Smart

Materials
That Sense
and Respond

Keep Em Flying
Laser Peening Keeps
Aircraft Turbine Blades
in Action

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Defense Information Systems Agency, Defense Technical Information Center
and Operated by IIT Research Institute

How many times in the past year have I heard the word synergy? And of those times, how many were at home with my
wife or out at a restaurant? I would guess that the ratio is
something like 10:0, because like so many other management clichs or buzzwords, synergy lives only at the office.
Things like cooperation, give-and-take, and understanding live at home.
Why does this matter? Honestly, it probably doesnt, but
arent we all just a little overloaded with how many catchphrases come along? I recall having lunch with the CEO
from one of the nations largest manufacturers of industrial
carbon products a few years back. He said that there were
three kinds of organizations in business: there were those that

Materials Technology and

Management Seminar Clichs
resist change, those that accept change, and those that seek
change. He wanted his company to be the latter. It is
assumed in there somewhere that CHANGE is GOOD,
but I digress.
In the early 1900s, the main use for oil in this country
was for lighting. This application however, was quickly being
supplanted by electrically energized lights, and things looked
pretty bleak for the oil industry in the US. But then, out of
the blue came a new application for oil and refined fuels: the
automobile. Right around the time one application was
dying, another came along and saved an industry. (The rise
of the automobile practically wiped out the saddle and horseshoe businesses of course, as every change has consequences.)

In our business, we see change all the time. Sometimes

it is legislative change, such as Acquisition Reform, other
times it is simply a shift in thinking or technology. Most
changes are for the better, like when we learned about ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures in steels for Liberty
Ships, or machining larger radius fillets in crankshafts to
reduce stress concentration. Like Helmut Panke (current
Chairman of BMW A.G.) has said, any organization that
does not adhere to the triple-A strategy of adaptivity, agility
and anticipation will not survive long in todays climate.
Changes in technology, legislation, innovation, and even
thinking will always alter the landscape for materials and
their applications. As such, change is inherent in all we do,
because we are forever pushing our own boundaries with
innovative development of new materials or clever re-application of existing materials.
Materials engineers, by our very nature, are seeking
change every day. We seek to utilize natural and physical laws
of structure, chemistry, and mechanics to enhance the performance of materials around us. And we fight for every last
scrap of strength, ductility, thermal stability, conductance,
etc., out of every material we touch.
This brings me to another of Pankes aphorisms: the four
Cs of continuity, consensus, cooperation, and cadre. Our discipline is one of continuously striving to make better materials to meet the challenges of tomorrow. We work separately
on our projects, but together in our mission. From these, we
develop strength and fraternity in this dynamic world.
Materials engineering truly is the building block of all other
engineering disciplines and that is no clich.
Wade Babcock
Editor in Chief

About the Cover:

An integrally bladed rotor is undergoing the laser shock peening process featured in our lead article. (Red laser beams are added graphics; the actual beams are
invisible.) This technology has increased readiness of B1 bombers significantly. On the back cover, one of the most promising commercial applications of
magnetorheological fluids is pictured. Dampers utilizing these adjustable viscosity liquids have found their way into automobile shock absorbers and also
vibration reducers for cable-stayed bridges. (Shock absorber image used with permission. Copyright 2003 Lord Corporation, all rights reserved.)

Editor-in-Chief
Wade G. Babcock
Creative Director
Cynthia Long
Information Processing
Judy E. Tallarino
Patricia McQuinn
Inquiry Services
David J. Brumbaugh
Product Sales
Gina Nash
Training Coordinator
Christian E. Grethlein, P.E.

