int. j. remote sensing, 1998 , vol. 19 , no.

5 , 935 956

Remote sensing techniques for mangrove mapping

E. P. GREEN
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road,
Cambridge CB3 0DL, England, UK

C. D. CLARK, P. J. MUMBY
She eld Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Geography,
University of She eld, She eld S10 2TN, England, UK

A. J. EDWARDS
Centre for Tropical Coastal Management Studies, Department
of Marine Sciences and Coastal Management, University of Newcastle,
Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, England, UK

and A. C. ELLIS
Department of Geography, Student Building, Indiana University, Bloomington,
IN 47405, USA
( Received 18 November 1996; in nal form 1 October 1997 )
Di erent approaches to the classi cation of remotely sensed data of
mangroves are reviewed, and ve di erent methodologies identi ed. Landsat TM,
SPOT XS and CASI data of mangroves from the Turks and Caicos Islands, were
classi ed using each method. All classi cations of SPOT XS data failed to
discriminate satisfactorily between mangrove and non-mangrove vegetation.
Classi cation accuracy of CASI data was higher than Landsat TM for all methods,
and more mangrove classes could be discriminated. Merging Landsat TM and
SPOT XP data improved visual interpretation of images, but did not enhance
discrimination of di erent mangrove categories. The most accurate combination
of sensor and image processing method for mapping the mangroves of the eastern
Caribbean islands is identi ed.
Abstract.

1.

Introduction

The importance of mangroves as a coastal resource is well established. Mangrove

forests are used throughout the tropics as shing areas, wildlife reserves, for recreation, human habitation and aquaculture: mangrove vegetation itself is harvested
directly as feed supplement and for timber products ( Hamilton and Snedaker 1984).
Mangroves are also important nursery areas for the juveniles of many commercial
sh and crustacean species ( Robertson and Duke 1987 ) and play important roles in
coastal protection and water quality (Saenger et al. 1983). This importance is re ected
2
in the economic value of mangroves which lies in the range of US $100 277 000 km ,
depending on use (Stevenson 1996). In the eastern Caribbean the steep shorelines of
the high islands, the limited freshwater run o of the low dry islands and the exposure
of a large portion of the shoreline to intense wave action imposes severe limits on
the development of mangroves. These typically occur in small stands at protected
river mouths or in narrow fringes along the most sheltered coasts ( Bossi and Cintron
0143 1161/98 $12.00

1998 Taylor & Francis Ltd

SPOT XS
Landsat TM
SPOT XS

SPOT XS

Wood ne ( 1991)
Chaudhury ( 1990 )

IV. Supervised classi cation

Dutrieux et al. ( 1990 )

III. Unsupervised classi cation

Vits and Tack ( 1995)
SPOT XS
Landsat TM
Loo et al. ( 1992 )
Landsat TM

II. Vegetation index image

Blasco et al. ( 1986 )
Jensen et al. ( 1991 )
Chaudhury ( 1990 )

SPOT*
SPOT XS
Landsat TM

Field data

Field data
Aerial photos

Field data

Field data

Aerial photographs
Field data
Aerial photographs

Field data
Field data

KATE-140
Aerial photos
Aerial photos

Paterson and Rehder ( 1985)

Untawale, A. G. et al.
( 1982)

Field data

MK6

Roy ( 1989 )

Field data

Validation

SPOT XS

Sensor (s)

I. Visual interpretation
Gang and Agatsiva ( 1992)

Processing method

No

N/A
No

95%
97%
No

No
No
No

No
No

No

No

Acc?

Four classes ( labelled according to dominant species and

species associations) .

Failed to distinguish mangrove and forest satisfactorily.

Four classes ( labelled according to dominant species).

Three classes (dense, less dense and cleared coastal

vegetation).

Four classes ( 2 fringing, mixed, shrub and logged mangrove).

Two classes ( fringing and cleared mangrove).

Percentage canopy closure.
Two classes ( labelled according to dominant species).

Four classes (fringing, black, mixed and riverine mangrove).

Ten classes ( labelled by species or genera) .

Five classes ( labelled after dominant species or associations of

species).
Seven classes ( labelled after associations of dominant
mangrove species).

Level of discrimination achieved

Table 1. A summary of the image processing techniques which have been applied to remotely sensed data of mangroves. Further discussion of these
techniques is given in the text. Studies have been arranged in ve groups according to the image processing technique employed only 12% of
them include an assessment of accuracy for the classi cation. SPOT XS =multispectral Syste me Pour lObservation de la Terre, MK6 is a Russian
multispectral camera carried on the Salyut-7 satellite, KATE-140 is a Soviet panchromatic large format camera, Landsat TM = Landsat Thematic
Maper, MOS-1 MESSR =multispectral electronic self-scanning radiometer carried on the Marine Observation Satellite, JERS 1 = Japanese Earth
Resources Satellite, ERS-1 SAR =synthetic aperture radar carried on the European Remote Sensing Satellite, Landsat MSS = Landsat
Multispectral Scanner, SPOT XP =panchromatic Syste me Pour lObservation de la Terre, CASI = Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager,
N /A =not applicable and Acc?=accuracy assessment? *Simulated data.

