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12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.3.2
12.4.2
12.5.2
12.5.3
General............................................................................................................. 12-14
12.6.2
12.6.3
12.6.4
12.6.5
12.6.6
12.7.2
12-i
Hydraulic Fundamentals
12.1
INTRODUCTION
12.2
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
(12.1)
du
dy
(12.2)
(12.3)
Q = vdA =VA
(12.4)
where
v = velocity through infinitesimal area dA
V = mean velocity over the section
(i)
Continuity Equation
The differential form of the continuity equation in threedimensional fluid space, for either steady or unsteady, is
derived based on control volume shown in Figure 12.1,
with sides having length dx, dy and dz. Let the velocity
12-1
Hydraulic Fundamentals
F =
d
dt
dz
(u )
u +
dx
x
v
u o
dy
VV dA
(12.10)
dxdydz =
dxdydz
t
x
(12.5)
(12.6)
=
x
y
z
t
F =
V V dA
(12.11)
(u )
u dy dz u +
dx dy dz = t dxdydz
dx
Figure 12.1
u
w
V d +
F =O
(12.12)
F = Q (V out V in )
(12.13)
in which
F = vectorial sum of the component of all the external
forces acting on the water in the flow direction
Vout = flow velocity at the downstream cross section
Vin = flow velocity at the upstream cross section
(12.7)
(12.8)
Q = A1 V1 = A2 V 2 = A3 V 3
(12.9)
Momentum Equation
12-2
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Ke =
1
A
v
dA
V
(12.15)
K e1
V12 p 1
V2 p
+
+ z 1 + E m + E H =K e 2 2 + 2 + z 2 + hL
2g
2g
(12.14)
Figure 12.3
12-3
Hydraulic Fundamentals
12.3
Uniform or nonuniform,
V ) C
V 8g
V =C
RS
(12.16)
12-4
= 2 log
y
+ 0.88
y0
(12.18)
8g
f
C=
(b)
(12.19)
1 2 / 3 1 /2
R S
n
(12.20)
(a)
(12.17)
Re = 4VR/
Re
8
where,
(v
2.
3.
R1/6
n
(12.21)
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Figure 12.4
(c)
Specific-head Diagram
H=y +
V2
2g
(12.22)
q2
2gy 2
V c2
= 2 / 3H
2g
(12.25)
(12.23)
q = gy c3
=2
H=y +
q2
y c =
Vc =
gAc
K eBc
(12.26)
Discharge Diagram
q max = q (2 / 3H ) = gy c3
3
(12.27)
(12.24)
12-5
Hydraulic Fundamentals
H =K e
Figure 12.5
V2
Q2
+ y + z =K e
+y +z
2g
2gA2
(12.28)
dH
Q 2 dA dy dz
= 3
+
+
dx
gA dx dx dx
(12.29)
dH
Q 2B dy dy dz
=
+
+
dx
gA3 dx dx dx
Figure 12.6
12-6
(12.30)
q2
2
C y
dy
dx
2
2
1 q q
gy 3 C 2Y 3
o o
(12.31)
(12.32)
1 (C o / C ) (y o / y )
dy
= So
3
dx
1 (y C / y )
2
(12.33)
Hydraulic Fundamentals
1 (n / n o ) (y o / y )
dy
=So
3
dx
1 (y c / y )
2
10 / 3
(12.34)
1 (y o / y )
dy
=So
3
dx
1 (y c / y )
10 / 3
(12.35)
12-7
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Figure 12.7
Table 12.1
Class
Mild
Critical
Steep
Horizontal
Adverse
(ii)
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
=
<
<
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12-8
y:yo:yc
Type
Symbol
y > yo > yc
yo > y > y c
yo > y c > y
y > yo = yc
y < yo = yc
y > yc > yo
yc > y > y o
yc > y o > y
y > yc
yc > y
y > yc
yc > y
1
2
3
1
3
1
2
3
2
3
2
3
M1
M2
M3
C1
C3
S1
S2
S3
H2
H3
A2
A3
Hydraulic Fundamentals
L =
H
So S
(12.36)
Figure 12.8
y2
= 0.5 1 + 8F12
y1
1/2
(12.37)
H L =H 1 H 2 =
12.4
(y 2
y1 )
4y 1 y 2
(12.38)
12-9
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Figure 12.9
At the upstream end of a pipe there is a region of flow
development in which the boundary layer is developing
and the flow is technically nonuniform. Therefore the
velocity distribution changes from section to section.
12.4.1 Uniform Flow
Problems involving steady uniform flow in closed conduits
may be solved by the energy equation, (Equation 12.14)
which is written for two sections, 1 and 2 as follows,
assuming Ke = 1.00 :
V12 p 1
V2 p
+
+ z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 +HL
2g
2g
(12.39)
hf = f
L V2
D 2g
(12.40)
12-10
Hydraulic Jump.
= 2 log Re f 0.8
(12.41)
Hydraulic Fundamentals
1
f
= 2 log
D
+ 1.14
e
(12.42)
e
9.35
= 1.14 2 log +
D Re f
f
(12.43)
hL = K
V2
2g
Compound Pipe
V a2 p a
V2 p
+
+ z a = b + b + z b + hL
2g
2g 2 g
(12.45)
(12.44)
12-11
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Figure 12.10
(b)
Branching Pipes
1.
