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Computer Networks
Computer network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
• A computer network is a system for communicating between two or more computers and
associated devices. It is an interconnection of computers for the purposes of sharing
information and resources.
• A popular example of a computer network is the internet, which allows millions of users
to share information
Applications of networks:
– Resource Sharing: Data can be shared with a computer in the next room or on a
different continent
• E.g. the Internet
– Reliability: The presence of multiple computers means that if one computer
becomes unavailable on the network (due to failure) another can be used to take
over that computer’s work.
– Saving Money: Mainframe computers are 10 times faster but 100 times more
expensive than PCs. Hence groups of PCs networked together can reduce costs
(client-server model).
– Improved Communication: People can work together and share ideas.
Asynchronous communication: email more productive that phone, electronic
document interchange and video conferencing.
Terms related to Computer Network
Nodes(Workstation)- Node refers to the computers attached to a network and are seeking to
share the resources of the network.
Server- A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware resources on the
network is termed as a server.
Server can be of two types:
(i) Non-dedicated server - workstation can be double up as a server.
(i) Resource sharing on small-scale
(ii) Peer-to-Peer network
(iii) Slower and requires more memory.
(ii) Dedicated Server – job of server is to help workstations access data, S/W and H/W
resources.
(i) Doesnot double up as a workstation
(ii) MASTER-SLAVE networks/ Client-Server networks.
(iii) Different type of servers – file server,printer server and modem server.

Network Interface Unit/Card(NIU)- It is an interpreter that helps to establish communication

between the server and workstations. It is a device attached to workstation and server. It is also
called Terminal Access Point(TAP). The MAC address refers to the physical address assigned
by NIC manufacturer.
Interspace : is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
Node - A node is defined to be any device connected to the network. This could be a computer, a
printer, a router, etc.
Hub - A Hub is a networking device that connects multiple segments of the network together
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Types of Network:-

• LAN- Local area network

 Privately owned networks
 Used to connect PC’s and workstations within a building or computers in an area
up to 10 kms of range.
 Speed of data, transmission is not very high.
 Very low error rate.
 Data rate of at least several mbps.

• MAN-Metropolitan Area Network

 Bigger version of LAN
 May be private or public
 Covers a group of nearby offices or city

• WAN-Wide Area Network

 Spans a large geographical area
 Public Network and owned by
multiple organizations.
 Speed very high and very high
error rates.
 Data rates less than 1 mbps.

Difference between LAN and WAN

• The distance between the nodes is limited. There is an upper limit of approx. 10 Km. and
lower limit is 1 km.
• While WAN usually operates at speed of less than 1 mbps whereas LAN operate at
between 1 and 10 mbps.
• Because of short distances in LAN error rates are low.

Need for a network

 To break barriers of distance, cost & time
 Sharing of data & resources
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Problems in data transmission:-
 Attenuation – loss of energy as the signal moves forwards during transmission is
called attenuation.
 Noise – Unwanted energy from sources other than transmitter, which disturbs the
signal, is called noise.
Modes of data transmission:-
• Analog or Broadband Transmission
 Signal is a radio frequency signal or analog i.e.- can consist of continuous
electrical waves that are variable.
 Telephone network s use This type of transmission
 Requires modem for transmitting data over baseband medium.
• Digital or Baseband Transmission
 No special device for conversion of signal to be transmitted over baseband
medium.
 Signal is a group of discrete electrical units, which is transmitted , in rapid
succession.
• Parallel Communication
 When data is transmitted through multiple wires with each wire carrying each bit
is called parallel communication
• Serial communication
 When bits are sent one after another in a series along wire, it is called serial
communication
10001----------------10001
• Synchronous or asynchronous Transmission
 When sender and receiver synchronize their checks before transmission i.e sender
first sends control characters to the receiver and then sends the actual data, this is
called Synchronous transmission .Advantage- Faster Disadvantage- Costly &
complex setup required
 In asynchronous transmission data is proceeded and succeeded by a start bit and
stop bit respectively. No synchronization is required. Advantage- Simple and
cheap hardware required Disadvantage- Slower than synchronous mode
NETWORK SWITCHING TECHNIQUES:-
 Circuit Switching:- A complete physical connection between sender and receiver
is established first before actual communication starts. Once circuit has been
established, data is transferred at high speeds. But, there is a considerable
overhead of establishing the circuit. It is used in telephone networks.
 Message Switching:- Here, sender sends data to switching office where it is kept
in disk until a free link to another switching office or destination is found. On
finding out a path , data is further transmitted. Due to its working principle, it is
also called store and forward switching. The problem is that the messages are
stored on hard disk.
 Packet Switching:- In message switching ,long messages block buffer in the
switching office for which packet switching places an upper limit on message
size. Another difference in Packet switching is that packets are stored on buffer
not on disks as in message switching.

