Corrugated pipes for non-pressure

sewer and drainage systems

INDUSTRIE POLIECO-MPB s.r.l.

VIA E. MATTEI, 49
25046 - Cazzago San Martino (BRESCIA - ITALY)
Tel.++39 030 7758911
Fax ++39 030 7750845
e-mail: info@polieco.com
http: www.polieco.com

In 1995 POLIECO acquired equipment and technologies to manufacture for the first time
in Italy:

Ecopal

a high-density polyethylene corrugated pipe for non-pressure sewer systems. In the

following years, other companies were founded to meet the same goals: POLIECO
FRANCE (1999), POLIECO ESPAA (1999), POLIECO HELLAS (2008) and POLIECO
SLOVAKIA (2008).
Over the years, Polieco developed a safe and reliable complete plastic system to meet the
needs of designers and installer companies. In this light, the following solutions have
been lintroduced into the European market:
polyethylene manholes and special components to be matched with corrugated
pipes;
SN 16 polypropylene pipes with a high modulus of elasticity;
no loss sealing ring;
steel reinforced structured pipes in polyethylene from diameter DN/ID 1200,
manufactured by our subsidiary company Palbox Industriale.
POLIECO works in compliance with UNI EN ISO 9001:2008 certification. In December
2005 POLIECO obtained the certificate of conformity for Environmental Management
System according to UNI EN ISO 14001:2004 standard. In 1996, the Ecopal pipe
obtained, first product in Italy, the PIIP/a mark issued by the Istituto Italiano dei Plastici
(Italian Institute for Plastics) according to UNI EN 13476 standard. In 2000 the mark
issued by the Istituto Italiano Plastici was also given to the jointing system (coupler +
sealing ring) to guarantee quality and watertightness of the entire system. The Ecopal
pipe has later been certified by the most important European Certification Institutes
(CSTBat from France, MPA-DA from Germany, AENOR from Spain, KIWA from
Netherlands, ONORM from Austria, TSUS from Slovakia, ITC from the Czech Republic and
ELOT from Greece).
This technical manual, which is addressed to designers and public and private users,
describes the product and the calculation methods for a correct use of Ecopal. A
calculation software, Ecocalc is made available by POLIECO for hydraulic and static
calculations of Ecopal pipes.
This version is the result of the experience we made over the last 15 years all over
Europe. We take this opportunity to thank all designers who believed in this new system
and prescribed it for their specifications. We would also like to thank all those companies
that contributed to improve the Ecopal system with their remarks and suggestions.
Wishing you a good reading we ask you to let us know your comments and remarks
which will certainly be held in high regard for the new editions.
Cazzago San Martino, March 2010

SECTION 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS___________________________________6

1. 1 SEWER SYSTEMS ________________________________________________________ 6
1. 2 PLASTIC PIPES __________________________________________________________ 7
1. 3 RIGID PIPES AND FLEXIBLE PIPES _______________________________________ 7
1. 4 INTERACTION BETWEEN PIPE AND GROUND _____________________________ 9

SECTION 2. THE MATERIALS ______________________________________________11

2. 1 POLYETHYLENE _______________________________________________________ 11
2. 1. 1 ALLOWABLE TENSION AND MODULE OF ELASTICITY____________________________ 12
2. 1. 2 RESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL AND ELECTROCHEMICAL AGGRESSIONS ______________ 12
2. 1. 3 RESISTANCE TO ABRASION __________________________________________________ 13
2. 1. 4 TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL EXPANSION ____________________________________ 17
2. 2 POLYPROPYLENE WITH A HIGH MODULUS OF ELASTICITY______________ 17

SECTION 3. THE PRODUCT ________________________________________________20

3. 1 THE PROFILE __________________________________________________________ 20
3. 2 DIMENSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS______________________________________ 21
3. 3 PRODUCTION __________________________________________________________ 22

4. REFERENCE STANDARDS _______________________________________________24

4. 1 TESTS ON THE MATERIAL ______________________________________________ 25
4. 2 DIMENSIONAL AND SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS _______________________ 25
4. 3 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS ______________________________________ 26
4. 4 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS __________________________________________ 27
4. 5 FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS _______________________________________ 28
4. 6 CONTROL MARKING ___________________________________________________ 29
4. 7 PRODUCTION CERTIFICATES AND QUALITY MARKS ____________________ 30
4. 8 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS___________________________________________ 30

SECTION 5. CALCULATIONS _______________________________________________32

5. 1 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS ___________________________________________ 32
5. 1. 1 HOW TO CALCULATE PIPE FILLING FLOW RATE ________________________________ 32
5. 1. 2 HOW TO CALCULATE FULL PIPE FLOW RATE ___________________________________ 33
5. 1. 3 PIPE ROUGHNESS __________________________________________________________ 34
5. 1. 4 SLOPE AND FILLING DEGREE OF PIPES________________________________________ 36
5. 2 STATIC CALCULATIONS ________________________________________________ 38
4

5. 2. 1 SPANGLER METHOD ________________________________________________________ 40

5. 2. 2 METHOD ATV-DVWK-A 127E_________________________________________________ 46
5. 2. 3 METHOD ATV IN Ecocalc PROGRAMME _________________________________________ 49
5. 2. 4 EFFECTS OF TRENCH ON DEFLECTION _______________________________________ 52

5. 3 BENDING RADIUS AND BENDING MOMENTS _____________________________ 53

5. 4 OVERHANGING PIPES __________________________________________________ 53

SECTION 6. SPECIAL FITTINGS AND MANHOLES___________________________ 55

6. 1 REFERENCE STANDARD ______________________________________________________ 57
6. 2 FLOTATION TEST ____________________________________________________________ 59

SECTION 7. USE AND INSTALLATION______________________________________ 60

7. 1 CONNECTION BY COUPLERS____________________________________________ 60
7. 2 CONNECTION BY WELDING_____________________________________________ 60
7. 3 NO-LOSS SEALING RING ________________________________________________ 61
7. 4 INSTALLATION AND LAYING ___________________________________________ 63
7. 4. 1 PIPE TRANSPORT AND ACCEPTANCE _________________________________________ 63
7. 4. 2 UNLOADING AND STORAGE AT THE YARD ____________________________________ 64
7. 4. 3 PIPE PILING-UP ____________________________________________________________ 64
7. 4. 4 EXCAVATIONS _____________________________________________________________ 65
7. 4. 5 BEDDING _________________________________________________________________ 66
7. 4. 6 INSTALLATION ____________________________________________________________ 66
7. 4. 7 FILLING THE EXCAVATION __________________________________________________ 67
7. 4. 8 LAYING PIPES WITH GROUNDWATER ________________________________________ 68
7. 5 HYDRAULIC TESTING __________________________________________________ 69
Resistance of polyethylene to chemical substances ____________________________________ 71
Terms used in the manual and corresponding units of measure _________________________ 75

SECTION 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. 1 SEWER SYSTEMS
All pipes from reliable manufactures and installed with the utmost care can give good
technical results. Without going into details on the use of all various materials, we will
emphasize those concepts which all designers and users should take into account when
dealing with sewer systems.
The main requisites of sewer pipes are:
good hydraulic characteristics on a short and long term;
suitable resistance to internal pressure even in the case of temporary overpressure;
good resistance to external loads;
excellent bidirectional watertightness of joints on a short and long term;
excellent resistance to chemical and electrochemical aggressions;
resistance to abrasion;
reduced adherence to deposits;
easy cleaning with modern techniques;
easy and quick assembly and laying;
competitive price.
To be more precise about the characteristics described above:
the compliance of each material with the project requisites must be checked on the basis
of realistic and homogeneous elements, especially as regards the hydraulic characteristics
(inner diameter and absolute roughness value);
resistance to chemical, electrochemical aggressions and abrasion must be checked
according to waste waters;
resistance to internal pressure and perfect watertightness even on a long term, apply to
all pipes but above all those pipes with spigot joints whose key element is the bell length
and the seal characteristics;
watertightness must be bidirectional: most problems in the existing sewer systems that
also affect the treatment plants are caused by groundwater or leaks from the joints;
high pressure or mechanical cleaning systems may damage some materials causing
misalignement of certain types of joints or even failure of the internal pipe wall.
as regards costs, it should be pointed out that instead of comparing the pipe cost the
comprehensive cost of the whole sewer system must be taken into consideration,
including laying costs and all maintenance costs connected with the life cycle of the pipe.
Ecopal perfectly meets all these requirements.

1. 2 PLASTIC PIPES
The first plastic material which was used for sewer and drainage systems was the PVC
(polyvynil chloride) because of its ease of installation and competitive cost. While PP
(polypropylene) has always been used for special applications (high temperatures and
industrial field), HDPE (high density polyethylene), in its extruded full wall version, has been
used only occasionally as too expensive.
In the 80s, the first HDPE pipes up to 3.6 m were successfully used as they combined a
very good resistance to aggressive wastewater with other important characteristics such as
lightness, high ring stiffness and competitive costs. This is how products such as Bauku,
Henze, KWH were manufactured and patented and are still available in their last versions.
With the new licences, the different types of walls were later developed which lead to the
manufacture of the Ecopal pipe.
The characteristics of plastic structured pipes (very good resistance to aggressions by piped
waters, resistance to laying and working stresses, ease of installation, long life with little
maintenance and a very good cost/efficiency ratio), if used in a correct way, make of this
pipe the material of the future.

1. 3 RIGID PIPES AND FLEXIBLE PIPES

The first thing to do when dealing with sewer pipes is to distinguish between rigid pipes and
flexible pipes.
Rigid pipes are pipes whose ring section can not undergo horizontal or vertical deflections
without the pipe being damaged. AWWA (American Water Works Association) classifies as
stiff pipes those pipes where a 0.1% deflection may cause damages while semi-stiff pipes
are those enduring up to 3% deflection. Rigid pipes are those made of cement, asbestos
cement, cast iron, stoneware.
Flexible pipes are pipes where an external stress may cause deflection of the ring section
(according to AWWA > 3%) without damages. Flexible pipes are made of plastic. The
deflection, whether on a short or a long term, can reach higher values without damages or
signs of failure on the pipe structure but incompatible with correct hydraulic operation of the
piping system.
The key parameter of flexible pipes is ring stiffness which depends both on geometrical data
(moment of inertia of the wall) and on the characteristics of the material (module of
elasticity). This element is calculated geometrically for full wall pipes and by means of
experimental tests for structured wall pipes or for pipes manufactured using composite
materials.
For full wall pipes, the ring stiffness (SN) can be calculated through the formula of the
module of elasticity (E) whose elements are the pipe material, the moment of inertia (I) and
the medium diameter of the pipe (Dm):

SN = E

I
3
Dm

in Pa

where:
E = module of elasticity of the material, in Pa
Dm = medium pipe diameter, in m
I = moment of inertia, in m4/m
The module of elasticity of the material is particularly important for evaluating the concept of
flexibility. The order of magnitude of the module of elasticity (E) in rigid pipes is greater
than in flexible pipes, as shown below:
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9

asbestos cement
concrete
clay
cast iron
ductile iron
PVC
PP
HDPE

2,5104 MPa
3,0104 MPa
5,0104 Mpa
10,0104 Mpa
17,0104 MPa
3,6103 Mpa
1,4103 MPa
1,0103 MPa

It must be said that in most cases a high modulus of elasticity means fragility if the
materials impact strength is not as high as in polyethylene.
Another factor which affects stiffness is the moment of inertia of the wall (I). To obtain a
suitable ring stiffness in pipes with a low modulus of elasticity, you need to work on the
moment of inertia of the pipe wall, I = s3/12 and, therefore, on the real or apparent
thickness (better known as equivalent thickness). To avoid high thicknesses and high
weights and expensive costs, the moment of inertia can be increased using the ribs.
Ring stiffness in structured pipes is obtained by means of experimental tests with the method
mentioned in UNI EN ISO 9969 standard and the following formula:

SN = 0,0186 + 0,025

y
Di

L y

in Pa

where:
F
= force which is necessary to obtain the desired deflection, in N
L
= length of pipe sample, in m
y
= bending of pipe diameter, in m
Because of their viscoelasticity, plastic pipes which are subject to a steady load generally lose
their shape over the time. This is called "creep". The stress/creep ratio is called "creep
modulus", not to be mixed up with the module of elasticity of the material.
Considering that the moment of inertia is not easy to calculate for structured pipes even with
a module of elasticity depending on the creep, the long term behaviour has been determined
through experimental tests. Ring stiffness on a long term is calculated by dividing the ring

stiffness by the creep modulus extrapolated at a certain time given by the reference
standard.
Times are chosen considering that once installed the pipe is subject to an immediate
deflection followed by a slow progressive deflection over the time. Time varies depending
on soil conditions and methods of installation but is not longer than two years: this datum
has been adopted as extrapolation time.

1. 4 INTERACTION BETWEEN PIPE AND GROUND

All pipes laid in an excavation or an embankment are subject to external loads caused by the
weight of covering materials, the weight of other products resting on it (static loads) and by
dynamic loads caused by means of transport passing directly on it or near the pipe.
In all pipes laid in excavations and subject to external loads there is an interaction between
the pipe, the backfilling and the excavation wall. In other words, the backfilling-excavation
walls offer resistance against pipe deflection.
Analysis and calculation methods are different for rigid and flexible pipes. Ground settling
around the pipe is different, as shown in figure 1.1, depending on whether the product is a
flexible or rigid pipe.

Figure 1.1: Ground settling for flexible pipes and rigid pipes
Deflection values in stiff pipes are negligible or minimal before failure. The ground
counterthrust results in a simple decrease of wall stresses due to the side load of the ground
which is comparable to a hydrostatic thrust and which can be represented by a triangular
load.
In flexible pipes, deflection can reach higher values; the side counterthrust results in a
limitation of deflection and therefore the vertical load value is lower. This is the reason why it
9

is so important during installation that a sufficient contrast is reached by compacting the

sidefill in order to limit deflection to acceptable values. Figure 1.2 shows the behaviour of a
pipe subject to external loads.
Carico totale sul tubo = overall load on pipe
Reazione del terreno = ground reaction

Figure 1.2: Flexible pipe subject to external loads

In short, the greater the stiffness of the backfilling and structure around the pipe the
higher the resistance of the pipe to external stresses. The backfilling - ground reaction,
which can be called profile stiffness, can be put in connection with the module of elasticity
e of the backfilling which strongly depends on the compaction level, and with the
unchanged module of elasticity of the excavations walls. We will later see how the profile
stiffness prevails, in order to reduce deflections, over pipe stiffness.
The methods of calculations which are generally used for flexible pipes (studies made by
Spangler, Watkins, Barnard) consider that the e value (module of elasticity or module of
passive resistance of backfilling) is not steady while, in practice, the module of deflection or
secant modulus E' = er (where r is the duct radius), which is expressed in Pa, is steady. E'
values generally depend on the type of material and compaction percentage; the engineer
has to choose correctly based on the local conditions and the backfilling requirements.