2.
3.
12.5
Branching Pipes
12-12
Continuity equation:
2q
y
y
V
+V
+y
= (i f )+ L
t
x
x
b
(12.47)
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Momentum equation:
2q V 2y 0
V
V
y
+V
+g
= (i f ) + L 1 +
+ g
t
x
x
b y
b y
(12.48)
Figure 12.12
q = y m
where
i = rainfall intensity
f = infiltration rate
qL= lateral inflow
= slope
0= bed shear
b = bottom width
= density
g = gravity acceleration
(12.50)
(12.49)
12-13
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Continuity equation:
y
y
V
+V
+y
=0
t
x
x
(12.51)
Momentum equation:
V
V
y
+V
+g
= 0 + g
t
x
x
y
(12.52)
(12.53)
= flow cross-section
= discharge
12.6
12.6.1 General
where,
A
qL
V =K
h
l
(12.54)
V = K
dh
dl
(12.55)
q
or
(a)
Plan
Rainfall Intensity,i
Q = AK
Runoff
dh
dl
(12.56)
where,
qL
Infiltration, f
(b)
Figure 12.13
12-14
X
Section A-A
Overland Sheet Flow
= Darcys velocity
= hydraulic conductivity
h/l
= hydraulic gradient
= distance
Hydraulic Fundamentals
vn =
V
n
(12.57)
where n = porosity.
This indicates that for a sand with a porosity of 33 %,
vn = 3V. To define the actual flow velocity, one must
consider the microstructure of the material.
Figure 12.15
Darcy Manometer
Figure 12.14
H =z + +
V2
2g
(12.58)
(b)
( + z )
z
(12.59)
Transient Flow
K ( )
+ 1
+
K ( )
K ( )
+
z
x
x y
y z
= C ( )
t
(12.60)
where C() is the specific moisture capacity /
In one-dimensional form (z-direction) the Equation 12.60
reduces to:
+ 1 = C ( )
K ( )
z
t
(12.61)
12-15
Hydraulic Fundamentals
+ K =
D
z z
t
(12.62)
P1
P
+ Z 1 2 + Z 2
q 12 = AK
Z1 Z 2
or = AK
h
Z
(12.63)
(12.64)
where,
q
K
A
h/Z
=
=
=
=
flow
saturated hydraulic conductivity
cross-sectional area of flow
hydraulic gradient
Figure 12.16
12-16
Hydraulic Fundamentals
2h 2
x 2
2h 2
y 2
2R S h 2
=
K T t
(12.66)
where
T
= Kh (Transmissivity)
= infiltration /recharge
= saturated conductivity
Saturated Flow
d
dr
(12.67)
Figure 12.18
h
Kh
+
x
x y
h
h
Kh
+R =S
y
t
(12.65)
(rw ) (R ) =
Qr
2B
re
rw
dr
R
+ ln
rK (r )
re
Qr
R
ln
2BK o
rw
(12.68)
(12.69)
12-17
Hydraulic Fundamentals
qo
Q
x r ln x 2 + y 2
K
4T
qo
Q
y
y
tan 1
k
2T
x
(12.70)
(12.71)
Vx =
Vy =
qo
Qr x
+
n 2nB x 2 + y 2
Qr y
2nB x 2 + y 2
(12.72)
(12.73)
qo B
Q
r
x r ln
T
2T rw
(12.74)
Figure 12.19
12-18
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Figure 12.20
12.7
Definitions
12-19
Hydraulic Fundamentals
dC
dx
(12.75)
where,
F
= diffusion coefficient
= constituent concentration
Flow
Outflow at C
after t
(a)
C
C
+U
=O
t
x
C/Co
to
Time, t
(b)
1
First
Appearance
With
Dispersion
Effect
t1
t2
Time, t
(c)
1
0
X
(d)
12-20
Governing Equation
C
C
C
+U
=
D
+ RC + S
t
x
x x
C/Co
Figure 12.21
Breakthrough
C/Co
(12.76)
(12.77)
Hydraulic Fundamentals
D = 10.1 Ro u *
(12.78)
where,
Ro = pipe radius
u* = shear velocity
For dispersion in waterways, the following equation (Holly,
1985) may be used to estimate D:
D = 5.93u h
(12.79)
DL = LV
(12.80)
DT = T V
(12.81)
L = 0.1x r
(12.82)
T = 0.33 L
(12.83)
C D AV o2
2
(12.84)
3V o
= 3 dV o
d
(12.85)
Fall Velocity
12-21
Hydraulic Fundamentals
FD
(12.86)
12-22
Table 12.2
F
Vd
~ D2
AV 2 / 2
Figure 12.22
Range of Re
Value of CD
Sphere
Object
<0.5
24/Re
Disk perpendicular
to flow
<0.5
20.4/Re
Disk
flow
<0.1
13.6/Re
<0.1
parallel
Circular cylinder
to
Drag Coefficients for spheres and other bodies of revolutions (Prandtl, 1923 and Eisner, 1930).