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CYTOLOGY
The study of the structure, composition and functions of the cell
Cell
The basic structural and functional unit of all living things consisting of a mass of
protoplasm with a usually centrally-located nucleus.
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All cells arise from pre-existing, living cells.
In 1839, Theodor Schwannstates that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or
the product of cells in their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology
since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these
conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.
Types of Cell
1. Prokaryotic Cells cells without a true nucleus
a. genetic material is not enclosed in membrane and is not complexed with proteins
b. lack a well-defined nucleus and most cell organelles
c. enzymes for cellular respiration are attached to the plasma membrane
d. ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm but some are attached to messenger RNC
(mRNA)
2. Eukaryotic Cells cells with true nucleus
a. genetic material is enclosed in a membrane, the nuclear membrane
b. with a definite nucleus as well as a cell organelles
c. mitochondria contain the respiratory enzymes.
i. tricarboxyclic acid (Krebs cycle) reside in the interstitial space of
mitochondria.
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ii. enzymes for electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation are
found in the cristal membrane itself.
d. ribosomes are found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) while some are
soluble in the cytoplasm.
Table of Comparison
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Located between the nucleus and the cell surface and often connected to
the endoplasmic reticulum.
It is involved in modifying, sorting and packaging macro-molecules for
secretion or for delivery to other organelles.
d. Mitochondria or Chondrisomes
Spherical, rod-shaped, cigar or sausage-shaped, somewhat hollow
structures.
Double-walled, water-filled membrane consisting of:
o An outer membrane which is smooth, tightly stretched and
completely surrounds the mitochondria
o An inner membrane which is extensively invaginated into folds,
forming shelves called cristae which increase the surface for
energy production and enzyme activity. The inner membrane is the
location for energy production and krebs cycle
Known as the powerhouse of the cell.
o Responsible for the production of energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) that supports mechanical and chemical
work performed by cells.
e. Lysosomes
Pre-formed, membrane-bound, dense-appearing structures or packages of
hydrolytic enzymes collectively known as acid hydrolases.
Enzymes within the lysosomes can digest and therefore destroy all
components of the cell, hence are also called suiced bags.
It is involved in intracellular digestion break down intracellular
molecules and digest foreign organisms like bacteria which may enter the
cell.
f. Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes in that they are membrane-bound sacs which contain
enzymes.
Involved in the production of hydrogen peroxide or the destruction of
hydrogen peroxide to water.
It is also concerned with active internal metabolism of the cell such as
purine metabolism, breakdown of nucleic acids and conversion of fat to
glucose.
Cytoplasmic Inclusions
a. Centrosome and Centriole
Granular structure located just outside the nucleus and found in all animal
cells (neurons, etc.) and primitive plants; a self-duplicating organelle.
Within the centrosome is a pair of small rod-like structures called
centrioles.
Centrioles are minute cylinders and in cross-section, their walls are made
up of triplets of 9 evenly-spaced microtubules.
Involves in the process of cell division (mitosis) and in the formation of
cilia.
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b. Microfilament
Long, thin, tiny cylindrical fibrils or tubules made up predominantly of
protein tubulin.
It forms spindle fibers (mitotic and meiotic division)
Form skeletal elements of motile organelles like cilia, flagella and
components of centriole.
c. Microtubules
Smaller than microfilaments
Involves in the maintenance of cell shape and movement of inclusions and
organelles within the cell.
d. Vacuoles
Empty spaces with a single membrane and serve as repository of
substances like granules and serves as vehicles for transporting:
o Raw materials from the cell surface to interior processing centers
Ex. Food Vacuole
o Finished products like secretion products Ex. Secretory Vacuole
o Storage materials like starch granules, fat droplets and water Ex
storage vacuole
o Waste materials to points of elimination Ex. Excretory Vacuole
3. Nucleus
Characteristics
o Rounded, darkly-stained structure separated from the cytoplasm by a double-walled
nuclear envelope, the nuclear membrane
i. Outer nuclear membrane continuous with membrane system of the ER
o Perforated with pores which facilitate passage of large organic
molecules between the nucleus and the rest of the cell.
ii. Inner nuclear membrane
Functions
a. Control Center directs cell division since it contains all hereditary information in the
form of genes
b. Controls protein synthesis
c. Controls many metabolic activities of the cell.