For any type of network , we require a medium through which the objects in network can
communicate. These are communication channels in computer network.
Bandwidth determines the amount of data that a channel can carry.
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Baud rate refers to the number of times the condition of the line changes. This is equal
to bits per second only if each signal corresponds to one bit of transmitted data.It is data
transfer rate.

Following communication channels are used in network:-

Guided Media
 Twisted Pair
1. Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern to minimize
the electromagnetic interference between adjacent pairs
2. Used for mostly office telephone wiring.
3. Data transmission characteristics are not very good due to high attenuation.
Types of Twisted Pair
• STP (shielded twisted pair)
– the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid to insulate the pair from
electromagnetic interference
• UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
– each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the pair is encased in an outer covering

Advantages: 1. Simple and inexpensive

2. Easy to install, because of physical flexibility, low weight
and easy connectivity.

Disadvantages: 1. Signals loose energy due to attenuation, so repeaters

are required.
2. Bandwidth is low, so unsuitable for broadband
application.
3. Data transmission characteristics are not so good.
 Coaxial cables

a. Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the term “co-axial”
b. Coaxial cables consist of two wires: The first, a copper wire, surrounded
by an insulator, the second is surrounded by a metallic cylinder called the
shield. This design provides the coaxial cable with a special advantage:
electrical interference is reduced because the two conductors are shielded
and confined separately
c. Data transmission characteristics are better than twisted pair.
d. Used for cable television, LANs, telephony

Advantages:- 1. High Bandwidth and can be used for broadband

transmission.
2. Excellent noise immunity
Disadvantages:- 1. Expensive compared to twisted pair cables.
2. Not compatible with twisted pair cables.
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• Types –
– Thick net (used for connecting nodes upto 500 m long
– Thin net (maximum segment length of 185 meters
• Optical fibers
1. These are then strands of glass or glass like material constructed to carry light from one
source at one end fiber to a detector at other end
2. Bandwidth potentially very high
3. Data transmission rate is also high
4. Very good transmission technology.

