre and the left.
For the Catholics the last ten years of the Third Republic
conformism.30
and ideas was useful for Bazargan in a number of ways. First, the
with the religious environment. This allowed him not to feel the
need for change in his basic religious views since the French, an
was a relief. One of his first impressions of France was the Paris
Notre-Dame cathedral:
sincerity'. 33
that the worship of God can have an active role in a modern and
progressive society without any need for the frameworks that the
and the fact that all this took place within a framework of
interpretation of religion. 37
expression.
lectures on the history of the Shiites and the Druze by the great
instance take into account that the material he was to publish for
European civilization had left its mark on the young man and had
the two.
the largest block (40%) being controlled by the right, while the
the 1920's power rested with the right, the political scene
However the Leftist advance was not without serious and violent
impression that these free associations had left upon the young
reading the quality morning newspapers which at the time were the
system. 47
form its total quantity remains unchanged. The second law states
that in a closed system, the entropy does not decrease. The third
speak with respect of the French and maintain his fondness of the
French language.
48 Tajadod Talabi.
34
The Root
state. However the roots of the concept and its most distinct
perception was based on the fact that there was a lack of written
1920s but also the old constitutional elite of the 1900s. 56 The
and better equipped than any military force the country had seen
standards which applied for military discipline were also used for
railway and the control of the foreign trade). Reza Shah and his
supported state. 57
Ataturk's example.
61 Mihan Parasti.
62 For instance the Iranian Academy was commissioned to
purify the Persian language from Arab words and to prepare a
dictionary of modern Persian words.
63 Elwell-Sutton, L.P. Modern Iran (George Routledge,
London, 1941) Chap. VII, passim. Cottam, R. Nationalism in
twentieth Century Iran in Bill, J.A. & Louis, R. (eds.) Mosaddeq,
Iranian Nationalism and Oil (I.B.Tauris & Co. London, 1988). p.25.
64 Katouzian, The Political Economy of Modern Iran, p.82.
65 Iran-e Qadim.
66 Irane Bastan
39
The Roots
came with the European influence and the main catalyst for
to move the country towards social reform and progress they sought
rival and impose the state hegemony. By late 1930s he had totally
come under the control of the modern sections of society and the
western borders of Iran and it was after his trip to Turkey (1934)
file of Reza Shah's regime and who were weary of the slow process
impatient with the pace of the modernization drive, had given Reza
turning the parliament into a rubber stamp body. He did not allow
period between the return of Bazargdn from France dnd the fall of
by the Monarch.
had thrown in his lot with the establishment and joined the ranks
of the civil service with good pay. 73 During the rule of Reza
educated social segments (as the backbone of the new middle class)
the state and it was within this context that he later wrote (even
veil, etc. 74
gaze that seemed both watchful and hazy, His Majesty the
the return home of the sensitive graduate had been tinged with
official attention paid to the new graduates and the harsh nature
correct to say that many of the Modernists within and outside the
preoccupied him: His ideas of Islam (so far as their social and
years between 1934 and 1940 the idea of Modernism came to dominate
religious community.
Bazargan when World War Two ushered the allied invasion and the
process.
wounded, amid the screams and the groans, nothing was left
that consolidated the position of his son Mohammad Reza (1953) the
the old political order and the struggle for shaping the emerging
one. This process was set in motion and to a degree shaped, by the
the 1953 military coup and their various consequences have been
elite of large and small landlords made up the former while the
of the total population. With an end to the rule of Reza Shah who
Iranian society and the most deprived. Their wealth and life was
subsistence. 2
and apathy kept the Iranian peasant away from greater social
had some 5,600 villages by the time he was exiled. The landowners
were generally absent from their property and were little inclined
to 1953 the political efforts of the ruling class were the re-
influence .5
waged labour was the carpet weaving where some 130,000 workers
changes. 6
population who dwelt in the cities could not have been more that
middle classes.
along side them, made the core of this socio-political elite. They
had had modern education more than other social segments and
them the Kurds, the Bakhtiaris, the Arabs and other ethnic
political conflicts.
political power. Unlike the period under the rule of Reza Shah,
The same case holds true for the religious establishment which had
emerged with the tide of political events. Such was the unstable
(as in the case of the National Front in the 17th Majlis). However
popular urban movements developed. Both the Tudeh Party and the
National Front which had roots among the modern middle and working
classes, sought social change, fought against the state and the
the party had some 6,000 active members and this number was to go
alignment to the U.S.S.R. over the latter's demand for Iranian oil
February 1949, the party emerged during the rule of the National
policies. 15
and working classes. But its alliance with the Soviet Union as
time of cold war in the early 1950s. The ideology of the party 17
of it. Until the end of WWII the Tudeh party followed a policy of
emergence of the Cold War those who were not active friends of the
for the individual and the rule of law. What separated them
of change. 18 The National Front held power for nearly two and a
British run oil industry was carried out. The Front's inability to
maintain is own ranks and to settle the oil dispute to end caused
its downfall.
son, the radical forces seeking change to the political order and
middle class moved decisively against both the National Front and
Political Economy
two main events were the economic crisis brought about by the
economy .
first half of the 1940s. High inflation and price hikes dominated
the economy. The cost of living index soared almost six fold in a
investment was taking place and unemployment was high. Famine set
economic factors such as the Gross National Product for the period
but projections from the later years suggest that the GNP suffered
invasion. 20
activities of 1941-53. Oil exports and the revenue from their sale
constituted the main foreign earnings for the government and oil
imports followed closely the rise and fall of the oil sales, with
intact.
Political Thinking
the old establishment felt embittered with the allied invasion and
but it was the third group, the communists, which gave the theme
vigour and drive. The campaign was led by the Tudeh party.
indicate that the main ideological drive was on the theme of class
believed that the most immediate threat to Iran came form Britain
bases in Iran and the Persian Gulf. Britain was also seen as the
within the framework that had developed in the 1930's. The concept
bourgeois revolution. 23
that began shortly after WWII. With the Soviet Union and the
first clash of the cold war (that was to last 45 years) took place
German alliance and then within the context of the cold war and
the picture in black and white. On the one hand were the British
working classes world wide and the intellectual vanguard. Over and
Socio-political Activity
Party and through the Party the National Front. The first two were
Religious currents
Talegani's father had been the person upon whose suggestion the
The new association however was not a result of the old ties. The
night classes for the illiterate. However soon after Reza Shah's
organization.
Most members were from the provinces and of the middle classes.
the pious, the ruling elite are criticized for their corrupt rule,
mislead the simple folk from religion. They call for the formation
During the 1941-53 period these men who represented the orthodox
Shah was revived and the alignment between the clergy and the
state grew and lasted up to late 50's when the initiation of the
through his father who was in touch with several senior clerics
classes and the Bazaar the group has been termed as a violent
as a symbol of imperialism. 36
understanding with the group's basic ideas and did not wish to
mainstream.
Political currents
elected a member of the guild's central council and its head for
two terms. Within three years the guild was strong enough to call
its members on strikes with the demand for greater role for the
later the guild split into nationalist and leftist factions with
became Iran Party members. The left faction split from the guild
first (1946) was with the Democrat and Tudeh parties in Qavam's
think that the Tudeh was in such a strong position that distancing
Bazargan went back to his post at the university and was later
Tehran which was implementing the project for the first piped-
to form and run the National Front. Although the most important of
decade.
The Pamphleteer:
the Iran party and the National Front. During the same period he
▪ Industrial Thermodynamics 54
Nations 60
▪ Islam or Communism 61
as years went by. This makes accurate research into the social or
the English version and the existing Persian copy indicates the
changes that Bazargan had made to the original piece. However the
that the revision to this writing was probably carried out some
the texts.
wrote during the 1941-53 period, a number of works and themes have
been chosen here for analysis as to represent the major ideas that
Bazargan was dealing with and his main concerns in the socio-
cultural dishonesty.
the rule that a pool of water more than 3.5 span across is pure
Pragmatism have things in common for "in Islam that which is true
81
Islamic Work Ethics
individual in society.
