Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING 1 EC 3002

Class Test
August 25, 2013
Time Allowed : 3 hrs
_________________________________________________________________
Answer all questions.
1.
(a) Draw a block diagram of a PCM communication system and give a short
description of each block.

Anti-aliasing filter
An anti-aliasing filter is a filter used before a signal sampler, to restrict the
bandwidth of a signal to approximately satisfy the sampling theorem. To be sure
that the frequency content of the input signal is limited, a low pass filter (a filter
that passes low frequencies but attenuates the high frequencies) is added before
the sampler and the ADC. This filter is an anti-alias filter because by attenuating the
higher frequencies (greater than the Nyquist frequency), it prevents the aliasing
components from being sampled.
CODECs
At its simplest a transceiver CODEC (coder/decoder) consists of an ADC (analogue
to digital converter) in the transmitter, which converts an analogue signal into
digital pulses, and a DAC (digital to analogue converter) in the receiver, which
converts these digital pulses back into an analogue signal.
ADCs will generally consist of a sampling circuit, a quantiser and a pulse code
modulator. The sampling circuit provides discrete voltage samples taken, at regular

intervals of time, from the analogue signal. The quantiser approximates these
voltages to the nearest one of an allowed set of voltage levels. Indeed, it is the
quantisation process that converts the analogue signal to a digital one. The PCM
encoder converts each quantised level to a binary codeword, i.e., digital ones and
zeros.
In the receivers DAC received binary voltages are converted to quantised voltage
levels by a PCM decoder which is then smoothed by a low pass filter to reconstruct
the original, analogue, signal.
In addition to PCM encoding and decoding a CODEC may have up to 3 additional
functions: Source, Security and Error Control Coding.
Firstly, in the transmitter it may reduce the number of digital pulses (bits) required
to convey a message. This is called source coding and can be thought of as
removing redundant or surplus bits.
Secondly, it may encrypt the source coded digits using a cipher for security. This
ensures security when passing private information.
Finally, the CODEC may add extra digits to the (possibly source coded and
encrypted) PCM signal which can be used at the receiver to detect, and possibly
correct, errors made during signal detection. This is known as channel coding.
Multiplexers
In digital communications, multiplexing, to accommodate several simultaneous
transmissions, usually means time division multiplexing (TDM). Time division
multiplexers interleave either PCM codewords, or individual PCM bits, to allow more
than one information link to share the same physical transmission medium.
Demultiplexers split the received composite bit stream back into its component PCM
signals.
Line Coding
Transmission of serial data over any distance, be it a twisted pair, fiber optic link,
coaxial cable, etc., requires maintenance of the data as it is transmitted through
repeaters, echo chancellors and other electronic equipment. The data integrity must
be maintained through data reconstruction, with proper timing, and retransmitted.
Line codes were created to facilitate this maintenance.
HDB3, AMI and NRZ are the examples for line coding techniques
MODEMs
MODEMs (modulators/demodulators) change digital pulse streams so that they can
be transmitted over a given physical medium, at a given rate, in a specified or
allocated frequency
band. Typically the modulator shapes, or filters, the pulses to restrict their
bandwidth. The input to a modulator is thus a baseband signal, while the output is
often a bandpass waveform.
Multiple Accessing

Multiple accessing refers to those techniques, and/or rules, which allow more than
one transceiver pair to share a common transmission medium
Signal Transmission
The communications path from transmitter to receiver may use lines or free space.
Examples of the former are wire pairs, coaxial cables and optical fibres.
Pulse Shaping / Matched Filtering
The first is concerned with filtering for transmission in order to minimise signal
bandwidth and is called Pulse Shaping. The second is concerned with filtering at the
receiver in order to maximise the SNR at the decision instant (and consequently
minimise the probability of symbol error) and is called Matched Filtering.
Bandpass Modulation/Demodulation
1. Signals to be matched to the characteristics of transmission lines or channels.
2. Signals to be combined using frequency division multiplexing and subsequently
transmitted
using a common physical transmission medium.
3. Efficient antennas of reasonable physical size to be constructed for radio
communication
systems.
4. Radio spectrum to be allocated to services on a rational basis and regulated so
that
interference between systems is kept to acceptable levels.