936
E. P. Green et al.

Field data, aerial

photos, maps
Field data
Field data

SPOT XP
Landsat MSS
MOS-1 MESSR
Landsat MSS
CASI

Landsat TM

Landsat TM

Lorenzo et al. ( 1979 )

Green et al. ( In Press b)

Wood ne ( 1991)

V. Band ratio-ing
Gray et al. ( 1990 )

Ranganath et al. 1989

Kay et al. 1991

Long et al. ( 1994 )
Populus and Lantieri ( 1991 )

Bin a et al. ( 1980 )

Landsat TM
Landsat TM
Landsat TM
SPOT XS
Landsat TM

Field data
Aerial photographs

SPOT XS
Landsat TM

Field data

Field data
Aerial photos
Field data

Field data

Field data

Field data
Field data

Palaganas ( 1992 )
Vibulsresth et al. ( 1990 )

Mohamed et al. ( 1992)

Eong et al. ( 1992 )

Field data
Field data, maps

SPOT XS
SPOT XS
Landsat TM
MOS-1 MESSR
JERS-1
ERS-1 SAR
Landsat MSS
Landsat TM

Vits and Tack ( 1995 )

Aschbacher et al. ( 1995 )

No

N /A
No
No

No

No

No
78%

85%

81%
No

No
No

91%
No

Three height classes ( tall [>10 m], medium [ 4 10 m] and dwarf

[<4 m] mangrove).
Mangrove (as separate from non-mangrove vegetation) .
Mangrove (as separate from non-mangrove vegetation) .
Two classes ( high density, mature, mangrove and low density,
young ).
Mangrove (as separate from non-mangrove vegetation) .

Mangrove (as separate from non-mangrove vegetation) .

Six classes (de ned from hierarchical cluster analysis of eld
data).
Five classes ( Mixed community, complex community, transitional to freshwater, transitional to upland vegetation, cleared
mangrove with secondary invasion).

Mangrove (as separate from non-mangrove vegetation) .

Two classes of wetland vegetation.

Three classes ( 2 labelled according to dominant species, cleared
mangrove).
Two classes ( primary and secondary mangrove).
Six classes ( 4 labelled according to dominant species, 2 mixed
mangrove).

Four classes ( 2 fringing, mixed, shrub and logged mangrove).

Four qualitative density classes (dense and medium, low and
very low density).

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

937

938

E. P. Green et al.

1990 ). As a result most of the mangrove forests in this region are small. Nevertheless
they occur in up to 50 di erent areas where they are particularly important for water
quality control, shoreline stabilization and as aquatic nurseries ( Bossi and Cintron
1990 ).
To study mangrove areas e ectively, and to monitor changes over time, accurate,
rapid, and cost-e ective mapping techniques are required. The use of remotely sensed
data o ers many advantages in this respect and has been used to monitor deforestation and aquaculture activity, in environmental sensitivity analyses and for resource
inventory and mapping purposes (Green et al . 1996). However, the accuracy of the
nal map is a ected by the ability of the classi cation procedure to discriminate
between various vegetation types. The ability to do this is partly a function of the
sensors resolution, and partly a function of the image processing method or classi cation procedure adopted. For example, when mapping reefal habitats it has been
shown that the overall accuracy of habitat maps and the users accuracy of individual
classes are dependant upon the particular classi cation procedure adopted (Green
et al . in press a). Not only is a variety of satellite and airborne systems available to
users of remote sensing but also many di erent image processing techniques. The
choice of an appropriate system and technique will depend on the objectives of the
study and size of the budget but few, if any, guidelines exist to facilitate this
selection process.
Accuracy is the criterion against which the success of an image processing method
should be judged: no matter how innovative or sophisticated the classi cation
procedure, the value of any map is severely compromised if its accuracy is insu cient
to ful l project objectives. Equally important from a management perspective, initiatives based on a map of unknown accuracy may lead to unnecessary or inappropriate
action. A plethora of image processing methods are available to classify remotely
sensed data of mangroves but weighing the relative merits of each is extremely
di cult because unfortunately published reports rarely include an assessment of
accuracy (table 1). The few that do suggest that high accuracies are possible
( 78 97%). The lack of accuracy information is by no means unique to remote sensing
work on mangroves. Rather it appears to be a feature of remote sensing in the wider
tropical coastal management context (Green et al . 1996 ).
A variety of sensors and image processing methods have been used in the remote
sensing of mangroves (table 1). Landsat TM and SPOT XS are the most common
sensors, although it must be stressed that aerial photography ( both black and white,
and colour) is heavily under-represented in table 1. Despite more than seventy years
of application, it is di cult to obtain an overview of aerial photography for the
assessment of mangroves because published accounts are scarce. This in itself is no
reason to doubt the success of aerial photography. Instead, it probably re ects the
low emphasis which governmental departments, aid agencies, or consultancy rms
naturally place on the publication of results in scienti c literature. Some use has
also been made of video ( Everitt and Judd 1989, Everitt et al. 1991, 1996 ) and
colour-infrared photography ( Reark 1975, Ross 1975, Saenger and Hopkins 1975,
Sherrod and McMillan 1981, Everitt and Judd 1989) for monitoring mangroves.
Aerial photographs and video require image processing techniques which are di erent
to those employed on data from sensors which collect digital data directly. It is the
latter which constitute the focus of this paper.
Passive sensors in the visible and infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
su er from the problem of cloud cover hampering image acquisition and for this

