PHY396 K. Solutions for problem set #11.

Textbook Problem 4.2:

We begin by developing Feynman rules for the theory at hand. The Hamiltonian clearly
=H
0 + V where
decomposes into H
0 = H
free + H
free
H

and

(S.1)

2 (x).
V = d3 x (x)

(S.2)

In Feynman rules, the propagators follow from the free Hamiltonian (S.1): Contracting the
creation and annihilation operators comprising the two scalar fields (x) and (x), we obtain
(x) === (y) = (x) (y) = GF (x y)mass=M ,

(S.3)

(x) (y) = (x) (y) = GF (x y)mass=m ,

but no mixed contractions. In the momentum space, this gives us two distinct propagators,
=

q2

i
M 2 + i0

and

q2

1
.
m2 + i0

(S.4)

The Feynman vertices follow from the perturbation Hamiltonian (S.2), which involves one
power of the field and two powers of the field. Thus, the vertices involve one double line
and two single lines (net valence = 3),

= 2i

(S.5)

where the factor 2 comes from the interchangeability of the two identical fields in the
vertex.
1

Now consider the decay process + . To the lowest order of the perturbation

theory, we have a single diagram

(S.6)

with one vertex, one incoming double line, two outgoing single lines and no internal lines of
either kind. Thus,


1 + 2  iT |i iM (2)4 (4) (p p1 p2 ) = 2i (2)4 (4) (p p1 p2 ), (S.7)
i.e.,
M( 1 + 2 ) = 2.

(S.8)

This amplitude is related to the decay rate as

=

|M|2 dP

(S.9)

where the phase space factor for 1 particle 2 particles decays is

d3 p2
d3 p1
1

(2)4 (4) (p p1 p2 )

dP =

3
3
2E (2) 2E1 (2) 2E2
1
=
d3 p1 (E E1 E2 ) for p2 = p p1

2
32 EE1 E2

and on-shell energies,

(S.10)

cf. 4.5 of the textbook. In the rest frame of the decaying particle E = M, p2 = p1 ,
2

and E1 = E2 =
dP =

p
m2 + p2 (for equal masses of the two final-state particles), hence

p2 dp d2
d3 p

(M

2E
(p
))
=
(M 2E (p )).
32 2 ME 2
32 2 ME 2

(S.11)

To remove the remaining function, we integrate over the p = |p |:

Z
hence


E
dp

=
,
dp (M 2E (p )) =
2dE (p) on shell
2p
dP =

where
p
=
E

p
d2

E 64 2 M

m2
1 2 =
E

(S.12)

(S.13)

4m2
M2

(S.14)

since 2E = M by energy conservation.

Altogether, the partial decay rate of a heavy particle of mass M into two lighter particles
of equal masses m < 12 M is
d
=
d2

4m2
|M|2

.
M2
64 2 M

(S.15)

For the problem at hand, M = 2 regardless of directions of final particles, hence

d
=
d2

4m2
2

.
1
M2
16 2 M

(S.16)

Integrating this partial decay rate over the directions of p we must remember that the two
final particles are identical bosons, so we cannot tell p1 from p2 = p1 . Consequently,
R 2
d = 4/2 and therefore
r
4m2
2
1
=

.
(S.17)
M2
8M

Textbook Problem 4.3(a):

Similar to the previous problem, the propagators are contractions of the free fields, thus for
N distinct fields i of the same mass m we have

j (x) k (y) = j (x) k (y) = jk GF (x y)mass=m ,

(S.18)

or in momentum space,

k =

i jk
.
q 2 m2 + i0

(S.19)

The vertices follow from the perturbation operator

V =

d3 x

4 ( )

X
j

j 4
4 ( )

X
j<k

j 2 k 2
2 ( ) ( )

(S.20)

hence two vertex types: (1) a vertex involving 4 lines of the same field species j , with the
vertex factor i 4 4! = 6i; and (2) a vertex involving 2 lines of one field species j and 2
lines of a different species k , with the vertex factor i 2 (2!)2 = 2i. (The combinatorial

factors arise from the interchanges of the identical fields in the same vertex, thus 4! for the
first vertex type and (2!)2 for the second type.) Equivalently, we may use a single vertex
type involving 4 fields of whatever species, with the species-dependent vertex factor

= 2i jk m + j km + jm k .

(S.21)

Now consider the scattering process j + k + m . At the lowest order of the

perturbation theory, there is just one Feynman diagram for this process; it has one vertex,
4

4 external legs and no internal lines. Consequently, at the lowest order,

M(j + k + m ) = 2 jk m + j km + jm k

(S.22)

independent of the particles momenta. Specifically,

M(1 + 2 1 + 2 ) = 2,

M(1 + 1 2 + 2 ) = 2,

(S.23)

M(1 + 1 1 + 1 ) = 6,

and consequently (using eq. (4.85) of the textbook)

d(1 + 2 1 + 2 )
2
,
=
2
dc.m.
16 2 Ec.m.
d(1 + 1 2 + 2 )
2
,
=
2
dc.m.
16 2 Ec.m.