10

SECTION 2. THE MATERIALS

2. 1 POLYETHYLENE

Polyethylene (PE) is a thermoplastic material which is obtained by polymerization of ethylene

monomer, a by-product of oil, characterized by high molecular weight chains (CH2=CH2).
Several ethylene polymerization processes have been developed over the years in the
attempt to improve the physical and chemical characteristics of polyethylene such as
resistance to internal pressure on a long term and resistance to high temperatures and
processability.
An important parameter through which the mechanical characteristics of the different types
of polyethylene used for pipes can be identified is MRS (Minimum Required Strength): after
examining several samples at different temperatures and pressures for up to 1000 hours, the
regression curves are built from which the MRS is extrapolated as ring stress which ensures a
50 years life at 20C. MRS values (in Mpa) multiplied by 10, determines the polyethylene
type: the polyethylene which is mostly used for pipes is PE100 (with MRS equal to 10 MPa).
By dividing the MRS by a coefficient of safety (usually 1.25 for aqueducts) the ring stress
called project sigma is obtained.
Table 2.1 shows polyethylene classification according to its resistance to pressure. This
classification applies to all types of polyethylene used for pressure pipes.

Name

PE 32
PE 40
PE 50
PE 63
PE 80
PE 100

MRS
(MPa)
3.2
4
5
6.3
8
10

Resistance on a
long term (MPa)
3.20 3.99
4.00 4.99
5.00 6.29
6.30 7.99
8.00 9.99
10.00 11.19

Table 2.1: Classification of polyethylene

Table 2.2 shows test pressures, test temperatures and test length without the sample
showing signs of burst.
For structured pipes, the classification test is made on full wall pipe samples made of the
same material. The values which are taken into account for polyethylene pipes are 4.0 MPa
for the 165 hours test at 80 C and 2.8 MPa for the 1000 hours test at 80 C: practically,
the material to be used for manufacturing structured pipes is comparable to PE 63
polyethylene.

11

Test temperature
Test length
PE
100
80
63
50
40
32

20C
100 h
MPa
12.4
9.0
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5

80C
165 h
MPa
5.5
4.6
3.5
2.8
2.5
2.0

80C
1000 h
MPa
5.0
4.0
3.2
2.5
2.0
1.5

Table 2.2: Prescriptions for resistance to internal pressure

2. 1. 1 ALLOWABLE TENSION AND MODULE OF ELASTICITY

Polyethylene used for Ecopal has the well-known technical characteristics like all
thermoplastic resins and viscoelastic materials: the modulus of elasticity and the deflection
under load depend on temperature and time.
The UNI EN 13476-1 standard provides for the following additional characteristics:
modulus of elasticity, E
average density
average coefficient of linear thermal expansion
thermal conductivity
specific heat capacity
surface resistance
Poisson ratio

800 MPa
940 kg/m3
0.17 mm/m K
(0.36 0.50) W K1 m1
(2300 2900) J kg1 K1
> 1013
0.45

2. 1. 2 RESISTANCE TO CHEMICAL AND ELECTROCHEMICAL AGGRESSIONS

The resistance to chemical aggression of polyethylene is well-known. This characteristic is
also described by the UNI EN 13476-1 standard for which piping systems conforming to this

standard are resistant to corrosion by water with a wide range of pH values such as domestic
wastewater, rainwater, surface water and ground water. If piping systems conforming to this
standard are to be used for chemically contaminated wastewater, such as industrial
discharges, chemical and temperature resistance must be taken into account.
All information on the resistance of polyethylene to chemical agents refer to ISO/TR 10358
standard. The last pages of this manual describe polyethylene resistance to the most
commonly used chemical substances at 20 C and 60 C in sewage wastewater.
Moreover, polyethylene is not exposed to electrochemical aggressions as it is electrically
inert.
The resistance of polyethylene-made products to biological aggressions is often widely
discussed. While biochemical attacks by mildews or enzymes or even insects is practically
12

inexistent, it is not clear if the attacks by rodents, moles or rats is really a danger. There is
no evidence of this fact but signs of bites have been found on some old lead-stabilized PVC
pipes.
It can than be said that the polyethylene pipe is not exposed to any aggression from the
environment and that it does not release noxious substances in the environment.

2. 1. 3 RESISTANCE TO ABRASION
Over the last few decades, abrasion or erosion of the different material has been the subjectmatter of several studies and discussions in order to understand its mechanisms and the
effects and endurance of materials exposed to fluids containing abrasive substances. The
effects of this phenomenon, which both concerns white water and wastewater, have been
studied by making tests on two control parameters: the amount of abraded material over a
certain time or the time necessary to perforate the pipe manufactured using a given
material.
Both test data and real facts are available in literature but because of the instability of the
parameters which characterize this phenomenon (type and material of particulate and
corresponding sedimentation speed, flow speed, slope, whether cavities are present or not,
mechanical parameters and initial roughness of the pipe inner surface, etc.) univocal
conclusions have still not been reached.
Abrasion can be classified as shown below:
penetration: the particle cuts into the material and is later released leaving a cavity into
the pipes material;
ploughing: the particle cuts a groove and the material which is accumulated before or
laterally is later removed;
cut: the particle acts like a cutting tool and removes the particles of material;
fracture: the particle creates a fracture in the surface layers.
Abrasion mainly takes place in the lower part of the pipe but localized turbulence may
expand it to the entire wall. This is caused by friction, rubbing, rolling, cutting (both by
pulling and turbulence) or impact and the harder and more irregular the particle, the more
noticeable this phenomenon will be.
According to EN 476 standard, only clay pipes used in sewer systems must be tested for
abrasion as any defects on the vitrified surface may cause localized abrasions. The same
standard relating to structured wall pipes (UNI EN 13476-1) provides for that pipes and
fittings conforming to this standard are resistant to abrasion. As far as polyethylene is
concerned, it can be said that conditions being equal, it better resists to abrasion than other
materials.
Specific tests made by the Institute for Plastics of Darmstadt have proved this to be true.
This is also suggested by the results of the tests made to calculate the time required for
equal amounts of material to be removed from the inner wall of different types of pipes,
conditions being equal (sand in water, 15/85% ratio, 10 m/s speed):

13

cement:
steel:
PVC:
clay:
PE:

20 hours
34 hours
50 hours
60 hours
100 hours

To check these results, POLIECO had an abrasion test made by the Darmstadt Institute (D).
The methods used by the Institute according to the German standard DIN 19566-2, are later
described.
TEST METHOD ACCORDING TO DIN 19566-2
Resistance to abrasion must be tested according to point 5.2.
After 100,000 cycles, the depth of abrasion "a" must not be higher than 1/3 of the wall
internal thickness of the pipe "si-min". One longitudinal half of pipe, 1000 mm long, is frontally
closed by plates, filled with a mixture of water, sand and grit and covered with another plate.
This half pipe is inclined longitudinally by 22.5 first on one side and then on the other side
so that the control material movement produces the abrasive effect to be controlled.
The abrasive material to be used is natural quartz grit in unbroken round grains with
granulometric curve meeting the following requirements:
M = d50 = 6 mm
U = d80/d20 = 8.4 mm/4.2 mm = 2 mm
where:
M = medium size of grains, in mm
U = non-uniformity grade
d50/d80/d20 = grain size in mm of which 50/80/20% of grains (percentage referred to
weight) has a smaller size.
The control abrasive material is inserted into the sample to be examined according to the
diameter shown in table 2.3. Water is then added up to 382 mm of the filling height.

DN
(mm)
100
125
150
200
250
300
400
500

Test material
(kg)
2.8
3.1
3.4
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.8
6.5

Table 2.3: Amount of abrasive material used according to diameter

14

Figure 2.1: Abrasion test

The sample examined must be tested for 100,000 cycles (abrasion with slipping and
oscillation). Oscillation must be sinusoidal with a 20 cycles/min. frequency. At the end of the
programmed cycles the abraded thickness must be measured by comparing it to the initial
value. The end areas corresponding to 150 mm on both sides must be ignored. The average
am of the values measured in the groove for the remaining 700 mm of sample is to be
taken into consideration. Thickness "a" of the bottom line must be measured after 25,- 50,75,- 100,000 cycles. To determine the abrasion curve inclination, am must be measured up to
400,000 cycles. After 100,000 cycles, new abrasion material must be used.
It follows the integral translation of the certificate issued by the Darmstadt Institute.

Report no.:
544/98
Pipe material:
High density polyethylene
Nominal diameter: DN 250
Manufacturer: Polieco s.r.l.
I - 25046 CAZZAGO SAN MARTINO (BS)
Via E. Mattei, 10-12-14
The pipe examined is made of high density polyethylene. The pipe diameter is DN 250
mm.
Result:
The half pipe cut lengthwise supplied by Polieco s.r.l. has been tested for abrasion for
400,000 cycles in order to obtain reliable results. Each test has been stopped after 25-,
50-, 100-, 150-, 200-, 300-, and 400- thousand cycles and abrasion was measured.
The test was made according to DIN 19566 standard, part 2a (appendix 1). The test
method has been developed by our laboratory and is well-known as "Darmstadt
15

Method". This method corresponds to the test provided for by national specifications
for different types of plastic pipes, such as polyester, PVC, fibreglass-reinforced plastic
pipes. The photographs which were taken at the beginning and at the end of the test
clearly show the effects of abrasion.

The graph shows abrasion am measured during the tests according to the number of
cycles. As it can be seen, the pipe abrasion is almost linear compared to the number of
cycles.

Cycles in thousands

Measurements can be interpolated by the second degree function

am = 0.0011(cycles/1000)-510-7(cycles/1000)2
16

This function indicates that after 100,000 cycles am = 0.105 mm. These type of values
were measured only in high density polyethylene pipes of a very good quality.
Darmstadt, 15 February 1999

2. 1. 4 TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL EXPANSION

According to the EN 476 standard, pipes and fittings for sewer systems must be suitable to
resist to 45 C for diameters up to 200 mm and 35C for higher diameters.
The linear thermal expansion coefficient of polyethylene is 1.7104 C-1. The change in size
of structured wall pipes is not a requirement provided for by the standard except as a cause
of separation of layers or cracking. Expansion may be a significant factor during installation
as abnormal tension or joint slipping may occur because of mistakes made during
installation.
Nevertheless, it can generally be said that a structured wall pipe linear expansion is lower
than that of the full wall pipes made of the same material. This statement is based on the
fact that the structure expansion coefficient values are the same for the whole exposed
surface but expansion or shrinkage is partially fought by the elements of the same structure
and more evident in a radial direction. This was proved by several laboratory tests made on
Ecopal and on a smooth polyethylene pipe with same diameter and made of the same
material. The test pieces were conditioned at -10 C and +70 C and their length was
compared with the values measured at room temperature. Ecopal elongation was on an
average 50% lower compared to the full wall pipe. Therefore, it can be said that the
apparent expansion coefficient of Ecopal is 110-4 C-1.
Tests have been also carried out to check changes in the outer diameter depending on
temperature. Due to the complex mechanism of longitudinal and rib expansion, it has been
proved that at -10 C and +70 C the change compared to the initial value at room
temperature is not higher than 0.5 %.

2. 2 POLYPROPYLENE WITH A HIGH MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Over the last few years, some Italian companies in charge of sewer systems have expressed
to the manufacturers of polyethylene corrugated pipes their need for a plastic structured wall
pipe with a load resistance higher than the pipes presently on the market.
The characteristics of polyethylene non-pressure corrugated pipes for sewer systems which
have been successfully used over the last 10 years in Europe (resistance to abrasion, to
chemical agents, flexibility, lightness, versatility) were questioned by some isolated cases of
incorrect installation by the installers. This in addition to the need of some companies to
have corrugated pipes installed to lower filling depths (where the effects of road loads are
higher) or higher filling depths (where the ground load effect is higher). These needs have
been combined with the activity of research and development carried out by some
17

international manufacturers of raw materials in the aim of creating ever more performing
polyolefin. Today we can count on a raw material, the polypropylene with a high modulus of
elasticity (PP-HM) whose module of elasticity is remarkably higher than that of polyethylene
but with the same characteristics of processability.
Compared with high density polyethylene, the polypropylene with a high modulus of elasticity
has the following characteristics:
lower specific weight;
slightly increased resistance to high temperatures and slightly lower resistance to low
temperatures;
similar resistance to abrasion and chemical agents;
higher module of elasticity on a short and long term.
The module of elasticity of the material directly affects the pipe stiffness and, as a result, its
resistance to vertical loads. Therefore, thickness being equal, a material with a higher
module of elasticity has an increased resistance to loads. In the case of the polypropylene
with a high modulus of elasticity (PP-HM) used by Polieco, the increase in the class of
resistance, with equal weight, can be higher than 65% compared to a similar pipe made of
high density polyethylene; this allows to manufacture pipes with a class of resistance higher
than SN 8. Figure 2.2 shows the advantage of using a SN 16 polypropylene pipe with a high
module of elasticity compared to a SN 4 and SN 8 high density polyethylene pipe.

Deformazione = deflection
Altezza di ricoprimento = covering height
7,0%
DEFORMAZIONE (%)

SN 4
6,0%

SN 8
SN 16

5,0%
4,0%
3,0%
2,0%
0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

1,1

1,2

1,3

1,4

1,5

ALTEZZA DI RICOPRIM ENTO (m )

Figure 2.2: Pipe deflection according to class resistance

In this
-

case, we have considered a DN/ID 500 mm pipe with the following characteristics:
different installation depths;
presence of heavy traffic;
excavation width 1.1 m;
filling ground: G2;
18

foundation ground G4.

The use of Ecopal SN 16 allows to reduce the pipe deflection by almost one percentage point
compared to a SN 8 pipe. This is a better guarantee against ovalization that may occur at the
yard after installation if it is not made correctly according to the rules for the installation of
plastic pipes. It has then to be pointed out how the methods of laying (type of material for
underground laying and modes of underground laying) a SN 16 pipe must be in compliance
with the methods indicated for a SN 4 or SN 8 pipe.
A DN/ID 300 SN 16 corrugated pipe made of polypropylene with a high modulus of elasticity
has the resistance to loads than a DN/OD 315 PE100 SDR 18 polyethylene smooth pipe
(thickness 17 mm). From the point of view of the standard, the class SN 16 is included in the
range of classes provided for by the reference standard on plastic structured wall pipes (UNI
EN 13476); as a result, the pipes undergo the same tests as for SN 4 and SN 8 polyethylene
pipes.
From the dimensional point of view, the outer diameter and the inner diameter of pipes are
the same as those for Ecopal SN 4 and SN 8 polyethylene pipes. For these reasons the same
couplers and seals can be used for pipe connection.

