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Material

Grey Cast Iron

Pearlitic Grey Cast


Iron
Spheroidal Cast Iron

White Cast iron

Alloy Cast Irons

Plain Carbon Steels

Composition
C
3.3
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.6
3.5

Application
Si
1.9
2.25
1.75
1.25
1.75
2.75

Mn
.65
.65
.5
.5
.5
.5

S
.08
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1

P
.15
.15
.35
.35
.8
.9

Motor Vehicle Brake Drum


Motor vehicle cylinder blocks
Medium machine castings
Heavy machine castings
Light and medium spun cast water pipes
Ornamental castings requiring maximum fluidity but low
strength

Chain links, camshafts, gears


Ferritic
Ferritic/Pearlitic
Pearlitic
Martensitic
Carbon
Silicon
Manganese
Sulphur
Phosphorus
C
Chromidium 3.2
Wear and
2.9
Shock
Resistant
Ni-hard
2.8
Ni-resist
2.9

2.5%
.8%
.4%
.08%
.1%
Si
Mn
2.1
0.8
2.1
0.7

S
0.05
0.05

P
0.17
0.1

Ni
/
1.75

Cr
0.32
0.1

Other
/
0.8 Mo,
0.15 Cu

13.
2.1

/
1

/
0.05

/
0.1

21
15

2
2

/
6.0 Cu

Silal

2.5

Group
Low-Carbon Steel

Medium-Carbon Steel

High-Carbon Steel

Water main pipes, hydraulic cylinder and valve bodies,


machine vice handles
Replace steel forgings for stressed applications: automobile
engine camshafts and crankshafts
Bases for malleable cast irons

Cylinder blocks, brake drums/disks, differential carriers etc.


Crankshafts, good shock and vibration damping

Carbon
0.1

Manganese
0.4

0.2

Ore crushing jaws, abrasive material handling equipment


Corrosion resistant alloy for pump bodies in S and Cl
solutions
High temp resistance, exhaust manifolds, furnace
components
Condition
Applications
Process annealed after cold
Car body panels produced
rolled
by drawing and pressing
As Rolled
General purpose mild steel

0.2

1.5

As Rolled

0.4

0.8

0.55
0.7

1.0

Properties
Typically low ductility and moderate strength
High thermal conductivity and excellent vibration damping
properties.
Maintain mechanical properties up to 500C but drop quickly
afterwards.
Si and P give high fluidity but poor strength
Good machinability
Hardened by chilling
Wear/abrasion resistance comparable to that of non-heat
treated medium carbon steels
Harder, tougher and stronger than black heart cast iron
Stronger and more ductile than conventional flake irons
Mechanical properties compete with those of steel.
These grades surface harden
No elongation
Tensile strength: 250-450 MPa
Hardness 400HB

UTS (MPa)
275
450

HB
230
300

/
215

60
130

215

Y.S (MPa)
/

UTS (MPa)
300

Elongation
28

240

450

25

Welding quality high tensile


mild steel for building
construction etc.

350

525

20

Toughened by quenching
from 850 C, temper 600C

Axels, crankshafts etc.


under moderate stress

500

700

20

0.7

Harden by quenching from


825C. Temper at 600C

Gears and machine parts


subject to wear

550

750

14

0.35

Quench harden from 800C


in water. Temper at 150 to
300C as appropriate

Hand chisels, screwdriver


blades, blacksmiths tools

Hardness (HB)

Quench harden from


760/780C in water. Temper

Taps, screwing dies, had


tools, files, measuring and

0.35

780
800

at 150 to 300C as
appropriate
1.2

0.35

Boron steels

Maraging steels

18% Ni, up to 13% Co, 3-5% Mo, low carbon content.


High strength steels that differ from conventional steels in that they are
hardened by a metallurgical reaction that does not involve carbon. Instead,
these steels are strengthened by the precipitation of intermetallic compounds
at temperatures of about 480C. The term maraging is derived from
martensite age hardening and denotes the age hardening of a low-carbon,
iron-nickel lath martensite matrix.
The absence of carbon and the use of intermetallic precipitation to achieve
hardening produce several unique characteristics that set maraging steels
apart from conventional steels.

