1.

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
The text deals with definition of chemistry, composition of matter, synthesis,
analysis and properties.
We said that chemistry is experimental and quantitive study about composition of
matter and changes that take place in matter.
There are two types of changes chemical and physical. A physical change involves
changes only in properties, but chemical change involves changes in composition
and properties. Chemical changes are usually accompanied by relise of energy in
the form of heat or electricity.
Furthermore, we talked about composition of matter. They can be in the form of
pure substances or mixtures. Pure substances may be elements or compounds.
Elements cannot be decomposed and they are building blocks of matter.
Compounds are combinations of elements and they can be decomposed into
elements which make them up. In mixtures elements have not lost their identity and
we can recognize them by their properties.
Most of elements are metals and they have luster, are malleable and conduct heat
or electricity.
Non-metals are gases and brittle solids and they are non-conductors and lack luster.
Next we talked about synthesis and analysis. Synthesis is the formation of a
compound from simpler elements. Analysis is decomposition of compound into
simpler compounds or elements.
Matter can exist in three states: the solid, liquid and gaseous state and states can
change from one to another.
In the end we said something about properties. There are physical and chemical
properties. Chemical properties include behavior with oder materials. Chemical
properties are color, smell, shape, hardnes, density, solubility and boiling and
melting points.

2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

The text deals with physical and chemical changes.
We said that in physical changes there is no change in composition of the molecules
or formula units. For exemple, physical changes are ice melting and water boiling.
These are physical changes because ice, water and steam all are composed of H 2O
molecules.
Secondly, in chemical change new substances are being formed. They cannot be
reversed by the opposite of the process. Chemical changes are usualy accomponied
by physical changes and they are initiated by heating.
Observing chemical changes we can reveal chemical properties of a substance. For
example, if metal reacts with oxigen at room temperature, it is said to be an active
metal. If not, they are not active metals (these are silver and gold).

3. SOLUTIONS
The text deals with definition, characteristics, types, states and components of
solutions. We said something about solubility of liquids, usage in daily life and
something about types of particles.
Solution is homogeneous mixture of molecule-size particles or smaller. They are
mostly clear, never cloudy and sometimes are colored.
There are two types od solutions, satureted and supersaturated. In saturated
solutions it is impossible to dissolve more solute but by special manipulations, we
can produce a solution that is holding more dissolved substance than is normal and
we call it supersaturated solutions. They are unstable.
Solutions mostly are in liquid state, but sometimes can be in solid state (some alloys
of metals) or gaseous state (atmosphere solution of gases).
Components of a solution are solvent and solute. Solvent is substance that dissolve
the solute (for exemple tea) and solute is dissolved substance (ex. sugar).
Furthermore, one liquid can dissolve in another and we called it miscible liquid. If
two liquids cannot dissolve one in another, the are said to be immiscible.
We use solutions in our daily life in food, for cleaning, to varnish, to thinn a paint
and so on.
In the end, we said something about particles in solutions. They can be colloidal and
suspended. Suspended particles are visible and can me separated by filtering.
Colloidal particles are intermediate in size between those in solutions and in
suspension.

4. ACIDS, BASES AND NEUTRALIZATION

The text deals with classification of elements and compunds, acids (including their
properties and types), pH scale, bases and neutralization.
We said that we need classification because of describing or predicting properties
and usage. Elements are classified into metals and nonmetals. Compounds can be
organic and inorganic and inorganic are acids, bases, salts and oxides.
Moreover, we talked about acids. Acids are covalent compounds which contain
hydrogen; most acids also contain oxygen.
(PROPERTIES: ) They have hydronium ion, contain replaceable hydrogen, neutralize
bases, conduct electricity and turn blue litmus red. They can be produced by
heating a salt of the acid with sulphuric acid or by the reaction of water with with
acid anhydrides.
The most important acids are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric, nitric and acetic acids.
We use pH scale to determine a degree of acidity or alkalinity. It is a scale from 0 to
14. All belove 7 are acids, equal 7 is neutral and above 7 is alkalinine.
Furthermore, we said that bases are hydroxides of metals or metalic radicals. They
are electrovalent compounds and they dissociate into ions. They have biiter taste,
feel soapy, neutralize acid, conduct electricity and turn red litmus blue. They can be
produced by adding an active metal to water or by combining a salt with a soluble
base.
In the end, we said something about neutralization. Neutralization is the union of
hydronium ions with hydroxil ions to form water. Products of neutralization are water
and salt.

5. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The text deals with definition and valence od atom and periodic table.
First we said something about atom. Atom is complex unit made of protons,
neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleous of atom
which does not change in reactions while electrons are found in energy levels or
shells and they change in reactions. Electrons determine valence of an atom and
nucleous contains most of the mass.
Furthermore, we explained energy levels. When atom absorb energy, electrons may
move to a higher energy level, but when the electrons move to a lower energy level,
energy is emitted and they all have tendency to achieve full shell.
Periodic table contains the basic properties of elements and it helps us to predict
possible reactions and formulas.
Moreover, we talked about valence of atoms. Valence is a number of electrons it
gains, loses or shares in chemical reactions. There are electrovalent and covalent
compounds. The electrovalent compounds are produced by transfer of electrons and
these are generally solids. The covalent compounds are produced by sharing
electrons and these are gases and liquids.
There also are radicals. Radical is a group of atoms that acts like a single atom and
they may contain moth types of bonds.

6. THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY

In this unit we talked about the chemical laboratory.
The tipical laboratory consist of a large room with balance room, a reagent room
and sometimes a darkroom. The balance room is specially constructed to be free
from external disturbances. The analytical balance is used for the weighing of
samples.
The reagent room is used for storing chemicals and they are stored in labelled
bottles.
Each laboratory must have benches, sinks, drying chambers, fume cupboard,
distilled water, Bunsen burner, test-tubes, beakers, filter funnels, filter paper, wire
gauzes and so on.

7. BUNSEN BURNER
In this unit we talked about Bunsen burner.
Bunsen burner is a device which facilitate combustion by mixing gas and air. The
amount of air and amount of gas can be controlled and different gas and air ratio
affect the flame.
It is constructed of base and barrel. Barrel is a tube which contains openings that
control the amount of air and tube is threaded on the inside of one end. When the
barrel is removed from base of the burner, there are small orifice in the center of
this area.
Moreover, base has a needle valve which consists of a needle and a seat. This valve
controls the flow of gas in the burner.