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than 25,000 materials professionals around the world.
Inquiries about AMPTIAC capabilities, products and services may be addressed to
David H. Rose
Director, AMPTIAC
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Benjamin Craig
AMPTIAC Technical Staff
Rome, NY

INTRODUCTION
Fluids capable of a rapid and dramatic change in their rheological properties (properties associated with the flow of matter) in the presence of an electric or magnetic field are finding
many new applications. They are classified as being electrorheological (ER) or magnetorheological (MR) fluids
accordingly. ER and MR fluids are actuators that have the
repetitive ability to react to an applied field. In their liquid-like
state, they exhibit fluid-like properties. In their activated,
solid-like state however, they can physically resist an applied
force much like a solid material (or extremely high viscosity
liquid) would.
These special fluids have recently gathered greater attention
due to their commercial success in state-of-the-art automobiles. The 2003 Corvette Anniversary Edition and Cadillac
Seville STS feature a shock absorbing system that incorporates
MR fluids as the primary damping component. (See this
issues MaterialEASE for a brief description of the electro- and
magneto-rheological effects, as well as an introduction to other
sensor and actuator materials.)
Willis M. Winslow discovered the ER effect in 1942, and
since then there has been much struggle first to completely
understand the effect, and second to develop ER fluids with
properties that meet the design requirements for practical
applications. Some of the properties of ER fluids that have
hindered them from performing sufficiently for many applications are yield stress, temperature stability, and power
consumption.[1]
In the late 1940s the MR effect was first reported. The
amount of effort that was put forth to study MR fluids was not
nearly as significant as that for ER fluids mainly because they
require particles with much higher densities, which results in
sedimentation a significant complication. Recently, however,
there has been a renewed interest in MR fluids primarily
because they exhibit some superior properties.
ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS
General Composition
ER fluids basically consist of particles that are held in suspension by a non-conducting liquid. The suspending liquid,
which should have a high electrical resistivity, is typically a
low-viscosity hydrocarbon or silicone oil. The particles
dispersed in this liquid are commonly metal oxides, aluminosilicates, silica, organics, or polymers.[2] In particular, the

particles are very small (on the order of a micrometer) and at

a concentration low enough to allow the fluid to maintain a
relatively low viscosity when the electric field is absent (zerofield viscosity).
One of the more common problems associated with these
fluids is sedimentation. This occurs over time and can sometimes be difficult to reverse depending on the particles used.
Since the suspending liquid is of a relatively low density, the
dispersed particles should have a relatively low density also in
order to maintain the dispersion. This extends the time it takes
for sedimentation to become a significant factor on the properties of the fluid.
A third substance is sometimes used as an activator, and is
applied to the surface of the particles. Amines and organic
compounds that readily form hydrogen bonds are good activators.[3] Water is sometimes used to increase the ER effect,
but consequently increases conductivity, power consumption,
and corrosion, while limiting the operating temperature
range.[1]
Finally, surfactants are sometimes used in ER fluids in order
to maintain a uniform dispersion and prevent an agglomeration of the particles. Often they are used in ER fluids that have
a high concentration of particles. There are also proprietary
additives used in many fluids that impart specific properties
and characteristics.
Typical Properties
The voltage required to induce rheological changes through a
given thickness of ER fluid is relatively small: approximately 1
to 4 kV/mm.[2] Typically, the current densities of ER fluids
are between 10-6 and 10-3 amp/cm2.[4] (Current density measurements are used to predict the power consumption of a particular ERF). One of the most important properties of an ER
or MR fluid is its dynamic yield stress, which is the minimum
stress required to cause the fluid to flow under the applied
field. Usually, higher dynamic yield stresses are desired and in
current ER fluids they range from approximately 100 Pa to
over 3 kPa.[4]
It is very difficult, however, to compare various ER fluids
and their properties due to the lack of standard testing procedures and conditions, as well as the strong dependence of ER
properties on their composition. But in general, for an ER
fluid to be used in a practical application it should meet the
properties provided in Table 1.