High-Strength Low
Alloy Steels

Name
High-strength low-alloy
structural steel
High-strength low-alloy
niobium-vanadium steels
of structural quality
High strength low-alloy
structural steel with 345
MPa minimum yield point
100 mm in thickness
High-strength low-alloy
steels
AISI
C
Mn
Si
W1
0.6-1.4
/
/

Tool
Steels

Water
Hardened
Tool Steels
Shock
resistant

Alloying Elements
Cr, Cu, N, Ni, Si, Ti, V, Zr

Nb, V, Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu, Si,


Ti, Zr

Available mill forms


Plate, bar, and shapes
100mm in thickness
Plate, bar, shapes, and
sheet piling 150mm
in thickness
Plate, bar and shapes
200mm in thickness

V, Nb

Steel sheet in coil form

Nb, V, N

Cr
/

V
/

W
/

Mo
/

Co
/

Ni
/

S2

0.5

1.00

0.5

Cold-work
steels

O1
A2
D2

0.9
1
1.5

1.00
/
/

/
/
/

0.5
5.0
12.0

/
/
1.00

0.5
/
/

/
1.00
1.00

/
/
/

/
/
/

Mold Steel

P2

0.07

2.0

0.2

0.5

marking out in instruments


etc.
Fine edge tools, knives, files,
surgical instruments
In vehicles to add safety and make lighter vehicles possible.
Other applications include agricultural tools, fork light truck
arms and mover blades.
Suitable for the production of nuts.
Missile Cases
Aircraft forgings (Aircraft and aerospace applications)
Structural Parts
Transmission Shaft
Fan Shaft in commercial jet engines
Tooling applications

820
High yield strength and toughness.

1030 2420 MPa


Hardenability is of no concern
Low-carbon martensite formed after annealing is relatively
soft about 30 to 35 HRC.
During age hardening, there are only very slight dimensional
changes. (Therefore, fairly intricate shapes can be machined
in the soft condition and then hardened with a minimum of
distortion.)
Weldability is excellent
Fracture toughness is considerably better than that of
conventional high strength steels.
Excellent mechanical properties and superior fabricability
mainly lack of distortion during age hardening.

Structural members in welded, bolted, or riveted


constructions
Welded, bolted, or riveted structures, but mainly bolted or
riveted bridges and buildings

Atmospheric-corrosion resistance four times that of carbon


steel
Yield strengths of 290 to 450 MPa in siz grades

Welded, bolted, or riveted structures, but primarily welded


bridges and buildings in which weight savings or added
durability is important

Atmospheric-corrosion resistance four times that of carbon


steel; nine grades of similar strength

Welded layered pressure vessels

Yield strengths of 450-550 MPa

Dies, punches, chisels

Low Hardenability
Cheap
Not very tough
Designed for high toughness and fracture resistance together
with high strength and wear resistance under impact loading.
Accomplished using moderate carbon content and fine
carbide dispersion. High Si content
High resistance to wear and cracking under cold working
conditions
Oil-hardening and air-hardening
High hardness
D type extremely high abrasion resistance
Machining and grinding for production of molds is difficult
Low Carbon content permits machining of cavities for
plastic moulding or metal die casting
Carburising and hardening is then required for high hardness
and wear resistance
Polishability and good surface finish required
Corrosion resistance is required is martensitic stainless steels
are used.

Hot
working
steels
High Speed
Steels
Machinable Steels

H12
H21
H42
T4
M30

0.35
0.35
0.6
0.75
0.8

5.00
3.5
4.00
4.00
4.00

0.4
/
2.00
1.00
1.25

1.5
9.0
6.00
18.00
2.00

1.5
/
5.00
/
8.00

/
/
/
5.00
5.00

/
/
/
/
/

As-rolled (most economical)

0.20-0.30%C

Less than 75mm in diameter,


normalised; 75mm in diameter and
over, as-rolled
Annealed to give coarse pearlite

0.40-0.60%C
0.60-1.00%C

Stainless Steel

/
/
/
/
/

0.06-0.20%C

0.30-0.40%C

Free Cutting Steels

/
/
/
/
/

Coarse lamellar pearlite to coarse


spheroidite
100% spheroidite, coarse to fine

Designed for use at elevated temperatures


Hot forming e.g. forging and die casting
Used for high speed cutting tool applications

