Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
~NDER MEERESUNTERSUCHUNGEN
Helgol6nder Meeresunters. 49, 29-44 (1995)
L. Mills
ABSTRACT: Looking back from the 1990s it seems natural to view the work done in the Biologische
Anstalt Helgoland by Friedrich Heincke and his colleagues, beginning in 1892, as marine ecology or
marine biology, and that done in Kiel, under Victor Hensen and Karl Brandt, as biological
oceanography. But historical analysis shows this view to be untenable. Biological oceanography, as a
research category and a profession, does not appear until at least the 1950's. In the German tradition
of marine research, "Ozeanographie", originating in 19th century physical geography, did not
include the biological sciences. The categories "Meereskunde" and "Meeresforschung" covered all
aspects of marine research in Germany from the 1890's to the present day. "Meeresbiologie" like
that of Brandt. Heincke, and other German marine scientists, fitted comfortably into these. But in
North America no such satisfactory professional or definitional structure existed before the late
1950's. G.A. Riley, one of the first biological oceanographers, fought against descriptive, nonquantitative American ecology. In 1951 he described biological oceanography as the "ecology of
marine populations", linking it with quantitative population ecology in the U.S.A. By the end of the
1960's the U.S. National Science Foundation had recognized biological oceanography as a research
area supported separately from marine biology. There was no n e e d for the category "biological
oceanography" in German marine science because its subject matter lay under the umbrella of
"Meereskunde" or "Meeresforschung". But in North America biological oceanography - a fundamental fusion of physics and chemistry with marine biology - was created to give this marine science
a status higher than that of the conceptually overloaded ecological sciences. The sociologists Durkheim and Mauss claimed in 1903 that, "the classification of things reproduces the classification of
men"; similarly, m science, the classification of professions reproduces the status that their practitioners hope to achieve.
" T h e m a r i n e b i o l o g i s t in p a r t i c u l a r will c o n t i n u e to b e a p o w e r f u l ally to t h e
o c e a n o g r a p h e r = for, in a n y e x p e d i t i o n h e m a y u n d e r t a k e strictly o c e a n o g r a p h i c
o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l to his b i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s . H e will. as in t h e p a s t , m a k e
i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to o c e a n o g r a p h y , a l t h o u g h e n g a g e d u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of
m a r i n e b i o l o g y " (H. A. M a r m e r , 1934. p. 34)
DEFINING OCEANOGRAPHY
V i e w e d f r o m 1992, 100 y e a r s a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e B i o l o g i s c h e A n s t a l t H e I g o l a n d , it is e a s y to s e e H e l g o l a n d as t h e l o c a t i o n of a s u c c e s s i o n of i m p o r t a n t s t u d i e s in
m a r i n e b i o l o g y , w h i l e , o n l y 150 k i l o m e t r e s to t h e e a s t , i n Kiel, a n e w s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e ,
b i o l o g i c a l o c e a n o g r a p h y , w a s e v o l v i n g . But this is a facile a n d p r e s e n t - c e n t e r e d v i e w t h a t
is n o t b o r n e o u t b y h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s . If w e l o o k at l a t e 19th c e n t u r y H e l g o l a n d a n d Kiel
through the historical microscope, disciplinary boundaries blur and our late 20th century
9 Biotogische Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburq
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Eric L. Mills
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Eric L. Mills
THE CLASSIFICATION OF T H I N G S A ND TH E C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F M E N
This p a p e r is an attempt to outline the p a r a m e t e r s of a historical study, and it offers a
model of d e v e l o p m e n t in the marine sciences. It is b a s e d on t h e fact that t h e w e l l - k n o w n
and w i d e l y - u s e d [ate 20th century term "biological o c e a n o g r a p h y " is virtually absent
from the E u r o p e a n m a n n e science literature, and is very seldom u s e d in Englishl a n g u a g e writings on the marine sciences until after the middle of the 20th cen t u r y 2. As
my e x a m p l e s of the use of the w o r d " o c e a n o g r a p h y " h a v e shown, definitions and
classifications - any static t a x o n o m y of the m a r i n e s c i e n c e s - will not do. T h e u s a g e s are
too v a r i e d an d too d e p e n d e n t u p o n c o n te x t - or p e r h a p s u p o n w h i m - to b e satisfying. A
causal analytical a p p r o a c h is n e e d e d to resolve the forces at w o r k g o v e r n i n g how
professions in the m a r i n e sciences w e r e established, elaborated, modified a n d n a m e d .
