1.

Geotechnical investigations are performed by geotechnical engineers or engineering

geologists to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock around a site to
design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for repair of distress to
earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. This type of investigation is
called a site investigation. Additionally, geotechnical investigations are also used to
measure the thermal resistivity of soils or backfill materials required for underground
transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines, radioactive waste disposal, and solar thermal
storage facilities. A geotechnical investigation will include surface exploration and
subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used to obtain data
about sites. Subsurface exploration usually involves soil sampling and laboratory tests of
the soil samples retrieved.
Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, geophysical methods,
and photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as a geotechnical professional walking around
on the site to observe the physical conditions at the site.
To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form of subsurface
exploration is required. Methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining
samples, and determining physical properties of the soils and rocks include test pits,
trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes), boring, and in situ tests.
Borings come in two main varieties, large-diameter and small-diameter. Large-diameter
borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense, but are sometimes used to
allow a geologist or engineer to visually and manually examine the soil and rock
stratigraphy in-situ. Small-diameter borings are frequently used to allow a geologist or
engineer to examine soil or rock cuttings or to retrieve samples at depth using soil
samplers, and to perform in-place soil tests.
Soil samples are often categorized as being either "disturbed" or "undisturbed;" however,
"undisturbed" samples are not truly undisturbed. A disturbed sample is one in which the
structure of the soil has been changed sufficiently that tests of structural properties of the
soil will not be representative of in-situ conditions, and only properties of the soil grains
(e.g., grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, and possibly the water content) can be
accurately determined. An undisturbed sample is one where the condition of the soil in the
sample is close enough to the conditions of the soil in-situ to allow tests of structural
properties of the soil to be used to approximate the properties of the soil in-situ.
Offshore soil collection introduces many difficult variables. In shallow water, work can be
done off a barge. In deeper water a ship will be required. Deepwater soil samplers are

normally variants of Kullenberg-type samplers, a modification on a basic gravity corer using

a piston (Lunne and Long, 2006). Seabed samplers are also available, which push the
collection tube slowly into the soil.

Soil samplers[edit]
Soil samples are taken using a variety of samplers; some provide only disturbed samples,
while others can provide relatively undisturbed samples.

Shovel. Samples can be obtained by digging out soil from the site. Samples taken
this way are disturbed samples.

Trial Pits are relatively small hand or machine excavated tranches used to determine
groundwater levels and take disturbed samples from.

Hand/Machine Driven Auger. This sampler typically consists of a short cylinder with a
cutting edge attached to a rod and handle. The sampler is advanced by a combination
of rotation and downward force. Samples taken this way are disturbed samples.

Continuous Flight Auger. A method of sampling using an auger as a corkscrew. The

auger is screwed into the ground then lifted out. Soil is retained on the blades of the
auger and kept for testing. The soil sampled this way is considered disturbed.

Split-spoon / SPT Sampler. Utilized in the 'Standard Test Method for Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils' (ASTM D 1586 [1]). This
sampler is typically an 18"-30" long, 2.0" outside diameter (OD) hollow tube split in half
lengthwise. A hardened metal drive shoe with a 1.375" opening is attached to the
bottom end, and a one-way valve and drill rod adapter at the sampler head. It is driven
into the ground with a 140-pound (64 kg) hammer falling 30". The blow counts (hammer
strikes) required to advance the sampler a total of 18" are counted and reported.
Generally used for non-cohesive soils, samples taken this way are considered
disturbed.

3. Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: "pertaining to
building")[1] is ascientific theory that describes the large-scale motion of Earth's lithosphere.
This theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift which was developed during
the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted the theory
after the concepts of seafloor spreading were later developed in the late 1950s and early
1960s.

The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (on Earth, the crust and upper
mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates. On Earth, there are seven or eight major plates
(depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet, their
relative motion determines the type of boundary;convergent, divergent,
or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trenchformation
occur along these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically
varies from zero to 100 mm annually.[2]
Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere,
each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries
plates into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new
(oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface
of the globe remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the
conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories (that still have some supporters) propose gradual
shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe. [3]
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater strength than
the underlyingasthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection.
Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away
from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which
result in differences in gravitational forces) and drag, with downward suction, at the
subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by the rotation
of the globe and the tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of
these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much
debate.

5. Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire) is one of the three
main rock types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic. Igneous rock is formed
through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rock may form with or
withoutcrystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface
asextrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing
rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of
three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in
composition. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them having
formed beneath the surface of Earth's crust. Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up 90
95% of the top 16 km of the Earth's crust by volume.[1]
Igneous rocks are geologically important because:

their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of the
mantle, from which some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and
pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that
melted;

their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and
thus can be compared to adjacent geological strata, allowing a time sequence of events;

their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing

tectonic reconstitutions (see plate tectonics);

in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits (ores): for
example, tungsten, tin, and uranium are commonly associated with granitesand diorites,
whereas ores of chromium and platinum are commonly associated with gabbros.

6. Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at
the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for
processes that causemineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or
minerals to precipitate from asolution. Particles that form a sedimentary rock by
accumulating are called sediment. Before being deposited, sediment was formed
by weathering and erosion in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition
by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers which are called agents of denudation.
The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth's crust is extensive, but the total
contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust.
[1]
Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly
of igneous andmetamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata,
forming a structure calledbedding. The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides
information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the
construction of roads, houses,tunnels, canals or other constructions. Sedimentary rocks are
also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels, drinking water or ores.
The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for scientific
knowledge about the Earth's history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and
the history of life. Thescientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of
sedimentary rocks is calledsedimentology. Sedimentology is both part
of geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth
sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology, geochemistry orstructural geology.

7. Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process
called metamorphism, which means "change in form".[1] The original rock (protolith) is
subjected to heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 C) and pressure (1500 bars),
[2]
causing profound physical and/or chemical change. The protolith may be sedimentary
rock,igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and are classified by texture
and by chemical and mineralassemblage (metamorphic facies). They may be formed simply
by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great
pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from tectonic processes such as
continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion. They are also
formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the
Earth's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface
following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that
occur at great depths within the Earth's crust. Some examples of metamorphic rocks
are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite.

12. A volcano is a rupture on the crust of a planetary mass object, such as the Earth, which
allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the
surface.
Earth's volcanoes occur because the planet's crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic
plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in the Earth's mantle. [1] Therefore, on Earth,
volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates arediverging or converging. For
example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused
bydivergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused
by convergent tectonic platescoming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is
stretching and thinning of the crust's interior plates, e.g., in theEast African Rift and
the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of
volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. [2] Volcanism away from
plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for
example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core
mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two
tectonic plates slide past one another.
Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the
eruption. One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those
with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the

melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the
operation of the turbine. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets
of sulfuric acid obscure the sunand cool the Earth's lower atmosphere (or troposphere);
however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the upper
atmosphere (or stratosphere). Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused
catastrophic famines.

13. An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden
release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and
size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.
Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment
magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are
reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5
reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local
magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude scale. These two scales are
numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly
almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage
over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have
been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. The
most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in
Japan in 2011 (as of March 2014), and it was the largest Japanese earthquake since
records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modifiedMercalli scale. The
shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal. [1]
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacement of the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore,
the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also
trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event
whether natural or caused by humans that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are
caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic
activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is
called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the
hypocenter.