(S.24)

92
d(1 + 1 1 + 1 )
.
=
2
dc.m.
16 2 Ec.m.
These are partial cross sections. To calculate the total cross sections, we integrate over d,
which gives the factor of 4 when the two final particles are of distinct species, but for the
same species, we only get 2 because of Bose statistics. Hence,

tot (1 + 2 1 + 2 ) =

2
,
2
4Ec.m.

tot (1 + 1 2 + 2 ) =

2
,
2
8Ec.m.

tot (1 + 1 1 + 1 ) =

92
.
2
8Ec.m.

(S.25)

Textbook Problem 4.3(b):

The linear sigma model was discussed earlier in class. The classical potential
V (2 ) = 21 2 (2 ) +

2 2
1
4 ( )

(S.26)

with a negative mass term m2 = 2 < 0 has a minimum (or rather a spherical shell of

minima) for

2 = v 2 =

2
> 0.

(S.27)

Semi-classically, we expect a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the scalar fields, hi =

6 0
with hi2 = v 2 , or equivalently, hj i = v jN modulo the O(N) symmetry of the problem.

Shifting the fields according to

N (x) = v + (x),

j (x) = j (x) (j < N),

(S.28)

and re-writing the Lagrangian in terms of the shifted fields, we obtain

L =

2
1
2 ()

2 2 +

2
1
2 ( )

v( 2 + 2 )
e

2
1
4 (

+ 2 )2 + const
e

(S.29)

P
where stands for the (N 1)plet of the j fields, thus 2 = j ( j )2 .
e
e
The free part of the Lagrangian (S.29) (the first 3 terms) describe one massive real

scalar field (x) of mass m = 2 and (N 1) massless real scalars j (x) which are the
Goldstone particles of the O(N) symmetry spontaneously broken down to O(N 1) (thus

(N 1) broken symmetry generators, forming a vector multiplet of the unbroken O(N 1)

symmetry). Consequently, the non-zero contractions of the free and fields are
(x) (y) = GF (x y)mass=m ,
j (x) k (y) = jk GF (x y)mass=0 ,

(S.30)

which give us two distinct Feynman propagators in the momentum basis,

=
k

q2

i
,
22 + i0

i jk
.
= 2
q + i0

(S.31)

The last two terms in the Lagrangian (S.29) give rise to the interaction Hamiltonian of
6

the linear sigma model, namely

V =


d3 x v
3 + v

2 +
e

2 2

2 2
)
4 (

.

(S.32)

The five terms in this interaction Hamiltonian give rise to five types of Feynman vertices.
Proceeding exactly as in part (a) of the problem, we obtain

= 2i jk m + j km + jm k

(S.33)

k
and similarly
j

= 2i ik

and

= 6i.

(S.34)

The remaining two vertices have valence = 3 and follow from the cubic terms in the interaction Hamiltonian (S.32). The analysis proceeds exactly as in the previous problem and
yields
j

= 2iv jk

and

= 6iv.

k
This completes the Feynman rules of the linear sigma model.

(S.35)

Textbook Problem 4.3(c):

In this part of the problem, we use the Feynman rules we have just derived to calculate the
tree-level scattering amplitudes. As explained in class, a tree diagram (L = 0) with
E = 4 external legs has either one valence = 4 vertex (and hence no propagators) or two

valence = 3 vertices (and hence one propagator). Altogether, there are four such diagrams


contributing to the tree-level iM j (p1 ) + k (p2 ) (p1 ) + m (p2 ) they are shown in

the textbook. The diagrams evaluate to:

j (p1 )

(p1 )


= 2i jk m + j km + jm k ,

m (p2 )
k (p2 )
..............................................................
j (p1 )

(p1 )
i
(2iv m ),
s 22

= (2iv jk )

m (p2 )
k (p2 )
..............................................................
j (p1 )

(S.36)

(p1 )
= (2iv j )

i
(2iv km ),
t 22

m (p2 )
k (p2 )
..............................................................
j (p1 )

(p1 )
= (2iv jm )

k (p2 )

m (p2 )

where s, t, u are the Mandelstam variables

8

i
(2iv k ),
u 22

def

def

= (p1 + p2 )2 (p1 + p2 )2 ,

= (p1 p1 )2 (p2 p2 )2 ,

(S.37)

def

u = (p1 p2 )2 (p2 p1 )2 .
Each of the three 2-vertex diagrams (S.36) comes with a different combination of Kronecker
s for the pion indices i, j, k, , while the 1-vertex diagram comprises all three combinations.
Thus, arranging the net tree-level scattering amplitude by the s, we obtain
j