Resistant to high temperature impact loading, softening and


thermal fatigue; excellent hardenability
Medium carbon content and high carbide formers
Most highly alloyed tool steels and high-carbon high
hardenability; microstructure with high fraction of high
temperature stable carbides excellent wear resistance and
red hardness

Low in strength in the annealed condition


Machine poorly because they are soft and gummy and adhere to the cutting tools.
Machinability improved by work hardening to raise the strength and lower the ductility
Machine satisfactorily in the as-rolled, as-forged, annealed, or normalised condition with a predominantly pearlitic structure
Machine best if an annealing treatment that produces a mixture of lamellar pearlite and spheroidite is utilised. If structure is
not partially spheroidised, the strength and hardness may be too high for optimum machinability.
A completely spheroidised structure is preferred. Hardened and tempered structures are generally not desired for machining

Consistent high machinability


Beneficial effect of S improved by adding Pb
For extremely high machinability: 0.25%S, 0.25%Pb, 0.08%Bi
Medium-Carbon
Normalised condition for components requiring T.S up to
1000 N/m2
Lower machinability but higher strength
Silicate inclusions do not significantly impair machinability
with carbide tools as in the case of low carbon free cutting
steels. These inclusions soften at high temperatures
generated during machining.
Alumina particles are detrimental
Martensitic
BCT structure
Magnetic
AISI 410 (12%Cr, 0.1% C)
General engineering applications
AISI 420 (12% Cr, 0.3% C)
Cutlery, valve parts, injection moulding tools, gear shafts and Good tensile fatigue properties with moderate corrosion
resistance
rollers
Machined, cold formed and cold worked in the annealed state
AISI 440 (17% Cr, higher carbon level)
Cutlery, surgical and dental instruments, scissors, springs,
Strength obtained after heat treatment depends on the carbon
valves, cams and ball bearings
AISI 416 and 416Se
Free cutting versions of 12%Cr and contain 0.15S and 0.15Se content. Increasing carbon content increases the strength at
the expense of toughness
respectively
Mo improves corrosion resistance
For applications operating at temperatures above 450C such as bolting and blading of steam turbines Mo and V are added
Ferritic
BCC crystal structure
Low-Chromium
Automotive exhaust systems
Magnetic
Intermediate-Chromium
Automotive trim, sinks, food handling equipment, cooking
Cannot be hardened by heat treatment
utensils
Low strength and low toughness
High-Chromium
Heat exchangers and piping systems for chloride-bearing
Good corrosion resistance. Mo improves pitting resistance
aqueous solutions and seawater
and Ti and Nb improve intergranular corrosion resistance.
Excellent stress corrosion
Welding causes problems with grain growth.
Austenitic
FCC
AISI 304 18% Cr -8% Ni
Corrosion resistance and formability
Non-Magnetic
AISI 316 (Alloyed with Mo)
Enhance corrosion resistance in chlorine environments
Not hardened by heat treatment
High Cr grades (AISI 321 or AISI 347)
Oxidising environments and high temperature applications Excellent ductility, formability and toughness even at
Grades with low carbon
Welding applications
cryogenic temperatures
Ni-Free austenitic stainless steels
Biomedical industry
Can be substantially \work hardened
316L, High N Austenitic Stainless steels
Corrosion resistance can be achieved by stabilising the ferrite
forming elements with austenite forming elements
Low-Carbon

Spark plug bodies

Aluminium Alloys

Duplex

Industries: Petrochemical, oil and gas, pulp and paper, and


pollution controlled industries
Replacement of Austenitic SS that have suffered either
chloride SCC or pitting during service
Highly alloyed super duplex SS are resistance to
oxygenated or chlorinated sea water

Precipitation Hardened

Turbine blades
Gears
Components which require machining and high strength

Wrought Aluminium Alloys

1xxx series Super Purity and


Commercial Purity Aluminium

3xxx series Al-Mn Alloys

Beverage cans, cooking utensils, heat exchangers, storage


tanks, furniture, highway signs, roofing, other architectural
applications

5xxx series Al-Mg Alloys

Welded applications: structural plate for dump truck bodies,


large tans for carrying petrol, milk and grain, pressure
vessels.
Hulls of small boats and super structures of ocean going
vessels.
Automotive trim and architectural components
Welding wires and brazing alloys
Architectural applications
Forged engine pistons