The book therefore belongs to a later period despite the 1946 date
physical- world for they are both expressions of the divine will.
82
Islamic Work Ethics
necessity of their proper education before they enter the hot bed
83
Islamic Work Ethics
to the emerging communism of the Tudeh party. The basic idea was
Reza Shah. With the fall of the monarch and the lifting of
direction.
84
z g larolo work Ethic.
Islam will be dealt with in the following sections but here his
ignorance or grudge are injecting the minds of the youth and the
Shiite clergy. They are all seen as a single parcel. This might be
guideline, should follow the example and give the same treatment
[he] has been living in a European country and has had direct
contact with various French classes and has witnessed the European
Christianity:
human potential. 75
acquiring knowledge.
When the book was being printed in the United States the
had been made but no details are given. The most clear indication
contents of the book was not revised for the second edition.
context the work fits well in the 1941-53 period rather than later
92
Islamic Work Ethics
backwardness of Iran and the fact that this problem was generally
joined the state-led Modernist drive with the hope of reform from
slower pace than its main regional partners, such as Turkey, Egypt
and India with whom the Iranian economy stood at comparable levels
drive was made during the rule of Reza Shah in terms of effort and
scope of expansion. 82
section.
the key role in determining the direction and the content of its
from the most primitive state of affairs to the most complex stage
With the increase of trade, the village turns into the city giving
the producer and exploiter continues into the industrial age where
classes.
finally capital. The day too will come when labour becomes
and work is considered suitable only for servants and clerks. Less
days put all in the hands of God has turned into a belief that all
power.88
that which exists of modern living has not been achieved through
entertainment. 89
support social advance through favour and not merit, has reduced
productivity."
determine the nature of race and culture. Upon this basis the
American Dynamism.
government and law by showing that these two depend for their
upon national mentality, the state of the arts, trade, and the
character. 93
Iranian spirit. 94
Islam (1944). The work aimed at activating the Muslim elements who
particular.
Bazargan points the finger at "less talk and more hard work" as
rapid growth of the Tudeh party. Indeed the expansion of the party
The aim was to put into the political arena an alternative that
analysis of the elements that had prepared the ground for the
youth. 99
determines the form and function of the social structure and that
does not move through revolutionary leaps and that ultimately the
his audience, but refute other elements which gave the Marxist
105
Islamic Work Ethics
later discussions.
106
Islamic Work Ethics
classical Marxism and had his own views on these points. These
evolutionary socialism.
distribution of wealth will not emerge in the manner that Marx had
ownership was nearing its end, but denied the Marxist vision of
Bazargan expresses the opinion that the Soviet government had not
[In USSR] the factor of labour has not yet managed to win
"Return From the Soviet Union" by the French author Andre Gide and
some ideas from Maleki and added them to the later revisions of
his book.
normally go with these sets of ideas. But he might not have been
the book Labour in Islam in the 1940s (and in terms of context the
Marxism, and A Review of the Ideas of Eric Frumn. The books were
111
Islamic Work Ethics
ethics. The cluster of ideas around the theme of labour which had
which man must work. The prophets are said to have been
and selecting the best persons) and that it is within this concept
that the idea of the final judgment (and of heaven and hell) gain
their meaning.
Koran. Three Koranic themes are chosen to highlight the point: the
heaven/ hell for the day of judgment. In all three themes Bazargan
to the Koran the world was created for "competitive work" 111
and selection of the best of persons. 112 The two ideas are said
sense that they indicate that the ultimate purpose of human effort
to use deeds as the act of worship. 115 Similarly the eternal fate
and that is why in the 128 Koran verses which promise heaven to
been selected.
Bazargan puts forward the argument that since labour was the
that the idea that human life should be spent in productive labour
goals. Here the ball, the goals and the field are the form
the spiritual fate of the individual and the social destiny. While
defining the course of history had its roots in Marx. What seems
reflecting a more Hegelian vision. The two ideas, from Marxism and
Bazargan builds this idea on the premises that God has two
enquiry, in this case labour, should not be studied from the two
and later Dr. All Shariati were also active in this respect.
arena in the late 1960s and was therefore two decades junior to
Bazargan.
after the 1920s did not object to Bazargan, although they had
some forty years later when the clerics established their power
Islamic thought saw the Koran as the creation of God. The majority
purposes.
120
Islamic Work Ethics
have been typical among the Islamic Modernists. For one thing they
tried to show that the results of modern sciences and ideas were
Arabic 128
126
Including Mohammad Abduh of Egypt and Mulana Abol-Kalam
Azad (d.1958) of India.
127 A typical case already cited was efforts to interpret
On colonialism
later revised and published first inside Iran and then in the
revised in either the mid 1950s or mid 1960s, as with many other
identity, in the sense that there are national units in trade with
degree or another the first two themes have already been discussed
123
Islamic Work Ethics
Here Bazargan again brings up the issue of labour but now puts it
the core of his idea (ie. foreign trade as the imperial linkage)
directly from Lenin, who had developed the idea from Marx 132 the
society and therefore its inability to meet all its own demands.
between a country and its partners are just and free. It is clear
the free market, the place where goods are supplied on the basis
they will take away all our rights and the source of
us. 136
capable of productivity.
the customers ... They should not duplicate the style used
politically was marginal. Here the main element was his effort to
concept of labour.
130
Historic and Social Law
Social Developments 1953-60
classes. Both the radical and liberal trends bore the brunt of
National Front were rounded up and imprisoned and the most brutal
in executions.
had suffered badly after the 1940 Allied invasion. The direct
created.
monarch.
was based on the need of both sides for mutual cooperation. The
Shah also wanted the support of the modern middle classes but
become the leading foreign power gave its political and financial
support to the monarch. The aim was to secure the flow of oil and
Iranian government.
help from the United States the stage of acute economic depression
was passed. A new contract was reached with the oil companies
taxes, etc. From then on the increase in the oil income was
in the following years. By 1960-61 the income had reached $358 and
by the following year it passed the $437 mark. In less than ten
years the state revenue from the oil industry had jumped over 12
fold. 6
had been carried out in the USSR in the quest for economic
it opted for a two party system (1957). One party was given the
making the country western in character. Among the rank and file
expression of opinion. 7
three main elements: positive alliance with the West, cultural and
participation.
with the "Soviets against the West in general and the British in
foreign policy which called for good working relations with the
imperialist designs on Iran. The policy also meant that the United
that it had given Iran financial and military assistance and had
USSR was viewed as the new totalitarian imperialist which was bent
Tudeh party's use of Radio Moscow, the Shah expressed the wish of
education and medicine) and productive units (eg. oil, gas and
for 40% of the nation's industry at the time. Although it was said
that the private sector was free to proceed with its activities,
linking the social role of the clergy in favour of the state, and
taken place, the role of the Shah became paramount. On the surface
position had been spelled out in the 1906 constitution which was
emphasis that the Shah gave to his own position in all processes
way that "I [Shah] saw it" which was then taken as the criterion
parliament, and the cabinet under the personal control and veto of
the growth of a two party system, which were defined by him and
failed to grow and find a social base. Their close ties to the
popular. As the Shah's control over the state was to grow in the
defence of his one man rule which stand out. In one case he
"subversive negativism".
choice.
the bureaucracy, the landlords and the religious figures had given
tacit support to the 1953 coup and while within the ranks of the
approach and was soon paralyzed, it was only the NRM which showed
(led by Dr. Mohammad Nakhshab) the Third Force Party (led by Dr.
Mohammad All Khunji) the Iran Party (led by Allahyar Saleh) and
elections 20
both organizing the NRM and running its affairs from a leadership
position. The initial idea for the formation of the group came
National Front. But it was Bazargan who was elected the secretary
was arrested in spring 1955 and was imprisoned for five months
the central council means that the NRM propaganda reflected his
main ideas.
22
NRM Documents, five volumes, (Liberation Movement of
Iran, Tehran, 1983).