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

939

reason some e ort has recently been made to utilise radar images, speci cally
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) from which it is possible to acquire data at any
season, irrespective of cloud cover. Initial work would seem to indicate that it is
harder to extract mangrove information from SAR than from optical data. Pons
and Le Toan ( 1994 ) using SAR in Guinea, West Africa, produced maps of mangrove
broadly split into two height classes ( low and high mangrove). Similarly, analysis of
SAR to yield information on homogeneity of tree height was used by Aschbacher
et al . ( 1996 ) to complement classi cation of SPOT XS data. This approach enabled
more mangrove classes to be identi ed than with SPOT XS alone, but unfortunately
the degree of success of both these studies was not quanti ed. Mangrove mapping
using SAR is still in its infancy, and further studies are required to verify and re ne
the identi cation of mangrove characteristics obtainable from radar. If these are
found to be useful for resource management purposes, then SAR would o er great
potential, particularly because of its independence from climatic conditions.
Unfortunately SAR imagery was unavailable for the study area, the Turks and
Caicos Islands, British West Indies.
This paper analyses the relationship between image processing methods routinely
applied to remotely sensed data of mangroves and classi cation accuracy, using
data from three di erent sensors. The most accurate combination for mapping the
mangroves of the eastern Caribbean islands is identi ed.
2.

M ethods

Figure 1 outlines the experimental protocol which was adopted to quantify the
e ect of each of these approaches on classi cation accuracy.
2.1. Imagery
Satellite and airborne imagery of the Caicos Bank, Turks and Caicos Islands,
British West Indies, was acquired ( gure 2). Landsat TM ( path 9, row 45,
22 November 1990 ) and SPOT ( K 643, J 306, 27 March 1995) data were geometrically
corrected and georeferenced to Ordnance Survey maps (Series E8112 DOS 309P).
Both multispectral SPOT XS and panchromatic SPOT XP images were acquired.
Landsat TM band 6 has a spatial resolution of 120 m and is in the thermal portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum. As such its use in habitat mapping is limited and
2
it was removed. A 180 km subset in the vicinity of South Caicos and Nigger Cay
was selected from all images and the water masked out using the infrared bands
( TM band 7 and SPOT band 3) as masks ( gure 1, step A). The South Caicos area
was chosen because a large amount of eld data could be collected from within it,
rapidly and with minimal logistical di culties. In this area both images were cloud
free.
Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI ) data were collected in July
2
1995 over approximately 6 km on South Caicos, and geometrically corrected using
ground control points. The CASI was con gured with eight spectral bands, with a
spatial resolution of 1 m (table 2 ); for details of the CASI campaign see Clark et al .
( 1997 ) and Green et al . (in press b).
2.2. Image processing
2.2.1. Image processing methods for mangroves
Analysis of the literature ( gure 1, step B) reveals that the approaches taken to
classify remotely sensed data on mangroves fall into ve methodological groups

940

E. P. Green et al.

Figure 1. The experimental protocol, illustrated with reference to Landsat TM (see main text
for details). A small subset was chosen form the full image for which eld data can be
obtained relatively quickly. This is tested against a suite of image processing techniques
using two independent eld data sets, one for classi cation, the other for accuracy
assessment. The classi cation accuracy of each image processing method is compared,
and the accurate method identi ed. The whole satellite image may then be classi ed
using this technique, with further eld data if necessary.

(table 1). The Landsat TM and SPOT XS subset image of South Caicos were both
processed using each of the ve di erent approaches described below, as were the
CASI data ( gure 1, step C).
I. Visual interpretation : Visual interpretation is seldom de ned explicitly. It has
been taken to describe a process whereby a digital image is studied by eye with

941

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

Figure 2. A map of the Caicos Bank, Turks and Caicos Islands. The Caicos islands are
distributed across a limestone platform whose margin is de ned by a `drop-o which
plunges steeply into water of abyssal depth this is the edge of the light grey area.
The bank area is about one-third of a full Landsat TM scene. SPOT XS and XP data
were obtained from East and South Caicos, as denoted by a white dashed box. CASI
mangrove data were obtained from four ight lines: two from East Caicos and two
from South Caicos. The total area covered by CASI was approximately 25 km 2 (as
marked by the solid white boxes). All eld sites were in the area covered by CASI.
Table 2.
Band
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Band settings for the CASI.

Portion of electromagnetic
spectrum
Blue
Blue
Green
Green
Red
Red
Near infrared
Near infrared

Wavelength (nm)
4025
4534
5311
5719
6307
6665
7366
7763

4218
4692
5435
5843
6432
6737
7528
7854

reference to eld data or aerial photographs and a decision on di erent mangrove

categories reached without any further computational e ort or statistical processing. Radiometric enhancement (contrast or pseudocolour) is commonly applied to
facilitate visual comprehension of the information displayed in the imagery.
Processing method used: The imagery was enhanced with a linear contrast stretch.
This was then interpreted visually with reference to eld data and UK Ordnance
Survey maps (Series E8112 DOS 309P).