My a p p r o a c h is to look b a c k 90 years to the w o r k of the F r e n c h social anthropologists
Emile D u r k h e i m a n d Marcel Mauss, who. in the words of David Bloor (1982, p.267)
proposed that "the classification of t h i n g s r e p r o d u c e s t h e classification of m e n " . F e w
sociologicaI formulations h a v e b e e n m o r e rigorously criticized t h a n D u r k h e i m an d
M au s s ' s hypothesis as it was first p r e s e n t e d in 1903 (see especially R o d n e y N e e d h a m , in
D u r k h e i m & Mauss. 1963) 3. But as BIoor has shown, their thesis, that definitions a n d
classifications "... e x p r e s s . . , th e v e r y societies within which they w e r e e l a b o r a t e d "
(Durkheim & Mauss, 1963, p. 66) b e c o m e s robust once it is joined with M a r y H e s s e ' s
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KIEL, HELGOLAND, A N D T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L C O U N C I L
By 1892 the scientific direction of m a r i n e research in Kiel had p a s s e d from Victor
H e n s e n to Karl Brandt. In 1888 Brandt a n d Carl Apstein b e g a n the l e n g t h y series of
cruises an d p l a n k t o n samples that w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y show the ubiquity an d the u n i q u e ness of the spring bloom and call for its explanation. But the P l an k t o n - Ex p ed i t i o n of 1889
to the o p e n Atlantic p r o d u c e d the most intriguing problems. Why, contrary to e x p e c t a tion, was the o p e n o c e a n more p l a n k t o n - r ich in high northern latitudes than in the
tropics? Within a few years (when he h a d r e c o g n i z e d that the spatial variations of
a b u n d a n c e o b s e r v e d in the open o c e a n h a d the same g o v e r n i n g factors as seasonal
variations e v i d e n t near Kiel), Brandt e m b a r k e d on a quest for chemical an d physical
controls of p l a n k t o n a b u n d a n c e s . Chemistry an d the n i t r o g e n cycle w e r e the keys (Mills,
1989. Chs. 2-51.
Uniting the resources of his Zoological Institute at Kiel. the Kiel Commission. and the
n e w G e r m a n commismon established to work within the International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea (ICES) b e g m n i n g in 1902. Brandt and his c o l l e a g u e s had w o r k e d
out a coherent, chemically and physically b a s e d theory of the control of plankton
a b u n d a n c e in the sea by 1910. And, as Brandt's su m m ar y (1921) of his w o r k shows a lot
else was g o i n g on at Kiel. ranging from h y d r o g r a p h y to m a r i n e botany an d bacteriology.
This broad r a n g e of activities - M e e r e s f o r s c h u n g - a n s w e r e d questions ab o u t the sea.
classified m a r i n e organisms, and p r o v i d e d occupations for a r a n g e of investigators - from
hireling chemists to students, Privatdozenten. an d Professors such as Brandt himself.
Were w e anachronistically inclined, w e could call Brandt an d the Kiel School biological
o c e a n o g r a p h e r s . This would m a k e perfect sense in a m o d e r n context.
A true G e r m a n marine station h a d not existed before 1892, unless one c o u n t e d Anton
Dohrn's Stazione Zoologica in N a p l e s (a G e r m a n - b a s e d foundation est ab l i sh ed in 1872).
Nor was H e l g o l a n d a G e r m a n possession until 1890, w h e n the G e r m a n state a c q m r e d it
from Great Britain in e x c h a n g e for East African territories. H e l g o l a n d h a d m a n y virtues,
including a pnstine, v a r i e d biota quite different from that of the W a d d e n s e e and the
Baltic, a history of G e r m a n natural history exploration, an d access to t h e N o r t h Sea
fishing banks. But before 1892 - as the first director of the Biologische Anstalt Helgoland,
Friedrich H e i n c k e (1896, p. 2) pointed out - G e r m a n y w as the only coastal Eurol0ean
nation l a c k i n g a p r o p e r m a r i n e station.
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Eric L. Mills
With the support of the Emperor. the Kultusminister a n d his officials, the A k a d e m i e
der Wissenschaften, the Deutsche Fischerei-Verein (Sektion fiir Hochseefischerei), a n d
others, an advisory committee (including representatives of the Kiel Commission) completed a plan for a laboratory on H e l g o l a n d by the s u m m e r of 1891 It was u n d e r way a n d
growing a year later (Kofoid, 1910, pp. 221-222; Heincke. 1893), despite some opposition
(Werner, 1992). From the start, H e i n c k e had ambitious plans for the laboratory, which,
like the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, the Plymouth Laboratory, a n d W.C.