M (p1 ) + (p2 )

(p1 ) + m (p2 )



22 v 2
+
= 2
s 22


22 v 2
j km
+
2
t 22


22 v 2
jm k
+
2
.
u 22
jk m

(S.38)

Each of the three terms on the right hand side here may be simplified thanks to eq. (S.27)
which leads to the relation
22 = 2(v)2

(S.39)

between the cubic and quartic couplings of the shifted fields and the sigma-particles mass2 =
22 . Thanks to this relation,
22 v 2
s 22 + 22 v 2
s
+
=
=
2
2
s 2
s 2
s 22

(S.40)

and likewise
+

t
22 v 2
=
2
t 2
t 22

and +

22 v 2
u
=
.
2
u 2
u 22

(S.41)

Consequently, the amplitude (S.38) simplifies to



jk m

M = 2

t
u 
s
j km
jm k
+
+
.

s 22
t 22
u 22

(S.42)

Note that this amplitude vanishes in the zero-momentum limit for any one of the four
pions, initial or final. Indeed, for the massless pions with (p1 )2 = (p2 )2 = (p1 )2 = (p2 )2 = 0
9

we have
s

def

def

= (p1 + p2 )2 (p1 + p2 )2 = +2(p1 p2 ) = +2(p1 p2 ),

= (p1 p1 )2 (p2 p2 )2 = 2(p1 p1 ) = 2(p2 p2 ),

(S.43)

def

u = (p1 p2 )2 (p2 p1 )2 = 2(p1 p2 ) = 2(p1 p2 ),

so whenever any one of the four momenta becomes small, all three numerators in the amplitude (S.42) become small = M = O(small p).
The reason for this behavior is the Goldstone theorem: Among other things, it says
that all scattering amplitudes involving Goldstone particles such as the pions in this problem become small as O(p ) when any Goldstone particles momentum p becomes small.
A few lines above we saw how this works for the tree-level h, | M |, i amplitude (S.42);
the same behavior persists at all the higher orders of the perturbation theory, but seeing
how that works is waaay beyond the scope of this exercise.
To complete this part of the problem, let us now assume that all four pions momenta

are small compared to the -particles mass m = 2. In this limit, all three denominators
in eq. (S.42) are dominated by the 22 term, hence
M =

1
= 2
2


 4 
p
jk m
j km
jm k
. (S.44)
s + t + u + O
m2

For generic species of the four pions, this amplitude is of the order O(p2 /v 2 ), but there is a
cancellation when all four pions belong to the same species (this is unavoidable for N = 2).
Indeed, for j = k = = m

jk m s + j km t + jm k u = s + t + u = 4m2 = 0,

(S.45)

hence
1
M( + + ) = 2
v
j

Q.E.D.
10

0 + O

p4
m2



(S.46)

Finally, let us translate the amplitude (S.44) into the low-energy scattering cross sections:
2
d( 1 + 2 1 + 2 )
t2
Ec.m.
c.m.
=
=
sin4
,
2
2
2
4
dc.m.
64 v s
64 v
2
2
Ec.m.
,
tot ( 1 + 2 1 + 2 ) =
48v 4
2
d( 1 + 1 2 + 2 )
s2
Ec.m.
=
=
,
dc.m.
64 2 v 2 s
64 2 v 4
2
Ec.m.
tot ( 1 + 1 2 + 2 ) =
,
32v 4
 6 
Ec.m.
O(p8/m4 )
1
1
1
1
.
= O
( + + ) =
2
2
64 v s
v 4 m4

(S.47)

Textbook Problem 4.3(d1):

Adding a linear term V = a(N ) to the classical potential for the N scalar fields explicitly
breaks the O(N) symmetry of the theory. Before we do anything else, we must find how this

term affects the vacuum states of the theory and the masses of the and fields.
Without the linear term, the potential
V0 () =

2 2
1
4 ( )

1 2 2
2 ( )

1
=
4


2
2
2

+ const

has a spherical shell of degenerate minima. The linear term V = a(N ) breaks the

degeneracy the net potential V = V0 + V decreases as one goes North along the sphere,

and there is a unique global minimum at the North pole = (0, . . . , 0, +v). There is also a
p
small shift of the radial coordinate of the minimum from v0 = 2 / to a nearby minimum

of the quartic polynomial

V = (0, . . . , 0, +v)
i.e., to the root of the cubic equation

4
1
4 v

2
1
2 v

dV (v)
= v 3 2 v a = 0.
dv

av,

(S.48)

(S.49)