23 Mohammad Rahim Ata'i (1927-77), Bazargan's nephew read
law and politics at Tehran university, cooperated with Iran Party
until 1946, was a member of NRM and FMI. Payam-e Mojahed,
September 1977.
24 Sadeqi was the editor of Mosaddeq's Path.
Naz1h,
Interview, 1991.
25 This was pointed out by H. Katouzian, in a private
conversaion, 1992.
144
Historic and Social Law
Nationalism
subsequent 1953 coup. It was said that the oil reserves and
conflict lay between the Iranian nation and the colonial powers.
3.45
Historic and Social Law
enough that NRM identified its own position with that of other
countries. 33
Persian Gulf, the Arabian Gulf, the NRM went as far as denying
of conflict between the Persians and the Arabs in the old school
fled to the camp of the enemy and through whom the enemy
It was within these conditions that the NRM called for the
destroy the shame of protege status and called for the acquisition
made between the two and at times the meaning of the two ideas:
Revolution and inspirations from its ideas and events comes out
Revolution.
democracy. 42
and political democracy were not equal at all. While in every page
Charismatic leadership
after the 1953 coup Mosaddeq lost all executive positions and was
organization was not only weak but also under police pressure and
of the earlier achievements of the National Front and NRM did well
nationalism. 47
Non-alignment
role to play. NRM not only took Britain and the United States as
its main enemies but it placed the Soviet Union within the ranks
of foreign powers with evil designs on Iran. The main catalyst for
Iran during the 1940-53 period and in particular its, and the
the closet. 49
causes for opposition to the British and the Americans, there was
condemnation of the two sides, ie. the Eastern "Red" and Western
no doubt that the NRM was opposed to communism and the Soviet
Union, this theme was not overtly developed. One reason might have
and Russia. This policy was popularly believed to have had its
countries to the cold war between the Soviet Union and the United
States in the 1950's. Since then the word neutralism has been
the ending of the cold war (1990). But in the 1950's and the
positions symbolized by the United States and the USSR and the
Organization
the Majlis and the press, the NRM leaders opted for a third way.
these three the last one (ie. the internal dynamics of the
organized association. 58
possible 58
reasons that in 1961 the Freedom Movement of Iran and in 1965 the
Religion
junior clerics the majority were closer to the regime than the
following the 1953 coup and relations between the two did not
start to sour until the issue of the White Revolution (of which
seeds of the later religious movement were sown in the NRM and it
element. It could have also been the fact that the Iran party
which was led by the more secular leaders took a more conciliatory
uncertain terms, that they are not prepared to make sacrifices for
the "idle gigolos and the slipshod ladies" who as members of the
war that Hosain, the third Shiite Imam, waged against the ruling
rule.
unprecedented proportions.
Internal Conflicts
one thing conflicts from the pre-coup years were dragged into the
(Third Force) 65 which had not only the best organization but also
the best cadres paralyzed party functions and led to a three way
could not have been without errors and criticism ... right
options, rather than the policies that they had already chosen
of the Iran party from the Movement and thus caused the NRM's
of the regime, ie. the Americans and the British to the advantage
the Iran party that the US was willing to pull away from Iran's
the US and thus losing valuable time and opportunity for building
approach found a base in the older and more senior members of the
rank and file, the radicals option was more popular within the
have been chosen. The first argument comes in a book The Trodden
speech one year earlier. However the book was extensively revised
pages of the 240 page book during his first spell in prison. Other
the book in the post 1953 period. The second argument comes in the
book Love and Worship which was also written in prison, and later
fact that the two not only complement each other in Bazargan's
has two sides. On the one hand is the lineage of divine truths
lineage of the prophets has reached its final climax and obtained
the highest truths, the human has yet to reach its peak.
with regard to the peculiarities of time and place that they had
166
Historic and Social Law
prophets who are not mentioned in the Koran including Buddha and
are also said to have a place in the process. Thus all religion is
human beings. But not all of their audience accepted the true and
Noah] ... but the storm came and destroyed the generation
the early stages of human growth the emphasis of the prophets was
been passed by the prophets was the very way that man was passing
through. But while prophets had reached the climax of the teaching
us) in order that they could comprehend the truth of the worship,
From the very first day man has not passed through any
God, the here after and religion. Indeed they maybe closer
faithful. 87
to two basic cluster of ideas: on the one hand the story of the
prophets and their teachings and on the other hand the fact that
their message has evolved. Bazargan brings the stories from the
Koran and then expands on what the prophets were supposed to have
(ie.Buddha, Zoroastra and Mazdak) all come from the Koran. But the
language where it was the burden of the powerful white man to rule
which had culminated with him. It is possible that this idea too
evolution.
manner that Bazargan has adapted from the holy book. In the Shiite
route.
the Koran in his own terms and obviously the configuration of the
God controls events that appear random, that God has designed a
controlling them. At the same time an effort has been made to move
only take man closer to the path and the aim of the prophets (ie.
175
Historic and Social Law
into political action. (As with Marxism, for example, which also
enough that from the over 20 articles, pamphlets and books that he
176
Historic and Social Law
this process and thus condemning those whose practices are against
injustice.
with each other, the social elements, ie. the individual persons,
too pursue basic laws in their relations with each other. Bazargan
account they will have adverse effects. 101 Bazargan thus puts
relations:
social/legal law and the laws of the physical world resembles the
but also felt all law to be eternally valid and in some degree
The custom which was rooted in the ways of the people was in no
sense set off from natural law but rather was felt to be a twig of
the great tree of the law, which grew from earth to heaven and in
whose shade all human life was lived. 1 " Bazargan looked at law
earlier.
confront the political tyranny that had been imposed after the
1953 coup. Taking into account the conditions of the time and the
prison. In his own words the work was "a souvenir from the early
law. The fact that he feels the existing judiciary can not give
The most ideal [legal] laws are those which manage the
minorities. 105
people. In the new argument the earlier language and terms have
been maintained and the same form of logic and methods of argument
them the social body should have particular laws which must be
thermodynamics.
182
Historic and Social Law
of its own.
states the view that since each part of the social system has a
peculiarity of its own, and that for a smooth running of the whole
of the majority of the people are good. Taking into account the
analysis.
183
The Islamic Mass Appeal
Social Developments 1960-63
opposition had picked up momentum and the Majlis had become vocal.
they were rigged and PM Manuchehr Iqbal was asked to resign. The
restrain the domestic economic crisis. His cabinet fell after one
wage freezes. 1
Amini was appointed the Prime Minister. Earlier Amini and those
around him had begun to flex their muscles in the newly opened
but he needed Amini to bring about the necessary changes. The two
1 The analysis here has been based on data and arguments in:
Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions, pp.420-426, Avery,
Modern Iran, Chap. 29, passim. Katouzian, The Political Economy of
Modern Iran pp.213-224, Katouzian, Musaddiq & the Struggle for
Power in Iran Chaps. 15 & 16. Keddie, Roots of the Revolution,
pp.150-153.
185
The Islamic Mass Appeal
closing down the Majlis. This move alienated the landed classes
who held the majority of seats in the parliament and who were to
programme.
government. Amini's main argument was that to carry out his main
opposed his land reform. The Nationalists were unhappy with his
a secondary issue. The Shah accepted and moved to prepare his own
former PM Amini and National Front leaders. Elections for the 21th
The Shah hijacked for his own ends the land reform
land while maintaining the land issue as its central feature were
urban industry and made the state the unrivalled centre of capital
immense.
from the urban based and democratic National Front opposition was
minimal and confused. For a long time they kept silent and then
and the fact that they accepted the modernizing and progressive
6th June 1963. The government took a tough stand and ordered a
with. The ground was laid for the rise of the almost undisputed
leadership cadre while the former NRM activists formed the nucleus
latter tendency and upon the experience of the NRM years that
political group. Again here Bazargan took the initiative and with
of Iran. 5
1963). Within this period the party opened a club, applied for
the FMI was paramount. He was the main force behind the initial
proposal for the formation of the party, the first leader of the
group, and its ideologue. Most of the main theoretical tracts were
masses,
to it.