McIntosh's Gatty Marine Laboratory in Scotland he considered to be a m a n n e agricultural station (Heincke, 1896. p.4). Using pure a n d applied biology, the H e l g o l a n d
laboratory w o u l d promote k n o w l e d g e of the G e r m a n North Sea fishery (Heincke, 1897, p.
579). Heincke's first, breathtakingly ambitious list of aims r a n g e d from research on the
production of commercial fish, to providing courses for fishermen (Heincke, 1896, p. 3).
Publication would be eased by establishing a special section of the Kiel Commissions
"Wissenschaftliche M e e r e s u n t e r s u c h u n g e n " .
The long history of the Biologische Anstalt H e l g o l a n d on the island a n d in e x p a n d e d
form on Sylt a n d the m a i n l a n d (outlined by Biickmann, 1959; Bulnheim, 1989. 1990), its
work easily characterized now as m a r i n e biology, was based on H e i n c k e ' s early aims of
a d v a n c i n g k n o w l e d g e of the North Sea fishery 4 But in the early days, success required
cooperation a n d collaboration with other agencies, such as the Kiel Commission which
was a competitor for resources such as money, ship-time and personnel. From its start m
1894, Heincke enlisted the support of the Deutsche Seefischerei-Verein a n d its President
Walther Herwig, who later b e c a m e President of the Deutsche Kommission ffir internationale Meeresforschung, the G e r m a n arm of ICES ISmed, 1990). H e i n c k e was
appointed to the Kiel Commission by the Minister of Agriculture in 1893, in a n attempt to
e n s u r e that H e l g o l a n d a n d Kiel collaborated rather than competed To a great extent this
succeeded, partly due to collaboration, a n d partly due to the different orientations
developed by the two institutions. W h e n in 1901 Helgoland a n d Kiel divided up the
G e r m a n work for ICES, Heincke a n d a colleague were responsible for the food-fishes
Brandt for the g e n e r a l biology, a n d Krfimmel for meteorology a n d h y d r o g r a p h y (Brandt,
1921, p, 78). We k n o w little of how this actually worked, but there are indications that
H e l g o l a n d a n d Kiet did not always he down together quietly; despite their division of
labour, Brandt refers to a g r e e m e n t b e i n g necessary b e t w e e n the two to avoid "splintering" G e r m a n m a r i n e research (Brandt. 1921, pp. 76-77). The Kiel Commission after all,
had b e g u n work on the Baltic fishery a n d e x t e n d e d its work to the North Sea (Mills, 1989,
Ch. 1) before the Helgoland laboratory was established. Only slowly, a n d after I892, did
the work of the two institutions diverge significantly, into what w e m i g h t n o w call m a r i n e
biology, fisheries biology and biological oceanography.
For the International Council itself, after its formation in 1902, the p r o b l e m was not
the division of l a b o u r but of b r i n g i n g the scientific work together into the synthesis
e n v i s i o n e d by its founders, They h a d stated that
... it was seen from the b e g i n n i n g that the study of the physical conditions, of the
chemical n a t u r e of the o c e a n waters, of the currents etc. was of the greatest
importance for the investigation of the problems connected with life, that on the
other h a n d . the study of the floating organisms h a d a particular worth for the solution
of hydrographic problems, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y that a sharp line should n e v e r b e d r a w n
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Eric L. Mills
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As Scheiber (1988, p. 226) has written, "in sum, the ' n e w oceanography' - which
involved not only its conceptual transformation but also its e m e r g e n c e as part of Big
Science in the organization a n d scale of sponsored research - had t a k e n form a n d b e g u n
to flourish". Although he credits Sverdrup with b r i n g i n g this viewpoint to A m e r i c a n
science from Europe, it seems likely to me, b a s e d on Sverdrup's own statements, that we
can look to Bigelow for the conceptual foundations a n d the programmatic outhne of
marine biology's integration into o c e a n o g r a p h y in the United States after World War 2,
b e g i n n i n g in California.
Just after the war, with the exception of the major projects in Cahfornia described
above, biologists found themselves in u n c h a r t e d waters in relation to oceanography.
According to Scheiber (1988, p. 225),
although a few p r o m i n e n t m a r i n e biologists had b e g u n to e x a m i n e the ecological
relationships b e t w e e n biological p h e n o m e n a a n d the chemical a n d physical aspects
of ocean environments, there was no real unity of ocean studies, either conceptually
or in the organization of the profession.
What s e e m e d clear, however, to m a r i n e biologists, was that the post-war expansion
of o c e a n o g r a p h y was passing them by, both financially and professionally.