942

E. P. Green et al.

II. Vegetation index : Many di erent vegetation indices are available to transform
multispectral information into a single index. They may be broadly categorized into
three types: ratio indices (e.g., normalized di erence vegetation index; Jensen 1986),
orthogonal indices (e.g. tassled cap transformation; Crist and Cicone 1984 ), and
others ( Logan and Strahler 1983, Perry and Lautenschlager 1984 ). Of these ratio
indices have been most frequently applied to mangrove data. Chaudhury ( 1990) used
a ratio of Landsat TM infrared bands 5 and 7 (( 5 7)/ (5+7 )) while Blasco et al .
( 1986 ) computed a normalized di erent vegetation index ( NDVI) from the red and
infrared SPOT XS bands 2 and 3 (( 3 2)/ (3+2 )). Jensen et al . (1991 ) correlated
eld data with four di erent ratio indices derived from SPOT XS data. The ratio
image is then usually classi ed (Blasco et al . 1986, Chaudhury 1990).
Processing method used: NDVI is calculated using near red and infrared bands.
This was performed for Landsat TM using bands 3 and 4, SPOT XS bands 2 and
3, and CASI bands 6 and 7 (table 2). An unsupervised classi cation of the NDVI
image using the ISODATA clustering algorithm ( Tou and Gonzalez 1974) produced
50 classes at a convergence level of 99%. Mangrove classes were identi ed and edited
with reference to eld data (see 2.3 below), then merged into a single mangrove
category.
III. Unsupervised classi cation : In some cases image data have been processed
using an unsupervised classi cation. As with a supervised approach image enhancement techniques have occasionally been applied prior to classi cation (e.g. Loo
et al. 1992 ).
Processing step used: Image enhancement was not performed. An unsupervised
classi cation of the image using the ISODATA clustering algorithm ( Tou and
Gonzalez 1974 ) was set up to produce 50 user-de ned classes at a convergence level
of 99%. Mangrove classes were identi ed and edited with reference to eld data
data (see 2.3 below), then merged into a single mangrove category.
IV. Supervised classi cation : This has been the most frequent method by which
remotely sensed data of mangrove areas has been classi ed. Field data or aerial
photographs have been used as training data. In the majority of cases classi cation
has been performed on the original image, but occasionally either spatial or spectral
enhancement techniques have been applied beforehand. For example, Vits and Tack
( 1995 ) enhanced the colour in their SPOT XS image with an intensity-hue-saturation
( IHS) transform. Wood ne (1991 ) applied a 3 3 edge enhancement lter to her
Landsat TM data to accentuate the boundaries between di erent mangrove areas.
A lter applied prior to classi cation changes a pixel value according to the values
of its neighbours. Mixed pixels inevitably occur along the mangrove/ non-mangrove
boundary and ltering will either make these spectrally more distant, or closer, to
mangroves. It seems that the latter was occurring here because experimentation
showed the application of a 3 3 lter helped in most cases, although it is likely
that in other situations the opposite might occur.
Processing method used: A 3 3 edge enhancement lter was applied to the
imagery. The linear nature of the mangroves in the region mean that many eld
sites were close to boundaries between mangrove classes and non-mangrove vegetation: edge enhancement was useful in determining which side of a boundary such
sites lay. The mangrove habitat classi cation scheme (see 2.3 below) was used to
direct a supervised classi cation using the maximum likelihood decision rule ( Hord
1982, Mather 1987 ).

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

943

V. Principal components analysis and band ratios : Given the widespread use of
band ratios in remote sensing studies of vegetation it is somewhat surprising that
this approach has not been employed more regularly for mangroves. The selection
of band ratios should be based on the physical properties and canopy spectra of
mangrove vegetation. Landsat TM bands 3 and 4 are either side of Caribbean
mangroves red-edge ( Ramsey and Jensen 1996) and combination with band 5 would
appear to produce two broadly di erent ratios. This is in agreement with the work
of Gray et al . ( 1990 ), on mangroves in Belize who used ratios 3/ 5 and 5/ 4. Data
from ve bands ( 3, 4, 5, 3/ 5, 5/ 4) were used as input to a principal components
analysis: an unsupervised classi cation was then performed on an image consisting
of the rst three principal components (Gray et al . 1990).
Processing method used: This method was based on the approach of Gray et al .
( 1990 ). TM bands 3, 4 and 5 also produced the best visual discrimination of the
mangrove/ non-mangrove boundary in the Turks and Caicos Islands, so ratios of 3/ 5
and 5/ 4 were calculated. For SPOT XS ratios of bands 2/ 3 and 3/ 1 were used, for
CASI 5/ 8 and 8/ 7 ( table 2). For all three sensors, principal components PC1, PC2,
and PC4 were combined in a false colour composite image because (i ) PC1 and PC2
accounted for more than 95% of the variability in the data; (ii ) the eigenvectors
indicated that these PCs summarise the majority of the informational content of the
TM bands; and (iii) a composite of these principal components provided the best
visual discrimination of the mangrove areas. A supervised classi cation scheme
was performed on the principal component composite image using the maximum
likelihood decision rule and eld data for training.