19

SECTION 3. THE PRODUCT

3. 1 THE PROFILE
Ecopal profile is part of type B as according to UNI EN 13476-3 standard, that is, a pipe with
smooth internal surface and one solid or hollow or annular spiral rib.
Ecopal manufacture is carried out using manufacture equipment developed for a special type
of structured wall which was studied and developed in Germany: the profile has a
semicircular top which was specially developed to increase load resistance. Figure 3.1. shows
the profile in detail.

Figure 3.1: Profile of Ecopal corrugated pipe

where :
: outer diameter
De
: inner diameter, which is greater than the minimum diameter indicated by the
Di
standard
: thickness of internal wall
e5
: welding thickness
e4
P
: spacing of the rib
L
: rib width
L1
: space between ribs
Ht: : rib height
Though values Di, Ht, P, L, L1, are within the standardization limits, they have been chosen
by the manufacturer based on ring stiffness.
The typical wave shape of the upper part of the rib, which is typical of diameters from
DN/OD 250 mm, gives the possibility to change the ring stiffness from SN 4 to SN 8 kN/m2
by acting on rib thickness. For diameters lower than DN/OD 250 mm, the sections
characteristics are slightly different as the spacing of the rib is too short for such a complex
structure and the wall thickness can not be decreased too much.

20

The UNI EN 13476 standard provides for the possibility to manufacture standardized pipes on
the outer diameter (series DN/OD) or on the inner diameter (series DN/ID). Starting from
2003, Polieco added to the standardized manufacture on outer diameters (from DN/OD 160
to DN/OD 1200) the standardized manufacture on inner diameters (from DN/ID 300 to
DN/ID 800).

3. 2 DIMENSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Table 3.1 shows information about the sizes of pipes belonging to class SN = 4 kPa, the
product most demanded on the Italian market. The SN value is higher than 4 kPa.

DN/OD
(mm)
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1200

Di
(mm)
176
218
273
344
427
533
690
853
1025

Ht
(mm)
12.0
16.0
21.0
28.0
36.5
48.5
55.0
73.5
87.5

P
(mm)
16.5
44.0
49.0
54.3
66.0
88.0
87.0
107.0
131.0

Table 3.1: Sizes of Ecopal class SN 4

The values for the inner diameter which were adopted for all classes of Ecopal are higher
than the minimum values provided for by UNI EN 13476 standard; this is due to the fact that
the different stiffness classes are obtained by modifying the rib thickness and not, such as for
other types of pipes, by changing the height and/or the spacing of ribs.
Changes in thickness, not affecting ring stiffness, are due to processing tolerances and
material shrinkage during cooling that occur in all types of polyethylene pipes.
The processing standards allowing to keep the inner diameter steady within the normal
shrinkage tolerances allow the designer to make the hydraulic calculations based on definite
and steady data.
Table 3.2 shows the guaranteed manufacturing values and their corresponding tolerances;
the limits provided for by UNI EN 13476 standard are given in brackets.

21

DN
(mm)
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1200

min - De - max
(mm)
198.8 200.6
248.5 250.8
313.2 316.0
397.6 401.2
497.0 501.5
626.3 631.9
795.2 802.4
994.0 1003.0
1192.8 1203.6

Di min
(mm)
176 ( 167)
218 ( 209)
273 ( 263)
344 ( 335)
427 ( 418)
533 ( 527)
690 ( 669)
853 ( 837)
1025 (1005)

e5
(mm)
1.1
1.6
1.9
2.1
2.8
3.3
4.1
5.0
5.0

Table 3.2: Dimensional tolerances for manufacturing.

3. 3 PRODUCTION
Ecopal production is based on a special co-extrusion technology which is shown in figure 3.3.

EXTERNAL
WALL

INTERNAL
WALL

COOLING
MANDREL

Figure 3.3: Production scheme of corrugated pipe.

The plant includes an extruder head with two concentric dies (where the term co-extruded
comes from) that release the material, and a group of moving dies (caterpillar movement)
that form the external corrugations.
In short, the manufacturing process includes the following phases:

22

9 the grains of polyethylene are conveyed from the storage bins to the hoppers placed
on the extruders. The extrusion capacity of the two extruders is different depending
on the amount of material used for the two walls; the inner wall corresponds
approximately to 2/5 of the pipe overall mass. The plant production capacity is 1200
kg/h with production speed from 3 to 0.3 m/min according to diameter.
9 the external die produces a pipe which is pushed and sucked by the dies so that the
fluid material rests on the internal wall of the die and takes the shape of the
corrugation.
9 the internal die forms the internal wall of the pipe by extruding a pipe with thickness
e5 whose circular shape and inner diameter are controlled by the cooling mandrel.
9 near the cooling mandrel, the corrugation, which is already formed but still at high
temperature, merges with the internal layer. This process allows to understand how
thickness e4 is different from the sum of the two walls. The extrusion speed and the
die feed speed are calibrated in order to ensure a homogeneous structure with
optimal geometrical parameters; the adjusting parameters (speed, die temperature,
vacuum degree, air pressure) are controlled by a software while vacuum and air are
controlled by special valves.
9 the pipe is first cooled by water cooled dies that keep a steady temperature. The pipe
is later water cooled and cut at the desired length at the section between the ribs.

The Ecopal technology differs from other similar technologies as there is no internal or
external stress caused by different temperatures which, on a long term, may cause
settlement, separation of layers or corrugation disbondment.

23

4. REFERENCE STANDARDS
The manufacture of Ecopal polyethylene corrugated pipe is subject to UNI EN 13476 standard
(Plastic piping systems for non-pressure underground drainage and sewerage - Structured-

wall piping systems of unplasticize poly(vinyl chloride), (PVC-U), polypropylene (PP) and
polyethylene (PE)) which was published in May 2007.
The standard is divided in three parts:
Part 1: General requirements and performance characteristics;
Part 2: Specifications for pipes and fittings with smooth internal and external surface
and the system, type A;
Part 3: Specifications for pipes and fittings with smooth internal and profiled external
surface and the system, type B.

The standard provides for three different types of structured wall pipes:
type A1: multilayer construction or hollow-wall construction with axial hollow sections;
type A2: hollow wall construction with spirally or radial formed hollow sections;
type B: ribbed or corrugated construction;
and three different plastic materials:
PE (polyethylene);
PP (polypropylene);
PVC (unplasticized polyvinyl chloride).

By examining the use of the different types of profiles mentioned by the standard, it can be
seen that:

type A1 (sandwich) profile is not often used with PE; it is typically used in PVC pipes
and is standardized only on the outer diameter;
type A2 is used for PE and PP pipes, with standardization on the inner diameter; this
is typically manufactured in Germany;
Type B is a more general profile and is used for resin pipes: for PVC pipes the typical
section is with full rib while for PE and PP the co-extruded or applied hollow rib.

Despite the directions of the standard, the pipes and related materials which are presently on
the Italian market are the following, mentioned in descending order of distribution:

corrugated pipes in polyethylene (profile B);

corrugated pipes in polypropylene (profile B);
spiral pipes in polyethylene (profile A2);
cell pipes in PVC (profile A1);
sandwich pipes in PVC (profile A1).

Based on the above, we will later describe the tests provided for by the UNI EN 13476-3
standard for polyethylene corrugated pipes.

24

4. 1 TESTS ON THE MATERIAL

The standard describes the characteristics of materials used to manufacture pipes and
fittings. Table 4.1 shows the tests to be made on polyethylene, together with prescriptions,
parameters and test methods.

Test parameters
Characteristic Value
Temperature
Density
(23 2) C
930 kg/m3
Melt flow rate MFR 1.6 g/10' Temperature
190 C
Loading mass
5 kg
Resistance to No failure
End caps
Type A or B
internal pressure during the test Number of pieces 3
period
Temperature
80 C
Circumfer. stress 4.0 MPa
Type of test
Water/Water
Test period
165 h
Temperature
80 C
Circumfer. stress 2.8 MPa
Type of test
Water/Water
Test period
1000 h

Characteristics Prescriptions

Thermal stability 20 minutes

Temperature

200 C

Test method

UNI EN ISO 1183

UNI EN ISO 1133
UNI EN 1167-1
UNI EN 1167-2

UNI EN 728

Table 4.1: Characteristics of materials of PE pipes and injection moulded fittings

4. 2 DIMENSIONAL AND APPEARANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The UNI EN 13476 standard offers the possibility to standardize the pipes either on the inner
or outer diameters: this means that the pipes can be manufactured with nominal inner or
outer diameters.
As regards the outer diameters, the production provided for by the standard ranges from
DN/OD 110 to DN/OD 1200 (12 different diameters) and from DN/ID 100 to DN/ID 1200 (13
different diameters) for inner diameters.
The standard prescribes the minimum sizes of the inner diameter, the internal wall thickness
and length of couplers/sockets.
As regards the appearance of pipes, the standard prescribes that:
visible surfaces of pipes shall be smooth, clean and free from grooving, blistering, visible
impurities or pores or any other surface irregularity;
pipe ends shall be cleanly cut square to the axis of the pipe.

25

As regards the practical applications in the yard, certainly more interesting are the three sets
of prescriptions that the standard provides for the finished product and which mainly regard
the following characteristics:
mechanical;
physical;
functional.
The aim of these tests is to simulate extreme critical situations that may occur during
installation in the yard in order to test how pipes behave.

4. 3 MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Table 4.2 shows the mechanical tests that need to be carried out on the pipes whatever their
material. The standard establishes that stiffness classes SN 2, 4, 8 and 16 kPa should be
tested according to UNI EN ISO 9969 standard. For the stiffness class SN 2 kPa, the diameter
must be greater than 500 mm.

Test parameters
Characteristics
than classification one
4, at 2 year extrapolation
Type, mass of stricker
Fall height
TIR 10%
Test temperature
Conditioning medium
See EN 13476
Deflection

Characteristics Prescriptions

Ring stiffness
Creep ratio
Impact strength
Ring flexibility

Values

Test methods

UNI EN ISO 9969

UNI EN ISO 9967
See EN
13476
UNI EN 744
(0 1) C
Water/Air
30% of dem UNI EN 1446

Table 4.2: Mechanical characteristics of pipes

The ring flexibility test made according to UNI EN 1446 standard, requires a 300 10 mm
long test piece is subject to deflection at a steady speed until the outer diameter reaches a
30% variation. During and at the end of the test, the test piece must show no breaks or
settling.
The aim of the test is also to check how pipes behave when they are subject to high loads in
the yard that may cause excessive deflection. Of course, the single bar resistance to these
deflections is guaranteed but not the hydraulic capacity of the pipe and, above all, the
watertightness of the entire pipe-coupler system. Figure 4.1. shows the test carried out by at
the internal laboratory of Polieco.

26

Figure 4.1: Test piece of corrugated pipe DN 315 with 30% deflection of outer diameter
The impact test consists in transmitting a corrugated pipe test piece an impact energy
caused by a beam falling from a predetermined height. Before the test, prepare a number of
pipe sections 200 (10) mm long and subject them to 25 blows along the equidistant lines
traced on the test piece. Before the test, the test pieces must be conditioned in a
refrigerating room for about two hours at (-10 2)C to keep them at 0C when moved from
the refrigerating room to the machine as according to the reference standard. The beam
weight varies from 1.0 kg (outer diameters of 160 mm) to 3.2 kg (outer diameters greater
than 315 mm). The beam falls from 2000 mm. At the end of the test, the test piece must
show no visible signs of settling or cracks that may let water penetrate from inside to outside
and vice versa.
This test allows to see how the pipe behaves in case of accidental drop of coarse material
during the backfilling stage when installation is made at low temperature.

4. 4 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Table 4.3 indicates the physical tests to be carried out on polyethylene pipes.

Characteristic

Oven test

Test parameters
Characteristics
Temperature
Pipe shall show no
Immersion time
delaminations,
Thickness 8 mm
cracks or bubbles
Thickness > 8 mm
Prescriptions

Values
(110 2) C

30 min
60 min

Test methods

ISO 12091

Table 4.3: Physical characteristics of PE pipes

The oven test, which is carried out according to ISO 12091 standard, consists in cutting a
test piece 300 ( 20) mm long and then cut it longitudinally in two to four identical parts
27

according to diameter. The sample is put into an oven for 30 minutes if the wall thickness is
lower than 8 mm or 1 hour if the wall thickness is higher than 8 mm at (110 2)C. Once
the sample is taken out the oven and cooled at room temperature, all defects, bubbles,
separations of layers or any other faults must be measured. The aim of the test is to see how
the outer pipe wall behaves in case of high temperature as it may occur in a yard during
summer.

4. 5 FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Table 4.4 indicates the functional tests to be carried out on plastic structured wall pipes. The
test, which is represented in figure 4.2, is carried out to evaluate the watertightness of the
system which is composed of a corrugated pipe, a jointing coupler and an elastomeric seal.
The standard (EN 1277), according to which the test is made, is the same as for PVC full wall
pipes.
The test is made at three different pressure levels:
0.05 bar corresponding to standard operation;
0.5 bar corresponding to a flow rate peak;
-0.3 bar corresponding to operation with groundwater.
In the first two cases, the test is made visually: after 15 minutes there must be no signs of
water leaks; in the third case, after 15 minutes the pressure measured by means of a
pressure gauge and displayed on a screen must not be lower than 10% compared to the
initial test pressure.
Characteristics

Tightness of
elastomeric ring
seal joint

No leakage
No leakage
- 0.27 bar

Test parameters
Characteristics
Temperature
Spigot deflection
Socket deflection
Water pressure
Water pressure
Air pressure

Test methods
Values
(23 2) C EN 1277
Cond. B
10 %
5%
0.05 bar
0.5 bar
- 0.3 bar

No leakage
No leakage
- 0.27 bar

Temperature
Joint deflection
De 315
315 < De 630
630 < De
Water pressure
Water pressure
Air pressure

(23 2) C EN 1277
Cond. C
2
1.5
1
0.05 bar
0.5 bar
- 0.3 bar

Prescriptions

Table 4.4: Performance requirements

28

Figure 4.2: Watertightness test on DN/OD 500 polyethylene corrugated pipe

Tests are made not only on aligned pipe sections but also in the case of:
a different diameter deflection (equal at 10% of the pipe and 5% of coupler);
an angular deflection of the system which may vary, depending on diameter, from 1 to
2 to which a value for the angle determined by the pipe manufacturer must be added.
Polieco ensures 1 more degree for all diameters compared to those provided for by the
standard.
The functional tests simulate any irregularity which may be present during installation at the
yard such as incorrect alignment of bars or a different load on the pipe and the coupler.