Non-heat treatable
4xxx series Al-Si Alloys

8xxx series Miscellaneous Alloys

Non-Ferrous Materials
Chemical equipment, reflectors, heat exchangers, electrical
conductors and capacitors, packaging foil, architectural
applications, decorative trim

Nuclear energy installations


Bottle caps
Bearing alloys in motor cars and trucks where diesel engines
are involved (Al-Sn)
Al-Li reduce the weight of aircraft and aerospace structures

Prone to stress corrosion cracking


Not very strong materials
Ni stabilises austenite
stabilisers and stabilisers contain a mixture of austenite
and ferrite. Cr content >20%
Magnetic
Improved Stress Corrosion Cracking resistance
Improved toughness and ductility
Capable of YS ranging from 550 to 690MPa in the annealed
condition
Attain high strength
Can be machined in the soft condition and then strengthened
Low distortion during annealing
Moderate to good corrosion resistance. High resistance to
stress corrosion cracking
Low mechanical properties
Excellent workability
Moderate increase in strength can be obtained by strain
hardening
Excellent corrosion resistance
High thermal and electrical conductivities
Non-heat treatable
20% more strong than 1xxx series alloys
High ductility
Excellent corrosion resistance
High corrosion resistance
Polish to a bright surface finish
Work hardens rapidly with increasing Mg content.

Most alloys are non-heat treatable, but when used in welding


heat-treatable alloys, they pick up some of the alloying
constituents of the latter and respond to heat treatment to a
limited extent.
Become dark grey to charcoal when they contain Si and
when anodic finishes are applied.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion and high wear
resistance
Contain several dilute alloys
Good deep drawing qualities

2xxx series Al-Cu Alloys

Truck and aircraft wheels, truck suspension parts,


aircraft fuselage and wing skins, and structural
parts.
Structural forgings
Aircraft, hardware

6xxx series Al-Mg-Si Alloys

Architectural applications, bicycle frames,


transportation equipment, bridge railing, welded
structures
Trucks, furniture, boats
Extrusion, architectural, irrigation

7xxx series Al-Zn-Mg Alloys

Airframe structures and highly stressed parts. (upper


wing skin)
Aircraft

2xx.0 Al-Cu Alloys

Sand Casting

Heat-treatable Alloys

Cast Aluminium Alloys

4-5% Cu
7-8% Cu

9-11% Cu

3xx.0 Al-Si-Cu/Mg Alloys

4xx.0 Al-Si Alloys

In the past used for aluminium casting alloys but have


been replaced by Al-Cu-Si alloys
Aircraft cylinder heads
Automotive diesel pistons and cylinder blocks
296: 4.5Cu: Aircraft fittings, pumps
Higher Si alloys are used for more complex castings and
for permanent mould and die casting processes
Automotive engine blocks and pistons
356: (7Si, 3.5Cu) - transmissions, wheels
380: (8Si, 3.5Cu) - Die casting
390: (17Si, 4.5Cu, 1Fe, 0.5Mg) Die casting
High-volume aluminium casting

Heat treatable
Require solution heat treatment to obtain
optimum properties
In heat treated condition, mechanical properties
can exceed those of low-carbon steel
Aging increases mechanical properties
Treatment increases yield strength but decreases
ductility and not so effective on tensile strength
Corrosion resistance is not good (cladding
required), subject to intergranular corrosion
High strength-to-weight ratio
Limited weldability but superior machinability
Good fatigue resistance and fracture toughness
Heat treatable
Medium strength
Good weldability
Good corrosion resistance
Immune to stress corrosion cracking
Good formability and machinability
Can be strengthened by precipitation heat treatment
Heat treatable to achieve high strength-to-weight ratio
Very high strength
Reduced resistance to stress corrosion cracking
Often utilized in slightly over-aged temper to provide
better combinations of strength, corrosion resistance,
and fracture toughness.
Good fatigue resistance, fracture toughness and
compressive strength
Limited weldability and inferior corrosion resistance
compared to 6xxx and 5xxx series)
Heat treatable
Can reach high strengths and ductility
Single-phase alloys
Mn can beaded to combine with Fe and reduce
embrittlement effect
Poor castability
High insensitivity to impurities
Low strength
Fair castability
High temperature strength and wear resistance
Copper contributes to strength
Silicon improves castability and reduces hot shortness
Alloys with more than 3-4% Cu are heat treatable. Mg
enhances response to heat treatment
Higher Si alloys have low thermal expansion.
When Si content >12-13% primary Si crystals are
present and impart excellent wear resistance
High fluidity
Good castability
Good corrosion resistance