Advantages
 Very high bandwidth
 Reliable
 It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference.
Disadvantages
 Very costly
 Installation and setup is very complex
 They are impossible to tap coz of noise immunity
Unguided Media - Wireless Transmission
• transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna
• directional
– transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
– transmitter and receiver must be aligned
• omnidirectional
– signal spreads out in all directions
– can be received by many antennas
• Microwave
1. Used in wireless communication
2. Required for long distance communication
3. Parabolic antennas are mounted on towers to send a beam to other antenna.
4. Higher the antenna greater the range.
Satellite Microwave Applications
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
Advantages
 Cheaper than lying cables over distances.
 It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
 It offers freedom from land acquisition rights that are required for laying,
repairing the cables.
 Microwaves have the ability to communicate over oceans.
Disadvantages
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 Signals from a single antenna may split up and propogate by slightly different
paths to receiving antenna. These out of phase signals combine, they interfere.
 Also affected by weather like rains, thunder storms etc.
 The cost of design, implementation and implementation of its links is high
 Repeaters are required.
• Radio wave
 Easy to generate
 Travel over long distances
 Used for communication both indoors and outdoors
 Waves are omni directional i.e.- travel in all directions from sources to source
destination need not to be physically aligned.
 It is cheaper than microwave.
Advantages
 Offers mobility
 Cheaper than guided media
 Ease of communication over diffcult terrain
Disadvantages
 Signal frequency dependent
 At low frequency, signal pass through obstacles and power falls off.
 Subject to interference and weather conditions.
• Infra red transmission
 Used for small area and in remote controls.
 Infrared signals are highly modulated.
 As for microwave alignment between sender and receiver is required.
 It transmits data through the air but will not penetrate walls.
 It provides a secure transmission.
• Laser - The laser Transmission requires direct line-of-sight. It is Unidirectional like
microwave, but has much higher speed than microwaves than microwaves. The laser
transmission requires the use of a laser transmitter and a photo-sensitive receiver at
each end. The laser transmission is point-to-point transmission typically between
buildings.
• Satellite
 In this, there is a satellite & earth station communicating with the satellite.
 Earth station has a satellite dish, which transmits & receives the signal. Satellite
transmission is similar in principle to the ordinary radio link. Instead of having all the
stations earthbound, we send some up into the space.
 Communications Satellite rotate at almost exactly the same rate as the earth rotate.
Compared to the radio link, the satellite has a considerable large range. They are used for
both in the national network and in the international network.
Advantages
 The area coverage is quite large.
 It proves to be best alternative where laying and maintenance of intercontinental
cable is difficult and expensive.
Disadvantage
 Costly
 Over crowding of available bandwidths due to low antenna gains.
 Technological limitations prevent the use of large high gain antennas on the
satellite platform.
Data communication technology(pg 745)
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• Data channel is the medium used to carry information or data from one point to
another.
• Baud is the unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of a channel. It
is bps (bits per second).
• Bandwidth refers to the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a
transmission channel i.e. amount of digital information that can be pushed through a
channel is bandwidth. High bandwidth channels are called broadband channels and low
bandwidth channels are called narrow band channels.
• Data transfer rates represents the amount of data transfer per second by a
communication channel or a computing or storage device. It is measured in bps, Bps,
baud.

Network Devices

1. Repeater- The device regenerates the signal as the signal tends to loose energy
after moving through long distances.Repeaters are of two types:Amplifier and
signal repeater.

2. Backbone- is central interconnecting structure that connects one or more

networks just like the trunk or the spine of a human being.
3. Gateway- The device that connects two dissimilar networks is gateway. It
establishes an intelligent connection between a local network and external
networks with completely different structure.
4. Bridge- It connects similar networks. It is a device that establishes an intelligent
connection between two local networks with the same standard but with different
types of cables.
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i.

5. MODEM- Modulator/ DEModulator for computer to computer data

transmission. Telephone cables are used . Computers generate digital signals and
telephone lines carries analog signals so for data transmission, analog to digital
and digital to analog conversion is required. The device which carries modulation
and demodulation i.e conversion of digital to analog and analog to digital is done
by MODEM. Modems come in two varieties:
Internal Modem and External Modem

6. RJ45 Connector(Registered Jack-45) is an eight wire connector, which is

commonly used to connect computers on the local networks i.e LAN’s especially
Ethernets

7. Ethernet card -is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp along with
DEC and Intel. Ethernet uses either a bus or star topology and supports data
transfer rates of upto 10 Mbps.

8. Switch- It is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub

networks called subnets or LAN segments. The type of interface to which ISDN
device is being attached. Segmenting the network into smaller subnets, prevents
traffic overloading in a network.
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9. Router- is a network device that is used to separate different segments in a

network to improve performance and reliability. It works like bridge but can
handle different protocols.