4. 6 CONTROL MARKING

Control marking of pipes is in compliance with the EN 13476-3 standard. In particular, the
following elements must be mentioned on each pipe:
standard number;
nominal diameter (DN/OD or DN/ID)
name or mark of manufacturer;
class of stiffness (indicated by SN);
ring flexibility (RF30);
material (PE or PP);
code of application area (code U for applications outside buildings);
month, year and factory of manufacture;
product marks from several Italian and foreign certification agencies (PIIP, UNI IIP, MPA,
ELOT, ONORM, CSTB, AENOR, KIWA, TSUS, ITC etc..).
Marking can be printed directly on the pipe or applied by labels provided that they are
readable as according to type a (durable even when in use).

29

4. 7 PRODUCTION CERTIFICATES AND QUALITY MARKS

Production of Ecopal is checked by our Polieco internal laboratory in compliance with EN ISO
9001:2008 standard. For each type or batch of pipes Polieco draws up an inspection report of
the finished product that includes the test results of:

dimensional checks (made on inner diameter, outer diameter and e5 internal wall
thickness);
resistance to deflection according to EN ISO 9969 for determining ring stiffness;
flexibility test with 30% deflection and checking the absence of defects and cracking;
resistance to impact and checking the absence of cracking or breakage;
heat test with detection of defects and separations of layers.

The other tests to be made according to the standard are carried out on a regular basis and
are part of the production documents. The frequency of the tests has been agreed with the
Certifications Institutes that every six months or every year visit the company to check for
Ecopal production.
Over the years, in addition to the mark of the Istituto Italiano dei Plastici (PIIP, UNI IIP),
Ecopal has also obtained the following certifications:
- CSTBat French mark;
- German MPA-DA mark;
- AENOR Spanish mark;
- KIWA Dutch mark;
- ONORM Austrian mark;
- TSUS Slovak mark;
- ITC Czech mark;
- ELOT Greek mark.
These certifications are necessary as Polieco has decided to export its products to other
European countries.

4. 8 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Designers, contractors, public or private customers who have to prescribe or buy a pipe for
sewer systems must draw up comprehensive specifications to identify the characteristics of
the desired pipe which include, in addition to the prescriptions on raw materials, the other
parameters which are typical of the pipe.
The typical specifications for structured wall pipes such as Ecopal standardized on the outer
diameter is the following.

High density polyethylene co-extruded twin-wall pipe, smooth and violet

internally and corrugated and black externally for not under pressure
underground sewer pipes manufactured in compliance with the EN 13476-1 type
B standard, certified by the PIIP mark issued by the Istituto Italiano dei Plastici
30

(Italian Institute for Plastic Materials) stiffness class corresponding to SN 4 (or 8)

kN/m2, produced in 6 or 12 meter bars with jointing by means of a HDPE
coupling, PIIP/a and IIP UNI mark and EPDM lip seal.
The pipe must be manufactured by ISO 9001:2008 and ISO 14001:2004
(environmental certification) certified company.
Nominal outer....................minimum inner diameter ID.......................( to

the minimum as according to reference standard)

SN ring stiffness measured on product test pieces according to EN ISO 9969
Resistance to abrasion tested in compliance with EN 295-3 standard
Watertightness of jointing system certified at 0.5 bar under pressure and 0.3
bar negative pressure for 15 minutes according to EN 1277 standard
Marking according to the standard, including: trade-mark name, UNI/IIP mark
and standard reference, P IIP mark and standard reference, nominal diameter
(DN/ID), stiffness class, ring flexibility, material, profile type, application area
code, day/month/year, hour/minute of manufacture
Other quality marks required:
CSTBat French mark
AENOR Spanish mark
ELOT greek mark
TSUS Slovak mark
Colour scheme registered under number 001602269

31

SECTION 5. CALCULATIONS
5. 1 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS

5. 1. 1 HOW TO CALCULATE PIPE FILLING FLOW RATE

To calculate the flow rate of a pipe operating with a free water surface flow, the steady
motion formula is generally used and in particular, the Chzy formula:

v = R i
where
v
medium speed of fluid in m/s;

coefficient of conductance which depends on relative roughness /R, on Reynolds (Re)

number and on the section shape;
R
hydraulic radius defined as the ratio between the surface of the flow section (A) and
the profile of it touching the channel (P);
i
slope in m/m.
In the case of a circular pipe, A and P, which are shown in figure 5.1, are expressed by the
following formulae:
A=

1 2
h
h
arccos1 sen 2 arccos1
r
2 90
r
r

arccos1
P = r
r

90

Figure 5.1: Geometrical sizes for flow rate calculation

In the case of deflection of plastic pipes, the resulting ellipsoid area decreases compared to
the area of the initial circle; the perimeter being unaltered, the hydraulic radius decreases
proportionally. Hydraulically speaking, a deflection within the admitted limits of 56% is
32

negligible for flow resistance. Therefore, it can be reasonably said that flow parameters are
unaltered even in the case of small deflections.
In the case of a eddy flow, the coefficient of conductance does not depend on the Reynolds
number and can be expressed by empirical formulae for which this coefficient is related to
the coefficient of roughness and the hydraulic radius.
Among all the formulae, those mostly used are:
a) Bazin

B =

87

1+
R

b) Gauckler-Stricker

GS = K S 6 R
where e KS are parameters connected with pipe roughness.
Therefore:
v B = B R i

v GS = GS R i
In practice, the choice of one formula instead of another is of minor importance than the
definition of roughness. To define this parameter refer to section 5.1.3.

5. 1. 2 HOW TO CALCULATE FULL PIPE FLOW RATE

In sewer systems, it is sometimes necessary to also test the pipes under pressure such as in
the case of flow rate peaks, heavy rain, traps used for crossovers or outlet pipes of pumping
systems.
In this case, the flow resistance per unit of length of pipe is expressed by the following
formula:
J=

v2
2gD

The dimensional friction coefficient depends on the relative roughness of the pipe and the
Reynolds number. In the case of eddy flows, the coefficient is generally expressed by the
Prandtl-Colebrook equation:

33

 2,51
k
+
= 2 log
3,71 D

R e

where:
Re = v Di/
Di
v

Reynolds number;
inner diameter in m;
medium speed in m/s;
kinematic viscosity of the fluid at operating temperature (for water it varies
from 1.5210-6 m2/s to 5C and from 0.66110-6 m2/s to 40 C).

For sewer systems, except in special cases, the density used is = 999 1000 kg/m3 and
kinematic viscosity = 1,142 10-6 m2/s (corresponding to 15 C).
Based on the two above-mentioned formulae, the speed can be calculated by the following
formula:

k
v = 2 log
3,71 D i

2,51
2 g D J
+
i
D i 2 g D i J

Therefore flow rate is:

Q=

v D i2
4

5. 1. 3 PIPE ROUGHNESS
In the hydraulic field, one subject for discussion has always been the roughness value to be
applied in the formulae for calculating the flow rate mentioned in the preceding sections.
When the material is new, the roughness characteristics are unimportant; as time passes by,
a biological slime layer grows on the bottom and the walls of the pipe which, together with
deposits, determines the hydraulic roughness of the piping system. The increase of
roughness due to the use, which occurs in all materials, depends on organic substances
adhering to the pipe walls and, above all, on flow rate speeds.
Each manufacturer declares its pipes are smooth with very low roughness. Table 5.1 shows
a partial example of different values for coefficient k, which are supplied by several sources.

34

Material

Steel
Cast iron
Cast iron with bitumen or cement coating
Plastic materials in general
HDPE
New centrifuged cement
New smooth cement
New coarse cement
Stoneware
Old pipes

Minim value
(mm)
0,01
0,01
0,03
0,01
0,007
0,03
0,2
1
0,1
2

Maximum value
(mm)
0,1
1
0,2
0,1
0,5

0,5
2
1

Table 5.1: Variability of roughness coefficient

By examining the table we can conclude that even for the same materials there are different
points of view and the values are often suggested without indicating their application limits
and without considering natural aging and deterioration of operating pipes. The designer
should therefore correctly consider the operating conditions and, above all, in case of a
comparison among several materials, choose homogeneous sizes.
The same variability can be found in the international regulations:
Austria: OWWV - R5 (Directives for sewer hydraulic calculation):
k = 0.4 1.0 mm for long pipes;
k = 1.0 mm for long conveying pipes;
k = 1.5 mm for normal pipes
Switzerland: SIA 190 and Doc. 38 Ducts
k = 0.1 mm for smooth plastic pipes;
k = 1.0 mm for rough cement pipes
France: Instructions techniques relatives aux rseaux d'assainissement des agglomerations.
The Bazin formula is used, with k between 0.16 and 0.46 mm
England: Code of Practice CP 2005, Sewerage
It provides the Charts for the Hydraulic design of Channels and pipes with k =
0.00360 mm. The designer is responsible for choosing the value.
Germany: ATV 110, k = 0.25 mm for rainwater and linear sewer systems and k = 0.5 mm for
sewer systems with foul wastewater or sewer systems with manholes or special
components, it being understood that the localized flow resistance must be added
when calculations are made.
By keeping in mind the prescriptions of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
and Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF), the values of roughness parameters
suggested for sewer systems are indicated in table 5.2.
35

Material

Concrete with smooth formworks

Concrete with rough formworks
Brick masonry
Concrete pipes
Stoneware pipes
Plastic pipes
Cast iron pipes
Asbestos cement pipes

Colebrook
(mm)
0.3 1.5

Gauckler-Stickler
1/3 1
KS (m s )
90 70

1.5 6

70 60

0.3 3

90 67

Table 5.2: Coefficients of roughness

The table below shows the predefined values of Gauckler-Stickler KS parameter used by the
calculation programme MOUSE by the Danish Hydraulic Institute to simulate the hydraulic
behaviour of sewer systems. This calculation programme separately measures flow resistance
when inspection manholes, merging and direction change are present.

Material

Smooth concrete
Normal concrete
Rough concrete
Stoneware pipes
Plastic pipes
Cast iron pipes
Asbestos cement pipes

Gauckler-Stickler
1/3 1
KS (m s )
85
75
68

80
70

Table 5.3: Coefficients of roughness used by the software MOUSE

POLIECO supplies a calculation programme Ecocalc for speed and flow rate calculation
according to Bazin and Gauckler-Stickler formulae and depending on the filling percentage
and slope of pipes. The programme uses a precautionary value for the coefficient of
roughness of Gauckler-Stickler which is equal to Ks = 80.

5. 1. 4 SLOPE AND FILLING DEGREE OF PIPES

The pipe slope is strictly connected with the ground natural slope and must remain close to
its value in order to limit excavations. Slope should also consider the following factors:
sewers driven by gravity;
height of discharge level into the final receiver;
minimum distance between the top of the pipe and the lower generating line of the
36

pipes for water supply to the drinking water service of at least 30 cm (as specified in
the Circular of the High Council for Public Works. no. 11633 of January 1974).
The minimum and maximum limits of the slope to be given to the pipe are directly connected
with the fluid speed inside the pipe: it is important to check that with a minimum flow rate
the speed is such to allow the pipe self-cleaning and with a maximum flow rate the speeds
are not too high that may cause abrasion of the internal surface of the pipe.
According to the Guide for design of wastewater collection and treatment plants issued by
the Ministry of Environment and Protection of Territory (2001), the minimum slope must be
3 and the minimum speed calculated with an average flow rate must not be lower than
0.5 m/s, this value is also indicated by the above-mentioned Circular of the High Council for
Public Works. If this value cannot be reached, suitable cleaning systems must be arranged in
the network. According to the UNI EN 724-4 standard (Sewer connections and manifolds
outside buildings Hydraulic design and considerations on the environment) manifolds
whose diameter is lower than 300 mm will have a minimum slope of 1/DN or a minimum
speed of 0.7 m/s that has to be reached at least once a day.
As to the maximum speed, the above-mentioned Circular issued by the Ministry indicates that
the relative speed for peak flow rates must not be higher than 4 m/s.
The minimum diameters are also indicated: the Circular of the High Council for Public Works
indicates that the minimum diameter for mixed or rainwater sewers is 300 mm and 200 mm
for wastewaters.
As to the filling degree of the pipe, a sufficient clearance must be kept in order to allow free
circulation of air: the above Guide for design states that for the project flow rate the
clearance must not be less than:
50% of diameter if it does not exceed 40 cm;
20 cm if diameter is between 40 cm and 1 m;
20% of diameter if it exceeds 1 m.

37

5. 2 STATIC CALCULATIONS

Beside the hydraulic tests, flexible pipes must be subject to static tests. In particular, as
already mentioned, it must be checked that the selected pipe laid according to the project
instructions is not subject to excessive deflection.
Pipe stiffness generally depends on the native ground, the embankment material in the area
surrounding the pipe and its compaction, the covering height, the load conditions and the
pipe limits.
The pipe stiffness can be chosen using the schedules of the experimental standard UNI ENV
1046 (Plastic pipes and ducts Water feeding systems and sewers outside buildings
Instructions for underground and outside installation) or with structural calculations as shown
in the following pages.
Table 5.5 indicates the minimum stiffness suggested for pipes installed in traffic
depending on the embankment material and the coving thickness.

Embankment
material
group

Class of
compaction2

1
2
3
4

W
W
W
W

4
-

1
2
3
4

W
W
W
W

2
-

Pipe stiffness1
Undisturbed native ground group
2
3
4
5
For covering thickness 1m and 3m
4
6,3
8
10
6,3
8
10
**
10
**
**
**
**
For covering thickness > 3m and 6m
2
2,5
4
5
4
4
5
8
6,3
8
10
**
**

areas

**
**
**
**
6,3
8
**
**

1) Specific ring stiffness

2) W (good) maximum class of compaction
**) structural project needed to determine the trench details and the pipe ring stiffness

Table 5.5: Minimum ring stiffness suggested for traffic areas

Soils are divided in three types (granular, cohesive and organic soils) and six sub-groups as
shown in table 5.6. Organic materials (group 5 and 6) must not be used as backfilling.

38

Soil
group

Type of soils

1
granular
soil

granular
soil
cohesive
soil
organic
soil
organic
soil

3
4
5
6

Name
Example
Single-size gravel, highly screened gravel, Crushed rock, river gravel,
mix of gravel and sand, mix of poorly- morainic gravel, volcanic
screened gravel and sand.
ashes
Dune sand and alluvial
Single-size gravel, mix of sand and gravel, deposits, morainic gravel,
mix of poorly-screened gravel and sand.
coast sand

Gravel with silt, gravel with clay, sand

with silt, sand with clay, poorly-screened
mix of gravel, silt and sand
Inorganic silt, fine sand with silt and clay,
inorganic clay.
Organic silt, clayish organic silt, organic
clay, clay with organic mix
Peat, other highly organic soils, sludge

Gravel with clay, sand with

soil, alluvial clay
Soil, alluvial marl, clay
Superficial layer, tufa sand,
sea limestone, mud, soil
Peat, sludge

Table 5.6: Types of soils

The class of compaction is defined depending on the compaction degree expressed in Proctor
(SPD) reference density according to the different types of materials, as shown in table 5.7.