5xx.0 Al-Mg Alloys

Welded assemblies
Marine environments

7xx.0 Al-Zn-Mg Alloys

8xx.0 Al-Sn Alloys

Copper and its


Alloys

Wrought
coppers
Oxygen-free
Copper

Purity
99.95%
-

Oxygen
content
-

Cast bearings
Bearing applications: load-carrying capacity, fatigue
strength, resistance to corrosion by internal-combustion
lubricating oil)
Connecting rods and crankbase bearings for diesel
engines
Sand cast bearings and rolling mill bearings

Condition
Annealed

UTS (MPa)
Electric conductors and heat exchangers

Hard
Electrolytic
tough pitch
high
conductivity Cu

99.90% min

Fire-refined
tough pitch
high
conductivity Cu

99.85% min

Phosphorus
deoxidised
copper
Arsenical
Copper

99.85%

99.20%

0.05%

0.05%

O2 nil
P 0.0130.5
O2 0.05%
As 0.30.5

Heat treatable (when magnesium is added)


Strength and ductility can be improved by
modification of the Al-Si eutectic
Single-phase binary alloys with moderate-to-high
strength and toughness properties.
High corrosion resistance especially to sea water and
marine atmospheres
Weldable
Good machinability
Attractive appearance when anodised
Naturally age
Moderate to good tensile properties in the as-cast
condition
Attain good dimensional stability by annealing
treatment.
Good machinability and resistance to corrosion but
susceptible to stress corrosion.
Not recommended for service at elevated
temperatures.
Poor castability
Excellent lubricity imparted by tin.

Elongation (%)

220

50

Hardness (HB)
45

400

115

220

50

45

Hard

400

115

Annealed

215

60

45

Hard

340

115

210

60

45

Hard

320

115

Annealed

220

50

45

Hard

400

115

Annealed

Annealed

General purpose sheets, rods and tubes, power transmission

Plumbing tubing, hydraulic lines

Silver Copper

Copper segments of electrical motors

Cadmium Copper

Overhead transmission cable


Traction purposes
Aircraft wing

Good wear resistance


Good conductivity
Resistive to metal fatigue
Very good electrical conductivity

Chromium Copper

Switch contacts, resistance welding electrodes, electrode holder jaws, electric and thermal
conductors requiring strength

Tellurium Copper

Electrical contacts in hostile environments where machine is used.

Beryllium Copper

Instrumental springs, flexible bellows and bourdon tubes for pressure gauges, hand tools,
pliers

Brass Alloys
Gilding metal

P
0.10.25
0.10.5

Sn
3.93.75
5.9-5.5

Pb
/

<5%Zn
Very soft
More ductile but harder than gilding metal
Decorative metalware, costume jewellery, badges, buttons

Susceptible to degradation in certain environments


(SCC and dezincification)
Flexible metal bellows or flexible pipes
Very ductile
Sheet metal pressing for severe deep drawing operations
The most ductile
Cases for bullets
Susceptible to SCC and may need annealing after
producing
Addition of 1% Sn prevents dezincification in marine
environments
Most engineering processes
Cheap and less ductile than cartridge brass.
Screws, rivets, springs
High T.S. so it remains elastic under higher stresses.
Simple forming operations
Borderline between alpha and alpha plus beta brasses.
Can be cold-worked and hot worked
Extrusion and hot stamping
Very popular
Valves for gas and water, fittings.
Low ductility
Cannot be cold worked but has excellent hot working
charateristics.
Used for springs
Less brittle than iron
Engine tappets
Oxide layer at the surface preents corrosion
Cam followers and bearing washers
underneath
Lower melting points than steel or iron
10% heavier than steel
Softer and weaker than steel, les stiff.
Resists corrosion and metal fatigue better than most
steels.
Generally more expensive than steels