19th and early 20th century) and as the result of contacts with
of the Greeks the West had been the source of inspiration for
into account that the national identity in the West came only
later and that as far as research shows Medieval and even early
national.
Safavid (1501-1722 AD) and Qajar (1779-1924 AD) where both the
as an example:
religious sentiments. 13
humanist" approach. 14
respecting the law and the position of the individual and thus
which a political protest could be built. One could well ask what
secular one? It seems one of the reasons for this turn of events
was the defeat of both the secular liberal and Marxist positions
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The Islamic Mass Appeal
against the ruling trend and to this end they thought of religion
is from such a platform that FMI identified with the Indian social
Consciousness
Bazargan does not give historical or actual evidence for his view.
from the early days of its formation. Two clerics were involved in
He gave his blessing to the newly founded movement and prayed that
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The Islamic Mass Appeal
another famous Koran verse: Verily never will God change the
events. FMI put the emphasis on Ashura, the day when Imam Hosain
between FMI and the clerics did not come until the Shah's White
life was a dream that the FMI ideologue had nurtured for many
true. FMI congratulated the clerics and thanked them for their
scene]. 27
think it necessary. FMI believed this model would carry over into
social setting. 30
The other issue on which FMI defended the clerics was the
financial support for them came from the lower social strata and
the state bourgeoisie not only the ruling but the only elite.
feudals. 32
clerics had opposed the move on the grounds that "since the
limiting the freedom and rights of the women. The clerics, FMI
and create quarrels in families". The clerics had never been known
supportive of clerics.
had broken out and shaken the regime to its foundation. For
wide social base of the clergy and social support for the "Great
ruling establishment. 37
person of the Shah and the government of All Amini fell within
explicit. Furthermore not only had the regime suffered a set back
and they had the initiative, at least for the time being.
would have been those who had fallen victim to the arbitrary
people to their cause and that this would make a difference in the
and democratic one and they even went as far as believing that the
government.
remedy the problem the FMI placed as the first article of its
people. 38
those limiting the power of the regent (44, 48, 64), calling for
the separation of powers (11, 27, 28, 71, 79, 81) freedom of the
and just end to social conflicts and safeguard the rights of the
nation.
criticized the Shah and said that he should reign rather than
FMI attacks on the Shah increased after the June 1963 uprising.
blame all ills on those around him. It was also common to quote
articles from the foreign press which had a free hand in reporting
the tone of the FMI towards the Shah changed. Giving him a
was no longer any reference to the constitution for FMI saw the
prison. It is not known how much they would have approved of the
its own fate was a divine providence and people had a right of
eyes of the FMI the nation had sufficient political education and
the freedom and necessity to hold free elections. This idea was
back from public life and the political sphere. FMI believed that
pointed out earlier, Amini wished to carry out the land reform
conservative landed elements were most powerful. The FMI and along
Front, were critical of the closure of the parliament for they saw
including the FMI, in the hope that they would ease their attacks
However the FMI and the National Front saw Amini in a different
that weakening of Amini could only strengthen the Shah and the
for him in any way, neither were there any attacks. Other forces
the prime minister. From the FMI's point of view, that support
should have been extended to Amini seems wise enough, for once he
had gone the Shah returned only to establish his absolute practice
of government.
Tactical issues
National Front were of great importance and that the FMI tried to
FMI only joined the Front until the formation of the Third
from the early 1960's there are over 50 references and discussions
Fill approach to the Second National Front was both supportive and
conservatism.
Front. FMI went as far as to say that not only it was important
the opposition forces should rest with the Front. Weakening of the
majority of patriots. 47
was clear. The Front's demands for free elections was not seen as
when Bazargan and his associates were representing the NRM in the
Front and constituted it's radical wing along side the student
the FMI. The foundation of the movement had had the blessing of
Mosaddeq who at the time was in exile in his private estate but
relations, and policies of the old prime minister are referred to.
and clearly enough, mourned as the victim and the martyr of the
1953 coup.
note that in comparison with the NRM period, there was now a less
FMI held for Mosaddeq and his ideas should not be underestimated.
the people and who walked in the path that the nation
the ten years after the coup the regime had increased its
responsibility for his social fate. Effort was the main element
all spheres of life not only political but also the scientific and
and progress.
advanced.51
against the French and the case of the female activist Jamyleh
perception was to stay with FMI for sometime to come. It was also
Organization.
220
The Islamic Na.. Appeal
regime.
government. 52
52 FMI Documents, V.1 p.131. Also see pp.104, 111, 129, 259.
221
The Islamic Mass Appeal
was already the case with the intellectuals, political elite and
left were under the illusion that Iran had a feudal social system
and that it was the feudal class which controlled the political
power and opposed social progress. On the contrary, the FMI said,
from the control of land was not the landowning class but the
reforms were planned. Too little time and attention were paid to
the details and the whole programme which included at least six
fact that there had been no public debate, that the press was
leaving the people hopeless and in despair. In other words FMI was
opposition on their own terms. The FMI believed that the existing
desirable than the prospect of chaos that would take over as the
result of the land reforms. The landlord, FMI argued, was an agent
Negation of Tyranny
interests:
▪ God in Society 57
1960 Revelation 61
Automation 65
68
• Freedom of Choice 71
• Liberation of India 75
Appeal 78
▪ Prayer 79
two parts; the first section deals with the circumstances leading
court did not allow the reading of the second section in which
Six years later the 3rd edition was published by the Freedom
discontinuity
not desirable because it creates a gulf between the rulers and the
ruled and thus brings about the weakening of the state and its
hundreds and possibly thousands had been killed. The Shah had
his conservative rivals. The state led by the Royal Court was in
ideas seem to be genuinely his own in the sense that they are not
where on the one hand tyranny is condemned and on the other hand
idea was the argument put forward by the liberal wing of the
time?
useful to point out that the argument for instability can be used
to argue that since the desires and passions of the people are
230
The Irolamic Km Appeal
rationale that the regime was using for its survival. Bazargan was
citizen.
and the elite, and [has ruled] over all aspects of social
life. 92
the masses, where the interests and the will of the tyrant
tyranny. 93
political philosophy.
throughout society.
Iran, the Mongul invasion and the fall of the Safavid, Afshar and
Here two core themes are put forward: tyrannies are inherently
being moral in the sense that man has the inherent capacity to
source of all immorality. This is due to the fact that the tyrant
has to project qualities that are not of his own to protect his
accept the deceit or stand against it. Opposing the deceit would
certainly mean inviting the wrath of the state and losing one's
social life would demand the appeasing of the rulers and the
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The Islamic Mass Appeal
this case the Koran and the Sunna (ie. the traditions of the
prophet) and on the other hand refer to the position and history
is contrary to both the logic of the Koran and the way in which
the one by Naini who is said to have presented the most coherent
slaves and thus fail to enjoy the benefits of full human life. On
the Hadith.
of Montesquieu.
the main examples that he draws from Koranic verses and the Hadith
tyranny is that All things are of the Shah. 107 Not only in
source of good and bad, life and death. Here [is] the
to tyranny for the simple fact that God does not allow the
interests 10
the Koran is called for, where in the story of creation God grants
following verses:
regent on earth. They said wilt thou place therein one who
God (for it would indicate the absence of the creator). From the
devil". 113
clear. The fact that the state had taken a massive step in putting
down the bloody June uprising which was led by a religious figure,
religious discourse.
against the rule of tyranny. However things must not be seen out
texts was not the only appeal that he was making. His other
the ruling authority by stating that the true national spirit was
not the one created by the ruling establishment but by the society
to the June 1953 crack down against the clergy and religious
institutions.
numerous foreign invaders who stormed Iran in the past two and a
half thousand years were almost all nomads with cultural heritages
245
The Imlamic Mass Appeal
within which people took refuge from the tyranny of the state and
that the followers of Ali did not accept the rule of those
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The Islamic Mass Appeal
maintained a distance from the state and was not at the service of
the state Bazargan's view that the clergy were the only social
group that did not accept the patronage, the pay and the orders of
Islamic identity.
effects of tyranny:
enjoying.
lost much of their social and political influence; but never made
that given the connection that Bazargan had to the private sector
the belief that there should be greater legal guarantees for the
his personal choices. The government and the cabinet were active
was said to be not only the executive leader and the ideologue of
the people, but an entity over and above the nation. This is well
the body of the Royal Court which then relied on the military
of such ideas. 2
For his direct rule the Shah relied on the military and
schools and had made his return to the centre of Iranian politics
military. The ranks of the armed forces swelled with those who
privileges and the prestige that the state could provide. In his
one hand to implement the Shah's policies and on the other hand to
force was responsible. This fact meant that there was no need to
rural society.