Parts of the Nucleus
1. Nuclear Membrane
Double-walled, perforated (outer wall) membrane, the pores of which allow
materials to pass either from the cytoplasm to the nucleus or vice-versa.
2. Nucleoplasm or Nuclear Sap or Karyolymph
Gel-like nuclear sap in which are suspended the chromosomes and one or
more nucleoli.
3. Chromatin
Clumps of a dense granular thread-like network which is transformed into
chromosomes during mitosis
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The greater the concentration of a solution, the greater its osmotic pressure, and
the greater the tendency for water to move into the solution. This occurs because
water moves from less concentrated solutions (less solute, more water) into more
concentrated solutions (more solute, less water).
3. Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport that allows substances to cross
membranes with the assistance of special transport proteins.
Many large molecules, such as glucose, are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit
through the membrane pores. Therefore, it will bind with its specific carrier
proteins, and the complex will then be bonded to a receptor site and moved
through the cellular membrane. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process: The
solutes move down the concentration gradient and don't use extra cellular energy
to move.
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Active
A
process
Transport
carrier-mediated
that moves
substances
the cell
membrane from
of lower
concentration to
higher
concentration
a concentration
across
regions
those of
against
gradient
Active
transport
requires energy in the form of ATP, and if ATP is not available, active transport
stops.
1. Endocytosis
Uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of a
membrane-bound sac called a vesicle.
The cell membrane invaginates to form a vesicle containing the material to
be taken into the cell.
a. Phagocytosis process by which a cell engulfs or takes in solid
particles that are too large to enter the cell by diffusion.
b. Pinocytosis process of taking in fluids by cells.
2. Exocytosis
The reverse of endocytosis. Is the process by which a cell expels large
molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides.
Factors that affect the Degree of Membrane Permeability
a. Size of the Molecules The bigger the molecule, the slower will it able to
permeate through the pore; the smaller the molecule, the faster the permeation.
b. Size of the Pores The smaller the pore; the less permeable the membrane; the
bigger the pore, the more permeable it is.
c. Solubility lipid and fat solvent substances are capable of dissolving fat
molecules, thus these could pass through the membrane freely.
d. Electrical charges a membrane that is positively charged would repel positively
charged molecules but would attract negatively charged molecules.
Table of Comparison
Active Transport
Definition Active Transport uses ATP to pump
molecules AGAINST/UP the
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Passive Transport
Movement of molecules DOWN the
concentration gradient. It goes from
Types of
Transport
Types of
Particles
Transported
CELL CYCLE
The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication
(replication) that produces two daughter cells.
The cell cycle can be divided in three periods: interphaseduring which the cell grows,
accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis preparing it for cell division and duplicating its
DNAand the mitotic (M) phase, during which the cell splits itself into two distinct
cells, often called "daughter cells" and the final phase, cytokinesis, where the new cell is
completely divided.
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Interphase
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations
are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly
formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again.
It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage
because there is no apparent activity related to cell division.
Typically interphase lasts for at least 90% of the total time required for the cell cycle.
Stages of Interphase
1. Gap 1 (G1)
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until
the beginning of DNA synthesis
It is also called the growth phase.
During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are
considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate.
This phase is marked by the use of 20 amino acids to form millions of proteins
and later on enzymes that are required in S phase, mainly those needed for
DNA replication.
Cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such
as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size.
2. Synthesis (S Phase)
Starts when DNA replication commences; when it is complete, all of
the chromosomes have been replicated.
Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively
doubled, though the the number of chromosomes of the cell remains the same.
During this phase, synthesis is completed as quickly as possible.
3. Gap 2 (G2)
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Period when the cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and increase in
size.
The mitotic spindle formed from the cytokinetic fibers start forming and the
cell ensures the number of chromosomes and the organelles present, which
further leads the cell cycle from the interphase to the mitotic phase.
MITOSIS
Is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell
nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei.
During the process of mitosis the pairs ofchromosomes condense and attach to fibers that
pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other
and to their parent cell.
This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.
The 4 Phases of Mitosis
1. Prophase (the stage of preparation)
During the prophase the nucleoli in the nucleus disappear.
The chromatin fibers become tightly coiled and condense into chromosomes.