Equalisation
Equalising filter in the receiver has the inverse frequency response, to the raw line
or channel characteristic. Cascading the effect of the line with the equaliser
provides a flat overall response which reduces the distortion.
(b) Compare Circuit Switching with Packet Switching.

(c) Describe the features of LAN, MAN, and WAN. Which type of network would be
suitable to interconnect users within a University extending over around 6km?
A local area network (LAN) is designed to connect a group of computers in close
proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is
useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games, or other applications.
A wide area network (WAN) spans a large geographic area, such as a state,
province, or country. WANs often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local
area networks (LANs) or metropolitan area networks (MANs). The Internet is the
largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of
LANs.
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network usually
spanning a city. MAN is a geographically small WAN, typically less than 50 miles
wide.

A MAN suitable to interconnect users within a University extending over around

6km.

(d) What are the pros and cons of Analog and Digital Signals in communication?
Analog

Analog systems are less tolerant to noise, make good use of bandwidth, and are
easy to manipulate mathematically. However, analog signals require hardware
receivers and transmitters that are designed to perfectly fit the particular
transmission. If you are working on a new system, and you decide to change your
analog signal, you need to completely change your transmitters and receivers.
Digital
Digital signals are more tolerant to noise, but digital signals can be completely
corrupted in the presence of excess noise. In digital signals, noise could cause a 1 to
be interpreted as a 0 and vice versa, which makes the received data different than
the original data. There are systems in place to prevent this sort of scenario, such
as checksums and CRCs, which tell the receiver when a bit has been corrupted and
ask the transmitter to resend the data. The primary benefit of digital signals is that
they can be handled by simple, standardized receivers and transmitters, and the
signal can be then dealt with in software (which is comparatively cheap to change).
2.
(a) Explain Multiplexing and write short notes on any three signal multiplexing
techniques.
Multiplexing is a method by which multiple analogue message signals or digital data
streams are combined into one signal and transmit over a shared medium
(Communication Channnel) in the form of a single, complex signal At the receiving end,
individual signals are recovered by the process called Demultiplexing. The aim is to share
an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may
be carried
using
one
wire.

 Time division multiplexing (TDM) . In digital transmission, signals are

commonly multiplexed using time-division multiplexing (TDM), in
which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in
alternating time slots.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) In analog transmission, signals
are commonly multiplexed using frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into subchannels of
different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in
parallel.
Statistical multiplexing
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) In some optical fiber
networks, multiple signals are carried together as separate wavelengths of
light in a multiplexed signal using wavelength division
multiplexing(WDM).

(b) Calculate the data rate for a communication system that employs 16-ary
signaling if the signal transmission rate is 2000 symbols per second.
16- ary signal needs 4 bits per symbol.
2000 sym/sec = 4x 2000 bits/sec (D = R log2M)
= 8kbps
(c) Describe ASK, FSK, BPSK, QPSK.

ASKstrength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0 both

frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude changes commonly, one of
the

amplitudes is zero
vd(t)

vc(t)

vASK(t)

FSK frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0 peak

amplitude & phase remain constant during each bit interval

PSK phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0. peak amplitude &
freq. remain constant during each bit interval
BPSK- If the phase shift between the two states is 180 degrees, the modulation is
called BPSK, or biphase shift keying

vd(t)
vc(t)
vPSK(t)

QPSK - QPSK: quadrature phase shift keying

Quadrature means the signal shifts among phase states that are separated by 90
degrees

 The signal shifts in increments of 90 degrees from 45 to 135, -45 (315), or

-135 (225)
Data into the modulator is separated into two channels called I and Q
Two bits are transmitted simultaneously, one per channel

Each channel modulates a carrier. The two carrier frequencies are the same, but
their phase is offset by 90 degrees (that is, they are in
quadrature)
The two carriers are combined and transmitted