Class of
compaction
N (not)
M (moderate)
W (well)

4
7580 %
8189 %
9095 %

Embankment group
3
2
7985 %
8489 %
8692 %
9095 %
9396 %
96100 %

1
9094 %
9597 %
98100 %

Table 5.7: Proctor index for the different classes of compaction

Two other methods are later described which are used for the static tests on the pipe: the
Spangler method and the method provided for by ATV German standard.

39

5. 2. 1 SPANGLER METHOD
The analysis of flexible pipe-soil structural system has been developed at the University of
Iowa, by Spangler and Marston. Based on the later studies made by Barnard and others, the
Spangler formula has been changed into the universally known formula used to calculate the
flexible pipe deflection.
The modified Spangler formula is the following:
Deflection = (load on pipe)/(pipe stiffness + soil stiffness):
and is calculated with the following formula :
v =

(d1 p o + p t ) K X
8 SN + 0,061 E '

where:
v
deflection, in m
d1
self-compacting factor (1.5 for moderate compactions and 2 for medium compactions
with limited covering height)
soil load, in N/m
po
load due to traffic, in N/m
pt
bedding factor
Kx
SN long-term ring stiffness, for diameter, in Pa
E'
secant modulus of soil, in Pa
The formula does not contain the data concerning the trench which affect the calculation of
the load. In the case of a narrow trench excavation (B < 3De and B < H/2), the ground load
weighing on the pipe unit of length can be calculated by the following formula:
p0 = C t De B

in N/m

where:
C
coefficient of ground load
t
specific weight of filling material weighing on the pipe, in N/m3
De
pipe outer diameter, in m
B
width of excavation measured on the top of the pipe, in m
In the following formula
C=

2K H

1e
2 K

where:
H
covering height measured on the top of the pipe, in m

coefficient of friction between the filling material and the excavation sidefill material
K
(1 sin)/(1+ sin) = Rankine coefficient, where corresponds to the internal angle
of friction of the embankment.

40

 changes depending on the type of soil as is shown in table 5.8.

35
30
25
20

Type of soil
non cohesive soil
slightly cohesive soil
mixed cohesive soil
cohesive soil

Table 5.8: Data on coefficient

In the case of wide trench or embankment, the total load weighing on the pipe (prism
load) is expressed as:
p0 = t De H

Figure 5.1: Elements for calculating deflection

The surface load pt includes load Qs caused by the structures resting on the trench
(foundations, walls, etc.) and load Qt caused by traffic. The formula is derived from the
Boussinesq theory through which the vertical stress caused by a surface load in any point
under the surface:
5

3Q
1

z =

2
2
2 H
1 + r

H
where:
41

z
Q
H
r

=
=
=
=

vertical stress, in Pa;

total surface load = Qt + Qs, in N
covering height, in m
horizontal distance from load point, in m

The stress is also distributed on a width corresponding to the horizontal diameter of the pipe
and of a unit length. The Pt unit load is then:
pt = z De

in N/m

In the case of a punctual load applied on the pipe vertical line, with a maximum stress, r = 0
and so the unit load for length unit is

pt =

3 Q De
2 H2

in N/m

The punctual loads Qt caused by traffic are shown in table 5.9.

Load class

Heavy traffic
Medium traffic
Light traffic
Cars

Total load
Q (kN)
600
450
300
120
60
30

Load per wheel

Q (kN)
100
75
50
20
20
10

Table 5.9: Punctual loads from traffic

The pt load can be permanent or occasional; generally, it is considered as permanent though
practically speaking, it should be considered as occasional (except in case of a car park) and
so able to cause elastic reactions such as stress and deflection. In fact, the traffic load can
result in settling caused by cyclic stress (which, in stiff pipes, may turn into fatigue failure)
and not for overcoming of allowable stress and deflection. Considering the Qt load as
permanent like in the formula, is a matter of safety for plastic materials.
As you can see from the formulae, the load pt decreases with the square of the covering
depth and it is therefore prevailing compared to ground load with covering heights lower
than 1.5 2 m. Table 5.10 and the diagram in figure 5.2 show an example of how ground
loads, traffic loads and total loads change depending on the covering height. As it can be
seen, the effects of traffic load decreases as covering increases.
The following data have been considered:
- Ecopalp pipe diameter:
800 mm
- stiffness class:
SN 4 kPa
- trench width:
1.8 m
42

sand ( = 17.2 kN/m3; = 0.75; K = 0.25; = 0.33)

Qt = 100 kN

- filling:
- traffic load:

H (m)
Po (kN)
Pt (kN)
Ptot (kN)

0.5
6,5
153
159

1
12
38
51

2
23
10
32

3
31
2,2
35

4
37
2,4
40

5
43
1,5
44

6
47
1,1
48

7
51
0,8
52

Table 5.10: Loads depending on covering height

Diagramma dei carichi = Load diagram
Copertura = Covering
Carichi = Loads

DIAGRAMMA DEI CARICHI

180
Po
Pt
Ptot

160
Carichi (kN)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0,5

3
4
Copertura (m)

Figure 5.2: Diagram of loads depending on covering height

The formula used to calculate deflection contains the section modulus of soil or secant
modulus, E' = e r where e is the module of elasticity of soil and r is the pipe radius. E' is
a constant for all pipe diameters and depends on the type of soil and its compaction degree.
The classification generally used for defining this material is the same as used by the ASTM
2487 American standard shown in table 5.11.
The lower values in the table are generally used for calculating the initial deflection as
compaction is greater on a long and medium term due both to pedestrians crossing the
excavation area and the soil self-compaction under its weight. For the long-term deflection
the (lag factor) dl is applied. In any case, we need to consider that the compaction degree,
and so E', increases in time.

43

Material in
bulk
PROCTOR INDEX
RELATIVE DENSITY
TYPE OF SOIL
Small particle size soil LL > 50
Medium and high plasticity soils
Small particle size cohesive soil LL>50.
Medium and low plasticity soils with less
than 25% of coarse particles
Small particle size soil LL>50.
Medium and low plasticity soils, with more
than 25% of coarse particles.
Coarse particle size soils with more than
12% of fine particles
Coarse particle size soil with less than 12%
of fine particles
All-in aggregate (crushed rock)
Accuracy in terms of difference between
calculated and real deflection (in %)

Compacted material

< 85% 8590% > 95%

< 40% 4070% > 70%
E (N/mm2)
0
0
0
0.35
(careful analysis recommended)

0.35

1.38

2.76

6.9

0.69

2.76

6.9

13.8

0.69

6.9

13.8

20.7

6.9

20.7

20.7

20.7

2%

2%

2%

0.5 %

Table 5.11: Values of the soil section modulus.

The formula used by the Ecocalc software contains as a load multiplier p (total load) a steady
increment factor of the load itself, the deflection constant, corresponding to 1.5. ASTM
applies only to p0, the lag factor corresponding to 1.5 but suggests to use 2 in case filling
is made with loose materials.
Kx, the bedding factor, which is contained in the numerator of the deflection formula is
connected with the supporting angle as shown in figure 5.3. The values of the constant Kx,
are shown in table 5.12.

Angle 2
Kx

0
0.110

90
0.096

120
0.090

180
0.083

Table 5.12: Values of bedding factor depending on the supporting angle.

As the angle increases, the value of the constant, and so the deflection, decreases. Kx values
can be interpolated linearly. The decrease of deflection between 2=0 and 2=180 is 24.5%.
For all flexible pipes (but also for stiff pipes for which support is very important) it is
advisable to create a bedding to reach a supporting angle between 90 and 120. The
maximum support can be obtained by careful compaction of sidefill up to 30 cm above the
top of the pipe.

44

Figure 5.3 Identification of supporting angle

45

5. 2. 2 METHOD ATV-DVWK-A 127E

The most complete calculation method used for static tests on sewer pipes in Europe is the
method suggested by ATV-DWK-A 127 E (Static Calculation of Drains and Sewers) which was
developed in August 2000. This method takes into account all the situations that may be
encountered in practice: the various types of materials used for covering, the compaction
conditions of the material covering the pipe and the backfilling. It follows a description
relating to the formulae used to calculate deflection and buckling pressure.
The linear deflection of the pipe dv is calculated with the following formula:
d v =
where:
cv
qv
qh, qh*
SR
2rm

c v ,qv q v + c v ,qh qh + c v ,qh* q*h

SR

2rm

coefficient of deflection;
vertical load from ground load, from the load of any static load on the soil and
from the dynamic load from traffic;
side loads;
pipe stiffness;
medium diameter of pipe.

The percentage deflection v can be calculated as follows:

v =

d v
100 in %
2 rm

The aim of the calculation is to check if the long-term deflection is lower than the 6% limit
indicated by ATV.
The vertical load qv is calculated by the following formula:

q V = PG p E + p V = PG ( B h + 0 p 0 ) + p V
where:
PG
, 0
B
h
p0
pv

in kN/m2

concentration factor around the pipe depending on the trench width compared to
the pipe (suitable for a narrow trench);
reduction factors from the theory of the storage bin;
specific weight of ground surrounding the pipe, in kN/m3;
covering height, in m;
static load on the soil, in kN/m2;
load from traffic, in kN/m2

46

The side pressure qh is calculated by the following formula:

d

qh = K 2 B p E + B e in kN/m2
2

where:
qh
K2
B
pE
B

pressure due to the presence of material on the pipe sides;

constant that compensates the different approaches to the linearization of
experimental data which take into account the system stiffness;
concentration factor that takes into account the ratio between the trench width
and the pipe diameter;
vertical pressure caused by surface loads;
specific weight of ground in kN/m3.

The side pressure of reaction of bedding qh* is calculated as follows

q*h =

c h,qv q v + c h,qh qh
VRB c *h,qh

in kN/m2

where:
VRB =

SR
con SBh = 0,6E2
S Bh

Ch1,Ch2 coefficients of deflection depending on the supporting angle;

stiffness of the system which is given by the ratio between pipe stiffness and the
VRB
horizontal stiffness of bedding;

correction factor of the horizontal stiffness of bedding.

Beside deflection tests, sometime also the resistance to buckling needs to be tested or the
pipe burst pressure; in particular, this must be done when the pipe is free, as in the external
plants where the pipe head is free or when cement agglomerates are used during the initial
phase of pipe covering.
The safety factor for analysing pipe stability is given by the ratio between the critical buckling
pressure and the vertical load:
crit q v
=
qv
where:
crit q V = 2 v 2 S R S Bh
Instability tests are much more important in the case of external pressure due to the
hydrostatic head of groundwater. In this case, the safety factor is calculated as follows:
crit p e
=
pe
where:
47

crit p e = e D S R
ove D is the penetration coefficient, depending on values VRB and rm/s as shown in figure
5.4.

Figure 5.4: Penetration coefficient

The external water pressure is the hydrostatic pressure for the pipe axis
pe = w hw
The simultaneous action exerted by the vertical load and the water external pressure allows
to define the coefficient of safety depending on buckling, which is calculated by the following
formula:
1
=
pe
qv
+
crit q v crit p e

In high density polyethylene pipes, the coefficient must be higher than 2.5.

48

5. 2. 3 METHOD ATV IN Ecocalc PROGRAMME

Here below a guide to the use of the spreadsheet calculation of Ecocalc: it indicates all the
variables that must be introduced in the programme, their dimensions, their units of measure
and notes (if any). The example concerns the pipes series DN/OD; these same indications
also apply to Ecopal pipes standardized on the inner diameter.
1. Outer diameter, in mm
DN
De

160
160

200
200

250
250

315
315

400
400

500
500

630
630

800
800

1000
1000

1200
1200

Table 5.13: Outer diameters of pipes

2. Moment of inertia of wall, in cm4/cm
DN 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1200
J4
0.050 0.138 0.254 0.523 1.009 1.984 4.069 7.823 15.376
J8 0.030 0.058 0.275 0.552 1.107 2.007 4.034 8.460 15.942 28.557

Table 5.14: Moments of inertia of pipes

J4 and J8 refer to the pipes classified with nominal stiffness SN 4 and SN 8 kN/m2
respectively. The moments of inertia have been measured based on the real production
profile.
3. Covering height of pipe on top of the pipe, in m
The German ATV standard does not indicate the covering height for static loads while the
minimum covering height for dynamic loads is 0.6 m, as according to EN 1295/2 and EN
1046 standards. The French standard Number 70 indicates 0.8 m as the minimum value.
4. Trench width near the upper pipe top, in m
The calculation programme indicates that the maximum width of the trench must be four
times the outer diameter of the pipe and assumes vertical excavation walls.
5. Supporting angle at excavation bottom, in degrees
For Ecopal we suggest using 180. This value is used for a filling of at least 30 cm on the
top of the pipe and with a workmanlike compaction.
6. Road loads, in kN
Three types of motor vehicles are considered, which are classified according to the weight
and bearing area of wheels, as shown in table 5.15.

49

Standard
vehicle

HLC 60
HLC 30

Full
load
kN
600
300

HGV 12

120

Load per wheel

kN
100
50
40 rear
20 front

Bearing area per wheel

Width in m
0,6
0.4
0.3
0.2

Length in m
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2

Table 5.15: Road loads according to the type of vehicle

7. Module of elasticity, in N/mm2
ATV provides for two options to calculate deflection: one is based on the module of
elasticity of the material and the other is based on the nominal stiffness of the concerned
pipe. The programme Ecocalc is based on the first option. The module of elasticity is the
ratio between the stress applied and the deflection in the linear part of the deflection.
According to ATV, the value of high density polyethylene is 800 N/mm2 on a short term
and 200 N/mm2 on a long term (50 years). As to polypropylene with a high module of
elasticity, a value such as 300 N/mm2 can be used on a long term.
8. Load uniformly distributed on the pipe, in kN/m2
The loads which are distributed uniformly on the pipe are due to the accumulation of
loose materials or temporary buildings.
9. Groups of soils
The filling soils are classified in 4 groups (G1 to G4) as set out in table 5.6 above. The
module of elasticity of each group depends on the degree of compaction and the internal
friction angle of the ground. Table 5.16 shows the specific weights, the friction angle and
the secant modulus ES for the different groups depending on the degree of compaction of
the soil.
Modulus ES according to Proctor index in
N/mm2

Groups
of soils

Specific
weight
kN/m3

Friction
angle

85%

90%

92%

95%

97%

100%

G1
G2
G3
G4

20
20
20
20

35
30
25
20

2.0
1.2
0.8
0.6

6
3
2
1.5

9
4
3
2

16
8
5
4

23
11
8
6

40
20
13
10

Table 5.16: Secant modulus depending on the type of soils

Soils are classified depending on their position with respect to the pipe:
E1: covering ground on the pipe;
E2: filling soil surrounding the pipe;
E3: existing soil near the covering ground surrounding the pipe;
50

E4: soil under pipe bedding.