The MPs were hand picked by the government for their loyalty and
regime.
destiny. The landed classes were the first political targets with
towns the middle classes were kept apolitical while the massive
following two decades. In the 60s and 70s they never managed to
there was also an increase in the number of wage earners and those
the one hand and the massive jump in the oil rent-revenue on the
middle classes (some 0.6 million families) who were the direct
and file. They included the civil servants, teachers and white
openness which the country had enjoyed in the 40s and early 50s.
society, had become isolated, had lost popular base, and were no
second half of the 70s the state was showing signs of incapability
take shape.
Politico-economic developments
1979 are studied there is no escape from the fact that two issues
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
determined the form and content of this process: the land reform
and the oil boom. 3 In both cases the result was the increasing
refers to the land reform, the oil boom, the increase in GDP, the
output which despite the land reform and increased oil revenues
maintained parity with the oil income till 1970, then lost its
migration began from the country side. From 1963 to 1977 the rural
phenomenal. The increase was in two stages. The first stage saw a
$2.3b. (1971). The second stage saw the massive jump to over $20b.
till 1970 were still less than the non-oil income, overtook all
oil wealth in return for political alliances. The fact that the
efficiency or corruption.
the priority list of the 3rd (62-68), 4th (68-72) and 5th (73-77)
had an independent budget far higher than all other items. But the
the income from oil which allowed the rapid expansion of the
service sector.
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
turn large sectors of Iranian cities into ghettos in the next two
Makings of an ideology
passed a ten year prison sentence but he was released within three
years. Nothing is known about his years in prison which given that
circumstances regarding the release are not clear but he was set
his release. However the fact that he had served a sentence forced
with the fall of the Shah's regime he was able to present himself
Iranian Compatibility 11
Koran's Sentenceology 20
that Bazargan was dealing with at the time. Although the book was
written and published in the early parts of the period and was to
Greece, Rome, the middle ages, and the absolutist states as well
last chapter.
formations, etc. Such efforts are evident in the works of men such
Jazani, Morteza Shi'aiyan, Ali Asghar Haj Sayyed Javadi, and the
this regard. From the Iranian perspective, the 1960s and the early
framework.23
interrelated ideas has two sources. The first is what Akhavi has
whom Bazargan was the only lay person. The reform comprised
years later, after his prison term and well into the 1960s. Indeed
24 Akhavi,
25 Sabine, G.H. & Thorson, T.L. A History of Political
Theory (Dryden Press, Hinsdale, Illinois, 1973).
272
Constitutional Imlamic Ideology
influence. 26
progress and modern social change while the latter are seen as
construct.
Natural Law
political climate.
by laws which determine the nature and relation between its parts.
pursued.
natural laws bolsters this opinion and turns it into the first
that Bazargan introduces God and Islam into the argument and
stresses the point that the ultimate rule is not that of nature
the laws revealed by God to man are respected. For the observance
of the divine laws would mean harmony with the creation and
God has created the natural world, including that of men, Bazargan
deal with his method of treatment of the Koran elsewhere but here
worship none but him: that is the right religion, but most
(XXVIII-88)
there are laws governing life, that these laws are God made and
that human beings must observe these laws. Here however a point is
follow the divine legislator. In other words human beings are said
[parliaments]. 34
when the clerics laid siege to the right of interpreting the laws
Shari'a was the most orthodox and widely spread of all the
attribute of human nature that is chosen as the basis for this law
attempted to derive natural law from a higher law, ie. divine law,
refers to the case of conflict between the first Shiite Imam and
Islam (658 at Nahray an). The conflict rose when Kharijites with
fighting in the path of God and against evil. With such background
they believed that any good Muslim, even a slave, had the right to
or bad. It is he who collects the taxes, who fights with the enemy
Freedom
historical terms)
shadowed all other aspects and has become the main component of
the ideology. Beside the language and tone of the argument, the
other religious scholars of whom Bazargan was the only lay person
carried out by a person who was inerrant and protected by God from
with democracy. The book was published after Bazargan's arrest and
traditionalist camp.
to him for such severity places them within the camp opposed to
Bazargan says, the clerics call for the right of a religious elite
the death of the Prophet Mohammad (632), but limited to the first
second by the will and testament of the first, the third by a six-
Caliph Ali who is the first Shiite Imam was approved of by the
the majority in all and every case. Bazargan also criticizes the
that once in power they will not choose the course of betrayal and
clerics.
said I know what you know not. And he taught Adam the
tell them of their nature". When he had told them God said
"Did I not tell you that I know the secrets of heaven and
those who rejected Faith. We said "0 Adam, dwell thou and
Satan make them slip from the (Garden) and get them out of
the knowledge that man would cause corruption and shed blood on
earth but because he would also learn the names (qualities) of God
and learn of his secrets, God created man and allowed Satan to
tempt him. Bazargan interprets this to mean that God has given man
gift. Freedom constitutes the key to man's progress and the ground
for his evolution. It is this freedom which has made him to be the
good and forbid the evil. 56 Akhavi cites this verse to be the
reformation.
pushes the point further and interprets the principle to mean the
He quotes Ali, the first Shiite Imam as having said that once the
of Saf fain (657) with the force of Mo'avyeh, the governor of Syria
defeat they raised the Koran on the tip of their spears and called
Bazargan to show Al's regard and respect for the wishes of the
majority. 61
God rather than people, in the sense that it was God who decided
but only after making sure that the great majority of Medinans who
had been at the civil war accepted his position of leadership and
the Meccan forces (624) where Mohammad suffered losses but not
strategic defeat. The Battle of the Trench took place three years
former battle some parties of the Muslim force were allowed to act
on their own judgment and in the latter a trench was dug up, on
with them ... ask for (God's) forgiveness for them and
affairs. Referring to the fact that the above verses were direct
wishes of the people, Bazargan states, the study of his life and
his government indicates that his rule was carried out through
from them.
reformers from the Belgian model and called for the establishment
the law states that the parliament may at no time legislate laws
or fundamental social laws, for all these are within the dominance
conscious of man.
administration. 66
The former has no restraints, for God has set no limits on the
freedom of man. God only seeks to guide the individual thought and
the individual.
and democracy to the earlier stages (that is the post 1963 to the
while in the pre-1963 period Bazargan had addressed the regime and
term issues and the effort is meant to change his allies from what
Review of the Ideas of Eric Fromm. (The first book was written in
Borujerdi who ranked highest among the Shia clerics in Iran had
would have gone to the more radical elements much sooner. This
indeed happened after the 1963 crackdown and the emergence of the
idea of the supreme council. The idea has in a way its precedent
constitutional committee.
minority, have the right to rebel against the opposing view and
the same manner that God and his religion are one, it is in the
that of conflict between human beings, but the ideal towards which
them. (III, 19) Nor would thy lord be the one to destroy
thou hast not part in them in the least. (VI, 159) And
God and his apostle and fall into no dispute lest ye lose
single recognized leader who will then guard the unity and order
verse; "0 ye who believe! Obey God and obey the apostle and those
examples; of Imams Ali, Hosain, Hasan and Sajad. Ali, the first of
three earlier Caliphs and even cooperated with them and only
civil war.