(d) Give an overview of Access Network Technologies ADSL, FTTX and WiMAX
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a type of digital subscriber line
(DSL) technology, a data communications technology that enables faster data
transmission over copper telephone lines (broadband communications technology)
than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. It does this by utilizing
frequencies that are not used by a voice telephone call. A splitter, or DSL filter,
allows a single telephone connection to be used for both ADSL service and voice
calls at the same time. ADSL can generally only be distributed over short distances
from the telephone exchange (the last mile), typically less than 4 kilometres (2 mi),
but has been known to exceed 8 kilometres (5 mi) if the originally laid wire gauge
allows for further distribution.
DSL differs from the less common symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL).
Bandwidth (and bit rate) is greater toward the customer premises (known as
downstream) than the reverse (known as upstream). This is why it is called
asymmetric. ADSL is capable of providing up to 50 Mbps, and supports voice, video
and data. There are two competing and incompatible standards for modulating the
ADSL signal:

Carrierless Amplitude Phase (CAP)

Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT)

At the telephone exchange the line generally terminates at a digital subscriber line
access multiplexer (DSLAM) where another frequency splitter separates the voice
band signal for the conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL are
typically routed over the telephone company's data network and eventually reach a
conventional Internet Protocol network.
Unlike regular dialup phone service, ADSL provides continously-available, "always
on" connection.
Fiber to the x (FTTX) is a generic term for any broadband network architecture
using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile
telecommunications. The term is a generalization for several configurations of fiber
deployment, ranging from FTTN (fiber to the neighborhood) to FTTD (fiber to the
desktop).

The telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct FTTX

configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are:
FTTN / FTTLA (fiber-to-the-node, -neighborhood, or -last-amplifier): Fiber is
terminated in a street cabinet, possibly miles away from the customer premises,
with the final connections being copper. FTTN is often an interim step toward full

FTTH and is typically used to deliver advanced triple-play telecommunications

services.
FTTC / FTTK (fiber-to-the-curb/kerb, -closet, or -cabinet): This is very similar to FTTN,
but the street cabinet or pole is closer to the user's premises, typically within 1,000
feet (300 m), within range for high-bandwidth copper technologies such as wired
ethernet or IEEE 1901 power line networking and wireless Wi-Fi technology. FTTC is
occasionally ambiguously called FTTP (fiber-to-the-pole), leading to confusion with
the distinct fiber-to-the-premises system.
FTTP (fiber-to-the-premises): This term is used either as a blanket term for both
FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small
businesses.
FTTB (fiber-to-the-building, -business, or -basement): Fiber reaches the boundary of
the building, such as the basement in a multi-dwelling unit, with the final connection
to the individual living space being made via alternative means, similar to the curb
or pole technologies.
FTTH (fiber-to-the-home): Fiber reaches the boundary of the living space, such as a
box on the outside wall of a home. Passive optical networks and point-to-point
ethernet are architectures that deliver triple-play services over FTTH networks
directly from an operator's central office.[1][2]
FTTD (fiber-to-the-desktop): Fiber connection is installed from the main computer
room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the user's desk.
FTTE / FTTZ (fiber-to-the-telecom-enclosure or fiber-to-the-zone) is a form of
structured cabling typically used in enterprise local area networks, where fiber is
used to link the main computer equipment room to an enclosure close to the desk
or workstation. FTTE and FTTZ are not considered part of the FTTX group of
technologies, despite the similarity in name.
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless
communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data
rates, with the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMAX is
described as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile
wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".
WiMAX can provide at-home or mobile Internet access across whole cities or
countries. In many cases this has resulted in competition in markets which typically
only had access through an existing incumbent DSL (or similar) operator.
Additionally, given the relatively low costs associated with the deployment of a
WiMAX network (in comparison with 3G, HSDPA, xDSL, HFC or FTTx), it is now
economically viable to provide last-mile broadband Internet access in remote
locations.
It is a point to multi-point technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless
broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL. It can provide a maximum
bandwidth of 10Mbps per sector, which is shared among users in that sector

3.

(a) Any periodic waveform may be analyzed into or synthesized from a number of
harmonically related sine and cosine functions as shown below.

f ( t )=a 0+ an cos
n=1

2 nt
2 nt
+b n sin
T
T

T is the period. Show how

a0 ,

)
an

and

bn

are determined.