Figure 5.5 shows the different types of soil.

Figure 5.5: Identification of the different types of soil

10. Backfilling conditions
The backfilling conditions are four (from A1 to A4) and are characterized by the
different ways of filling the trench on the pipe.

A1
A2
A3
A4

Description
Backfilling is compacted in layers on the natural soil without checking the degree
of compaction. It is also used when portable sheet piles are used.
Vertical covering sheet piles of the trench which are progressively extracted
during filling. Backfilling is not compacted. Washing-in of the backfill (suitable for
soils of Group G1 only).
Vertical covering sheet piles of the trench extracted after compaction.
Backfilling is compacted in layers on the existing natural soil and degree of
compaction is checked as provided for by ZTVE-StB. Backfilling condition A4 is
not applicable to soils of Group G4.

Table 5.17: Types of backfilling.

11. Condition of covering soil (soil surrounding the pipe).
The conditions of the covering soil are four (from B1 to B4) and are characterized by
different stratifications around the pipe.

51

B1
B2
B3
B4

Description
The material is compacted in layers without measuring the degree of
compaction.
Covering made by means of sheet piles and compaction made after their
removal.
Covering made by means of sheet piles and compaction made before their
removal.
The material is compacted in layers on the natural soil and degree of compaction
is measured. This condition is not applicable to soils of Group G4

Table 5.18: Types of covering soils.

5. 2. 4 EFFECTS OF TRENCH ON DEFLECTION

All methods used to calculate a deflection in a pipe subject to external loads are based on
one key element: the trench width. In the same conditions, the lower the trench width the
higher the resistance to deflection of a pipe subject to loads.
By convention, the value of trench width is measured near the upper pipe top. If there is no
heavy stress, deflection in flexible pipes occurs on the horizontal surface through the axis
where the supporting reaction takes place, which is due to backfilling and the trench walls.
Nevertheless, reference is made to the upper pipe top for the sidefill to be taken into
account, in terms of side pressure, which is distributed along the entire height of the pipe.
As regards the trench classification, the ATV standard indicates as 4De the limit between a
narrow trench and a wide trench or embankment; they have also been defined as shown
below:
narrow trench
wide trench
embankment

B < 3De < H/2

3De < B < 10De< H/2
B 10De > H/2

The deflection change is not depending on trench width. In particular, the calculation for a
wide trench/embankment leads to values which are higher both than those corresponding to
B = 4De and B = 10De. The concept on which this limit is based which also involves a
different calculation, is that for distances a number of times greater than the pipe diameter
the trench side is not reacting together with the backfilling while the load of the surrounding
soil is exerted which can be compared to a hydrostatic load. Practically speaking, it is
assumed that the only reaction comes from the horizontal component of the weight of the
surrounding soil.
Figure 5.6 clearly shows how the excavation width affects deflection, conditions being equal.
In this case, we have examined an Ecopal DN/OD 800 pipe placed 2 m deep and subject to
heavy loads; the covering material used is the same excavation material (G3). As the trench
width is increased, the percentage deflection increases with an asymptotic trend. If the
material surrounding the pipe (G3) is replaced with a material of a better quality (G1), the
deflection decreases as the trench width increases.
52

Deformazione vs trincea = Delfection vs trench

Larghezza trincea = trench width
Deformazione = deflection

DEFORMAZIONE vs TRINCEA
6

Deformazione (%)

5
4
3
2
1
0
1

1,25

1,5

1,75

2,25

2,5

2,75

Larghezza trincea (m)

Figure 5.6: Effects of the trench on deflection

5. 3 BENDING RADIUS AND BENDING MOMENTS

To calculate the bending radius, it can be assumed that thickness reacting at the bending
moment is the welding thickness of the two walls (e4); in this case, the minimum bending
radius can be determined as shown below:
R=

E Dm
2

where:
R
= bending radius, in m
E
= module of elasticity of the material, in Pa
Dm(e4) = average diameter, in m

= applied stress in, in Pa.

The theoretical bending radii so obtained are 13 to 14 times the diameter. It is important to
point out that the rib does not allow to reach the theoretical value. R values generally
suggested for Ecopalare 40/50 diameters.

5. 4 OVERHANGING PIPES

In overhanging pipes the distance of supports has to be fixed to avoid the maximum
deflection is exceeded in time. As polyethylene is a viscoelastic material, the part of
overhanging pipe is subject to deflection in time; therefore, it is necessary to calculate the
53

deflection value generated during operation, based on the distance from supports and the
creep modulus of elasticity modulo di elasticit a scorrimento. The distance between the
supports may also change depending on the heat conditions of Ecopal.
Deflection is calculated on an Ecopal pipe fixed at its ends and subject to a load distributed
uniformly which is represented by the weight of the fluid being conveyed. The deflection
obtained on the centre line is expressed with the following formula:

f max =
where:
Wtot =
l
=
=
Ec
J
=

1 Wtot l 4
384 E c J

in mm

full load weighing on the pipe, in N/mm

distance between supports, in mm
flexural module of elasticity, in N/mm2
transversal moment of inertia of the pipe, in mm4/mm

The deflection value adopted should not be higher than 3% of the distance between
supports. Supports must always be placed near the connecting couplers or the slip couplers
so that the pipe can freely move.

54

SECTION 6. SPECIAL FITTINGS AND MANHOLES

The system Ecopal is completed by a wide range of special components and manholes to be
matched with corrugated pipes. At the end of 2003, Polieco was certified UNI EN ISO
9001:2008 not only for pipe manufacture but also for "design and manufacture by moulding
of special components and PE manholes ".
The special components are manufactured from pipe welding or injection moulding. The
physical, mechanical characteristics and performances are mainly the same as those already
indicated for pipe by UNI EN 13476 standard.
Polieco pays a special attention to couplings. Ecopal
system has no saddles which, because of the
structure and the rib shape, do not ensure a good
watertightness; a coupling kit has therefore been
developed which is composed of an EPDM seal and
a coupling socket. This particular system has been
developed to avoid small tees and/or branches
which imply the exact knowledge of the coupling
position beside being very expensive. Thanks to
this system, couplings can also be made after the
main pipe has been laid.
As regards manholes, Polieco manufactures three different types of manholes:
9 moulded bottom manholes
9 manholes from pipe
9 moulded tees

The moulded bottom manholes are composed of an EPDM circular section moulded base

from rotomoulding. Five types of bases are available depending on the base geometry, the
diameters of inlet and outlet pipes and the rise diameter:
3 inlet manhole, ID 400 for diameters up to OD 200;
line manhole, ID 600 for diameters up to ID 300:
3 inlet manhole, OD 630/800 for diameters up to ID 300;
line manhole, OD 1000/1200 for diameters up to OD 630;
3 inlet manhole, OD 1000/1200 for diameters up to OD 500.

Each base has a cone truncated structure or a bell in its upper part which receives a coupling
extension represented by an Ecopal corrugated pipe. The jointing between the base and the
rise can be made by means of a seal or by welding.
The upper part of the DN/OD 1000-1200 moulded base manholes can be made with a EPDM
reduction cone obtained by rotomoulding and engaged on the coupling extension to taper
the manhole up to DN 600 mm for the crawl space. A to the internal wall of the manhole. A
ladder with polyethylene uprights and polyethylene steel-covered posts can be welded on the
internal wall of the manhole.
The DN/OD 1000-1200 moulded base manholes are composed of the following elements:
55

 DN 1000-1200 moulded base

half manholes prepared for connection with inlet
and outlet pipes
a strip-shaped seal placed between the moulded
base and the coupling extension
coupling extension composed of a DN/OD 1000
or DN/OD 1200 polyethylene corrugated pipe
sealing ring placed between the coupling
extension and the conical adapter DN/OD 1000
or DN/OD 1200
conical adapter DN/OD 1000 or DN/OD 1200

As requested, the base sent to the yard has the

hole and the half coupler already welded. The
connection between the moulded base and pipe is
the same as the connection between pipe and pipe
to ensure a perfect watertightness of the entire
sewer system, manholes included.
The moulded base manhole is assembled as follows:
1. connection between inlet/outlet pipe and moulded base: the pipe must be pushed until it
reaches the inner beat of the manhole;
2. installation of the strip-shaped seal on the truncated cone of the moulded base;
3. installation of the coupling extension on the base until it rests completely on it;
4. insertion of the seal into the internal space between the last two ribs of the coupling
extension;
5. installation of the conical adapter until it reaches the beat.

Manholes obtained from pipes are composed of corrugated polyethylene pipes suitably cut

and welded. The manhole may have a plain bottom in the case of a through pipe or it may
have a flat bottom. In the first case, fins made of polyethylene plates inclined by 8 to the
horizontal line are inserted into the manhole. The manhole bottom is composed of a
polyethylene plate which is welded on its internal wall with a different thickness depending
on the depth of laying. If the manholes are custom-made, there are no limits to the throughpipe diameter and any type of manhole can be made according to the engineer drawing (L
manholes, jump manholes, manholes with several inlets). In this case too, the end of the
manhole can present a rotomoulded EPDM conical adapter engaged on the coupling
extension for taping the manhole up to DN 600 mm. A ladder with polyethylene uprights and
polyethylene-covered steel posts may be welded on the internal wall of the manhole.
In the last few years, the use of a special tee obtained from rotomoulding and used as a
manhole is widespread on the European market. This manhole with spigots on three sides,
is available from DN/OD 630 to DN/OD 1200. In this case too, the upper part equipped with
a spigot is connected to the rises of corrugated pipe and the conical adapters (for diameters
DN/OD 1000 and DN/OD 1200).
The use of polyethylene manholes offers the following advantages:
creation of an integrated sewer system of the same material equally resistant to
abrasion and chemical agents contained in wastewater;
56

lightness for easier transport, storage and laying at the yard;

absolute watertightness thanks to seals connected to through pipes;
possibility for manholes to be made on the engineer drawing (angular manholes,
jump manholes, manholes with several inlets);
easy and fast laying;
fast supply especially for moulded base manholes;
easy to assemble at the yard;
possibility to connect pipes made of different materials (smooth PE, PVC, stoneware).

Compared to concrete manholes which are commonly used for sewer systems, polyethylene
manholes offer the following advantages:
higher resistance to abrasion for a longer life of the manhole;
higher resistance to acids and solvents: the polyethylene used for the manhole can resist
to waters with a wide range of pH, such as domestic wastewaters, rainwater, surface
water and groundwater. As to industrial wastewater, the pipe can resist to most chemical
products and solvents;
lower weight for easier and faster handling and laying at the yard; this allows to reduce
the final time required for installation and above all, the risk of accidents;
high versatility which enables to make a wide range of manholes (jump manholes, L
manholes, manholes with several inlets).
For vehicular traffic, we suggest using concrete load distribution plates. These plates, on
which the cast iron drain covers rest, transfer the overloads caused by vehicular traffic to the
sidefill compact ground around the manhole and not directly onto the rise or the conical
adapter.

6. 1 REFERENCE STANDARD
Over the last few years, the European Commission has produced the standards on plastic
manholes. In particular, the EN 13598 standard, divided in two parts according to the rise
diameter and the manhole applied:

Plastic piping systems for non-pressure underground drainage and sewerage - Unplasticized
poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC-U), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE)
Part 1: Specifications for ancillary fittings including shallow inspection chambers
Part 2: Specifications for manholes and inspection chambers in traffic areas and deep
underground installations.
The UNI EN 13598-1 standard was approved in September 2003, and the UNI EN 13598-2 in
January 2009.
In December 2005, Polieco obtained, first company in Italy, for DN/OD 630/800 moulded
base 3 inlet manholes, the certification from the Istituto Italiano dei Plastici for compliance
with the first part of the standard. The UNI EN 13598-1 standard applies to manholes with
the following characteristics:
- maximum depth of 1.25 m;
- inner diameter of riser lower than 800 mm;
- non roadway applications.
57

As for the standard on pipes, a number of tests must be carried out to check the mechanical,
physical and functional characteristics of manholes. Table 6.1 indicates the mechanical tests
for moulded bases as provided for by the UNI EN 13598-1 standard.

Characteristics

Prescriptions

Stiffness of riser
No cracking, stiffness
shaft
0,7 kN/m
Vacuum
requirement for
resistance to ground
and water pressure
when installed
Horizontal deflection
not to exceed 6%.
Deflection of cover
Resistance to
shall conform to
vertical loading
clause 4 of EN 1253
standard
No cracking

Test parameters
Parameters
Values

Test
method

Shall conform to EN ISO 9969

EN ISO 9969

Temperature
(232)C
Test length
100 h
Negative internal -0.3 bar
pressure

Force per class L

15 kN

EN 1277

EN 1253-2

Table 6.1: Mechanical characteristics of manholes

As regards the rise resistance, the resistance to deflection required is higher than 0.7 kN/m2;
for Polieco manholes, a SN 4 corrugated pipe is normally used which is higher than 4 kN/m2.
It is to be pointed out the watertightness test at 0.3 bar which the moulded base must be
subject for 100 hours. Table 6.2 shows the functional tests the polyethylene moulded base
manholes must undergo. As for structured wall pipes, the jointing between the pipe and the
manhole is subject to three different types of pressure:
0.05 bar corresponding to a standard operation;
0.5 bar corresponding to a peak flow rate;
-0.3 bar corresponding to operation with groundwater.