Mojtaba, the elder son of Ali, who made peace with Mo'avyeh and
306
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
ruler (in the Shiite eye) is a pragmatic one. It is said that the
peace rather than war was chosen not because Hasan was unable to
larger Muslim community. Imam Hasan could have put a claim for
also says that from the fourth Imam onwards, during the rule of
fundamentals of religions.
and his apostle (IV, 59) When there comes to them some
element and change the other. In other words he accepts that the
religion but he insists that in the last analysis these men must
declares his final intention and asks why should there not be, in
clerical body"? 77
The body would have just men learned in the affairs of the
decision making and gives them extra ordinary powers with little
emphasized the elected nature of the body. But given the fact that
this very point has been a matter of dispute with the traditional
segments of the clerical community the idea could have posed, and
men of Islamic law that the radical wing of the clerical body
built their argument, and later led the 1979 Islamic revolution.
minority position Shiism had suffered for all of its history vis-
rebel against the state, Bazargan argues that the first response
the evil." 79 It has been said that this concept is the most
which is the simple reason for Muslim concern with politics in the
means of forbidding the evil and enjoining the good. 81 There has
the individual can, and indeed must, disobey and ultimately rebel.
and who make mischief in the land and mend not (their
ways) (XXVI, 151 & 152). And pursue not that of which thou
Mohammad led the Muslim army in three main battles and many mor
After him the first four Caliphs commanded many more battles
far as India in the East and North Africa in the West. As holy
83 The three main battles were Badr (624) Uhud (625) and
Khandaq (627). Others included Khaybar and Hunayan.
313
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
Fight in the cause of God those who fight you but do not
slay them whenever ye catch them and turn them out from
where they have turned you out, for tumult and oppression
are worse than slaughter. But fight them not at the sacred
Those who behave and suffer exile and strive with might,
[fight] and main in the God's cause, with their goods and
for you and that ye love a thing which is bad for you.
(II, 216)
God rather than purely military conflict, as the concept has come
found both in Sunni and Shiite traditions. Jihad also includes the
struggle for perfection in the inner life. Indeed this inner Jihad
fighting them.
War and peace are both part of real life and impossible to
views war as the very law of nature and tradition of the upholders
in his path of evolution. The fact that human beings have not yet
toil). (11,154)
he says, are determined in the field of battle. Until the day that
between the divine will and the entity of evil manifesting itself
in nature.
But who are the Muslims to fight? Who are their enemies?
power. The enemy is the one who insists in retaining the present
corrupt order because it suits its interests. The enemy is the one
who enslaves the people and exploits them. It is the one who
those in power in the country. Bazargan believes that war with the
government.
having argued that war is natural and having identified the enemy,
free human beings from social bondage. Faith can not be imposed
people's beliefs. His duty was to simply convey the message of God
from error (II, 256) If it had been thy Lords will they
would all have believed, all who are on earth. Wilt thou
If it has been God's plan, they would not have taken false
gods, but we made thee not one to watch over their doings.
(VI, 107)
the Sunni Caliphs, were infallible Bazargan says the Caliphs could
thinkers that holy war can not be pursued except in the 'presence
noticeable that he refrains from the use of the word Jihad and
instead opts for the standard Persian word for war (Jang).
war, has identified the enemy and has checked the excesses of the
opening verses of the chapters of the Koran "In the name of God
of spite and compassion for the enemy. All these qualities are
God loves those who do good. (III, 134) Let them forgive
and overlook, do you not wish that God should forgive you?
will not believe. But turn away from them and say "Peace".
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
But soon shall they know. (XLIII, 89) The recompense for
due from God; for God loveth not those who do wrong (XLII,
if they withdraw from you but fight you not, and (instead)
should refrain from war in certain periods of the year and certain
areas.
which war was prohibited. But according to the Koran (II, 194)
Muslims were free to wage war in these periods and areas should
government of justice.
God forbids you not, with regard to those who fight you
not for (your) faith nor drive you out for your homes,
from dealing kindly and justly with them. (LXE, 8) And let
uproot their faith and customs, then they are obliged to fight.
for conflict. War must be pursued and the enemy killed until the
established".
324
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
them wherever you get them. (IV, 91) Fight them on until
193)
Islamic Economics
it. The Marxist presence was strong enough that the establishment
Although not organized in the sense that these men planned all
subject. 92
among others, wanted to address these issues and put forward his
own son Mojtaba who was involved with the Islamic guerrilla
a Son to his Father" spelled out why he had "evolved* from his
and expanded in 1954 and 1965, the latter being the copy in use.
the use of these latter books are secondary and all of Bazargan's
said to view all things from the point of view of economics. The
create a new social order. This system will be then able to on the
one hand surpass the justice that socialism and communism wish to
of capitalism.
Two basic qualities of God are his creativity and his grace. In
the human brotherhood, would enjoy equally the good things of life
active and productive life. The sayings of the prophet and the
[rewarding] hereafter,
(enclosing dates), also corn with its leaves and stalk for
produced for his servants, and the things clean and pure
Muslim to produce and provide for himself, his family and his
community .
expenditure and the problems that these two are said to incur for
See thou one who denies the judgment (to come)? Then such
wealth would make him last for ever (CIV, 1-3) The mutual
for the Muslim, but a means through which the individual can come
of the good of the community will enter hell fire. The example of
15) It is not your wealth nor your sons that will bring
the orphans, the poor and asserted the obligation of the rich in
give alms. However economic activity, the search for profit, trade
and consequent production for the market are looked upon with
favour. The Koran does not merely say that one must not forget
well with that of the smaller and the more traditional private
sector of the economy which had less contact with and support from
the government. The fact that the regime favoured large scale,
high tech and urban industries under its own supervision at a cost
including the Bazaar, meant that there was less lending to the
latter and more despise opposition by them towards the state. The
close ties between the Bazaar and the clerical community as two of
discussed earlier that God is the absolute owner and that man can
arbiter and custodian of all land is the Just Ruler who represents
cultivation. Second the land under the direct use of the just
ruler and used for the welfare of the community. Third the land
justice.
War. 1 " These include the works of Sayyed Mohammad Bacier Sadr 110
and Hasan Bani Sadr. 111 Similar views on property rights are
all agree that there are three types of ownership in Islam: namely
the modern age constituted the main object of ownership. The fact
Tahzid, who report from Ibn Bakir, who reports from Zorara who
reports from Imam Mohammad Bager [the fifth Shiite Imam] that:
The Ansar appealed to the Prophet. He summoned Samara and told him
check on my own tree?" Samara did not consent. The Prophet then
said "You are a harmful person". Then he turned to the Ansar and
said "Cut his tree and give it to him". Then added "Islam does not
others". 118
have the right to reclaim the property for the good of the
and Earning. 119 The argument basically states that earning and
Bazargan builds his argument 120 upon the basis from which
340
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
daily work, a skilled labourer receives 500 units for the same
period. This is based on the fact that the skilled labourer has
which, Bazargan points out, the Marxist does not object. Capital
countries) but not willing to accept that which they have been
341
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
the banking system is on the use of usury, which the Koran has
prohibited.
usury, doubled and multiplied (the sum lent). 121 Those who
swallow usury will not stand except ... driven by madness. This is
because they say trade is like usury, whereas God hath permitted
trade and forbidden usury. 122 The prophet Mohammad had started
of the poor in the first ten years of his mission in the city of
Mecca. This was the means through which he had challenged the
then he buys the book back immediately for one hundred Dinars
100 Dinars are given to trader B, and 120 Dinars are to be paid
in banking practices.
this does not mean there are innately bad. Air and water are the
and things are used for the benefit of human beings. They must be
does not condemn all forms of the use of capital. Islam proposes a
344
Constitutional Islamic Ideology
through labour. The system would not allow monopoly in any domain,
they (have done) 126 Man can have nothing but what he strives for.
