1. What are the two types of transmission technology available?

(i) Broadcast and (ii) point-to-point

2. What is subnet?
A generic term for section of a large networks usually separated by a bridge or router.
3. What are the possible ways of data exchange?
(i) Simplex (ii) Half-duplex (iii) Full-duplex.
4. What is SAP?
Series of interface points that allow other computers to communicate with the other
layers of network protocol stack.
5. What is frame relay, in which layer it comes?
Frame relay is a packet switching technology. It will operate in the data link layer.
6. What is terminal emulation, in which layer it comes?
Telnet is also called as terminal emulation. It belongs to application layer.
7. What is Brouter?
Hybrid devices that combine the features of both bridges and routers.
8. What is point-to-point protocol?
A communications protocol used to connect computers to remote networking services
including Internet service providers.
9. How Gateway is different from Routers?
A gateway operates at the upper levels of the OSI model and translates information
between two completely different network architectures or data formats.
10. What is MAC address?
The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer in
the network architecture. MAC address is usually stored in ROM on the network adapter
card and is unique.
11. Difference between bit rate and baud rate.
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second whereas baud rate refers to
the number of signal units per second that are required to represent those bits.
baud rate = bit rate / N
where N is no-of-bits represented by each signal shift.
12. What are the types of Transmission media?
Signals are usually transmitted over some transmission media that are broadly classified
in to two categories.
a) Guided Media:

These are those that provide a conduit from one device to another that include twistedpair, coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is
directed and is contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial
cable use metallic that accept and transport signals in the form of electrical current.
Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of
light.
b) Unguided Media:
This is the wireless media that transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. Signals are broadcast either through air. This is done through radio
communication,
satellite
communication
and
cellular
telephony.
13. What is Project 802?
It is a project started by IEEE to set standards to enable intercommunication between
equipment from a variety of manufacturers. It is a way for specifying functions of the
physical layer, the data link layer and to some extent the network layer to allow for
interconnectivity of major LAN
protocols.
It consists of the following:
802.1 is an internetworking standard for compatibility of different LANs and MANs
across protocols.
802.2 Logical link control (LLC) is the upper sublayer of the data link layer which is
non-architecture-specific, that is remains the same for all IEEE-defined LANs.
Media access control (MAC) is the lower sublayer of the data link layer that contains
some distinct modules each carrying proprietary information specific to the LAN product
being used. The modules are Ethernet LAN (802.3), Token ring LAN (802.4), Token bus
LAN (802.5). 802.6 is distributed queue dual bus (DQDB) designed to be used in MANs.
14. What is Protocol Data Unit?
The data unit in the LLC level is called the protocol data unit (PDU). The PDU contains
of four fields a destination service access point (DSAP), a source service access point
(SSAP), a control field and an information field. DSAP, SSAP are addresses used by the
LLC to identify the protocol stacks on the receiving and sending machines that are
generating and using the data. The control field specifies whether the PDU frame is a
information frame (I - frame) or a supervisory frame (S - frame) or a unnumbered frame
(U - frame).
15. What are the different types of networking / internetworking devices?
Repeater:
Also called a regenerator, it is an electronic device that operates only at physical layer. It
receives the signal in the network before it becomes weak, regenerates the original bit
pattern and puts the refreshed copy back in to the link.
Bridges:
These operate both in the physical and data link layers of LANs of same type. They
divide a larger network in to smaller segments. They contain logic that allow them to
keep the traffic for each segment separate and thus are repeaters that relay a frame only
the side of the segment containing the intended recipient and control congestion.