For small a, this equation has 3 real roots one near +v0 , one near v0 , and one near zero

but we only need the first root. Using the Cardano formula and selecting the right root,
11

we obtain
v =

!
!
r

1
a 27
a
3a2

arcsin
1+

+ . (S.50)
6
3
3

23
86

42
cos
3

Alternatively, we may let v = v0 + v and expand the equation (S.49) in power of v, thus
(v03 2 v0 = 0) + v (3v02 2 ) + O(v 2 ) a = 0

a2
a
=
.
22
3v02 2
(S.51)

Having found the minimum of the potential, lets shift the fields
(N ) (x) = v + (x),

j (x) = j (x) for j < N

(S.52)

for the new VEV v and expand the scalar potential in terms of the shifted fields:

2

2
2
2 2
v + 2v + 2 + 2
v + 2v + 2 + 2 a(v + )
4
2
e
e
3
2
= const + (v v a = 0)

V =

1 2
2

(3v 2 2 ) +

(v 2 2 )
e

2
2
2
+ ( + ) v + ( + 2 )2 .
4
e
e
+

1 2
2

(S.53)

Of particular importance are the quadratic terms here, which give us the particles masses:

=
a
v

(S.54)

M2 = 3v 2 2 = 22 + 3M2 .

(S.55)

M2

= v

and

Note that the pions are no longer massless but acquire M2 > 0. However, for a small
linear term with

3
a(

,
)

the pions a much lighter than the particle. This is a special

case of a general rule: When an approximate symmetry is spontaneously broken, we do not

get exactly massless Goldstone bosons; instead, we get massive but light particles called
pseudo-Goldstone bosons whose masses2 are proportional to the small symmetry-violating
parameters such as a.
12

In real life, the mesons are pseudo-Goldstone bosons of the approximate SU(2)L

SU(2)R chiral symmetry of QCD. Indeed, the two lightest quark flavors u and d have small
but non-zero masses, which explicitly break the SU(2)L SU(2)R chiral symmetry. Besides

this small explicit breaking, the chiral symmetry suffers from a larger spontaneous breakdown

to SU(2)V , which gives rise to 3 pseudo-Goldstone bosons with quantum numbers of the
broken symmetry generators isospin = 1 and odd parity and small masses
2
M2 = (mu + md ) O(SSB mass scale) Mother
mesons .

(S.56)

Indeed, experimentally M2 0.03M2 .

Textbook Problem 4.3(d2):
The net Lagrangian for the shifted fields (x) and (x) is
e
L =

2
1
2 ()

1 2 2
2 m

2
1
2 ( )

1 2 2
2 m

v( 2 + 2 )
e
e

2
1
4 (

+ 2 )2 (S.57)
e

(plus an irrelevant constant). The interaction terms here are exactly similar to those we

had in part (b) (cf. eq. (S.29)), hence the Feynman vertices of the modified sigma model
are exactly as in eqs. (S.33), (S.34) and (S.35), without any modification except for the
slightly different value of v. On the other hand, the Feynman propagators need adjustment
to accommodate the new masses (S.54) and (S.55), thus
=

i
,
m2 + i0

i jk
= 2
.
q m2 + i0

q2

(S.58)

The tree-level + + scattering amplitude is governed by the same four Feynman

diagrams as before, thus
j

M (p1 ) + (p2 )

(p1 ) + m (p2 )



22 v 2
+
= 2
s m2


22 v 2
j km
+
2
t m2


22 v 2
jm k
,
+
2
u m2
jk m

(S.59)

exactly as in eq. (S.38), except for the new v and new m2 . However, instead of m2 = 2v 2
13

we now have
m2 2v 2 = v 2 2 = m2 > 0,

(S.60)

22 v 2
s m2 + v 2
s m2
=

s m2
s m2
s m2

(S.61)

hence
+
and likewise
+

22 v 2
t m2
=

,
t m2
t m2

22 v 2
u m2
=

.
u m2
u m2

(S.62)

Therefore, instead of eq. (S.42) we now have



jk m

M = 2

s m2
t m2
u m2 
j km
jm k

+
+
.
s m2
t m2
u m2

(S.63)

In the low energy-momentum limit pi m , this amplitude simplifies to

M =






1
2 jk m s m2 + j km t m2
2
m
v

 2

jm k

m2

 p4  
.
+ O
m2

(S.64)

2
In particular, near the energy threshold s = Ec.m.
4m2 when all the pions are slow (in the

CM frame), p0 m , pi m , and hence t, u m2 , the amplitude (S.64) becomes

M


m2  jk m
j km
jm k

.
v2

(S.65)

This threshold amplitude does not vanish. Instead,

m2
a
= 3.
2
v
v

Q.E.D.

14

(S.66)