sense that with great force a new element, ie. that of Islamic
allows it. Although Bazargan insists that the just and learned
Islamic ruler (Imam) is one chosen by the people, the power that
ones. But the fact that Bazargan views the legislature in the
history is ever changing, the Koran and Hadiths are clear enough
confiscate property, set taxes and determine the rights and social
Indeed when the Islamic government was established after the 1979
divine interpretation of things the means can not justify the ends
the human race and therefore it can not give priority to political
Here two distinct ideas have been used; that of piety and
that of means. Piety has its immediate root in the Koran and there
the idea that respects the rights of the individual and demands
that since God created humans in reverence they must be the object
of respect.
beliefs? 132
the sense that it allows any illegal and immoral action as long as
weapons, lies and coercion. [It is argued] that since the majority
of the people are not aware of their own wretchedness ... or lack
power, the informed and the well intentioned minority has the
right, and indeed the duty to use any means even unjust and
deceitful acts both against the enemy and the friend to achieve
absolute truth and if the aim of the social struggle was to allow
their destiny into their own hands and that these two would spell
method will become irrelevant and the motto - the ends justifying
the means - will take greater hold. History seems to confirm this
and impractical. But Bazargan puts forward the idea that Islam
million with an annual population growth rate of 2.9 per cent. The
population was young: the median age was only 16/17 and those over
equally divided between rural and urban areas with the nomads and
semi-nomads being less than 5%. The rural population was dispersed
to be about 40%. 2
GNP per capita of about $2,200. Iran was the fourth biggest oil
same year's census indicates that the lower rural class, with 45%
labourers. The second largest class was that of the lower urban
or less of the same size, constituting 10% and 13% of the total
Initially the Amuzegar cabinet (of which more below) had intended
to bring down rampant inflation which had reached the 35% mark
The fall in international demand for oil, price rises for western-
down to its knees. The events of the period have been the subject
liberal associates.
foreign policy of human rights and on the other hand the Shah's
monarchy. 11
across the country. The clerical protests came after the secular
(January 1978) came when protests became popular and people took
11 Amuzegar took over from Amir Abbas Hovieda who had been
in the office for 13 years. The 1977-79 revolutionary period saw
the emergence and collapse of four governments. Amuzegar
(appointed 7 July 1977), Ja'far Sharif-Imami (27 August 1978),
General Azhari (6 November 1978), and Shapur Bakhtiyar (6 January
1979).
12 See Khomeini's letter to the clerics, Bazargan, M.
Engelab-e Islami dar do harekat The Iranian Revolution in Two
Movements (FMI, Tehran, 1983) p.26.
357
The Liberal Defeat
skirmishes with the military. The third stage (1979) and the final
battle with the army, the last bastion of the Pahlavi regime. 14
areas and who were totally out of the political picture. The
smaller towns held around 15 per cent of the population while the
big towns and cities had some 35 percent of the population, with
constituted 58%, the traditional middle class 20% and the salaried
areas and it was this social segment which constituted the most
state. In other words they were from the Bazaar, clerical, small
its executive arm, collapsed -in political terms- when the main
the radical left giving him almost total support in the belief
that only a united front could bring down the Shah and that
communication with the people but also becoming divided among its
own ranks. Here two initial factors were the Shah's discomfort
turned radical and violent in the following year, the Shah proved
making sacrifices from his own senior ranks. The arrests of Amir
Nasiri, the former head of the secret police are but cases in
two pronged strategy where on the one hand it created its own
the political centres of the regime including the Royal Court, the
Majlis and the Rastakhiz Party. The Shah's own policy of purges
weakened trust. Members of the Majlis and Rastakhiz were the first
of 1978 the main body of the Iranian bureaucracy, which for many
degree of resistance against the tide that was to spell its doom.
The mass demonstrations and daily violent clashes with the troops
threat; that is on the one hand they offered social and material
sectors. But the failure of the policy of divide and rule was best
concessions that the Shah set in motion ended with his own exile.
with the army and strikes in offices and factories. These steps
were meant and were effectively able to bring ordinary daily life
and Bazargan were cordial. Bazargan was known to Khomeini not only
Revolutionary Council. The two men were well aware of each other's
till 1978 Bazargan had no direct contact with the exiled Ayatollah
but received his occasional communiques. However both men had high
367
The Liberal Defeat
gulf between the two men who had nevertheless decided to cooperate
realities and events of the period. Despite the fact that Bazargan
did indeed carry out the instructions that Khomeini had given him,
he was not allowed to stay in office and was forced to abandon his
there were several reasons. For one thing Bazargan had the
opposition to the regime and for his activities with the National
to share power with the Muslim liberals and even the secular
which more below). The fact that he had refered to the National
use the liberals for the time being and abandon them once they
So Khomeini had to put up with Bazargan for the time being as the
classes in Iran.
371
The Liberal Defeat
mass and popular base. He was not as well known to the public as
for which he had struggled and suffered over many years. He had
movement led by religious elements and now that the movement was
sentiments:
Iran. 32
knew that Khomeini wanted to bring the clerics into the political
more accommodating to people like himself who would then have the
The Events
to face the firing squads across the country. The collapse of the
periphery and the Kurds were the first to rise. Their spiritual
events were to show he and his clerical establishment did not keep
that brought down the Shah was giving way to divisions. By the end
374
The Liberal Defeat
two bodies. However Khomeini sided with the radical elements and
The towns in the area changed hands several times and the central
government sent in the army to put down the rebellion. However the
constitution.
number of newspapers.
deteriorated with the admission of the Shah into USA for medical
376
The Liberal Defeat
elements, of both right and left. The two sides of the political
to Khomeini and his radical clerics to capture the mood and the
378
The Liberal Defeat
Bazargan society in its natural form, left on its own with the
During the rule of the late Shah, the Iranian state and
state. The income of the state from oil alone was $20 b. some 35%
simply burst. 44
themselves. 48
people. 49
known among these were the atomic reactor and a large scale petro-
completion. 51
that Bazargan opposed the modern banking system for its use of
usury. The conviction that banks "give ten drops of blood only to
financially. 54
pressrures from the Islamic radicals and the Marxist left were
ideological demands. 57
Whatever the case the child has been born, and we have
of limiting the size and growth of the state machinery but in the
useless activity not only that they did not do what they should do
third month into office, and through speeches on the radio and
point out that the process which started in the senior ranks of
the bureaucracy, and was soon to reach its lowest levels and
388
The Liberal Defeat
welfare associations. 61
that Bazargan believed there was no choice but to put up with the
the civil service, which as the executive arm of the late regime
The political challenge for the liberals at the top of the state
and spent more time meeting and beating off the challenges from
affairs was to restore law and order and to bring back a business
duty. 65 But his main emphasis was to warn that until order was
paying the wages on time or improving the economic lot of the wage
earners. 66
sufficient to point out that the armed forces, not only the army
but also police and the gendarmerie were almost totally disbanded
and none of their members were reporting to their posts. There was
fled the country. Workers had taken over places of work and were
the speedy collapse of the former regime for not having allowed
family to fill in posts, an act that did not go down well in some
quarters. 68
limiting the size of the state and reforming its machinery had
the old establishment came from the public at large which was
Khomeini.
ideals now that he had some control over the power of government.
machinery and possibly its reform, that the earlier concerns for
393
The Liberal Defeat
question to be placed before the voters and the exact title of the
Republic. Keeping in mind the debates Bazargan had had with the
command. The will of God is the will of the people and the
duty. 72
the view that the Islamic system had similar meaning and content.
those who had worked for the former regime. Lacking the ability to
magazines. 76
with the dominating state machinery. But once the state had
succumbed to pressure and its ability to impose its own law and
two years before politics was taboo, only spoken in hushed voices
that the revolution would provide welfare for all and that the age
through the post. 78 The old order had collapsed and popular
These acts of anarchy became more formal and organized through the
fact that some 300,000 automatic weapons had fallen into the hands
with the Shah's troops. Constant calls for the return of the
took place over the roof top of a public school for girls which
were popular, and were carried out possibly more to satisfy calls
useful to point out that when Bazargan took office the public
popular revolutionary zeal set the form and pattern in which the
even greater acts of radicalism. The new hero in the eyes of the
the hated past. The obsession was so strong that soon it became
being revolutionary.
the theme of concern over the direction and content of the social
400
The Liberal Defeat
and gang leader pushed their own line. Don't let this
happen. 82
establishments.
allocation.
was the general public persuasion that it had been treated badly
in the former regime and to set the score it had to destroy what
and most radical way possible. The story in Bazargan's view, was
and the easiest way to destroy the old was to use violence against
of the old regime and thus establish the foundation for the new
years.