2.2.2. A new image processing method for mangroves

The Landsat TM sensor has a spatial resolution of 30 m and records electromagnetic radiation in seven bands. The HRV sensor on SPOT satellites collects data
with a spatial resolution of 10 m in panchromatic ( XP) mode but only in one broad
band ( 510 730 nm). A number of methods exist whereby Landsat TM can be
resampled to the spatial resolution of SPOT XP, retaining the spectral resolution of
the TM sensor. Merging the two images creates a seven band image with a spatial
resolution of 10 m and attempts to combine the most desirable characteristics of
both sensors. To the best of our knowledge this approach has not been used in the
remote sensing of mangroves. Two merges were used as a processing method.
( 1 ) Intensity-hue-sat uration (IHS) merge : Three TM bands are selected, forward
transformed to IHS and the intensity component replaced with the SPOT XP data.
All data are then reverse IHS transformed (for further details see Welch and Ehlers
1987 ). This method assumes that the intensity component is spectrally equivalent to
the SPOT XP image, and that all the spectral information is contained in the hue
and saturation components. TM bands 4, 5, and 7 were selected for transformation
on the assumption that it is the infrared bands which contain the most information
about foliage.
( 2 ) Principal components (PC ) merge : The main aim of this method is to retain
the spectral information of all TM bands. These are forward transformed into
principal components. PC1 is removed: the SPOT XP is stretched to the same
numerical range (minimum maximum) and substituted for PC1. The data are then
reverse transformed (for further details, see Chavez 1991). This method assumes that
PC1 contains only the scene luminance, is spectrally equivalent to the SPOT XP

944

E. P. Green et al.

image and that all the spectral information is contained in the other principal
components.
Each merged image was the classi ed using image processing methods I IV.
2.3. Field survey
Three species of mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, L aguncularia racemosa and
Avicennia germinans grow with Concarpus erectus in mixed stands along the inland
margin of the islands fringing the Caicos Bank; full details of the eld survey are
given elsewhere (Green et al . in press b). In summary, the eld survey consisted of
two phases. Calibration data were collected from 81 sites in July 1995, and accuracy
data from 121 sites in March 1996. Species composition, maximum canopy height,
and tree density were recorded at all sites. Species composition was visually estimated
2
from a 5 m plot marked by a tape measure. Tree height was measured using a 53 m
telescopic pole. Tree density was measured by counting the number of tree trunks
at breast height. When a tree forked beneath breast height (~13 m), each branch
was recorded as a separate stem (after English et al . 1994). The location of each eld
site was determined using DGPS with a probable circle error of 2 5 m ( Trimble
Navigation Ltd, 1993 ). A habitat classi cation was developed for the mangrove
areas of the Turks and Caicos Islands using hierarchical agglomerative clustering
with group-average sorting applied to the calibration data (Green et al . in press b).
The calibration data were fourth root transformed in order to weight the contribution
of tree height and density more evenly with species composition (the range of data
was an order of magnitude higher for density and height and would cluster accordingly). Six mangrove classes were identi ed which separated at a Bray Curtis
Similarity of 85%. Categories were described in terms of mean species composition
( percent species), mean tree height and mean tree density (table 3). Three other
ground cover types were recorded, though no quantitative information was obtained
beyond the location of `typical sites: ( i ) sand; (ii ) saline mud crust; and (iii) mats of
the halophytic succulents Salicornia perennis and S. portulacastru m. For the purpose of this paper all other vegetation was treated as a single habitat and termed
non-mangrove.
2.4. Accuracy assessment ( gure 1, step D)
Classi cation accuracy was determined using three complementary measures
which are based on error matrices derived from independent eld data. An error
matrix compares true reference data (from habitats visited in the eld ) to the habitat
types predicted from image classi cation (see Congalton 1991).
(i )

Overall accuracy : This is the overall degree of agreement in the matrix (i.e.
the sum of correctly labelled test sites divided by the total number of test
sites). It is a reasonable way to describe the overall accuracy of a map but
does not account for the component of accuracy resulting from chance
alone. A chance component of accuracy exists because even a random
assignment of pixels to habitat classes would include some correct
assignments.
(ii ) User accuracy : This is the probability that a classi ed pixel actually represents that category on the ground (Congalton 1991). It is particularly useful
for assessing the accuracy of individual habitat classes.