Chromosomes line up in pairs and are joined at the centromere.
In the cytoplasm, the spindle fibers begin to form and are made of
microtubules.
The centrosomes move away from each other, propelled by the lengthening
microtubules, or spindle fibers, between them.
2. Metaphase (stage of separation)
The centromeres are at opposite ends of the cell poles.
The chromosomes are lined up at the 'metaphase plate', an imaginary line
equidistant between the two poles. T
he centromeres of the chromosomes are all aligned with one another.
The chromatids are of each chromosomes are attached to a microtubule which
form the spindle.
3. Anaphase (stage of migration)
The paired chromosomes separate.
They move along the microtubules toward opposite poles of the cell.
The poles move farther apart. By the end of anaphase, the two poles of the cell
each have a complete set of chromosomes.
4. Telophase (stage of nuclear reconstruction and cytosome division)
The microtubules become even longer, and daughter nuclei begin to form at
the two poles of the cell.
Nuclear envelopes are formed, the nucleoli reappear, the chromatin of the
chromosomes uncoils.
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Mitosis is now complete: one nucleus has divided into two genetically
identical nuclei.
Cytokinesis follows and involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, which
pinches the cells in two
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent
cell by half and produces four gamete cells.
This process is required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual reproduction.
Meiosis begins with one diploid cell (2N, 46 chromosomes) containing two copies of
each chromosomeone from the organism's mother and one from its father. The cell
divides twice, potentially producing up to four haploid cells (N, 23 chromosomes)
containing one copy of each chromosome.
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Phases of Meiosis
Stage I. First Meiotic Division (Reduction Division)
Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, producing two haploid cells (N
chromosomes, 23 in humans), and thus meiosis it is referred to as a reductional
division.
1. Prophase I
The longest phase of meiosis.
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a. Leptotene
The diploid chromosomes appear long, thin threads resembling
strings of beads because of chromomeres.
DNA of the nucleus is doubled and each chromosome is
composed of two chromatids.
b. Zygotene
Homologous chromosomes undergo pairing, synapsis along
their entire length, forming bivalent units.
Chromosomes continue to coil and thicken.
c. Pachytene
The paired chromosomes contract; hence each chromosome
becomes shorter and thicker.
Homologous chromosomes of each bivalent twist around each
other.
d. Diplotene
Homologous chromosomes become visibly double or paired.
Each bivalent shows four chromatids or tetrad formation.
Exchange of chromatid segments or crossing-over forms
chiasma between each homologous pair.
A chiasma is the point of contact (crossing over) between
chromatids.
e. Diakenesis
Homologous chromosomes separate longitudinally although
chiasmata between chromatids remain.
The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane undergoes
dissolution
2. Metaphase I
The nuclear membrane has disappeared and the spindle is formed
between the centrioles in opposite poles.
The centromere of each homologous chromosome remains undivided.
Bivalent chromosomes which are in bundles of four component
chromatids align on the equatorial plate with their centromeres
attached to the spindle and directed towards the poles.
3. Anaphase I
The chiasma lose their adhering influence.
The homologous chromosomes of each pair separate and move to their
respective poles.
The chromatids of each homologous chromosomes are still held by a
common centromere.
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4. Telophase I
Each pole has a haploid number of chromosomes.
A nuclear membrane may or may not be reformed around each group
of chromosomes.
Stage II. Second Meiotic Division (Equational Division)
Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are
fundamentally different. The end result is production of four haploid cells (23
chromosomes, N in humans) from the two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N * each of
the chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I.
1. Prophase II
Centrioles divide and new spindles are formed.
The chromatids shorten and the nuclear envelope disappears.
2. Metaphase II
The chromosomes (haploid sets), arranged in bundles of two
chromatids, align along the equatorial plate.
The centromeres divide and the chromatids of each chromosome
separate longitudinally and move towards the pole.
3. Anaphase II
The sister chromatids, now called chromosomes, migrate to their
respective poles.
4. Telophase II
Chromosomes become longer, thinner and less visible.
Cytosome divides and a nuclear membrane forms around the haploid
set of chromosomes in each daughter nucleus or cell.
All other cell parts are reestablished.
At the end, four daughter nuclei or cells are formed each with a
haploid set of chromosomes.
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