Routers:
They relay packets among multiple interconnected networks (i.e. LANs of different type).
They operate in the physical, data link and network layers. They contain software that
enables them to determine which of the several possible paths the best for a particular
transmission
is.
Gateways:
They relay packets among networks that have different protocols (e.g. between a LAN
and a WAN). They accept a packet formatted for one protocol and convert it to a packet
formatted for another protocol before forwarding it. They operate in all seven layers of
the OSI model.
16. What is ICMP?
ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol, a network layer protocol of the TCP/IP suite
used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender.
It uses the echo test / reply to test whether a destination is reachable and responding. It
also handles both control and error messages.
17. What are the data units at different layers of the TCP / IP protocol suite?
The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the transport layer the
data unit created is called either a segment or an user datagram, at the network layer the
data unit created is called the datagram, at the data link layer the datagram is
encapsulated in to a frame and finally transmitted as signals along the transmission
media.
18. What is difference between ARP and RARP?
The address resolution protocol (ARP) is used to associate the 32 bit IP address with the
48 bit physical address, used by a host or a router to find the physical address of another
host on its network by sending a ARP query packet that includes the IP address of the
receiver.
The reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address.
19. What is the minimum and maximum length of the header in the TCP segment and IP
datagram?
The header should have a minimum length of 20 bytes and can have a maximum length
of 60 bytes.
20. What is the range of addresses in the classes of internet addresses?
Class A 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
Class B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255
Class C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255
Class D 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 - 247.255.255.255
21. What is the difference between TFTP and FTP application layer protocols?
The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) allows a local host to obtain files from a

remote host but does not provide reliability or security. It uses the fundamental packet
delivery services offered by UDP.
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism provided by TCP / IP for
copying a file from one host to another. It uses the services offer by TCP and so is reliable
and secure. It establishes two connections (virtual circuits) between the hosts, one for
data transfer and another for control information.
22. What is difference between baseband and broadband transmission?
In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single
signal. In broadband transmission, signals are sent on multiple frequencies, allowing
multiple signals to be sent simultaneously.
23. What is logical link control?
One of two sublayers of the data link layer of OSI reference model, as defined by the
IEEE 802 standard. This sublayer is responsible for maintaining the link between
computers when they are sending data across the physical network connection.
24. What is multicast routing?
Sending a message to a group is called multicasting, and its routing algorithm is called
multicast routing.
25. What is IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)?
It is any routing protocol used within an autonomous system.
26. What is EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)?
It is the protocol the routers in neighboring autonomous systems use to identify the set of
networks that can be reached within or via each autonomous system.
27. What is BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)?
It is a protocol used to advertise the set of networks that can be reached with in an
autonomous system. BGP enables this information to be shared with the autonomous
system. This is newer than EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol).
28. What is Gateway-to-Gateway protocol?
It is a protocol formerly used to exchange routing information between Internet core
routers.
29. What is NVT (Network Virtual Terminal)?
It is a set of rules defining a very simple virtual terminal interaction. The NVT is used in
the start of a Telnet session.
30. What is OSPF?
It is an Internet routing protocol that scales well, can route traffic along multiple paths,
and uses knowledge of an Internet's topology to make accurate routing decisions.

What Is a Network Protocol?

Protocols serve as a language of communication among network devices. Network
protocols like HTTP, TCP/IP, and SMTP provide a foundation that much of the Internet is
built on. Find out more about these protocols and how they work.
Firewalls
A network firewall guards a computer against unauthorized network access. Firewalls are
one of the essential elements of a safe home or business network.
Networking Basics: Ethernet
Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area networks (LANs).
Ethernet is reliable and inexpensive, the leading standard worldwide for building wired
LANs.

OSI model

Layer
Application
User Interface

Function

used for applications

specifically written to run over
the network
allows access to network
services that support
applications;
directly represents the services
that directly support user
applications
handles network access, flow
control and error recovery

Example apps are file transfer,email, NetBIOS-based

applications

Presentation

Translation

Translates from application to

network format and vice-versa
all different formats from all
sources are made into a
common uniform format that
the rest of the OSI model can
understand
responsible for protocol
conversion, character
conversion,data encryption /
decryption, expanding graphics
commands, data compression
sets standards for different
systems to provide seamless

Protocols

Network
Components

DNS; FTP; TFTP; Gateway

BOOTP;
SNMP;RLOGIN;
SMTP; MIME;
NFS; FINGER;
TELNET; NCP;
APPC; AFP; SMB

Gateway
Redirector

communication from multiple

protocol stacks

Session
"syncs and
sessions"

not always implemented in a

network protocol

establishes, maintains and ends

sessions across the network
responsible for name
recognition (identification) so
only the designated parties can
participate in the session
provides synchronization
services by planning check
points in the data stream => if
session fails, only data after the
most recent checkpoint need be
transmitted
manages who can transmit data
at a certain time and for how
long