10. HUB- is a hardware device used to connect several computers together. Hubs
can be either active or passive
 Active Hubs electrically amplifies signals, used like repeaters
 Passive Hubs allow the signal to pass from one computer to another without any
change.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology refers to the pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network.
Factors affecting the topology used for a network are-
COST- It imposes a limitation on the pattern of
interconnection of nodes.
b. FLEXIBILITY- Topology should be easily
reconfigurable involving addition and movement of nodes.
c. RELIABILITY –Topology should provide reliable
communication even if one or two nodes have failed.
d. Fault Diagnosis.
e. Fault Tolerance.

Different Topologies are:-

1. BUS TOPOLOGY- Also known as linear or multidrop topology. It consists mainly
of main trunk known as Bus/ Backbone. It is a long twisted pair cable or coaxial
cable into which nodes and peripheral are attached using drop cables. The two ends
of backbone are terminated by absorbers to absorb signals from the cable after it has
passed all the devices.

Advantages:
• Range of equipments can be
attached.
• New node can be added easily
• Low cable costing as cable length
• is short and simple wiring layout
• Resilient Architecture.
Disadvantages:
• Single message can travel at a time.
• Collision occurs in case of multiple
transmission
• Low reliability
• Fault Diagnosis is difficult.
• Fault isolation is difficult.
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• Repeater configuration and node must be
intelligent.

NODES
B
D F
BB H Absorbers
DB C
A

A C E G

Backbone
2. RING TOPOLOGY
Also known as daisy chain, It is circular cable. All nodes are connected to exactly
two nodes to form a ring. All nodes are connected in a ring and data passes across each
node in the system.
Advantages:- Disadvantages:-
• One node can transmit at a time. • If one node fails network comes down.
• Repeaters not required. • Each node must be intelligent to hold data
• Short cable length and no wiring transmitted by other nodes.
closet space required. • Difficult to diagnose faults
Suitable for optical fibers. • Network configuration is difficult.

NODE
B

A
A
C
A

D
3. STAR TOPOLOGY
Various nodes are connected to a directly wired central, dedicated computer
known as Hub of star. The drop cables extend in all directions. All data transfer is via
hub.
Advantages: Disadvantages:-
• Fault tolerant • Long cable length
• Network management is easy. • Difficult to expand
• Centralized control and easy problem diagnosis. • Central node dependency.
Simple access protocols.
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B C

A Central Work Stations

E D

4. TREE TOPOLOGY
Passive branches can be added to groups or individual nodes in the sense that the
original bus splits into a number of separate branches. The structure is as follows:
A

B C D E

Other topologies are Graph,Mesh topology etc.

Protocols
Rules to govern communication on computer network are called protocols. Following are
some of the protocols:

HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

Set of rules governing exchange of hypertext between two computers is commonly known
as HTTP. It consists of two distinct items:-
 A set of requests from browsers to servers
 A set of responses from server to browsers
FTP(File Transfer Protocol)
Set of rules, which enables files to be uploaded or downloaded on a network is known as
FTP. It serves as client server process. The objectives of FTP are:
i) to promote sharing of files(computer program/data)
ii) to encourage indirect use of computers
iii) to transfer data
TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
It is a layered set of protocols being widely followed on internet.
TCP is responsible for keeping track of what is being sent, how it is being sent and whether
what has been sent is received properly at the other end or not. If not properly received,
retransmission is controlled by TCP.
TCP splits messages into fixed size datagram which are then tagged with destination address
and sent to receiver where the datagram are merged to form proper message.
IP is the protocol controlling addressing on the network. As and when any computer gets
connected to the network, it must owe a unique address with which it will be identified by
other systems. IP protocol assigns address to the different system on the network.
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol)
It was the first protocol used on dialup lines for sending and receiving packets on the
network. It does not have support for dynamic address assignment so is not used nowdays.
PPP(Point- to Point protocol)
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It is currently used Internet protocol for data transfer on dial-up lines or leased lines. It
consists of following protocols-
i) LCP-Link Control Protocol. It is
used for link establishment, configuration and testing.
ii) NCP- After establishment of
a link, one or more network connections can be used to transfer traffic on a
line.
PPP supports synchronized and asynchronized lines.
SMTP( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
SMTP is the protocol used for transfer of e-mail over the network. It requires both the sender
and receiver to be online while sending or receiving the mail. The solution to this is provided
by POP.
POP(Post office protocol)
It is a protocol for mail collection and distribution that allows creation of mailbox for each
user to store the mail until they are collected.