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

15

Table 1. Minimum Properties Needed by an ER Material to be

Utilized in a Variety of Applications[4]
Property Description
Suggested Value

Dynamic yield stress at 4.0 kV/mm

Current density at 4.0 kV/mm (DC)
Zero-field viscosity
Operating temperature range
Dielectric breakdown strength
Particle size
Stability

< 3.0 kPa

< 10 A/cm2
0.1 0.3 Pas (1 3 Poise)
-40 to +200 C
> 5.0 kV/mm
~10 m
Low sedimentation
No dynamic separation
No electrophoresis
No chemical changes
Low volatility

Miscellaneous properties

Non-abrasive
Non-toxic
Non-corrosive
Non-Flammable

Specific Composition
The properties of ER fluids can be modified by varying the
components and compositions of the particles and liquid. In
general, increasing the concentration of particles in the fluid or
increasing the intensity of the applied field will increase the
magnitude of the ER effect. The properties of these fluids also
depend on particle size and density, carrier fluid properties,
additives, and temperature. Figure 1 displays the dynamic
yield stress for a few sample compositions of ER fluids.
Silica gel has been one of the more common types of particles used for ER fluids, but despite having high shear stresses
and low minimum field strength (to induce the ER effect),
these fluids have some serious disadvantages. They have a
relatively high conductivity, poor stability, are abrasive and not
very resistant to sedimentation.[1] Aluminosilicates are among
the particles providing the best ER effect, [1] and metal
hydroxides can be activated with water or a polar solvent to
exhibit a good ER effect.[1] Poly(lithium methacrylate) and

poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) are polyelectrolytes that are

commonly used as the particulate phase, but water is typically
added to the fluid in order to increase the ER effect.[1] An ER
fluid containing a non-aqueous, crosslinked polyurethane
particle phase does exhibit good properties and is capable of
operating at higher temperatures mainly because of the
absence of water. These particular fluids also have low
viscosities and low conductivities.
Silicone oils have some very desirable properties, which
often makes them the easy choice for the suspending liquid.
They have a high stability and low temperature coefficient
of viscosity, as well as a reasonable shear stress performance
capability.[1]
Influence of Particle Concentration
The volume fraction of the dispersed particulate phase can
have a very significant effect on the properties of an ER fluid.
A higher concentration can give the fluid a much higher ER
effect, but at the same time can cause problems.
Sedimentation is a major factor, since higher concentrations of
solid particles increases the amount of settling that will occur.
The other potential problem associated with an increase in the
volume fraction of particles is an increase in the zero-field viscosity. The effect of the concentration of particles on the
dynamic yield stress is given in Figure 2 for cellulose particles
(6% water) in mineral oil as a function of electric field.
Influence of Temperature
Temperature has an affect on the properties exhibited by ER
and MR fluids. The most obvious property affected by temperature is viscosity, which decreases as temperature increases.
The dynamic yield strength also decreases with an increase in
temperature, but this effect is greater in ER fluids than in MR
fluids. The more extensive change in dynamic yield strength
for ER fluids is due primarily to changes in conductivity and
relative permittivity of the particle and oil components of the
fluid over the temperature range. For MR fluids, though, the
reason for the decrease in strength is that the yield stress is

0.25

34 wt. % Zeolite in
Silicone Oil

0.2

3.16 wt. % Silica in

Silicone Oil

Polyelectrolyte Dispersed in an
Oil
4.06

Dynamic Yield Stress, kPa

Dynamic Yield Stress,kPa

0.3

35% Polyvinyl Alcohol in

Vaseline Oil

0.15

0.1

0.05

100 Parts Lithium Hydrazinium

Sulfate in 59 Parts Silicone Oil

3.12

16g Sodium Aluminosilicate

(4A) in 20 mL RTEMP
Hydrocarbon Oil

2.18

50 wt. % Aliphatic Starch in

Silicone Oil

1.24

19.2 wt. % Semiconducting

Polymer, 6.5 wt. % Water in
Silicone Oil

0.3
0

Electric Field, kV/mm

Figure 1. Comparison of Dynamic Yield Stress vs. Electric Field for Two Groups of ER Fluids[4]

16

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

Electric Field, kV/mm

10

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

Conductivity(nS/cm)