This viewpoint was supported by high-level committees e x a m i n i n g the state of
o c e a n o g r a p h y in the United States in the first d e c a d e or two after the war. A n e w NASCO
(unrelated to the first) was c o n v e n e d in 1949 to review the post-war status of A m e r i c a n
oceanography. The committee predicted a modest e x p a n s i o n of American o c e a n o g r a p h y
that should b e b a s e d on institutional c h a n g e s in laboratories and universities a n d on
increases of funding. "Marine biology" was a special problem.
For several years it has b e e n difficult to obtain the necessary financial support for
marine biology, as the outcome of such investigations has b e e n uncertain. In the
past, data a c c u m u l a t e d so rapidly that m u c h of it was only superficially e x a m i n e d
a n d reported upon. This was due to the slow a n d crude methods both at sea a n d in
the laboratory. N e w and more quantitative m e t h o d s are necessary. New gear for use
at sea while a vessel is u n d e r way is m the d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages, and n e w laboratory
procedures to replace the older t i m e - c o n s u m i n g methods of counting a n d identifying
the various species are b e i n g tested. With the n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g of water movements, it will be possible to formulate the problems more exactly a n d thus obviate
m u c h u n n e c e s s a r y collecting of data. In short, w h e n funds become available, m a r i n e
biology should m a k e greater strides than have b e e n possible in the last fifty years
(NASCO/NRC. 1952, p. 11).
In 1951, more t h a n half the financial support for oceanography came from the U.S.
D e p a r t m e n t of Defense. The result as the NASCO report concluded, was that, although
some aspects of o c e a n o g r a p h y had prospered (physical oceanography geophysics and
acoustics were examples), others h a d not, a n d that " u n d e r the present system of
g o v e r n m e n t s u b s i d y m o c e a n o g r a p h y some Lrnportant scientific problems tend to be
neglected" (NASCO/NRC. 1952, pp. 17-18). Due to the i m b a l a n c e of funds directed to
applied problems, including defense-related oceanography, pure science was put at a
disadvantage; m a r i n e biology in particular was difficult to support unless it h a d some
direct relevance to the fisheries. Using the terms for the first time in their report, the
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Eric L. Mills
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Eric L. Mills
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and federal funds to the marine sciences in G e r m a n y until at least the 1960's, and their
concentration on applied problems like the fisheries, competition and the sense of b e i n g
at a d i s a d v a n t a g e a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n at a m i n i m u m in that setting. Biological o c e a n o g rap h y was not n e e d e d .
If in G e r m a n y M e e r e s k u n d e or M e e r e s f o r s c h u n g provided an u m b r e l l a for all the
m a r i n e sciences, biological o c e a n o g r a p h y in the United States was a fusion of ecological
and physical sciences. Marine biologists a t t e m p t e d to better their positions - and
certainly s u c c e e d e d financially and professionally - by incorporating m a r i n e chemistry
an d especially physical o c e a n o g r a p h y into their reconstituted realm of study during the
late 1950's and early 1960's. Biological o c e a n o g r a p h y was the result, an d a l t h o u g h the
n a m e was not n e w it held n e w significance to a group of professional marine scientists in
the United States b e g i n n i n g in the 1960's. T h e n a m e stuck for good reasons an d has since
s p r e a d well b e y o n d its original bounds. Biological o c e a n o g r a p h y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e
realities of life in the o c e a n - but it also reflected the status, financial, professional and
scientific, that marine biologists w o r k i n g on oceanic problems hoped to achieve.
NOTES
1. H e r d m a n ' s Chair. established in 1919. was o c c u p i e d by him for only one year; he was
s u c c e e d e d by J a m e s J o h n s t o n e (1920-1934L Th e first chairs of o c e a n o g r a p h y anyw h e r e w e r e created in Paris in 1906 by Albert the First of Monaco. They w e r e
incorporated into his Institut O c e f i n o g r a p h i q u e w h e n it was formally i n a u g u r a t e d m
1911.
2. For example. "biological o c e a n o g r a p h y " is u s e d in a variety of contexts by H e r d m a n ,
1920 p. 3: W. E. Allen, 1927: Harvey, 1928. p. 3; K n u d s e n et al.. 1950 Riley, 1952.
p. 79, 1960. p. 20; and only fleetingly or indirectly in N A S C O / N R C , 1951 and N A S C O /
NRC 1959/1962. The G e r m a n hydrobiologist Ernst H en t sch el u s e d the term
"biologische O z e a n o g r a p h i e " in a r e c o g n i z a b l y m o d e r n way in a lecture to the
Officers Mess on "Meteor" in S e p t e m b e r 1926. My thanks to Prof. H j al m ar Thiel for
this information and for s h o w i n g m e the outline of H en t sch el 's lecture. In 1989 I
imposed the term upon all the m a r i n e r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g plankton dynamics from
Victor H e n s e n ' s first work in the 1880's t hr o u g h the 1960's (Mills. 1989; see esp. pp.