Internet/ Network Terminology and concepts

Remote Login- Using Remote login software, contents of distantly placed computer
can be accessed. This service is used with the help of a software known as Telnet.
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects agency Network)
Predecessor of Internet, it was started by military operations agency ARPA in USA to
connect military bases at the time of war. Seeing the usefulness, it was later on
expanded to US colleges and universities and the expansion continued to what we see
as Internet today.
Internet is the global network of networks.
Wireless/ Mobile Communication
Across network, data is being transmitted via unguided or non-wired medium which is
known as wireless/mobile communication. Wireless Communication is data
communication without the use of landlines. Mobile computing means that the
computing device is not continuously connected to the base or central network.
GSM- Short for Global System for Mobile Communications, one of the leading digital
cellular systems. GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls
on the same radio frequency.

CDMA- Code Division Multiple Access

It is a way to increase channel capacity by using code sequences as traffic channels in a
common radio channel. Used in new mobiles and these mobiles also cover a large area.
WLL- Wireless Local Loop- is a system that connects subscribers to the
switched telephone network(PSTN) using radio signals as a substitute for other
connecting media.
3G and EDGE
Set of third generation services applied to wideband mobile communication, also called
UMTS(universal mobile telecommunication system). It is a broadband , packet-based
transmission of text,digitized voice, video, and multimedia at data rates upto and
possibly 2Mbps. EDGE(Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution) is a radio based
high-speed mobile data standard.
SMS- Short Message Service
Service, which allows sending of short messages from mobile to mobile. This service is
now facilitating messaging through internet on mobiles.
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Voice Mail
Along with digital data, voice data can also sent on telephones and Internet. This is
known as voice mailing.
E-mail electronic way of sending and receiving mails. Ex. abc@rediffmail.com
Advantages - Low cost, Speed, Waste reduction, Ease of Use , Record maintenance,
Limitations – Hardware requirement, Impermanent, A hasty medium, Hard to
convey emotions
Chat- The service which allows two or more users to exchange textual data is known
as chatting by being online.
Video Conferencing- As the name suggests, video conferencing is the service
which allows two or more distantly placed users to exchange their views with live
video and audio being transmitted as if they are conferencing in the same conference
hall.
Internetworking terms and Concepts
World Wide Web –WWW is the set of protocols that provide graphical, colorful and
user friendly interface to the internet.
TELNET – Telnet is an internet utility that lets you log onto remote computer systems.
Web Browser – is a WWW client that navigates through the WWW and display web
pages.
Web Server – is a www server that responds to the requests made by web browser.
URL – Uniform Resource Locator. Specifies the distinct address for each resource on
the internet. An Internet address which is character based is called a Domain name.
Domain Name- A group of computers that are part of a network and share a common
directory database. A domain is administered as a unit with common rules and
procedures. Each domain has a unique name known as domain name.
IP Address – Along with domain name, each website is given a unique number which
consists of a 4 different numbers separated by three periods. This is defined as per rules
of Internet Protocol (IP). The unique combination of numbers is known as IP Address.
Some common Domain names :-
.com – commercial, .edu – education , .gov – government , .net – network resources etc.
Web Page – A location on a net server is called a Web Site. A document that uses
HTTP is called a Web Page.
Home Page – Top level web page of a web site.
Web Portal – It is a web site, which hosts other web sites, has hyperlinks to many
other web sites. For ex. www.indiatimes.com, www.khoj.com
Web Hosting – Web Hosting is a means of hosting web-server application on a
computer system through which electronic content on the internet is readily available to
any web browser client.
Types of Web Hosting - Free Hosting, Virtual Hosting, Dedicated Hosting, Co-location Hosting
Web Site- is a location on a net server.
Web Server is a computer that is maintained by a system administrator or Internet
service provider ( ISP) and that responds to requests from a user’s browser.
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)
Markup language is the one which uses mark ups(tags) to define how the data will be
presented on the web page. This language is used to design and define how data will be
presented on a web page.
Extensible Markup Language(XML) – a meta markup language that provides a
format for describing structured data. This facilitates more precise declarations of
content and more meaningful search results across multiple platforms. In addition ,
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XML will enable a new generation of web based data viewing and manipulation
applications.
USENET-Also known as newsnet is a public network made up of thousands of
newsgroups.A newsgroup is a bulletin board service on which various users post
messages on a related topic.
Archie- is a system of locating files on a FTP location. It is known as resource
directory tool.
Gopher is a menu driven tool for locating information.
Telnet is an internet utility that lets you log onto remote computer systems.
NETWORK SECURITY CONCEPTS
Cyber Law - Law governing security on internet.
Firewall - a combination of hardware and software that provides a security system,
usually to prevent unauthorized access from outside to an internal network or intranet.
A firewall prevents direct communication between network and external computers by
routing communication through a proxy server outside of the network. The proxy server
determines whether it is safe to let a file pass through to the network. A firewall is also
called a security – edge gateway.
Cookies- Some web sites store information in a small text file on your computer. This
file is called a cookie. They are messages that a web server transmits to a Web browser
so that the Web server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific Web site.
Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems wheras
HACKERS are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and
possibly using this knowledge for playful pranks.
OPEN SOURCE BASED SOFTWARE