Characteristics

Prescriptions

Watertightness

No leakage
No leakage
- 0.27 bar

Test parameters
Test method
Parameters
Values
Temperature
(23 2) C EN 1277
Spigot deflection
Cond. B
10 %
Socket deflection
5%
Water pressure
0.05 bar
Water pressure
0.5 bar
Air pressure
- 0.3 bar

Table 6.2: Functional characteristics of manholes

58

6. 2 FLOTATION TEST
Plastic manholes installed in soils with groundwater are subject to an upward thrust equal to
the volume occupied by water. It is therefore necessary to make a flotation test though the
special characteristics of moulded bases (higher base circumference, rise composed of a
corrugated pipe and the conical adapter with a large supporting surface) ensure the manhole
stability.
The manhole stability is also ensured by other factors which should not be taken into
consideration during the test:
9 the weight of the load distribution slab and the drain cover;
9 the manhole own weight;
9 the presence of inlet and outlet pipes which must be cut or removed before the
manhole floats;
9 the ground friction on the external surface;
9 the ground weight on the horizontal projection.
In manholes, just like foundations, as depth increases the load is transferred on a larger
surface.
Below a description of the flotation test made on
a DN/OD 1200 moulded base manhole, 2 m high,
where the sidefill has a specific weight of 21000
N/m3.
As a precaution, it was supposed that:
the groundwater level reaches the soil
surface;
the friction angle is 16 (actually, the
backfilling material to be used, sand or
gravel, is between 25-34);
the manhole is empty.
The hydrostatic thrust is due to the weight of the
water volume which is equal to the manhole
volume; so
volume of conical adapter:
0.19 m3
rise and base volume:
1.56 m3
therefore, the hydrostatic thrust is 17.5 kN

The stabilizing forces are respectively due to:

the soil weight on the horizontal projection
5.39 KN
the soil weight inside the corrugations
0.8 KN
the weight of the surrounding soil cone
34.9 KN

The coefficient of safety due to the ratio between the stabilizing forces and the hydrostatic
thrust is:
W/S=2,35 (>2)

59

SECTION 7. USE AND INSTALLATION

A correct installation is, together with the quality and characteristics of the material, one of
the key aspects of the final results. This section describes different types of connections of
Ecopal pipes (couplers and seals or welds), the general instructions for correct installation
and instructions for making tests.

7. 1 CONNECTION BY COUPLERS

The characteristics of jointing couplers manufactured by Polieco (length and thickness) are in
compliance with the UNI EN 13476 standard. These are high-density polyethylene products
made by injection moulding up to DN/OD 630 and by rotomoulding starting from DN/ID 600.
The most important geometrical element of the coupler is the inner diameter which must be
in compliance with the outer diameter of the Ecopal pipe. Polieco coupler lengths are
remarkably higher than those provided for by the standard. This allows the insertion of at
least 2-3 ribs on each side to ensure the pipe concentricity. A second sealing can also be
added at each end to improve watertightness.
The seal is made based on a special drawing by Polieco using EPDM, a material ensuring
high resistance to chemicals contained in wasterwater and which can be compared to that of
polyethylene. The seal must be installed between the first two ribs (between the second and
the third rib for Ecopal up to DN/OD 200) after the pipe end with the lip turned in the
direction opposite the insertion. The lip directed outwards not only ensures tightness from
the inside to the outside but can also resist to infiltrations caused by groundwater.
The special shape and position of the seal and the coupler length ensure that the seal is
neither damaged during installation nor an angular deflection occurs which may cause
several deflections and consequent leaks.
Insertion must be made after the coupler inside has been lubricated. This operation must be
carried out using levers or by applying a steady thrust or axial pulling and making sure that
connection is correct and the seals and/or the coupler are not damaged.

7. 2 CONNECTION BY WELDING

One advantage of Ecopal pipes is that connection can be made by butt welding. The space
between ribs and the length between the ribs allow proper welding. Welding being a delicate
operation, it must be carried out by qualified and authorised welders. Do not forget that butt
welding is used to seal the pipe but does not ensure a geometrical stiffness comparable with
that of the coupler because the real thickness is lower than that of the smooth pipe having
an equal ring stiffness.

60

Welding technologies and machines are the same used for polyethylene smooth pipes;
also, times and pressures are the same used for welding pipes with small thickness (PN
2.5 or PN 3.2). Each supplier of welding equipment supplies a table indicating the
recommended times and temperatures.
One cycle which is often used is the one described below:
visual formation of the weld with (0.5+0.1e4)
1. pre-heating:
mm height
t2 = 15 e4, in s
2. heating:
t3 < 3 + 0.01 Di, in s
3. disc removal:
t4 < 3 + 0.03 Di, in s
4. achievement of welding pressure:
t5 > 3 + e4, in s
5. welding:
:
t6 = complete cooling, depending on thickness
6. cooling
and external temperature
Heating must be made carefully in order to avoid heating the rib. The Italian UNI 9737
standard provides for prescriptions for classification and qualification of welders of plastics
for gas pipes, which can obviously be used for all types of pipes. This standard, together with
the instruction manual of the Istituto Italiano della Saldatura (Italian Welding Institute)
Welding Polyethylene can be used as a guide for correct use of this technology.

7. 3 NO-LOSS SEALING RING

As universally known, the weak point of all sewer systems made up of any type of material is
the jointing point. The jointing system of polyethylene corrugated pipes, besides allowing to
use 6 to 12 m bars and so reduce the number of seals remarkably, is extremely simple and
reliable: once the seal is inserted into the seat between the last two corrugation grooves,
the coupler has to be pushed until it reaches the internal beat. Despite the whole jointing
system is certified and hydraulically tested according to reference standards, accidents may
occur that may compromise the watertightness of the system.
The efficacy of the jointing system may be affected by human errors, unsuitable choice of
materials or filling methods by installers or by ground settlement around the pipe. As a
result, a few days after installation, leaks or infiltrations may appear in the watertightness
system. Leaks at the jointing points may cause serious environmental problems. In the case
of domestic and industrial wastewater, the presence of leaks from inside the pipe to the
outside leads to a serious risk of pollution of the soil and groundwater. In the case of a white
water system (rainwater from roofs, roads and car parks), leaks may cause localized
settlements near the pipe with effects on the upper areas.
If instead there is a groundwater infiltration from outside to inside the pipe, in case of mixed
sewer systems there may be an increase in flow rate to the water conditioning plant and a
reduction of pollution loads. This may cause malfunctions of the water conditioning plant,
especially as to its conditioning capacity. This may result in a worst quality of loads dumped
into surface waterbodies.

61

In both cases, there may be serious consequences for the environment. Do not
underestimate the fact that these two phenomena may occur simultaneously within a sewer
system. Polieco R&D department has studied and tested a solution to solve all of these
problems: the no-loss seal. The no-loss seal ensures the system watertightness every
time the EPDM seal is not enough. The no-loss seal increases three times its volume when
comes in contact with water and occupies the entire space between the pipe corrugations
and the coupler internal wall. At the same time, it prevents groundwater to come in contact
with the seal and penetrate the pipe.
The no-loss seal is composed of a rectangular weld made of hydrophile rubber which is
placed within the space between the second and the third corrugation of the corrugated
pipe. This rubber section does not exceed the pipe outer diameter and so it is not an
obstacle for the coupler to be assembled. Figure 7.1. shows a no-loss seal positioned
between the second and the third corrugation.

Figure 7.1: Positioning the no loss seal.

The figures on the side show how the no-loss seal
works after being mounted on the pipe and plunged
into water. The seal starts to swell during the first
hours in contact with the liquid and reaches its
maximum volume before 24 hours.
The no loss seal keeps its characteristics
unaltered even if constantly plunged into water.
The same thing occurs for load-unload water
cycles: if the no loss seal is dry and is plunged
into water it swells until it reaches its maximum
volume.

62

The system composed of a corrugated pipe/seal EPDM/no loss seal is available for
polyethylene corrugated pipes with outer diameter from DN/OD 160 to DN/OD 800 mm
(series DN/OD) and inner diameter from DN/ID 300 to DN/ID 800 mm (series DN/ID). The
hydrophile rubber section swells as the diameter increases, as it depends on the space
between the corrugations. The no loss seal is cut, installed on its seat between the pipe
corrugations and glued at the factory; it is also protected so that it can not swell if it comes
in contact with water or external humidity during transport. At the yard, the installer must
simply remove the protection, install the EPDM seal and the coupler.

7. 4 INSTALLATION AND LAYING

This section describes how to install and lay the polyethylene corrugated pipes for sewer
systems. It is important to point out that transport, installation and laying procedures are not
dissimilar from those of other plastic pipes.
In particular, the following documents are referred to:
- Technical standards on pipes included in the Ministerial Decree of Public Works dated 12

December 1985;
- Circular issued by the Ministry of Public Works no. 27291 dated 20 March 1986;
- UNI EN 1610 standard (Construction and testing of sewer connections and manifolds)
dated November 1999.

7. 4. 1 PIPE TRANSPORT AND ACCEPTANCE

Ecopal pipes are transported like all other standard pipes. Because of their reduced weight
and considerable ring stiffness, the pipes can be piled up.

Pipes up to diameter DN/ID 500 mm are generally

supplied on pallets while starting from diameter
DN/OD 630 mm to diameter DN/OD 1200 mm are
supplied loose.
Upon receipt, the pipe must
compliance with the supply as
specifications and contractual
acceptance must comply with the
for by the supply specifications or
conditions.

be checked for
according to the
conditions. Pipe
directions provided
the special general

All pipes, joints and special components must be

delivered to the building yard with the corresponding
markings or labels indicating the manufacturer, the
nominal diameter and the class of usage. Upon demand, Polieco supplies the reports with the
results of the tests carried out by the internal laboratory on raw materials and finished
product.

63

The acceptance tests made on pipes, joints and special components carried out internally for
production are regularly made according to the reference standard and what has been
agreed with the certification organisms.

7. 4. 2 UNLOADING AND STORAGE AT THE YARD

Loading, transport, unloading and all
operations must be made with great care
and using appropriate means according to
the pipe type and diameter and by adopting
all the necessary measures to avoid bursts,
cracks or other damages.
Avoid impacts, deflections or excessive
projections, sliding, contacts with other
parts that may damage or deflect the pipes.
The yards must be equipped with the
suitable means and supporting surfaces to
rest the pipes, the special components and
fittings that need to be installed. Unloading must be carried out either directly with the entire
pallet or individually depending on how the pipes are transported.
When corrugated pipes are used, avoid hooks on the pipe ends and always use non-abrasive
belts or hemp ropes.

7. 4. 3 PIPE PILING-UP
The pipes must be piled up by putting them
on a flat and stable surface protected from
the risk of fire and from the sun if the pipes
are subject to deflection caused by
temperature changes. The pile base must
rest on well spaced out
boards or a
supporting bed. The pile height depends on
the pipe diameters in order to avoid
deflections on the pipe base and for easier
handling. The piled-up pipes must be
blocked with wedges to prevent rolling.
Moreover, protective measures must be
adopted to avoid the pipe heads are
damaged. The first layer of pipes resting on
the ground must rest on a uniform surface to avoid deflections and damages to the pipe
external surface.
Until the moment when they are used, joints, seals and material in general must be stored
in closed spaces and inside boxes protected from the sun or other heat sources, away from
64

oils or grease and must not be put under loads. To extract the pipes follow the same
procedures as for unloading and transport and avoid sliding.

7. 4. 4 EXCAVATIONS
The European standards give extremely clear instructions on how to make excavations for
laying sewer pipes.
The first recommendation is that the specification should suggest using a narrow trench
whose width is 2 to 3 times the diameter, at least up to 1 m above the upper pipe top. The
walls, at least in this area, should be vertical and sufficiently stable (stability can be ensured
by means of proppings or sheet piles) to protect the persons who work inside the excavation.
The sheet piles must be immediately removed after partial embankment and before
compaction. In the case of an embankment or large trench, we suggest that a contrast area
to the covering material is prepared to restore a narrow trench.
Limits are put to the minimum size of the trench: according to the directions of UNI EN 1610
standard (Construction and testing of sewer and manifolds), the minimum width must be
the highest value among those shown in table 7.1 e 7.2.

DN

225
225 < DN 350
350 < DN 700
700 < DN 1200

Minimum trench width (OD + x) in m

Non reinforced trench
Reinforced trench
> 60
60
OD + 0.40
OD + 0,40
OD + 0.50
OD + 0.50
OD + 0.40
OD + 0.70
OD + 0.70
OD + 0.40
OD + 0.85
OD + 0.85
OD + 0.40
OD + 1.00
OD + 1.00
OD + 0.40

Table 7.1: Minimum trench width according to the DN nominal size

Trench depth

Minimum trench
width in m

< 1,00
1.,00 p 1.75
1.75 p 4.00
p > 4.00

not required
0.80
0.90
1.00

Table 7.2: Minimum trench width according to trench depth

If two or more pipes are laid in the same trench, according to the standard a minimal
horizontal distance is required between the two pipes:
- 0.35 meters up to DN 700 included;
- 0.50 meets for pipes higher than DN 700.

65

7. 4. 5 BEDDING
As according to the above-mentioned Ministerial Decree, once the pipes, joints and special
components have been carefully checked and the damaged ones have been replaced, the
pipes can be put in place. To lift and lay the pipes into the excavation, on a relief or
supports, follow the same procedures as for the previous operations and make sure the pipe
surfaces are not damaged. To do so, use suitable means according to the pipe diameters.
When laying the pipes, make sure no foreign matters or debris enter inside the pipes and
that the inner surface is not damaged.
First check that the bed is flat and levelled and remove any projection that may damage the
pipes. If you need to prepare a bedding or use for the first embankment materials other than
those coming from the excavation, remove the materials that may damage the pipe during
laying. Never adjust the pipe position inside the trench using stones or bricks or other
unstable supports. The bedding surface must be stable and in those parts where ground
settling is expected, use suitable joints or treat the trench bottom.
If the excavation bottom is made of soft material, without stones or hard debris, the Ecopal
pipe can be installed directly on the excavation bottom, provided the gradient is correct.
Generally speaking, a sand bed or small size gravel bed should be prepared, avoiding sharp
edges and that the rib top rests on the excavation ground. According to UNI EN 1610
standard, the bedding thickness must not be thinner than:
- 100 mm in normal grounds;
- 150 mm in stone or hard ground.
Pipes damaged during laying should be repaired or replaced if hardly damaged.

7. 4. 6 INSTALLATION
Ecopal is generally connected to couplers after it has been laid on the excavation bottom.
Because of its lightness, it can also be connected outside the excavation and then laid on
the bottom. In all cases, the ends of pipes and special components to be connected, and also
the seals, must be cleaned before jointing. Moreover, every time a 6 or 12 m bar is laid and
connected, its slope and alignment must be checked.

During laying, special attention should be paid to expansion though the Ecopal pipe has a
remarkably lower expansion (around 50%) than polyethylene full wall pipes. In theory, when
couplers are connected, pipe displacement could occur; to avoid it, block the pipe with partial
filling every 3040 m and complete filling, after you have controlled any possible movement,
in the early hours of the day.
If filling is correct, there will be no longitudinal movement as the compacted ground around
the ribs prevents pipe expansion.

66

7. 4. 7 FILLING THE EXCAVATION

This is a very delicate operation for the installation of sewer pipes. Filling without correct
compaction has negative effects on both stiff and flexible pipes.
Compaction made without taking the necessary measures may result in burst; during
television inspections made after installation, cement, stoneware and PVC manifolds were
completely destroyed even before their use.
Regardless of the type of pipe to be installed,
for a long-lasting and correct installation follow
the instructions below:

1)

choose the correct backfilling: the

material must be dry, with low grading,
without sharp edges, stones or debris at
least in the part which comes in contact
with the pipe and at least up to 30 cm
over the pipe.

