99.smith CH01

Sedra/Smith
Microelectronic Circuits 6/E

Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronics
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology
Outline
1-1 Signals
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal
1.3 Analog and Digital Signals
1.4 Amplifiers
1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifier
1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
1.8 Doped Semiconductors
1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors
1.10 The P-N Junction with open-circuit Terminals
1.11 The PN Junction with Applied voltage
1.12 Capacitive Effects in the PN Junction
1-1 Signals
RTh
vTh (t ) +
(a) the Thvenin form
vTh (t ) = iN (t ) RN
RTh = RN
RN
iN (t )
(b) the Norton form.
vTh (t )
iN (t ) =
RTh
RN = RTh
Example: Find the source transformation for the circuits shown in
below Figures
14
28V +
RN
iN (t )
iN (t ) =
vTh (t ) 28
=
= 2A,
RTh
14
RN = RTh = 14
RTh
3A
vTh (t ) +
vTh (t ) = iN (t ) RN = 3A 5 = 15V
RTh = RN = 5
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal

Sinusoid:
v(t ) v(t ) = Va sin ( t + 1 )
v(t ) = Va sin t
v(t ) = Va sin ( t 2 )
Va
1 2
1
f = , = 2f rad / sec
T
1 = 90o v(t ) = va sin(t + 90o ) = va cos t

v
T
+V
t
V
Figure 1.5 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.

The symmetrical square-wave signal in Fig.1.5 can be expressed as:
4V
v(t ) =
1
1
sin ot + sin 3ot + sin 5ot + "

3
5
4V
v(t ) =
1
1
sin ot + sin 3ot + sin 5ot + "

3
5
4V
4V
3
3o
4V
5
5o
4V
7
7o
...
(rad/s)
Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum)
of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.5.
Frequency Spectrum Va ( ) in volts
(rad/s)
Figure 1.7 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as

that in Fig. 1.3.
1.3 Analog and Digital Signals

v(t )
t0 t 2 t 4 t6
v(t )
t0 t 2 t 4 t6
Figure 1.8 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a)

results in the discrete-time signal in (b).
v(t )
+5V
Figure 1.9 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.
10
b0
b1
vA
bn 1
Figure 1.10 Block-diagram representation of the

analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
11
Example: Dual-Slop Analog-to-Digital Converter
Analog input
signal (Vin )
sw
C
C
Completer CLK
R
OPA
VREF
OPA
Counter
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Latch
Control Logic
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7
Binary output
12
1.4 amplifiers
Voltage gain
Input
Output
Input
Output
vo
Av =
vi
Figure 1.11 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a
common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.
13
1.4.3 Voltage Gain
vo
Av
io
ii
RL
vI (t )
+
vo (t )
(a)
vi
(b)
Figure 1.12 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI (t) and
connected to a load resistance RL.
(b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier
with voltage gain Av.
14
. Current gain
Power gain
io
Ai
ii
Load power PL vo io
Ap
.........(1.7)
=
=
Input power PI vi ii
1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels
log 2 = 0.3
log 3 = 0.477
Ap log10
P2
P1
(Bel)
P2
(dB)
= 10 log10
P1
log 4 = 0.6
log 5 = 0.7
15
. AdB
P2
= 10 log10
1mw
(dBm )
R = 600
V2
R1
P2
V22 / R2
AdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2
= 20log + 10log
P1
V1 / R1
V1
R2
I2
R2
P2
I 22 R2
AdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2
= 20log + 10log
P1
I1 R1
I1
R1
For the series system the total gain as
AVT = AV1 AV2 AV3 " AVn
AVdB = 20 log AVT = 20 log AV1 + 20 log AV2 + " + 20 log AVn
AdBT = AdB1 + AdB2 + " + AdBn
(dB)
16
1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies

VCC
I CC
ii
vI (t )
I CC
V+
+
v (t ) RL
o
V
V+
ii
VCC
vI (t )
+
I EE
V v
I EE
VEE
VEE
(t )
Figure 1.13 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as

batteries) for operation.
17
RL
Example1.2: Consider an amplifier operating from power supplies