Consider the integration of both sides of the Fourier series as follows.

t0 +T

t0 +T

t0

t0

t 0+T

f ( t ) dt = a0 dt+ ( an cos
t0

n=1

2 nt
2 nt
+b n sin
dt
T
T

t0 +T

a 0 dt 0 +0

(all Sine and Cosine terms become

t0

Zero)
Therefore,
t0 +T

f ( t ) dt =a 0 T
t0

1
a0 =
T

t 0 +T

f ( t ) dt
t0

Consider the integration of both sides of the Fourier series, after multiplying
each term by

cos

t0 +T

2 nt
T

as follows.
t 0+T

f ( t ) cos

t0

t0 +T

2nt
2 nt
dt= a0 cos
dt +
T
T

t
t
0

Only

(cos 2

2nt
)
T

(a n cos
n=1

t0

t 0 +T

2nt
f ( t ) cos
dt =0+
T
t
0

2
an =
T

( an ) cos2
n=1

t 0 +T

f ( t ) cos
t0

term on the right hand side of the equation can give a non zero

integral.
t0 +T

2 nt
2 nt
2 nt
+b n sin
cos
dt
T
T
T

2 nt
dt
T

2 nt
dt
T

Similarly integration of both sides of the Fourier series, after multiplying by

sin

2 nt
T

2
bn =
T

gives

t0 +T

f ( t ) sin
t0

2nt
dt
T

(b) Explain three types of symmetries of wave forms drawing examples for each
symmetry
Even Symmetry
When even symmetry is present, the waveform from 0 to T/2 also corresponds to
the mirror image of the waveform from T/2 to 0. f(t) = f(-t)

Odd Symmetry
When odd symmetry is present, the waveform from 0 to T/2 also corresponds to the
negated mirror image of the waveform from T/2 to 0. f(t) = f(-t)

Half-wave Symmetry
When half-wave symmetry is present, the waveform from (to+T/2) to (to+T) also
corresponds to the negated value of the previous half cycle waveform from to to
(to+T/2).

(c) Find the Fourier Series of the periodic wave form given below.

Period of waveform = 2T
Mean value of waveform = 0. Therefore Ao/2 = 0
Waveform has even symmetry. Therefore Bn = 0 for all n
Waveform has half-wave symmetry. Therefore An, Bn = 0 for even n

4.
(a) Explain how to calculate the Mean, Mean-Square and Variance of a random
variable, giving an equation for each.
Mean
The Mean is found by multiplying each allowed value of the sequence by the
probability with which it occurs, followed by summation. It is sometimes referred
to as the dc value

Mean-square
Mean-square is sometimes called the average power. It is calculated by squaring
each sequence value, multiplying by the relevant probability, and summing over
all possible values

Variance
Variance refers to fluctuations around the mean. It is similar to the mean-square
but with the mean removed.

(b) What is Wiener-Kintchine theorem?

Wiener-Kintchine theorem
The power spectrum of a signal can be expressed as the Fourier transform of its
Auto Correlation Function
(c) Write the power spectrum equation for Sine wave signal and derive the
autocorrelation function.
The power spectrum of a sine wave is
given by:
Hence the auto-correlation function is found inverse Fourier transform:

(d) Explain three distortion types that would occur in a transmission system.
Three Distortion Types are:
(1)

Loss

(2)

Amplitude Distortion

(3) Phase and Group Delay

Loss
The attenuation or insertion loss is defined as the reduction or loss in signal power
as it is transferred across the transmission medium.
Amplitude Distortion
Distortion that occurs when the output signal does not have a linear relation to the
input signal.
Phase delay
Phase delay is a measure of the time delay of the phase, nor the delay of the
amplitude envelope, of each sinusoidal component.
Group Delay
The group delay tg(f) is the time delay of the amplitude envelopes, of the
various sinusoidal components of a signal, as it passes through the LTI system, and
is a function of frequency for each component.