Terminology and Definitions

Freeware, the name derived from words "free" and"software". It is a computer soft 1
ware that is available for use at no cost or for an optional fee. Freeware is generally
proprietary software available at zero price, and is not free software. The author usually
restricts one or more rights to copy, distribute, and make derivative works of the
software.
Shareware is usually offered as a trial version with certain features only available after
the license is purchased, or as a full version, but for a trial period. Once the trial period
has passed the program may stop running until a license is purchased. Shareware is
often offered without support, updates, or help menus, which only become available
with the purchase of a license. The words "free trial" or "trial version" are indicative of
shareware.
2. The Open Source Definition is used by the Open Source Initiative to determine whether or not
a software license can be considered open source.
Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. The distribution terms of open-source
software must comply with the following criteria:
Introduction
Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code.
The distribution terms of open-source software must comply with the following criteria:
1. Free Redistribution
The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component
of an aggregate software distribution containing programs from several different sources. The
license shall not require a royalty or other fee for such sale.
2. Source Code
The program must include source code, and must allow distribution in source code as well as
compiled form. Where some form of a product is not distributed with source code, there must be
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a well-publicized means of obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable reproduction
cost preferably, downloading via the Internet without charge. The source code must be the
preferred form in which a programmer would modify the program. Deliberately obfuscated
source code is not allowed. Intermediate forms such as the output of a preprocessor or translator
are not allowed.
3. Derived Works
The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed
under the same terms as the license of the original software.
4. Integrity of The Author's Source Code
The license may restrict source-code from being distributed in modified form only if the license
allows the distribution of "patch files" with the source code for the purpose of modifying the
program at build time. The license must explicitly permit distribution of software built from
modified source code. The license may require derived works to carry a different name or
version number from the original software.
5. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons.
6. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in a specific field of
endeavor. For example, it may not restrict the program from being used in a business, or from
being used for genetic research.
7. Distribution of License
The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program is redistributed
without the need for execution of an additional license by those parties.
8. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
The rights attached to the program must not depend on the program's being part of a particular
software distribution. If the program is extracted from that distribution and used or distributed
within the terms of the program's license, all parties to whom the program is redistributed should
have the same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the original software
distribution.
9. License Must Not Restrict Other Software
The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with the
licensed software. For example, the license must not insist that all other programs distributed on
the same medium must be open-source software.
10. License Must Be Technology-Neutral
No provision of the license may be predicated on any individual technology or style of interface.