Shear Stress, Pa

Dynamic Yield Stress, Pa

kPa, while that of MR fluids is about 100 kPa.[5] The MR fludirectly proportional to the volume fraction of particles in the
ids are also much more efficient in that they require a low voltfluid, and since the carrier liquid volume expands with the
age, whereas the ER fluids require a high voltage. This power
increase of temperature, the volume fraction of the particles
consumption aspect translates into a lower cost for MR fluids
decreases.
Other properties affected by temperature include conducas well as a safer system. In addition, the MR fluids are much
tivity and current density. The overall conductivity of the fluid
less sensitive to contaminants, and can effectively operate over
increases with increasing temperature, as does current densia broad temperature range: -40 to 150C.[5] One major disty.[1] Figure 3 shows the temperature dependence of the ER
advantage of MR fluids is the strong tendency of sedimentaresponse and the conductivity of a fluid having a polyurethane
tion, in that once a significant amount of the particles coagudispersed particulate phase in a silicone oil.
late, it is difficult to redisperse them. A disadvantage in both
ER fluids that contain water
ER and MR fluids is that the
have an ER effect that is strongcarrier fluid is usually organic.
1000
ly dependent on temperature.
Organic fluids have problems
Cellulose/Mineral Oil
T=26C
These ER fluids experience a
with degradation, polymerizasignificant change in their ER
tion, flammability, bacterial
effect above 100C and below
growth, and can also be incom0C, which limits their use to
patible with other components
applications that have operating
in systems where they are
100
5 kV/mm
temperatures within this range.
used.[6]
4 kV/mm
Thus, much effort has been
The yield strength of MR
made to create ER fluids that
fluids can be increased by
3 kV/mm
exhibit a strong ER effect withincreasing the concentration of
2 kV/mm
out requiring water. These are
particles or by increasing the
1 kV/mm
10
called anhydrous ER fluids; an
intensity of the magnetic field.
0
10
100
example
of
which
is
The higher concentration of
Volume Fraction, %
poly(anthracene quinone radiparticles, though, corresponds
Figure 2. Effect of the Volume Fraction of Cellulose on the
cal) particles in silicone oil
to a higher viscosity when the
Dynamic Yield Stress as a Function of Electric Field[1]
(PAnQR/silicone).[1]
magnetic field is absent, which
ER fluids that can operate at
is not usually a desired property.
A comparison of the typical properties of ER and MR fluids is
very low temperatures are also of interest. Cryogenic ER fluids
given in Table 2.
have been investigated in the form of aluminum powders (20MR fluids are not ferrofluids, which also have a rheological
vol.%) in liquid nitrogen. Strong, solid particle, columnar
response to a magnetic field (although to a lesser extent than
structures form when an AC field of 10.7 kV/cm is applied.[1]
MR fluids). Hence, ferrofluids are not considered actuators
but they are colloidal fluids that have particles much smaller
MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS
than in the non-colloidal MR fluids (approximately one to
The key difference between electrorheology and magnetorhethree orders of magnitude smaller.) They also do not form
ology is in the application of the stimulating field.
chain-like structures of the same magnitude as MR fluids in
Electrorheology uses low current, high voltage to generate an
the presence of a magnetic field. Moreover, ferrofluids do not
electric field, whereas magnetorheology uses low voltage, high
current through a coil to generate a magnetic field.
The MR effect is also similar to the ER effect, but obviousDC Couette Viscometry @ 1000 s-1
ly, instead of an electric field, a magnetic field is applied to
2000
5
polarize the particles. The polarized particles interact and form
chains and columnar structures, and the rheological properties
4
1500
are changed dramatically. These events also take place over an
extremely short period of time: on the order of a millisecond.
3
1000
Upon removing the magnetic field, the particles lose their
polarization and return to their freely roaming state.
MR fluids have a similar composition to ER fluids in that
2
500
they typically contain a dispersed, polarizable, particulate
0 kV/mm
phase suspended in a carrier fluid. Unlike the ER fluids
1
10
3 kV/mm
though, the MR fluids use ferromagnetic or paramagnetic
Conductivity
solid particles. These particles are usually within an order of
0
0
magnitude of a micrometer in diameter. It is common for
-20
0
20
40
60
80
them also to contain surfactants and other additives.
Temperature, C
MR fluids usually have greater yield strengths than do ER
Figure 3. ER-Behavior of a Polyurethane Based ERF[1]
fluids. The yield stress of an ER fluid is typically around 10