2)

careful compaction: compaction must be

carried out in 30 cm thick successive
layers using suitable equipment at least
up to one metre over the upper top of the pipe. A good compaction should have a
Proctor index equal to 9092 %. The first sidefill layer must be higher than the pipe
semidiameter to prevent the pipe from raising or it may be required to block the pipe
temporarily during compaction. According to the German standards, after filling the
excavation with suitable material up to 1 metre
over the top of the pipe, the same excavation
material can be used to complete filling.
3)

regular compaction: avoid discontinuous

compaction to prevent pipe misalignment and
excessive strain on the joints or abnormal
bending of the pipe body.

4)

compacting means: up to one metre above the

top of the pipe, compaction must be carried
out with light-duty means while normal means
may be used over 1 metre. Be careful when
using heavy-duty vehicles for compaction if the
effects of the dynamic load on the underlying
pipe have not been calculated.

Table 7.3, taken from UNI ENV 1046 standard, shows the maximum thickness values
recommended for the layers and the number of passages required to obtain the compaction
classes according to the equipment used and the backfilling around the pipe. It also shows
the minimum thickness values recommended for covering the pipe before the suitable
equipment is used on the pipe.

67

Compaction
method

Number of passages for

different compaction
classes

Thickness after compaction for

different ground classes, m

W
M
N
Group
1
(good) (medium) (without)

Minimum
thickness before
compaction
m

Group
2

Group
3

Group
4

Groups
1-4

Manual sledge
15 kg

0.15

0.10

0.10

0.10

0.20

Vibrating tup
70 kg

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.35

Flat vibrator
50 kg
100 kg
200 kg
400 kg
600 kg

4
4
4
4
4

1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
0

0.10
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40

-0.10
0.15
0.25
0.30

--0.10
0.15
0.20

---0.10
0.15

0.15
0.20
0.25
0.35
0.50

Vibrating roll
15 kN/m
30 kN/m
45 kN/m
65 kN/m

6
6
6
6

2
2
2
2

0
0
0
0

0.35
0.60
1.00
1.50

0.25
0.50
0.75
1.10

0.20
0.30
0.40
0.60

-----

0.60
1.20
1.80
2.40

6
6
6
6

2
2
2
2

0
0
0
0

0.15
0.25
0.35
0.50

0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40

-0.15
0.20
0.30

-----

0.20
0.45
0.60
0.85

0.25

0.20

0.20

--

1.00

Vibrat. double roll

5 kN/m
10 kN/m
20 kN/m
30 kN/m
Heavy triple roll,
without vibration
50 kN/m

Table 7.3: Recommended thickness for layers and number of passages for compaction

7. 4. 8 LAYING PIPES WITH GROUNDWATER

Laying pipes with groundwater must be carried out when the excavation bottom is dry in
order to ensure the creation of the bedding and the correct slope. To remove the water in
excess and lay the pipes well-point systems are required.
As you may guess, Ecopal like other types of plastic structured wall pipes, has a floatation
thrust when plunged into the water. Filling must prevent floatation or failure of walls. The
grading of backfilling must be such as to prevent the particle migration to the surrounding
ground or vice versa. Migration may be avoided by applying a suitable fabric filter (geotextile
membrane).

68

7. 5 HYDRAULIC TESTING

According to the UNI EN 13476 standard, the Ecopal pipe-coupler system resists to 0.5 bar
pressure and 0.3 bar pressure at 23 C for 15 minutes. These conditions are also
guaranteed in the case of a diametrical deflection (10% of the pipe and 5% of coupler) or an
angular deflection of the system (which varies from 2 to 1 according to diameter).
In any case, it is necessary to make sure that no initial remarkable deflections occur during
filling and compaction. It is always advisable to make a hydraulic test on the installed pipe.
The test must be carried out according to the Italian UNI EN 1610 standard (Construction
and testing of sewer connections and manifolds). The standard provides for the possibility to
make the water test (method W) or air test (method L): the choice of the method must
be indicated by the engineer.
For the air test, the test equipment is composed of a number of rubber balloons which must
stuck to internal wall of the pipe, one compressor, one pressure gauge connected to a
detector with a diagram. The test consists in placing two watertightness balloons for closing
the downflow section upstream and downstream the section which is being tested. One
balloon is equipped with a through valve for air filling into the pipe, which is connected to an
external recording and detection device. The standard provides for four test methods (LA,
LB, LC and LD) each characterized by an increase in test pressures and a decrease in test
times. Table 6.4. indicates test pressure, pressure drop and test times for air testing for
impregnated concrete pipes and for all other materials.

po
p
Test time (min)
mbar mbar DN 100 DN 200 DN 300 DN 400 DN 600 DN 800 DN 1000
LA
10
2,5
5
5
7
10
14
19
24
LB
50
10
4
4
6
7
11
15
19
LC 100
15
3
3
4
5
8
11
14
LD 200
15
1,5
1,5
2
2,5
4
5
7

Table 7.4: Data concerning air testing

For testing, follow the instructions below:
9 for about 5 minutes, keep an initial pressure 10% higher than the test pressure
required;
9 adjust pressure to test pressure as shown in table 6.4;
9 check whether the drop measured after the test time is lower than p indicated in
table 6.4.
The pressure levels according to time are recorded and displayed on a screen and printed or
saved on a "time-pressure" diagram.
For the water test, the test pressure to be taken into consideration is the pressure which
corresponds or results from filling the test section up to ground level near the manholes
69

installed upstream or downstream with a maximum pressure of 50 kPa (0,5 bar) and a
minimum pressure of 10 kPA measured on the upper pipe top.
For testing, follow the instructions below:
9 fill the pipe until the test pressure required is reached;
9 wait for about 1 hour until the pipe is impregnated;
9 keep pressure within 1 Kpa of test pressure by adding water;
9 measure and record the total amount of water added to keep the water level
corresponding to the test pressure required;
9 check that the amount of water added in 30 minutes is not higher than

0.15 l/m2 for pipes

0.20 l/m2 for pipes including manholes
0.40 l/m2 for manholes and inspection chambers
where m2 refer to the wet internal surface.

70

Resistance of polyethylene to chemical substances

Swelling
Flow resistance
Ultimate elongation
Chemical agents
Acetic acid (10%)
Acetone
Amyl acetate
Aromatic acids
Benzoic acid*
Boric acid*
Bromidic acid (50%)
Butyl acetate
Butyric acid
Carbonic acid
Chromic acid (80%)
Citric acid
Dichloroacetic acid (100%)
Dichloroacetic acid (50%)
Fatty acids (higher than C6)
Formic acid
Glacial acetic acid (100%)
Glycolic acid (55-70%)
Hydrochloric acid (all concentrations)
Hydrocyanic acid
Hydrofluoric acid (40-70%)
Lactic acid (96%)
Maleic acid
Monochloroacetic acid
Nitric acid (25%)
Nitric acid (50-70%)
Oleic acid (concentrated)
Oxalic acid (50%)
Perchloric acid (20%)
Perchloric acid (50%)
Perchloric acid (70%)
Phosphoric acid (50%)
Phosphoric acid (95%)
Phthalica acid (50%)
Propionic acid (100%)
Propionic acid (50%)
Silicic acid
Solfidric acid (hydrogen sulphide)
Sulphochromic acid
Sulphuric acid (50%)
Sulphuric acid (98%)
Sulphurous acid

Good
< 3%
< 0,5 %
unchanged

Medium
3-8%
0,5 - 5%

Poor
> 8%
> 5%

decrease <50%

decrease >50%

Resistance to 20C
Good

Medium

Poor

Resistance to 60C
Good

Medium

(D)

(D)

(D)

(D)

(D)

(D)

Poor

(D)

71

Chemical Agents
Acetic aldehyde
Acetic anhydride
Acrylonitrile
Allyl alcohol
Alum
Aluminum chloride*
Ammonia*
Ammonium chloride*
Aniline
Antimony chloride*
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzyl alcohol
Borax*
Bromine
Butyl alcohol
Calcium chloride*
Camphor
Chlorobenzene
Chloroform
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Ethyl alcohol (96%)
Ferric chloride*
Furfuryl alcohol
Hydrogen dioxide (100%)
Hydrogen dioxide (30%)
Isopropyl alcohol
Ketones
Liquid and gaseous chlorine
Magnesium chloride*
Metoxybutyl alcohol
Petrol
Potassium bichromate (40%)
Seawater
Sodium benzoate
Sodium borate
Sodium carbonate
Sodium chlorite (50%)
Stearic acid
Succinic acid (50%)
Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur trioxide
Tartaric acid
Trichloroacetic acid (100%)
Trichloroacetic acid (50%)
Turpentine

Resistance to 20C
Good

Medium

Poor

Resistance to 60C
Good

Medium

(D)

(D)

Poor

72

Chemical agents
Aliphatic esters
Butyl glycol
Calcium hypochlorite*
Cresol
Decalin
Detergents
Dibutyl phtalate
Dichlorobenzene (para)
Dichloroethane
Dichloroethylene
Dichloromethane*
Diethyl ether
Dioxane
Epichlorohydrin
Essential oils
Ether
Fluorine
Formaldehyde (40%)
Gelatine
Glycerol
Glycol
Isooctane
Jam
Lye
Mercury
Methanol
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl glycol
Mineral Naphta (petrol)
Mineral oils
Molasses
Morpholine
Naphtalene
Oil of turpentine
Oleum
Paraffin oil
Petroleum ether
Phenols
Phosphates*
Potassium chloride*
Silver nitrate
Sodium chloride
Sodium hypochlorite*
Sodium nitrate*
Sulfuryl chloride
Thionyl chloride
Yeast
Zinc chloride

Resistance to 20C
Good

Medium

Poor

Resistance to 60C
Good

Medium

Poor

(D)

(D)

73

Chemical Agents
Vegetable and animal oils
Silicone oil
Phosphorus oxychloride
Ozone
Phosphorus pentoxide
Potassium permanganate
Oil
Pyridine
Polyglycol
Potassium hydroxide
Photographic detectors
Brine
Nickel salts*
Copper salts*
Syrups
Tallow
Sodium silicate*
Caustic soda (lye)
Metal sulfates
Carbone disulphide
Sodium disulphide*
Fruit juices
Carbon tetrachloride
Tetrahydrofuran
Tetralin
Tincture of iodine
Thiophene
Sodium thiosulfate
Toluene
Trichlorethylene
Antimony trichloride
Phosphorus trichloride
Triethanolamine
Steam
Vaseline
Xylol
Sulphur

Resistance to 20C
Good

Medium

Poor

Resistance to 60C
Good

Medium

Poor

(D)

(D)

* in solution
(D) diluted

74

Terms used in the manual and corresponding units of measure

ACRONYM
CEN
EN
ISO
UNI
DIN
ASTM
ATV

DESCRIPTION
NOTES
Europeam Committee for Standardization
indicates standards in progress
European Standard
International Standard
Italian Standard
German Standard
American Standard
Abwassertechnisches Vereinigung, German Technical Association for sewer systems
UNIT OF
MEASURE

SYMBOL
A

Surface

m2

Trench width

m
C

at the height of top of the pipe

-1

cT

Thermal expansion

Ground load factor

dl

Self-compaction factor

------

De, Di, Dm

Outer, inner, average diameter

m, mm

e4 , e5 , s

Ecopal pipe thickness

mm

applied to ground load

See profile
2

e [ground]

Ground modulus

Nm/m

e [hydraul]

Relative roughness

----

E
E
F,p
G

CORRESPONDENCE/ NOTES

k/Di

Module of elasticity of material

Secant modulus of elasticity of the
ground
Force Weight

N/mm

10,19716 kgf/cm2

kN/m2

1000 N/m2

kgf [forza]

1000 gf

Acceleration of gravity

Acceleration of gravity

9.80665 N
0.1019716 kgf

m/s

9,81
2

Unit flow resistance (hydr.)

m/m = 10 m/100 m = 103 m/1000 m

H, H

Total flow resistance (hydr.)

Filling height

= hL
4

from top of the pipe

109 mm4/mm ; 106 cm4/cm

Moment of inertia of wall

m /m

Hydraulic head

m/m = 102 m/100 m = 103 m/1000 m

k, kB

Absolute roughness

mm

Rankine coefficient

Kx

Bedding factor

=(1-sen/(1+z and cos

------

depending on

Length

1000 mm

Weight

kg [weight]

1000 g [m]

Work, moment

kgf m

9.8066 J

9.8066 Nm

Capacity

kW

1 kgf m/s

1.3596 CV

MFR

Melt Flow Rate [10-2,16][10,5]

g/10 min

MRS

Minimum required strength (PE)

10MPa

Melt flow index

min.req. strength ( kg/cm2) for
PE without considering the safety
coefficient

po

Ground unit load

N/m, kN/m

pt

Static load

N/m, kN/m

Traffic, products
75

SYMBOL
P

Pressure Stress

UNIT OF
MEASURE
kgf/cm2

CORRESPOND
SYMBOL
ENCE/ NOTES
98066 Pa
980.66 mbar

kgf/mm2

9.8066 N/mm2

98.066 bar

N/m2, (Pa)

1.0197 kgf/m2

110-5 bar

1.0197 kgf/cm2

10 N/cm2

9.8066 N/m

PN

Nominal pressure

bar
bar

Unit weight

kgf /m
3

3600 m3 / hour

Flow rate

m / sec

re ri rm

External, internal average radius

m, mm

Bending radius

Re

Reynolds number

----

Thickness

m, mm

t [English notation]

SN

Ring stiffness

kN/m2

EN,ISO EI / rm3

SR

Ring stiffness

kN/m2

DIN E I / Dm3 = 8 SN

Time

h = 3600 s

Temperature

F = C 9/5 + 32

Speed

m/s

Volume

m3

Linear expansion

y, Di

Deflection (absolute value)

m, mm

y , DiDi

Deflection (relative value)

[ ]amm

indicates that the acceptable value is used (as from project or standard)

[ ]24 [ ]50

Time index

Supporting half angle

Specific weight (p/V)

kgf /m3

10-3 gf /cm3

Density (m/V)

kg/m3

10-3 kg/cm3

Kinematic viscosity

m2 /s

cST = 10-4 m2/s

Stress (sigma)

N/mm2

10.19716 kgf/cm2

Flow resistance coefficient

----

(Moody diagram)

Friction coefficient between backfilling and undisturbed material

Internal friction angle

1000 l/s

Re= vDi /

min = 60 s

1000 l

[y / De]

9.8066 N/m3

ref. to backfilling

76