3.OSS refers to open source software which refers to s/w whose source code is available to
customers and it can be modified and redistribuyed without any limitation. An OSS may come
free of cost or with a nominal charge whereas FLOSS refers to Free Libre and Open Source
Software , which is both free s/w as well as open source software.
4. GNU – (GNU's Not Unix) A Unix-like operating system developed by the free software
movement starting in 1984. In 1992, the almost-complete GNU system was combined with the
Linux kernel, producing the GNU/Linux system. The GNU Project developed many of the core
programs in GNU, but also included available free software such as the X Window System and
TeX.
5. Freeware is computer software that is made available free of charge, but which is copyrighted
by its developer, who retains the rights to control its distribution, modify it and sell it in the
future. It is typically distributed without its source code, thus preventing modification by its
users. Freeware is very different from free software. The latter term generally refers to software
that is free not only in a monetary sense but also in that there are no restrictions (or only very
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minimal restrictions) on its use, including the rights to modify it and redistribute the modified
forms.

Freeware is also different from open source software. The latter term refers to software for which
the source code is made freely available and for which there are very minimal restrictions on its
use. Open source software is usually also free in a monetary sense, and thus in most cases is the
same thing as free software.
6.Proprietary software is software that is owned by an individual or a company (usually the one
that developed it). There are almost always major restrictions on its use, and its source code is
almost always kept secret. Source code is the form in which a program is originally written by a
human using a programming language and prior to being converted to machine code which is
directly readable by a computer's CPU (central processing unit). It is necessary to have the
source code in order to be able to modify or improve a program.
7.Shareware - Copyrighted software that is available free of charge on a trial basis, usually with
the condition that users pay a fee for continued use and support.
8.FSF Common abbreviation (both spoken and written) for the name of the Free Software
Foundation, a nonprofit educational association formed to support the GNU project.
9.OSI - (Open Source Initiative) A non-profit corporation dedicated to promoting open source
software. The OSI logo on software certifies that it is distributed under one of several approved
licenses.
10.W3C - The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main international standards
organization for the World Wide Web (abbreviated WWW or W3).
Read Network Security (Pg 797-798)
Read IPR Issues and Viruses from Book (pg 801-804)
Points related to 4 marks question (Networking/LAN Design)
Good Network Design 80-20 Rule
80 percent of the traffic on a given network segment is local and not more than 20 percent
of the network traffic should need to move across a backbone
LAN Hardware
• Repeaters ,Hubs,Bridges,Switches,Routers,Combining Hubs, Switches and routers
USING Repeaters
• One basic rule of repeater is the 5-4-3 rule. The maximum path between two stations
should not more than 5 segments with 4 repeaters.
• For long distance use repeaters in the cable.
Using Bridges
Bridges are used to connect separate segments of a network. Bridges filter the data.
When to use Hubs/Bridges/Switches/Routers
• To establish a network between two computers is easy.Install NIC in both the computers
and then attach using crossover cable.
• If you increase or decrease the distance between computers use REPEATERS.
• If more than two computers are needed to be attached for long distance, use multi-port
repeater called HUB.
Problem with HUBS
• Hubs share bandwidths among all attached devices.
• Hubs cannot filter traffic. They broadcast data to all devices.
Solution to the problem is BRIDGE (Smarter Hub) which can filter data based on MAC
address.
Bridges will ensure that traffic goes only to intended segment and not to all segments as
with the hubs.
SWITCH(multiport Bridge)
• Gives a dedicated Bandwidth to each LAN segment
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• Problem with Switch - Cannot stop traffic destined for a different LAN segment from
travelling to all other LAN segments.
Solution to the problem is Router - Routers filters network traffic based on IP address
and routes up the data.

Working of Hub, Switch, Router from Book.