Can be severely CW to harden it so that it can be used for springs where good elastic, corrosion, fatigue properties and conductivity are required

Used in work hardened condition for turned components requiring strength and corrosion resistance

0.030.25

10

Cast into rods and tubes for bearing brushes and worm wheels.
Excellent anti-friction properties

Caps for ammunition

Commercial Bronze
Jewellery Bronze
Red Brass
Low Brass
Cartridge Brass

Yellow/Standard Brass
Basis Brass
Muntz Metal

Tin-Bronze

Low-Tin
Bronze
Drawn
phosphor
bronze
Cast
phosphor
bronze

Conductivity reduced by a maximum of 15%


Can be precipitation strengthened
Resistant to high temperatures
Can attain high strength without significant loss in
conductivity
Improved corrosion resistance
Helps machinability.
Facilitates chip breakage and lowers cutting fores.
Conduction only slightly reduced

Electrical conductivity is not good.


Very responsive to age hardening
Strongest alloy with high content Cu mentioned.
Age hardening is the main strengthening mechanism

Cu
93

Zn
/

94

Bal

Admiralty 88
Gunmetal
Leaded
85
Gunmetal
Leaded
74
bronze
Aluminium Copper
Al
Fe
5

10

Sand casting for fine grained, pressure tight componenet such as pump and valve bodies.

Used as Admiralty gunmetal. Less strong but improved pressure tightness and machining properties.

24

Used for lightly loaded bearings where alignment s difficult.

Cu

Other

Condition

Bal

Mn or Ni
up to 4%

Annealed

Ni 5%

Hot
Forged
As cast

10

80

12

Bal

Fe, Mn,
Ni 5-8%
Copper Silicon alloys (Silicon bronzes)

Cold worked for decorative purposes; Tubes for engineering applications

Hard

0.1% PS

UTS (MPa)

112

350

532

700

Elongation
(%)
70
4

Hardness
(HD)
80
200

General engineering forgings combining strength and corrosion resistance

420

658

20

215

A hard rigid alloy containing the phase. Used where compressive loads are involved.

434

504

250

Aircraft: hydraulic pressure lines


Hardware: bolts, burrs, butts, clamps, cotter pins, hinges, marine hardware, nails, nuts, pole
line hardware, screws
Industrial: bearing plates, bushings, cable channels, chemical equipment, heat exchanger
tubes, kettles, piston ring, tanks, rivets, screen cloth and wire, sreenplates, shafting
Marine: propeller shafts

Not precipitation hardenable.


High corrosion resistance (same as copper)
High strength and toughness
Better mechanical properties than Copper
Superior weldability to copper
Susceptible to embrittlement by high-pressure steam
Low-cost substitutes to tin-bronze.
Ni improves strength, oxidation, corrosion resistance. Ni
increases electrical resistivity.
Good ductility
Silver colour.
Medium to high strength
Good cold-workability
Good corrosion resistance in both fresh and salt waters.
Ni prevents dezincification
Corrosion protective film on a brass that contains a few
percent aluminium in addition to copper and zinc is
Aluminium oxide which markedly increases resistance
to impingement attack in turbulent high-velocity saline
water.
Susceptible to dezincification unless they are inhibited.
Good resistance to flowing seawater and most nonoxidising acids except hydrochloric acid.
Alloys with 8-10% Sn have high resistance to
impingement attack
Less susceptible to SCC than brasses and are similar to
copper in resistance to sulphur attack
Used in the cast form.
Good resistance to biofouling
Best general resistance to corrosion of all commercially
important copper alloys.
Superior to coppers and copper alloys in resisting acid
solutions and are highly resistant to SCC and
impingement corrosion.

Copper-nickel alloys (cupronickel)

Wire-wound resistance for electrical instruments.


Condenser tubes and plates, heat exchangers, and chemical process equipment

Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel silvers)

Medical devices and domestic cutlery

Aluminium Brasses

Phosphor Bronzes

Tin Bronzes

Pumps valves, gears and bushings. High strength wire applications (e.g. wire rope)

Copper Nickel

Condenser tubes and heat-exchanger tubes in recirculating steam systems.

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