17

Table 2. Comparison of the Typical Properties of ER and MR Fluids[7, 8]

Property
ER fluids

Density (g/cm3)
Operable temperature range (C)
Response time
Power supply (typical)
Maximum field
Maximum energy density (J/cm3)
Plastic viscosity, p (Pas)
Maximum yield strength, 2y (kPa)
p/2y (s/Pa)
Contaminants

12
10 90
~milliseconds
2000 5000 V @ 110 mA
~4 kV/mm
0.001
0.1 1.0
25
10-8 10-10
Cannot tolerate impurities

experience changes in their rheological properties as extensively as do MR fluids.

APPLICATIONS
ER and MR fluids have the very attractive ability to undergo a
dramatic change in their viscosity, and thus their physical and
mechanical properties, in less than a millisecond through the
application of an electric or magnetic field, respectively. This
combination of a fast response time with a significant alteration of properties translates into a great capability for damping and other applications.
These smart fluids can be used in exercise equipment, valve,
braking and clutch systems, as well as in vibration control and
shock absorbing systems. Such systems can be used for
absorbing shock and vibrations in buildings, and damping
out vibrations in rotorcraft. One of the main advantages of
using these smart fluid components is that typically few or no
mechanical parts are necessary, and therefore can reduce the
complexity of a system.
An application that has been the subject of considerable
study is smart beams, which are structural components incorporating smart fluids. Smart beams have the ability to dampen out inherent vibrations within the structure or vibrations
resulting from external activity such as natural seismic activity.
This can assist in eliminating vibrations that could potentially
damage the structure. Smart beams modify their natural frequencies with the application of an electric field and thus their
damping properties.
The fundamentals of conventional shock absorbers have not
changed significantly since they were first introduced to automobiles, but there is a new system employing MR fluids and
is a major advancement in this technology. MR fluid shock
absorbers, deployed on some 2003 GM model automobiles,
provide a more stable and smooth ride by continuously varying their dampening rate. The new system is about 5 times
faster responding to road bumps than conventional shock
absorbing systems.
The US Armys Manufacturing Technology Program has
sponsored the development of a finishing technique utilizing
MR fluids to polish precision optics.[9] This technique uses a
MR fluid with polishing abrasives added to the composition
and is known as Magnetorheological Finishing. The fluids
shape and stiffness can be adjusted and controlled in real time
through the precise application of a magnetic field that is governed by computer algorithms. This allows for the formation
of a pressure spot, which polishes any optical surface shape
18

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

MR fluids

34
-40 150 (limited by carrier fluid)
< milliseconds
2 25 V @ 1 2 A (2-50 watts)
~250 kA/m
0.1
0.1 10
50 100
10-10 10-11
Unaffected by most impurities