Khomeini's authority from this turn of events in the hope that the
and the radical wing of the movement were to soon use this zeal as
individual had no choice but to carry out the decisions. But now
things had changed. There was no longer tyranny but freedom. With
derogatatory.
and language, while actively and consciously using the public mood
towards their own ends. Khomeini was a populist. He kept with the
public mood and once he realized that people wished for a powerful
within the ranks of the leadership. While the liberals had the
Council. Despite some joint membership between the two bodies dual
With the Shah in exile and soon to die, the unity was turning into
405
The Liberal Defeat
Paris to meet Khomeini, the latter had asked him to draw up a list
the council changed four times but the clerics went on to dominate
the body and to set the tone, content and directions of its
liberal tendency.
more or less the very people who had collaborated with Bazargan
gradualist approach.
The Manifesto of the party spells out the political aims of the
principles called for respect for basic human freedoms and the
that was to provoke public fears that the great changes would mean
the end of social order. He warned of the chaos that lay ahead and
wanting to change everything in the belief and the hope that a new
and better society would emerge on its ruins. The change should
cultural persuasions. 98
radicals' search for the guilty made them look to the past) would
country and its economy. 99 Bazargan said he could not accept such
Shah was gone there was a belief that the revolution which had
acknowledged that revolution could not have come about without its
revengeful" stage of the revolution was over and it was time for
"positive and constructive" action. The two stage theory which was
(written a few years later and of which more below) was discussed
that were taking place. The people wanted to know and understand
changes. Thus he emphasized that he "was and has always been, very
the fact that a general state of fear was being created in public
their name ... are acting with such sheer impudence. 108
appointing Ebrahim Yazdi 109 and Mostafa Chamran 110 to head the
units but both failed to bring them under the control of the
political terms soon turned against it. 112 A month and a half
into his office and Bazargan was calling the Committees the
"troublesome cockroaches whose hand and feet must be tied up". 113
revolutionary organizations.
fails to deal with and explain the situation clearly. Its short-
have been concerned with their disapproval for they were the very
most of them were justly so, and it could not have been
judicial procedure seems to have had the upper hand, for in May he
the Left camp. The first saw parallels between the Islamic
and the Fadaiyan-e Khalq voted for the latter option. The
dealing with Iran's social problems and would not come too close
the one hand it accepted to move into the political arena, rather
have been without weight. 121 However the Mojahedin-e Khalq did
that in the total context of the situation and possibly due to the
government.
the armed conflict and moved into the political arena. This move
and religious reactionaries into its ranks and thus from the
capitalist designs.
class credentials. 124 The strategy fitted well with the radical
Imperial army back into the mainstream but also established the
their good will. 125 However demands by the Left to dismantle the
the line between the two sides. Bazargan defended the army and
Mosaddeq. 127
A statement that the Left was not to forget for a long time. By
the end of his tenure in office Bazargan was criticizing the Left
the guide of the revolution and the dearest and the greatest
120 Bazargan, A. Problems and Issues, p.36. The two men were
assassinated by Forcian, an Islamic fringe group under the
influence of the most radical ideas of Ali Shariati, particularly
his anti-clericalism. The group had much in common with the Left,
in terms of armed tactic and underground organization.
131 Bazargan, A. Problems and Issues, p.10.
122 Bazargan, A. Problems and Issues, p.260.
421
The Liberal Defeat
two men right from the start and Bazargan was well aware that his
two men became apparent over the referendum for the change of the
did not reserve any special place for the clerics. Khomeini wanted
him as saying that one of his greatest mistakes in office was not
structure. 136
continued he would resign. 138 He did not have to wait for long.
With the fiasco created over his meeting in Algeria with the U.S.
taken over the embassy was the straw that broke the camel's back.
69.
139 The Algerian trip was to celebrate the country's
independence. Foe greater detail of the meeting see Chehabi,
Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism, p.272.
423
The Liberal Defeat
his entourage were taking. He further warned the nation about the
deviating from their proper course. 140 At the same time the
general respectful and loyal pose that Bazargan had adopted with
cordially and with due diplomatic respect. This fact was to help
his position even more. With a word or two he could seal the fate
of his rivals. Neither Bazargan nor any body else, as events were
own survival. Bazargan must have hoped that siding with Khomeini,
and being in power would allow him to carry out his reformist
made changes in Iran's political life, but his failure would and
But it is not clear that had not the liberal tendency, under the
the beginning Bazargan was aware that the main challenge within
social order.
role as the supreme arbitrator. This role was indeed to become one
142 For details of the coup see Hiro, Iran Under the
Ayatollahs, p.156.
426
The Liberal Defeat
and organizational levels for over five decades. While his liberal
both form and content and reveals his ability to maintain himself in
pursuit of his ideas and has paid the price for this. After several
strategic defeat for the liberal and democratic movement. This defeat
writings.
Bazargan has written over 79 articles, pamphlets and books but his
429
forced to abstract the material before a degree of cohesion is
tool and through his numerous works, has attracted sections of the
public. His language not only exploits the sense of safety apparent in
thinkers.
less, with the ebb and flow of Iran's political events, in particular
with the role of the state and the imposition of its arbitrary will on
the traditional Islamic culture of the early 20th century Iran which
had come (in the more educated classes) into contact with European
in the ruling state. From the fall of Reza Shah to the coup that
concept of Islamic work ethic. However the 1953 coup turned him away
430
vengeance, to write on National Islamic Identity as the foundation of
Bazargan was one of the founders, and has been the leader and
However it would be wrong to say that FMI has been a one man band.
frame of reference and within this context they have shown a degree of
success. For one thing they have survived three decades of Iranian
431
organised entity. Moreover they have been consistent in presenting a
seeking limitations to the power of the state has been the hallmark of
their success. Furthermore, since the 1979 revolution, they have been
constitutional paradigm.
Bazargan has used in his struggle for social influence and political
the Islamic Liberal discourse was, and has been, interacting with five
modernists who have had for the greater part of the twentieth century,
perceptions and who articulated their ideas through the Pahlavi state.
the form and content of the political thought at various levels. The
ideas which the Islamic Liberals had to address was those belonging to
432
assumed to be religious rather than not, was an important element in
them.
was basically that of man, the viceregent of God, armed with weapons
discussed the topic of natural law. The principle assumes that nature
follows particular sets of laws which are established by God and the
433
acceptance of which is the very meaning of the religion of Islam.
Bazargan maintains that if laws govern the state of nature then the
man are respected. The observance of the divine laws would indeed mean
other words on the basis that God has created the natural world,
including that of men, Bazargan views religious laws as the very laws
Here the main function of the idea is to negate the absolutist claims
Bazargan linked modern work ethics to Islamic beliefs in the hope that
434
deeds ('Amal). Bazargan pursued this argument through a terminological
ambiguity in that there are constant switches from the Marxian notion
Bazargan struggled while Mohammad Reza Shah was in power, and senior
pushes the point further (and here he departs from orthodoxy) in that
government.
positive - rather than negative - in the sense that freedom is not the
435
absence of restraint but the positive creation of a social environment
comprehensive.
the threat of the advance of the communist ideology. His polemics with
the Marxists were highlighted in two periods; in the 1940s when the
Tudeh party was fast expanding and in the mid 1970s when an internal
not directly criticise the Marxist groups, nor did he involve himself
436
the creation of a rational critique as well an alternative
intellectual framework to the communist idea. The aim was to put into
general it has been taken to refer to the process in the last few
centuries where by societies all over the world have been transformed
modernism was to its secular element. Here his arguments are varied
and their thrusts differ with time, but the most repeated theme is on
and social ethics and that without religion there would be a moral
437
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454