Rhz
0
0
100
100
62
56
35

6
11
10
25
10
14
2
3

Habitat category description

Conocarpus erectus
Avicennia germinans
Short, high density, Rhizophora mangle
Tall, low density, Rhizophora mangle
Short mixed mangrove, high density
Tall mixed mangrove, low density
L aguncularia dominated mangrove
Unclassi ed

0
100
0
0
38
43
5

Avn
0
0
0
0
0
0
45

Lag

Species composition %

100
0
0
0
0
1
0

Con

24 ( 18
26 ( 08
11 ( 05
37 ( 20
17 ( 08
35 ( 20
38 ( 35

45 )
60 )
20 )
70 )
25 )
50 )
40 )

Tree height (m)

mean (range)

06 ( 05
06 ( 02
80 ( 60
03 ( 02
81 ( 50
06 ( 02
22 ( 05

10 )
10 )
100 )
05 )
150 )
12 )
40 )

Tree density (m )
2
mean (range)

Table 3. A classi cation scheme for the mangrove habitats of the Turks and Caicos Islands. The derivation of this classi cation scheme is described
in Green et al. ( in press b). Descriptions for each of the mangrove habitat categories are given below. Categories separate out after hierarchical
agglomerative clustering with group-average sorting at a Bray Curtis coe cient of similarity of 85%. L aguncularia dominated mangrove was
not used in image processing because L agu ncularia was rare, only being recorded at two survey and no accuracy sites. Three other ground cover
types were present: (i ) sand, ( ii ) saline mud crust, and (iii ) mats of the halophytic succulents Salicornia perennis and S. portulacastrum. n= number
of calibration sites in each category.

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

945

946

E. P. Green et al.

(iii ) T au coe cient (t ). This statistic is readily interpretable, permits hypothesis

testing and accounts for chance agreement within the matrix (Ma and
Redmond 1995 ). A t coe cient of 080 indicates that 80% more pixels were
classi ed correctly than would be expected by chance alone. The coe cients
distribution approximates to normality, and Z -tests can be performed to
examine di erences between matrices.
3.

Results

3.1. Discriminat ion of mangrove f rom non-mangrove vegetation

The accurate discrimination between mangrove and non-mangrove vegetation
was not possible using SPOT XS data ( gure 3). Overall accuracy was low for each
of the ve image processing methods ( 35 57%) and there was no signi cant di erences between the t coe cients. Values of t for methods I V ranged between
003 013, which suggests that very few more pixels were being classi ed correctly
than would be expected from chance alone. Therefore SPOT XS data do not appear
suitable for mapping eastern Caribbean mangroves.
Accurate discrimination was possible using Landsat TM data ( gure 3) and
classi cation accuracy improved as more intensive image processing methods were
applied. Visual interpretation and classi cation of a NDVI image were the least
accurate processing methods (overall accuracy 42 and 57% respectively). Image
processing methods III V produced an overall accuracy of more than 70% and were
signi cantly more accurate than methods I and II ( p <0001). There was no signi cant di erence in the t coe cient between unsupervised ( III) and supervised ( IV)
classi cation (t =012 ). The most accurate classi cation of Landsat TM data was

Figure 3. The discrimination of mangrove and non-mangrove vegetation using three di erent
data types: the e ect of image processing method on accuracy. Overall accuracy is
presented as a fraction to facilitate comparison with the tau coe cient. Vertical error
bars are the positive 95% con dence interval for the t coe cient.

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

947

obtained using image processing method V, 92%, and this was signi cantly more
accurate than either method III or IV ( p <0001).
Similar results were obtained for CASI ( gure 3 ). Accurate discrimination
between mangrove and non-mangrove vegetation was not possible using either visual
interpretation ( I) or classi cation of a NDVI image ( II): although the overall accuracy of the visually interpreted image was 71%, a large component was presumably
due to chance because there was no statistical di erence between the t coe cients
for methods I and II (t =282 ). Image processing methods III V produced an overall
accuracy of more than 89% and were signi cantly more accurate than methods I
and II ( p <0001) and there was no signi cant di erence in the t coe cient between
unsupervised ( III) and supervised (IV) classi cation (t =169). The most accurate
classi cation of CASI data was obtained using image processing method V, 96%,
and this was signi cantly more accurate than method III ( p <005) but not method
IV (t =071 ).
Interestingly it seems that by using image processing method V, eastern Caribbean
mangroves can be distinguished from non-mangrove vegetation just as accurately
with Landsat TM data as with CASI. Slightly higher overall accuracy was obtained
using CASI data ( 92% compared to 96%), but there was no signi cant di erence
between t coe cients ( t =088).
Merging Landsat TM and SPOT XP greatly facilitated the visual interpretation
of mangrove/ non-mangrove vegetation in the TM data ( gure 4), almost doubling
the overall accuracy from 42% to 71% for the IHS merge and 79% for the PC
merge. These were signi cant increases in accuracy (t =239, p <005 for the IHS
merge, t =400, p <001 for the PC merge). A supervised classi cation of data merged

Figure 4. The discrimination of mangrove and non-mangrove vegetation using Landsat TM

data which has been merged with SPOT XP. Overall accuracy is presented as a
fraction to facilitate comparison with the t coe cient. Vertical error bars are the
positive 95% con dence interval for the t coe cient.