Transport
packets; flow
control & errorhandling

NetBIOS
Names Pipes
Mail Slots
RPC

Examples are interactive login

and file transfer connections,
the session would connect and
re-connect if there was an
interruption; recognize names in
sessions and register names in
history

additional connection below the TCP, ARP, RARP;

session layer
manages the flow control of
SPX
data between parties across the
network
NWLink
divides streams of data into
chunks or packets; the transport
layer of the receiving computer NetBIOS /
reassembles the message from NetBEUI
packets
"train" is a good analogy => the
ATP
data is divided into identical
units
provides error-checking to
guarantee error-free data
delivery, with on losses or
duplications
provides acknowledgment of
successful transmissions;
requests retransmission if some
packets dont arrive error-free

provides flow control and errorhandling

Gateway

Gateway
Advanced Cable
Tester
Brouter

Network

addressing;
routing

translates logical network

IP; ARP; RARP,
address and names to their
ICMP; RIP; OSFP;
physical address (e.g.
computername ==> MAC
IGMP;
address)
responsible for
IPX
o addressing
o determining routes for
sending
NWLink
o managing network
problems such as
NetBEUI
packet switching, data
congestion and routing
if router cant send data frame OSI
as large as the source computer
sends, the network layer
DDP
compensates by breaking the
data into smaller units. At the
receiving end, the network layer DECnet
reassembles the data

Brouter
Router
Frame Relay
Device
ATM Switch
Advanced Cable
Tester

think of this layer stamping the

addresses on each train car

Data Link

data frames to
bits

turns packets into raw bits

Logical Link
Bridge
100101 and at the receiving end Control
turns bits into packets.
error
Switch
handles data frames between the
correction and
Network and Physical layers
flow control
ISDN Router
the receiving end packages raw
manages link
data from the Physical layer into
control and
data frames for delivery to the
defines SAPs Intelligent Hub
Network layer
responsible for error-free
NIC
802.1 OSI Model
transfer of frames to other
computer via the Physical Layer
802.2 Logical Link
Advanced Cable
Control
Tester
this layer defines the methods
Media
Access
used to transmit and receive
data on the network. It consists Control
communicates
of the wiring, the devices use to
connect the NIC to the wiring,
with the
the signaling involved to
adapter card
transmit / receive data and the
controls the
ability to detect signaling errors
type of media
on the network media
being used:

802.3 CSMA/CD
(Ethernet)
802.4 Token Bus
(ARCnet)

802.5 Token Ring

Physical
hardware; raw
bit stream

802.12 Demand
Priority
IEEE 802

transmits raw bit stream over

physical cable
defines cables, cards, and
IEEE 802.2
physical aspects
defines NIC attachments to
ISO 2110
hardware, how cable is attached
to NIC
ISDN
defines techniques to transfer bit
stream to cable

Repeater
Multiplexer
Hubs

Passive
Active

TDR
Oscilloscope
Amplifier

OSI Model Concepts

The standard model for networking protocols and distributed applications is the
International Standard Organization's Open System Interconnect (ISO/OSI) model. It
defines seven network layers.
Short for Open System Interconnection, an ISO standard for worldwide
communications that defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in
seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer
in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and
back up the hierarchy.

Layer 1 - Physical
Physical layer defines the cable or physical medium itself, e.g., thinnet, thicknet,
unshielded twisted pairs (UTP). All media are functionally equivalent. The main
difference is in convenience and cost of installation and maintenance. Converters from
one media to another operate at this level.

Layer 2 - Data Link

Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network. A network data frame, aka
packet, includes checksum, source and destination address, and data. The largest packet
that can be sent through a data link layer defines the Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU). The data link layer handles the physical and logical connections to the packet's
destination, using a network interface. A host connected to an Ethernet would have an
Ethernet interface to handle connections to the outside world, and a loopback interface to
send packets to itself.
Ethernet addresses a host using a unique, 48-bit address called its Ethernet address or
Media Access Control (MAC) address. MAC addresses are usually represented as six
colon-separated pairs of hex digits, e.g., 8:0:20:11:ac:85. This number is unique and is
associated with a particular Ethernet device. Hosts with multiple network interfaces
should use the same MAC address on each. The data link layer's protocol-specific header
specifies the MAC address of the packet's source and destination. When a packet is sent
to all hosts (broadcast), a special MAC address (ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff) is used.