10V.It is fed with a sinusoidal voltage having 1V peak and delivers
a sinusoidal voltage output of 9V peak to a 1k load. The amplifier
draws a current of 9.5mA from each of its two power supplies.
The input current of the amplifier is found to be sinusoidal with 0.1mA
peak.(a) Find the voltage gain, (b) the current gain, (c) the power gain,
(d) the power drawn from the dc supplies,(e) the power dissipated in
the amplifier, and (f) the amplifier efficiency
9
(a ) A = = 9 V/V
V1
1
I1
AvdB = 20log 9 19.1 dB
+
V
ii
9V
= 9mA
(b) lI o =
1k
+
vI (t )
I
V v (t ) RL
9mA
I o
o
Ai =
=
= 90 A/A
I i 0.1mA
V2
AidB = 20log 90 = 39.1 dB
2
18
(c )
= 40.5mW
PL
2 2
= 810 W/W
Ap =
1 0.1
PI
PI = vi ( rms ) ii ( rms ) =
= 0.05mW
2 2
Ap dB = 10log810 = 29.1 dB
PL = vo ( rms ) io ( rms ) =
(d ) Pdc = 10 9.5 + 10 9.5 = 190mW
(e) Pdissipated = Pdc + PI PL = 190 + 0.05 40.5 = 149.6mW
PL
100% = 21.3%
(f) =
Pdc
19
1.4.7 Amplifier saturation
Output peaks clipped

due to saturation
L+
n
L+
AV
L
AV
n
o
L
L+
vI
Av
Av
Figure 1.14 An amplifier transfer

characteristic that is linear except
for output saturation.
20
1.4.8 Symbol Convention
iC
iC (t ) = I C + ic (t ), ic (t ) = I c sin t
ic
Ic
IC
21
1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifier

.
Vi
Ii
AV
Gm
Rm
AI
Vo
Io
Av :Voltage Amplifier
Rm :Transresistance Amplifier
AI :Current Amplifier
Gm :Transconductance Amplifier
22
1.5.1 Voltage Amplifier
ii
Rs
vs
+
vi
io
Ro
Ri
Avo vi
+
vo
+
vL
RL
Ri
vi
Ri
vi = vs
=
Rs + Ri
vs Rs + Ri
RL
vL
RL
vL = Avo vi
= Avo
RL + Ro
vi
RL + Ro
Ri
vL vL vi
RL
Av = = = Avo
vs vi vs
RL + Ro Rs + Ri
Ideal characteristic
Ri = , Ro = 0
23
(b) Current Amplifier

ii
is
Rs
+
vi
io
Ri
Aisii
iL
Ro
+
vo
+
vL
RL
Rs
ii
Rs
ii = is
=
Rs + Ri
is Rs + Ri
Ro
iL
Ro
iL = Aisii
= Ais
RL + Ro
ii
RL + Ro
iL iL ii
Ro
Rs
= = Ais
is ii is
RL + Ro Rs + Ri
Ri = 0, Ro =
24
.(c) Transconductance Amplifier

ii
Rs
io
iL
+
vs
vi
+
Ri
Gmvi
Ro vo
RL
vL
Ri
vi
Ri
=
vi = vs
Rs + Ri
vs Rs + Ri
Ro
Ro
iL
iL = Gm vi
= Gm
RL + Ro
vi
RL + Ro
Ro
Ri
iL vi iL
= = Gm
vs vs vi
RL + Ro Rs + Ri
Ri = , Ro =
25
(d) Transresistance Amplifier
ii
is
Rs
+
vi
Ri
Rmii
ii = is
io
Ro
+
vo
RL
+
vL
Rs
i
Rs
i =
Rs + Ri
is Rs + Ri
vL = Rmii
RL
v
RL
L = Rm
RL + Ro
ii
RL + Ro
Rs
vL vL ii
RL
= = Rm
is
ii is
RL + Ro Rs + Ri
Ri = 0, Ro = 0
26
1.5.5. Determining Ri and Ro
vi
n Input resistance Ri
ii
where vi is the input voltage and ii is the input current.

o The output resistance found by eliminating the input signal
source (then ii and vi will be zero ) and applying a voltage
signal vx to the output of the amplifier, we have a current ix ,
vx
then Ro
ix
ix
+
vx
vx
Ro
ix
27
ib
vbe
g mvbe
ro
vs
(c) An alternative small-signal circuit

model for the BJT.
+
vbe
ro
ib
(a) Small-signal circuit model for a

bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
Rs
vbe
+
r
g mvbe
ro
RL
vo
(b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common

terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier).
28
1.6 Frequency response of amplifiers

ii
vi = Vi sin t
Linear Amplifier
+
vo (t ) = Vo sin(t + )
Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier.