(including spheres, aspheres, and flats). This technique can

reduce the typical cost of processing spherical optics by up to
40%, and can reduce system weight by 30%.[10]
A number of other MR and ER fluid applications are
already being developed. Some of these applications include
automobile passenger protection systems, prosthetics, and
dampers for washing machines.
SUMMARY
Decades of research have gone into
developing ER and MR fluid compositions suitable for military and commercial applications. Great advances have
been made and these smart materials
offer some of the most promising and
intriguing properties when compared to
other sensor and actuator materials.
MR and ER fluids are currently being
commercialized in automobile shock
absorbers. This application will
Figure 4. Cutaway of MR
undoubtedly transform this fledgling Fluid-based Automobile
technology into a viable competitor in Shock Absorber. (Used
the global marketplace. Although MR with Permission. Copyright
fluids have recently taken the lead over 2003 Lord Corporation. All
ER fluids in commercial development, rights reserved.)
both types provide significant potential
for future applications. With further commercialization, usage
experience, and development, the knowledge of how to make
better ER and MR fluids and how to use them can only grow.
REFERENCES
[1] Electrorheological Fluids: Mechanisms, Properties,
Technology, and Applications, edited by R. Tao and G.D. Roy,
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., New Jersey, 1994
[2] S. Ramamurthy, M.V. Gandhi, and B.S. Thompson, Smart
Materials for Army Structures, Quantum Consultants, Inc.,
Michigan 1992; DTIC Doc. AD-A300 215
[3] E. V. Korobko, Some Aspects of Electrorheology,
Advances in Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 2:
Advances in Electrorheological Fluids, edited by M.A Kohudic,
Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Pennsylvania, 1994,
pp. 16-29
[4] K.D. Weiss, J.D. Carlson, and J.P. Coulter, Material
Aspects of Electrorheological Systems, Advances in Intelligent
Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 2: Advances in Electrorheological Fluids, edited by M.A. Kohudic, Technomic

AMPTIAC Directory
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Staff Specialist, Materials & Structures
ODUSD(S&T)/Weapons Systems
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(703) 588-7418, Fax: (703) 588-7560
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A SSOCIATE COTR S
ORGANIC STRUCTURAL MATERIALS &
ORGANIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
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Division Chief
US Air Force
AFRL/MLS
2179 Twelfth St., Bldg. 652
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7702
(937) 656-6052, Fax: (937) 255-2945
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
& SPECIAL FUNCTION MATERIALS
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4555 Overlook Ave., S.W. Code 6100
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D EPUT Y D IRECTOR , AMPTIAC

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Publishing Company, Inc., Pennsylvania, 1994, pp. 30-52

[5] J.M. Ginder, L.D. Elie, L.C. Davis, Magnetic Fluid-Based
Magnetorheological Fluids, US Patent #5,549,837, 1996
[6] D.J. Carlson, Aqueous Magnetorheological Material, US
Patent #6,132,633, 2000
[7] M.R. Jolly, Properties and Applications of Magnetorheological Fluids, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.: Materials for
Smart Systems III, Vol. 604, Materials Research Society, 2000,
pp. 167-176; DTIC Doc. AD-A381 141
[8] G. Yang, Large Magnetorheological Fluid Damper for

Did you
work for the
Air Force
Materials
Lab?

T ECHNICAL I NQUIRY S ERVICES M ANAGER

David Brumbaugh
201 Mill Street
Rome, NY 13440-6916
(315) 339-7113, Fax: (315) 339-7107
Email: dbrumbaugh@alionscience.com

Vibration Mitigation: Modeling, Testing, and Control,

Department of Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences,
Notre Dame, December 2001. Available at http://cee.uiuc.
edu/sstl/gyang2/Ch2.pdf
[9] Finishing Precision Optics, Army Research Office,
http://www.aro.army.mil/arowash/rt/sbir/01ph3/qed.htm
[10] Defense Honors Manufacturing Technology Achievements, US Department of Defense, November 29, 2000,
http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Nov2000/b11292000_
bt712-00.html

The Air Force Materials and Manufacturing

Alumni Association is looking for previous
Civilian, Military and on-site Contractor
personnel who have worked in the Air Force
Research Laboratorys Materials and
Manufacturing Technology Directorate
(AFRL/ML) and its predecessor organizations.
We seek to promote the activities of former
and current AFRL/ML employees and the
organizations contributions to materials and
processing technologies.

For membership information, contact:

John Williamson (937-255-0468); john.williamson@wpafb.af.mil
Tom Cooper (937-426-8530); tcooper@utcdayton.com

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

19