Layer 3 - Network
NFS uses Internetwork Protocol (IP) as its network layer interface. IP is responsible for
routing, directing datagrams from one network to another. The network layer may have to
break large datagrams, larger than MTU, into smaller packets and host receiving the
packet will have to reassemble the fragmented datagram. The Internetwork Protocol
identifies each host with a 32-bit IP address. IP addresses are written as four dotseparated decimal numbers between 0 and 255, e.g., 129.79.16.40. The leading 1-3 bytes
of the IP identify the network and the remaining bytes identifies the host on that network.
The network portion of the IP is assigned by InterNIC Registration Services, under the
contract to the National Science Foundation, and the host portion of the IP is assigned by
the local network administrators. For large sites, the first two bytes represents the
network portion of the IP, and the third and fourth bytes identify the subnet and host
respectively.
Even though IP packets are addressed using IP addresses, hardware addresses must be
used to actually transport data from one host to another. The Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) is used to map the IP address to it hardware address.

Layer 4 - Transport
Transport layer subdivides user-buffer into network-buffer sized datagrams and enforces
desired transmission control. Two transport protocols, Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), sits at the transport layer. Reliability and
speed are the primary difference between these two protocols. TCP establishes
connections between two hosts on the network through 'sockets' which are determined by
the IP address and port number. TCP keeps track of the packet delivery order and the
packets that must be resent. Maintaining this information for each connection makes TCP
a stateful protocol. UDP on the other hand provides a low overhead transmission service,
but with less error checking. NFS is built on top of UDP because of its speed and
statelessness. Statelessness simplifies the crash recovery.

Layer 5 - Session
The session protocol defines the format of the data sent over the connections. The NFS
uses the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) for its session protocol. RPC may be built on
either TCP or UDP. Login sessions uses TCP whereas NFS and broadcast use UDP.

Layer 6 - Presentation
External Data Representation (XDR) sits at the presentation level. It converts local
representation of data to its canonical form and vice versa. The canonical uses a standard
byte ordering and structure packing convention, independent of the host.

Layer 7 - Application
Provides network services to the end-users. Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS, NIS, NFS are
examples of network applications.

The OSI Model Stack

The OSI model divides the complex task of computer-to-computer communications,
traditionally called internetworking, into a series of stages known as layers. Layers in the
OSI model are ordered from lowest level to highest. Together, these layers comprise the
OSI stack. The stack contains seven layers in two groups:
Upper layers 7. application 6. presentation 5. session
Lower layers - 4. transport 3. network 2. data link 1. physical

Benefits of the OSI Model

By separating the network communications into logical smaller pieces, the OSI model
simplifies how network protocols are designed. The OSI model was designed to ensure
different types of equipment (such as network adapters, hubs, and routers) would all be
compatible even if built by different manufacturers. A product from one network
equipment vendor that implements OSI Layer 2 functionality, for example, will be much
more likely to interoperate with another vendor's OSI Layer 3 product because both
vendors are following the same model.
The OSI model also makes network designs more extensible as new protocols and other
network services are generally easier to add to a layered architecture than to a monolithic
one.

What Is a MAC Address?

The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses
are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an
adapter on a LAN.
MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length). By convention,
MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats:
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS

The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer.
These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body (see sidebar). The second half of a
MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In
the example,
00:A0:C9:14:C8:29

The prefix
00A0C9

indicates the manufacturer is Intel Corporation.

MAC vs. IP Addressing

Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the
network layer (layer 3). It's a slight oversimplification, but one can think of IP addressing
as supporting the software implementation and MAC addresses as supporting the
hardware implementation of the network stack. The MAC address generally remains
fixed and follows the network device, but the IP address changes as the network device
moves from one network to another.
IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a device and its MAC address.
This mapping is known as the ARP cache or ARP table. ARP, the Address Resolution
Protocol, supports the logic for obtaining this mapping and keeping the cache up to date.
DHCP also usually relies on MAC addresses to manage the unique assignment of IP
addresses to devices.