At the test frequency f, the amplifier gain is characterized by its
magnitude (Vo/Vi) and phase .
vo
T () = ,
vi
T () =
29
20log T ( )
Bandwidth
Figure 1.21 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier.

At the test frequency f, the amplifier gain is characterized
by its magnitude (Vo/Vi).
30
1.6.4 Single-time constant networks

(a) a low-pass network
R2
vi (t ) +
C2
1/ jC2
vo = vi
R2 + (1/ jC2 )
+
vo
1
vo
=
vi 1 + jR2C2
Let R2C2 be given time constant,hence 2 = 1/ R2C2

1
1
T () =
=
tan 1 ( / 2 )
1 + j / 2
1 + ( / 2 ) 2
T ( )

T ()
31
T () =
20log
1
1 + ( / 2 ) 2
<< 2 T () 1
= 2 T () 1/ 2 = 0.707
>> T () 0
2
T ( j )
(dB)
K
3dB
6dB/Octave
or
20dB/decade
(log scale)
2
32

T () = tan
2
1
<< 2 T () 0o
T
(
45
2
>> T () 90o
2
( )
(log scale)
2
5.7 O
45o
45o /decade
90
5.7 O
33
(b) A High-Pass Network.
C1
vi (t ) +
R1
+
vo
R1
vo = vi
R1 + (1/ jC1 )
1
vo
=
vi 1 + (1/ jR1C1 )
Let R1C1 be given time constant,hence 1 = 1/ R1C1
1
1
1
T () =
=
tan (1 / )

1 j1 /
1 + (1 / ) 2
T ( )

T ()
34
.
T () =
20log
1
1 + (1 / ) 2
<< 1 T () 0
= 1 T () 1/ 2 = 0.707
>> T () 1
1
T ( j )
(dB)
K
+6dB/Octave
or
+20dB/decade
3dB
(log scale)
1
35
<< 1 T () 90o
1
T () = tan (1 / ) = 1 T () = 45o
>> T () 0o
1
( )
90o
5.7 O
45o
45o /decade
5.7 O
0o
(log scale)
1
36
Transfer Function
T (s)
K
1 + ( s / 2 )
Ks
=
1 + (1 / s ) s + 1
Transfer Function
(for physical frequencies)
T ( j )
Megnitude Response
T ( j )
Phase ResponseT ( j )
1 + j ( / 2 )
K
1 + ( / 2 )
tan 1 ( / 2 )
1 j (1 / )
K
1 + (1 / )
tan 1 (1 / )
Transmission at = 0 (dc)
Transmission at =
3-dB frequency
0 = 1/ time constant
= RC or = L / R
37
Example 1.5 Below figure shows a voltage amplifier. Let Rs = 20k,

Ri = 100k, Ro = 200, RL = 1k, Ci = 60pF, = 144. Find vo (t ) for each of
the following inputs: (a)Vs = 0.1sin102 t (V), (b)Vs = 0.1sin106 t (V),
(c) Vs = 0.1sin108 t (V).
ii
Rs
vs
Ri
+
vi
Ci
+
vo
vi
+
Ri
vs
Rs + Ri vi
RL
ii
io
Ro
Ci
vi
+
vL
RS // Ri
io
Ro
+
vo
RL
+
vL
38
Sol:
vi = vs
1/ jCi
Ri
Ri
1
= vs
Rs + Ri ( Rs // Ri ) + (1/ jCi )
Rs + Ri 1 + jCi ( Rs // Ri )
Ri
1
= vs
tan 1 ( /106 )
Rs + Ri 1 + ( /106 ) 2
Ri
RL
RL
1
vo = vi
= vs
tan 1 ( /106 )
Ro + RL
Ro + RL Rs + Ri 1 + ( /106 ) 2
vs
1k
100k
tan 1 ( /106 )
= 144
100k + 20k
+ 0.2k
1 + ( /106 ) 2