948

E. P. Green et al.

by either method was not more accurate than a supervised classi cation of the
original Landsat TM data ( gure 4). In fact visual interpretation appears to be
the best way of distinguishing mangrove from non-mangrove vegetation in merged
data. Visual interpretation was more accurate than supervised classi cation for both
IHS merged data ( t =199, p <005) and PC merged data (t =256, p <001). This is
probably because the assumption that the XP image is spectrally similar to the
intensity component of the TM data is not always valid (Chavez 1991 ). The di erences between the intensity of bands 4, 5 and 7 and the XP image is su cient to
distort the spectral characteristics of the TM data. A PC merge distorts the TM
data less than a IHS merge because all TM bands are used and as a result the rst
principal component is more similar to the XP image than the intensity component
in a IHS merge (Chavez 1991). However PC merged data were not signi cantly
more accurate than IHS merged data, whether processed using visual interpretation
(t =151 ) or supervised classi cation (t =024).
3.2. L evel of discriminatio n between mangrove habitats
Figure 5 compares the classi cation accuracy for mapping the nine di erent
mangrove habitats of the Turks and Caicos Islands ( table 3 ) using Landsat TM and
CASI data. Accurate discrimination between classes was not possible using the
satellite data with an accuracy of only 31% being achieved. Tall Rhizophora was
mapped accurately ( 77%), but the users accuracies of all other mangrove habitats
were very low ( 0 29%). The classi cation was performed at a coarser ( less similar)
level of habitat discrimination using just three classes: tall Rhizophora , `other mangrove ( i.e. mangrove vegetation which is not 100% Rhizophora and more than 2 m
in height ) and non-mangrove vegetation. Reduction to just three classes signi cantly

Figure 5. Mapping the nine di erent mangrove habitats of the Caicos Bank using Landsat
TM and CASI data. Overall accuracy is presented as a fraction to facilitate comparison
with the t coe cient. Vertical error bars are the positive 95% con dence interval for
the t coe cient.

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

949

increases accuracy (t =718, p <0001 ). Figure 6 is a classi ed map of the southeastern coast of North and Middle Caicos derived from Landsat TM data. This area
was designated a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention
( Unesco 1971 ) and contains the most extensive mangrove growth of the Caicos Bank.
The nine mangrove habitats in table 3 can only be accurately mapped using
CASI data ( gure 5 ). Image processing method V signi cantly improves accuracy
over method III (t =326, p <001 ) but not over method IV (t =177 ). There was no
signi cant increase in accuracy using supervised classi cation as opposed to unsupervised (no signi cant di erence in t coe cient between methods III and IV, t =150).
In other words, if supervised classi cation is to be used then an improvement in
accuracy will only be obtained if it is performed on a PCA / band ratio image
(method V ). A CASI map of the mangroves growing on South Caicos has been
published elsewhere (Green et al . in press b).
The users accuracies of the nine mangrove habitats produced from CASI data
processed using methods III V are reasonably high, with the exception of short
mixed mangrove (table 4). Only six accuracy sites were surveyed in this category,
so this low accuracy may be a function of small sample size. Users accuracy was
improved by using a supervised instead of an unsupervised classi cation routine: the
classi cation of a PCA / band ratio image produced the highest users accuracy for
the majority of mangrove habitats (table 4).
These results also suggest a possible correlation between image processing e ort
and accuracy. Image processing method III is relatively rapid, requiring the operator
to do little more than edit the nal classes but was the least accurate (overall accuracy
70% for CASI, gure 7 ). The supervised classi cation procedure in image processing
method IV requires greater e ort from the operator during the process of signature
editing (overall accuracy 78% for CASI, gure 7 ). Principal component analysis is
computationally intensive, and di erent combinations of band ratios must be experimented with. As a result image processing method V requires the most e ort, but is
the most accurate classi cation procedure (overall accuracy 85% for CASI, gure 7 ).
Figure 7 shows that although method V is computationally intensive, it is also coste ective: the extra investment of time produces a signi cant increase in accuracy.
4.

Discussion

Eastern Caribbean mangrove areas di er from the majority of mangroves elsewhere in the world which form true forests covering hundreds of square kilometres
with trees up to 30 m metres in height. Nonetheless they are important coastal
features over a large geopolitical area (Bossi and Cintron 1990 ) and remote sensing
is capable of being a valuable tool in their management (Green et al . 1996). However
mapping of these areas requires careful consideration of both sensor type and image
processing method employed.
Mapping the spatial distribution of mangroves is only possible if mangrove areas
can be accurately distinguished from surrounding non-mangrove vegetation. This
has proved possible using each processing method in table 1. In only two instances
have authors reported a failure to do so. Kay et al . 1991 found that it was di cult
to distinguish rainforest vegetation from the fringing coastal mangroves using
Landsat MSS and aerial photography. Similar confusion between mangroves and
inland vegetation was reported by Wood ne ( 1991) when an unsupervised classi cation technique was used on Landsat TM data in the Philippines. The failure of these
two examples are presumably site-speci c because others have succeeded elsewhere

Figure 6. A classi ed map of the mangroves of North and Middle Caicos. This area is a Ramsar ( Unesco 1971) wetland reserve and contains the
most extensive mangrove stands to be found on the Caicos Bank. The co-ordinates are universal transverse mercator ( UTM ) and so each
square represents 10 10 km.