1-6).
3. Bloor's elaboration of Durkheim and M a u ss in support of an interests m o d e l of
scientific k n o w l e d g e has b e e n no less contentious: see the e x t e n s i v e c o m m e n t a r v
following his paper.
4. H e i n c k e ' s early scientific contributions h a v e b e e n eclipsed (at least in the Englishs p e a k i n g worId) by his directorship at Helgoland. S ee Sinclair & Solemda] (1988).
5. T h e 1952 N A S C O c o m m i t t e e p r e d i c t e d modest growth in the funding and p e r s o n n e l
of o c e a n o g r a p h y . Their rep~rL almost quaint in retrospect, could not h a v e foreseen
U.S. responses in science to t h e C o l d War. the l a u n c h i n g of t h e first Soviet "Sputnik"
(1957), an d A m e r i c a n euphona':(scientific and political] w i t h the Success of their own
space p r o g r a m m e b e g i n n i n g in 1958 (Kitsos, 1988; King & Jen n i n g s, 1988). For the
status of A m e r i c a n o c e a n o g r a p h y b e t w e e n the two N A S C O reports, see F l em i n g 1957
and 1968. The scientific and political context of the third N A S C O is d e s c r i b e d bv
W e n k (1972, pp. 39-45)
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Eric L. Mills
6. A c u r i o u s t r a n s i t i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s p o i n t is t h e " T r e a t i s e o n m a r i n e
e c o l o g y a n d p a l e o e c o l o g y " . V o l u m e 1 ( H e d g p e t h , 1957). C o n c e i v e d of p a r t l y as a
m o d e r n i z a t i o n of t h e b i o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n of " T h e o c e a n s " , it c o v e r e d all t h a t w o u l d l a t e r
be called biological oceanography, was used by oceanographers, and contained a
d i d a c t i c c h a p t e r o n statistics i n e c o l o g y a i m e d a t r e s o l u t e l y n o n - q u a n t i t a t i v e p r a c t i t i o n e r s of m a r i n e e c o l o g y .
7, T h e b e s t g u i d e to t h e i n t r i c a c i e s of U.S. g o v e r n m e n t f u n d i n g of t h e m a r i n e s c i e n c e s
t h r o u g h N S F a f t e r W o r l d W a r 2 will b e Dr. T o b y A p p e l ' s f o r t h c o m i n g a c c o u n t of t h e
U.S. N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s s u p p o r t of m a r i n e b i o l o g y a n d r e l a t e d s c i e n c e s , I
a m g r a t e f u l to Dr. A p p e l for l e t t i n g m e r e a d p a r t s of t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d for d i s c u s s i o n s
of t h i s p a p e r . A s k e t c h of d e v e l o p m e n t s a t t h i s t i m e f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t of a n
o c e a n o g r a p h e r ( n o n - b i o l o g i c a l ) is K n a u s s (1988). V i e w s f r o m i n s i d e t h e p o l i t i c a l
p o w e r s t r u c t u r e a r e g i v e n b y W e n k (1972), a n d P r i c e (1965, pp. 2 0 9 - 2 6 9 ) s h o w s h o w
c o m p l e x w a s t h e g r o w t h of U.S. o c e a n o g r a p h y i n p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l t e r m s
d u r i n g t h e 1960's.
LITERATURE
CITED
Allen. W. E., 1927. Pressing needs in the field of biological oceanography. - Bull. Scripps Instn.
Oceanogr. INon-tech. Set.) I3, 1-t5,
Attlmayr, F. lEd.), 1883. H a n d b u c h der O z e a n o g r a p h i e und maritimen Meteorologie. K.-K. Hof- &
Staatsdr.. Wien. I-2. 1-990.
Bigelow. H. B. 1926a. Physical oceanography of the Gulf of Maine. - Bull. Bur. Fish.. Wash. 40 (2),
511-1027
Bigelow. H. B.. 1926b. Plankton of the offshore waters of the Gulf of Maine. - Bull. Bur. Fish., Wash.
40 (2), 1-509.
Bigelow. H. B.. 1930, A developing view-point in oceanography. - Science N.Y 71, 84-89.
Bigelow. H. B.. 1931 Oceanography, its scope, problems, and economic importance. Houghton
Mifflin. Boston. 263 pp.
Bloor, D.. 1982. Durkheim & Mauss revisited. Classification and the sociology of knowledge. - Stud.
Hist. Phil. Sci. 13, 267-297.
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