1k

100
vo =
100 vs
1 + ( /106 ) 2
AV = 100
tan 1 ( /106 )
1
1 + ( /106 ) 2
, AV = tan 1 ( /106
39
(c) Vs = 0.1sin108 t (V )
(a)Vs = 0.1sin102 t (V )
AV = 100
AV =
1 + (10 /10 )
2
6 2
100 1 = 100
AV = tan 1 (102 / 106 ) 0o
Vo (t ) = 10sin102 t (V)
100
1 + (10 /10 )
8
6 2
AV = tan 1 (108 /106 ) 89.4o

Vo (t ) = 0.1sin108 t (V )
0.1sin(108 t 89.4o )(V)
(b)Vs = 0.1sin106 t (V )
AV = 100
1
1 + (10 /10 )
6
6 2
70.7
AV = tan 1 (106 /106 ) 45o

Vo (t ) = 7.07 sin(106 t 45o ) (V)
40
dB
20dB/decade
40
20
10
10
10
10
104
105
10
10
10
10
10
( )
101
102
103
106
107
108
109
45o / decade
41
Example : Sketch Bode plots for the magnitude and phase of the
transfer function
106 s
100 s
(1) T ( s ) =
=
3
( s + 10)( S + 10 ) (1 + s /10)(1 + s /103 )
20log T ( s ) = 20log100 + 20log s + 20log(1 + s /10) + 20log 1 + s /10
3 1
100
10
10
10
(1 + ( s /10) )
10
1
10
10
(1 + ( S /10 ) )
3
10
10
109
42
100
1 + ( s /10 )
1 + ( s /103 )
43
104 (1 + s /105 )
(2) T ( s ) =
(1 + s /103 )(1 + s /104 )
20log T ( s ) = 20log10 + 20log 1 + s /10 + 20log 1 + s /10
+ 20log 1 + s /10
3 1
4 1
44
45
The Structure of Nucleus
7s
7p
7d
7f
46
47
48

49
(In)49
50
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Eg (Si) = 1.21 3.6 104 T (ev)

Eg (Ge) = 0.785 2.23 104 T (ev)
51
p : concentration of hole
p = n = ni n : concentration of free electrons

n : Intrinsic concentration
i
52
ni2 = BT 3e
Eg / kT
(1.26)
where B is a meterial-depend parameter = 5.4 1031 (Si)

k is Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 10-5 eV/K
T is an absolute temperature = 273+oC
At T = 300o K ni = 1.5 1010 carriers/cm3 .(P.73, Table 1.3)
pn nn = ni2
ni2
ni2

pn =
nn
ND
(1.29)
ni2
ni2

np =
pp
NA
(1.31)
53
1.8 Doped Semiconductors --- N-type:
P, As, sb
( , , )
Figure 1.30 A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element. Each

dopant atom donates a free electron and is thus called a donor. The
doped semiconductor becomes n type.
54
P-type:
B,Al,In
( , , )
Figure 1.31 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each

dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and the semiconductor becomes p type.
55
1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors

1.9.1 Drift current
Potential gradient
Holes
Electrons
Drift current
56
The holes acquire a velocity v p drift given by

v p drift = p E
(1.32)
The holes component of the drift current flowing

through the bar.
I p = Aqpv p drift = Aqp p E
The current density: J P =
Ip
A
= qp p E
(1.35)
The free electrons acquire a velocity vn drift given by

vn drift = n E
(1.33)
The free electrons component of the drift current flowing

through the bar.
I n = Aqnvn drift = Aqpn E
In
Similar: The current density : J n = = qnn E
A
(1.36)
57
The total drift current density:

J = J P + J n = q ( p p + n n ) E
(1.37)
Hence the current density J is given by

J =E
= q(nn + p p ) conductivity
(1.40)
E
= (resistivity) =
(1.42)
58
1.9.2 Diffusion and drift