5.
(a) Explain what is meant by additive white Gaussian noise
Noise is Additive if it adds to the information bearing signal. Noise is called White
Noise if the noise is having a flat (constant) power spectral density G(f), over the
entire frequency range. Noise is called Gaussian Noise if the voltage amplitudes
have a Gaussian or Normal distribution
(b) Why thermal noise is assumed to be additive, white and Gaussian?
Thermal Noise is Additive White Gaussian Noise because, The number of
electrons in a resistor is very large and their random motions inside the resistor
are statistically independent of each other, the central limit theorem indicates
that thermal noise is Gaussian distributed with zero mean. And also, its power
spectral density function is the same for all frequencies of interest in most
communication systems.
(c) What is shot noise?
Shot Noise arises in Electronic Components like Diodes and Transistors Due to
the discrete nature of DC Current flow in these components. The circuit
generates a current pulse when an electron is emitted. Shot noise is due to the
random arrivals of these electron packets at the potential barrier of forward
biased P/N junctions.

(d) Define Noise Figure and Noise Temperature. What is the relationship between
them?
(Noise Figure, NF) dB = 10 log10 (Noise Factor, F) where Noise factor F =

Input Signal
Out put Signal
Noise Ratio Noise Ratio

Noise Temperature
Specifies noise in terms of an equivalent temperature. The temperature of a
passive system having an available noise power per unit bandwidth at a
specified frequency equal to that of the actual terminals of a network
Alternative Definition of Noist Temperature:
The effective noise temperature, Te , of a linear two port device is the
temperature of the input terminals at which the available noise power at the
output is twice which could be available if the input terminations were at
absolute zero

Fn=

GNIN + N SYS
GN
N SYS

= 1 + GN

= 1+

GKT e B
GKT 0 B
Te

Fn = 1+ T 0

Te = (Fn -1 )T0

(e) Explain why high-gain, low-noise amplifiers are used only at the first stage or
two in a cascaded chain.
Overall Noise Factor of Cascaded Systems is given by;

It can be seen from above Equation, the noise factor of the entire cascade chain is
dominated by the noise contribution of the first stage or two. Therefore high-gain,
low-noise amplifiers typically use a low-noise amplifier circuit for only the first stage
or two in the cascade chain
6.
(a) If you were asked to design a transmission link, mention four main factors you
would consider in doing so,
Design Factors for Transmission Media
Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the band-width of
the medium, the higher the data rate that can be achieved.

Transmission impairments.(Attenuation) Limit the distance a signal can

travel.
Interference: Competing signals in overlapping frequency bands can distort or
wipe out a signal. Issue especially in case of unguided medium
Number of receivers: Each attachment introduces some attenuation and
distortion, limiting distance and/or data rate.
(b) Explain why an STP cable is more immune to noise than an unshielded parallel
cable pair.
STP (shielded twisted pair) cable is a twisted wire pair wrapped with metallic foil
or braid. When the wire pair is wrapped with Metallic foil or braid, it insulates
the pair from electromagnetic interference coming from outside of the pair.
When the wire pair is twisted, it cancels of the interference from closed by noise
sources as depicted by below diagram.

(c) Why Optical Fiber is a better transmission media compared to any metallic
guided media, give five reasons. State three disadvantages of using Optical
Fiber.
Advantages
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

greater capacity (bandwidth Gbps)

smaller size and lighter weight
lower attenuation
immunity to environmental interference
highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of signal radiation

Disvantages
i. expensive over short distance
ii. requires highly skilled installers
iii. adding additional nodes is difficult

(d) A receiver has sensitivity of 45 dBm and a BER of 10 9. What is the minimum
power that must be incident on the detector?
Let the minimum power = P mW

P ( dBm ) =10 log

P ( mW )
1 ( mW )

45 dBm = 10 log

P/1 mW

10

so that
P = (1 mW) 104.5 = 3 .16 105 mW = 31.6 nanowatts
for a probability of error of 1 in 109.
(e) A communication system uses 10 km of fiber that has a 2.5-dB/km loss
characteristic. Find the output power if the input power is 400 mW.

Loss dB=10 log

Pout

Loss dB
P
=log out
10
P

which becomes, then,

Loss
P out
=10 10
P

dB

So, finally, we have

For 10 km of fiber with 2.5-dB/km loss characteristic, the loss dB becomes
LossdB = 10 km (2.5 dB/km) = 25 dB

Pout
=102.5
400

Therefore the output power Pout = 400*

=1.26mW

102.5