950
E. P. Green et al.

band ratios ( V )
supervised ( IV )
unsupervised ( III )

714
714
643

Conocarpus
erectus

833
800
667

Avicennia
germinans
947
789
632

Short
Rhizophora
931
931
759

Tall
Rhizophora
167
167
167

Short mixed
mangrove
826
696
739

Tall mixed
mangrove

810
619
476

Sand

966
966
862

Mud
crust

824
765
882

Salicornia
spp.

85
78
70

Overall
accuracy

The users accuracies of the nine mangrove habitats of the Turks and Caicos Islands (described in table 3 ) produced from CASI data processed
using three di erent methods (described in the text).

Users accuracy for each

method in table 3 (%)

Table 4.

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

951

952

E. P. Green et al.

Figure 7. The overall accuracy of classi cations of CASI data using image processing methods
III, IV, and V, expressed as a function of processing e ort (time taken in person days).
Vertical error bars are the 95% con dence intervals for the t coe cient.

using the same sensors and techniques. In fact Wood ne was successful when she
used a supervised routine.
The failure of all classi cation methods to distinguish mangrove and non-mangrove
in SPOT XS data of the Turks and Caicos is probably another example of site-speci c
failure (given the success of XS in other areas, e.g., Vits and Tack 1995). It may be a
consequence of the limited spectral resolution of the XS sensor. The most accurate
classi cation of Landsat TM necessitates the calculation of principal components and
band ratios. Band ratios both reduce the e ect of topography on recorded radiance
and emphasise di erences in spectral re ectance of di erent cover types (Mather 1987).
Landsat TM with seven bands enables the analyst to achieve this by providing a
greater variety of spectrally dissimilar ratios than does SPOT XS with three. Dense
terrestrial vegetation growing at the foot of steep slopes was no longer classi ed as
mangrove under a Landsat TM band ratio procedure, which is evidence of the e ectiveness of this method. In areas where successful classi cation of mangroves does not
depend on a band ratio method, SPOT XS is undoubtedly e ective. The consistently
poor accuracies obtained from classi cation of an NDVI image derived from both
Landsat TM and SPOT XS are probably a result of the low correlation between
species composition and many ratio indices ( Jensen 1991).
Di erent mangrove habitats can be discriminated within mangrove areas once
the latter have been separated from non-mangrove vegetation. Mangrove habitats
are commonly described by dividing mangrove areas into 2 7 categories, which are
named according to dominant or characteristic species (table 1). The problem with
the latter is the di culty users have in interpreting exactly what is meant by terms
such as `Bruguiera zone when the percent composition of Bruguiera and associated
species has not been quanti ed. Similarly when mangrove classes are described by
assigning a qualitative measure of a particular mangrove characteristic (e.g., `high,
`medium, and `low density, or `tall and `low) a user does not know how dense or
how tall. Exceptions to this however are studies which have obtained quantitative

Remote sensing for mangrove mapping

953

measurements of mangrove height (Gray et al . 1990), height, density and species

composition (Green et al . in press b) and canopy closure ( Jensen et al . 1991).
Although mangroves can be distinguished from non-mangrove vegetation very
accurately with Landsat TM, these data can only discriminate two mangrove categories ( gure 5 ). This is probably due to the spatial resolution of Landsat TM ( 30 m)
and the growth forms of mangrove stands in the region. Mangroves in the Turks
and Caicos Islands grow in relatively small patches and linear stands along inlets
typical of the eastern Caribbean islands. The relatively low spatial resolution of
Landsat TM can only be partially compensated for by merging with SPOT XP data.
The increased spatial resolution facilitates visual interpretation of small mangrove
stands, but the spectral information of the data is compromised. Accurate classi cations are possible using airborne multispectral data the superior spatial and spectral
resolution of CASI allows mangrove areas to be assessed to a greater level of detail
and accuracy than with satellite sensors. The mangrove categories described in table
3 occur in this region at scales which cannot be resolved by satellite data. However,
the expense and logistics of mapping an area equivalent to the coverage of a Landsat
2
TM scene ( 34 225 km ) with CASI, or any airborne multispectral sensor, would be
substantial (Green et al . in press a).
5.

Conclusion

It must be emphasized that both SPOT XS and Landsat TM have been used
regularly to map mangroves: the failure of one sensor and several image processing
techniques to map mangroves accurately in the Turks and Caicos Islands does not
necessarily preclude their applicability elsewhere. Where mangroves do grow in small
stands and narrow fringes, it is clear that the type of data and classi cation procedure
used can a ect substantially the accuracy of the nal mangrove map. In such
circumstances, typical of the eastern Caribbean islands, the most accurate combination of sensor and image processing method is either Landsat TM and PCA / band
ratio ( image processing method V ), if discrimination between mangrove and nonmangrove vegetation is required over a large area, at relatively low time and money
cost; or CASI and PCA / band ratio (image processing method V ), if discrimination
between di erent mangrove classes is required.
Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the UK Department for International Developments

Environment Research Programme. The Turks and Caicos Islands Department of
Environment and Coastal Resources provided invaluable logistical assistance during
our eldwork, and our thanks go in particular to Mr Christie Hall, Mr Chris Ninnes,
Dr Paul Medley, Mr Perry Seymore, Mr John Ewing, and the sta and students of
the School for Field Studies.
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