+ + +++ +
+ + ++
++ + ++ +
+ + + ++ +
+ + + + +
++
0
Concentration gradient
Diffusion current
Electron-current density J p ( J n )
dp ( x)
q = 1.6 1019 C
dx
2
:
hole's
diffusion
constant
are
12cm
/s
D
p
dn( x)
J n = qDn
Dn : electrons diffusion constant are 34cm 2 /s
dx
J p = qD p
59
The total current in semiconductor

(1) The net hole current density
dp
J p = q p pE qD p (A/m 2 )

dx

drift
diffusion
(2) The net electrons current density

dn
(A/m 2 )
J n = qn nE qDn

dx

drift
diffusion
(3)The total current density in semiconductor

J total
dp
dn
= J p + J n = qE ( p p + n n) q ( D p
+ Dn ) (A/m 2 )

dx
dx

drift
diffusion
60
1.9.3 Relationship Between D and
Einstein relationship equation:

Dp
Dn
=
= VT
p
n
KT
25mV(300o K )
VT =
q
61
Example 1.9 Consider a bar of silicon in which a hole concentration

profile described by p ( x ) = p0 e
x / Lp
is estabilished. Find the hole-current
density at x = 0. Let p0 = 1016 / cm3 and LP = 1 m. If the cross-sectional

area of the bar is 100m 2 , find the current I p .
Solution:
dp( x)
d
x/ L
= qD p
p ( x) = p0 e p
dx
dx
2
Dp
12cm
/s
19
16
3
2
=
J p (0) = q
p0 = 1.6 10
10
/
cm
192A/cm
Lp
1104 cm
J p = qD p
I p = J p A = 192A/cm 2 100 108 cm 2 = 192A
62
Example A: An intrinsic silicon bar is 3mm long and has a rectangular

cross section 50m 100m at 300o K determine the electric field intensity
in the bar, and the voltage across the bar When a steady current of 1A
is measured. ( =2.3 105-cm)
Sol:
J 1 I
I
(1) = = =
A
A
106 A
5
=
2.3
10
-cm
4
4
50 10 cm 100 10 cm
= 4.60 103 V/cm
3mm
50m
100m
(2) Vbar = L = 4.60 103 V/cm 0.3cm

= 1380V
The result obtained that an extremely large voltage is needed

to produce a small current 1A
63
Example B: An N-type silicon bar is 3mm long and has a rectangular cross
section 50m 100m. The donor concentration at 300o K is 5 1014 cm -3 and
corresponding to impurity atom for 108 silicon atoms, a stead current of 1A
exists in the bar, determine the electric and hole concentrations the condctivity,
and the voltage across the bar. (in 300o K the ni = 1.45 1010 , n = 1500)
Sol: (1)n N D = 5 1014 cm 3

ni 2 (1.45 1010 ) 2
5
3
=
=
4.2
10
cm
p=
14
5 10
n
(2) = q (nn + p p ) qnn (n >> p)
= 1.6 1019 5 1014 1.5 103 = 0.12( cm) 1
J
I L
(3)Vbar = L =
A
106 (A) 0.3(cm)
=
= 0.05V
3
2
1
5 10 (cm) 10 (cm) 0.12(cm)
64
1-10 The P-N junction with open-circuit Terminals

1.10.1 Physical structure
p type
silicon
n type
silicon
Figure 1.35 Simplified physical structure of the junction diode.
65
1.10.2 Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
I = 0A
I = 0A
Barrier
voltage Vo
Figure 1.36 (a) The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).
(b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.
66
The Junction Built-In Voltage (Barrier Voltage)Vo
With no external voltage applied, the total current density

J = 0. ( J n , J p = 0)
dp
=0
For J p ( net ) = 0 pq p q D p
dx
dp
p q p q p VT
=0
dx
dVo VT dp
VT dp
=
(V / m )
=
p dx
dx
p dx
dp
x
Vo = x VT
= VT ln p x x
p
pp
p( x = x p )
Vo = VT ln
= VT ln
p ( x = xn )
pn
n
67
where p p : Thermal-equilibrium holes concentration in p side

0
pn : Thermal-equilibrium holes concentration in n side

0
n p : Thermal-equilibrium electrons concentration in p side

0
nn : Thermal-equilibrium electrons concentration in n side

0
p p : N A (3 46),
0
pn : ni2 / N D N D = ni2 / p (3 45)

0
N AND
Vo = VT ln 2
ni
(1.46)
68
Width of the depletion region
xp
xn
qN D+
Q+ = qAxn N D
(+)
xp
xn
()
Q = qAx p N A
qN A
xp
d 1
= ( qN A )
dx
xn
(0) d
1
= (qN D )
dx
69
Since the net charge must be zero

then
N A xn
q A N A xP = q A N D xn
=

N D xP
Q+
V : charge density.
G
By Gauss's law = V s : electrical permittivity of silicon.
s
12
1
1.7
1.04
10
F/cm.
=
=
=
s
0 r
0
G
d V
q
p n)
=
= (ND N A + N
dx
s
neglect
For 0 < x < xn

JJJJG
JJJJG q
0
xn
d ( x) q
= N D d ( x) = N D dx
0
( 0 )
dx
s
s
( 0)
q
= N D xn
s
70
For x p 0 < x < 0

JJJJG
( 0 ) JJJJG
0
d ( x)
q
q
= N A d ( x) = N A dx
0
xp
dx
s
s
(0)
(0)
q
= N Axp
s
NA
NA
xn =
xp =
(W xn )
ND
ND
q
q
= N D xn = N A x p
s
s
1
Vo = ( x ) dx Vo = (0)W
xp
2
1q
1 q ND N A
Vo =
N D xnW =
W2
2 s
2 s N D + N A
xn
2 s 1
1
W=
+
Vo
q N A ND
(1.50)
NA NA
xn 1 +
W
=
ND ND
N AW
xn =
(1.51)
ND + N A
Typically, W is in the rang

of 0.11 m
71
Example 1.10 Consider a pn junction in equilibrium at room temperature

for which the doping concentrations are N A = 1018 cm 3 and N D = 1016 cm 3
and the cross-sectional area A = 104 cm 2 .Calculate p p , n p 0 , nn , pn 0 , V0 , W ,
xn , x p , and QJ . Use ni = 1.5 1010 cm 3 , s = 11.7 0 = 1.04 1012 F/cm.
Solution
p p N A = 1018 cm 3
np =
0
ni2
pp
1.5 10
(
10
cm
3 2
1018 cm 3
= 2.25 102 cm 3
nn = N D = 1016 cm 3
pn =
0
ni2
nn
1.5 10
(
=
10
cm
1016 cm 3
3 2
= 2.25 104 cm 3
72
18 3
16
3
N AND
10
cm
10
cm
Vo = VT ln 2 = 26mV ln
10
3 2
n
i
1.5 10 cm
W=
= 0.814V
2s 1
1
2 1.04 1012
1
1
V
+
=
+
0.814
o
18 3
19
16
3
q N A ND
1.6 10
10 cm
10 cm
= 3.27 105 = 0.327m

N AW
1018
xn =
= 0.324m
= 0.327m 18
16
ND + N A
10 + 10
1016
N DW
= 0.327m 18
= 0.00324m
xp =
16
ND + N A
10 + 10
18
16
N AND
4
19 10 10
4
10
1.6
10
0.327
10
=
QJ = Aq
W
18
16
+
N
N
10
10
+
A
D
= 5.18 1012 C = 5.18pC

73
1.11 The PN junction in the breakdown region

Reverse breakdown can be occur by two mechanisms.
(1) Zener effect : operating at low voltage (Vz < 5V) ,
(2) Avalanche effect: operating at higher voltage (Vz >7V) ,
For junction that breakdown between 5V and 7V the breakdown
mechanism can be either the zener or the avalanche effect or a
combination of the two.
Zener breakdown
When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased the energy bands
become crossed at relatively low voltages. The it can break
covalent bands. generate electron-hole pairs. the electrons will
be swept into the N side and the holes swept into the P side, thus the
electron-hole pairs constitute a reverse current. ( 106 V/cm)
74
Avalanche breakdown
75
The pn junction I-V characteristic with the breakdown region

76
1.11 The PN junction under forward-bias conditions

ID
Is
VR +
I
Figure 1.38 The pn junction excited by a constant-current source I in

the reverse direction. To avoid breakdown, I is kept smaller than IS.
Note that the depletion layer widens and the barrier voltage increases
by VR volts, which appears between the terminals as a reverse voltage.
77
Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is

assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region;
NA >> ND.
pn n p
p region
n region
Depletion
region
pn ( xn )
pn ( x)
n p ( x p )
n p ( x)
pn 0
np0
xp 0
xn
78
1.11.2 The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction
The concentration of minority carriers at the edge of the

depletion region. denoted by Pn ( xn ) in Fig.1.39
for forward voltage V
Pn ( xn ) = Pn 0 eV / VT
(1.57) (The low of the junction)
The distribution of excess hole concentration in the

N region is an exponentially decaying function of distance
we can expressed as
Pn ( x) = Pn 0 + [ Pn ( xn ) Pn 0 ] e
( x xn ) / L p
( x xn ) / L p
= Pn 0 + Pn 0 (eV / VT 1) e
(1.59)
79
where L p is a constant, It is called the diffusion lenth

of holes in the N-type silicon.
D p : diffusion constant for holes in
the N-type silicon
Lp = Dp p

p : excess-minority-carrier lifetime
1 m 100 m
(1ns 10000ns )
The hole current density(the holes diffusion in the N-region)

dp
J p = qD p
dx
d
Pn 0 ( eV / VT 1) e ( x xn ) / L p
= qD p
dx
Dp
( x xn ) / L p
=q
Pn 0 ( eV / VT 1) e
Lp
80
That J p is largest at the edge of the depletion region (x = xn )

and decays exponentially with distance at x = xn ,
the current density due to hole injected is given by
Dp
Jp = q
Pn 0 ( eV / VT 1)
(1.61)
Lp
Similar,the current density due to electrons injected is

given b y
Dn
(1. 62)
Jn = q
n p 0 ( eV / VT 1)
Ln
81
The total current

I = ( J p + J n ) A (since J p and J n are in the same direction )
qD p Pn 0 qDn n p 0 V / V
I = A
+
( e T 1)
Ln
L p
ni2
Substituting for Pn 0 =
(1.29),
ND
Dp
Dn V / VT
2
I = Aqni
+
1)
(e
L p N D Ln N A

N p0
ni2
=
(1.31)
NA
(1.63)
Is
Dp
Dn
I s = Aqn
+
L p N D Ln N A
2
i
(1.65)
82
Is
Figure 1.40 The pn junction I-V characteristic
83
84

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Sedra/Smith

Microelectronic Circuits 6/E

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

(a) the Thvenin form

(b) the Norton form.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

Example: Find the source transformation for the circuits shown in

1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal

1 = 90o v(t ) = va sin(t + 90o ) = va cos t

Figure 1.5 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.

sin ot + sin 3ot + sin 5ot + "

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

sin ot + sin 3ot + sin 5ot + "

Frequency Spectrum Va ( ) in volts

Figure 1.7 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.3 Analog and Digital Signals

Figure 1.8 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a)

Figure 1.9 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

Figure 1.10 Block-diagram representation of the

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

Example: Dual-Slop Analog-to-Digital Converter

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.4.3 Voltage Gain

1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies

Figure 1.13 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as

Example1.2: Consider an amplifier operating from power supplies

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

(d ) Pdc = 10 9.5 + 10 9.5 = 190mW

(e) Pdissipated = Pdc + PI PL = 190 + 0.05 40.5 = 149.6mW

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.4.7 Amplifier saturation

Output peaks clipped

Figure 1.14 An amplifier transfer

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.4.8 Symbol Convention

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifier

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

1.5.1 Voltage Amplifier

(b) Current Amplifier

.(c) Transconductance Amplifier

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

(d) Transresistance Amplifier

1.5.5. Determining Ri and Ro

where vi is the input voltage and ii is the input current.

(c) An alternative small-signal circuit

(a) Small-signal circuit model for a

(b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common

1.6 Frequency response of amplifiers

Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

Figure 1.21 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier.

1.6.4 Single-time constant networks

Let R2C2 be given time constant,hence 2 = 1/ R2C2

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology

(b) A High-Pass Network.

Let R1C1 be given time constant,hence 1 = 1/ R1C1

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology