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1. Introduction
Sustainable and renewable energy resources are being intensively
pursued owing to the diminishing supply of fossil fuels and
climate change. Consequently, rapid growth in renewable
a
energy production from sun and wind, as well as the development of electric vehicles (EVs) or hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) with low CO2 emissions, is occurring. Since renewable
sources from sun and wind generally have on-peak and o-peak
load variations and EVs/HEVs have a driving range of
150200 miles before charging is required, electrochemical
energy storage systems such as rechargeable batteries and electrochemical capacitors (ECs) are receiving increasing consideration.1
A Ragone plot (Fig. 1) illustrates power density against
energy density for the most important electrochemical energy
storage systems.2,3 ECs, with a combination of high power and
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Xinwei Cui
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(1)
Fig. 1 Ragone plot (specic power vs. specic energy) for various
electrochemical energy storage devices. (Reproduced from ref. 2;
reprinted with permission. Copyright 2008, Macmillan Publishers
Limited.)
Weixing Chen
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Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the crystal structure of manganese oxides. (a) Rock salt; (b) spinel (Mn3O4); (c) bixbyite (Mn2O3);
(d) pyrolusite b-MnO2 (rutile-type) (note the single chains of edge-sharing octahedra); (e) ramsdellite (diaspore-type) ([MnO6] octahedra form
innite double layers); (f) phyllomanganate (birnessitebuserite family of layered MnO2). In this idealized representation there are alternate layers
of full and empty octahedral sites. (2df, adapted from ref. 36, reprinted with permission. Copyright 2006, The Electrochemical Society.)
Table 1
Type
Crystal structure
Description
MnO
Mn3O420
Mn2O321 (bixbyite)
a-MnO222 (psilomelane)
b-MnO223 (pyrolusite)
b-MnO224 (ramsdellite)
Pbnm
19
25,26
g-MnO2
Z-MnO2
(nsutite)
d-MnO227,28 (phyllomanganate)
Birnessite, R3m
e-MnO229
1699
(3)
(4)
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Table 2
Structure type, surface area (m2 g 1), and specic capacitance (F g 1) for MnO2 at dierent temperatures32,72
MnO2 (microemulsion)
As-prepared
200 1C
300 1C
400 1C
500 1C
600 1C
a
Structure
Surface area,
SBETa/m2 g 1
Capacitance/F g
d-MnO2
d-MnO2
d-MnO2
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
230
212
194
36
34
22
250
225
207
85
73
61
Structure
Surface area,
SBETa/m2 g 1
Capacitance/F g
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
Mn2O3
Mn2O3
145
146
119
16
8
1
300
260
254
245
70
40
The surface area of MnO2 powders was measured using BrunauerEmmettTeller (BET) technique.
Table 3
Relationship between the crystal structure, BET surface area, and specic capacitance36
Compound
Structure
SBET/m2 g
co-MnO2
Ambigel H2SO4
Ambigel H2O
l-MnO2
g-MnO2
b-MnO2
Birnessite H2O
Birnessite H2SO4
Birnessite
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
a-MnO2
l-MnO2
g-MnO2
b-MnO2
Birnessite d-MnO2
Birnessite d-MnO2
Birnessite d-MnO2
200
208
8
35
41
1
17
89
3
C/F g
150
150
125
70
30
5
110
105
80
Scan rate/mV s
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Electrolyte
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
K2SO4
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Table 4
Synthesis conditions, physicochemical features, and subsequent specic capacitance of crystalline MnO2
Technique
Synthesis conditions
Morphology
Structure
SBET/m2 g
Hydrothermal
MnSO4H2O+ KMnO4,
140 1C73,74
KMnO4 + sulfuric acid and
Cu scraps, 110 1C75
KMnO4 + nitric acid, 110 1C76
MnSO4 + K2S2O8 + sulfuric acid,
110 1C88
Mn(CH3COO)2 + K2S2O8, 120 1C78
a-NaMnO2 + nitric acid, 120 1C77
KMnO4 + MnCl2 + PG + PAM,
65 1C80
MnSO4 + K2S2O881
Plate-like, nanorods
a-MnO2
100150
Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal
High viscosity
process
Room temperature
precipitation
Low temperature
reduction
Low temperature
reduction
Sonochemistry
Microwave-assisted
emulsion
Solgel process
KMnO4 + formamide, 40 1C
82
52108
80119
86152 (5 mV s 1)
46120 (5 mV s 1)
B170 (500 mV s 1)
241 (2 mA cm 2)
389 (10 mV s 1)
Rod-shaped
d-MnO2
201
Nanoower
121.5 (1000 mA g 1)
Rancieite structure
11206
17112 (2 mV s 1)
g-MnO2
118344
d-MnO2
277 (0.2 mA cm 2)
Nanorods
g-MnO2
317 (100 mA g 1)
Plate-like
e-MnO2
2343
71123
(1000 mA g 1)
Hollow spheres,
a-MnO2
hollow urchins
Urchin-like
a-MnO2
Urchin-like, clew-like a-MnO2, e-MnO2
C/F g
72 to 168
(200 mA g 1)
147 (5 mV s 1)
Layered
KMnO4 or NaMnO4 in acids
at 20100 1C83
Spherical particles
KBrO3 + MnSO4 + 24 kHz
ultrasound84,85
KMnO4 + oleic acid + microwave88 Belt-like
(5)
Pang et al. potentiostatically prepared the rst electrodeposited thin lm MnO2 electrode for ECs in 2000.90 This
was followed by more than 30 papers dealing with anodic
electrodeposition of manganese dioxide thin lm electrodes used
in ECs.35,91,92,102143 Most of these studies focused on varying
the deposition parameters to obtain MnO2 thin lms with a wide
range of water contents, oxidation states, and Brunauer
EmmettTeller (BET) surface areas and, in turn, to achieve
enhanced electrochemical performance, e.g., high capacitance,
long-term cycling behavior, and fast charge/discharge rates.
Electrode materials with three-dimensional (3D), mesoporous and ordered/periodic architectures are desirable for
the penetration of electrolyte and reactants into the entire
electrode matrix. Among the eorts, therefore, morphologycontrolled growth has attracted much interest to obtain
more accessible electroactive sites and shorter cation
diusion lengths in MnO2 electrodes. Morphology-controlled
growth is generally achieved through controlling the
deposition parameters, lling template membranes, or using
etched, nanoporous substrates. In the rst case, the most
common surface morphology in MnO2 electrodes through
galvanostatic or potentiostatic modes is a porous, threedimensional (3D) brous network, as shown in
Fig. 8a.33,102,108,110,115,116,118,119,125,128,130132 Another type of
surface morphology through a template-free process is freestanding micro- and nano-scale bers, rods and interconnected
nanosheets prepared either by using a dilute electrolyte
(Fig. 8bd)134,135 or applying cyclic voltammetry (Fig. 8e
and f).35,108,118 In the second case, anodic Al oxide (AAO)
templates or lyotropic liquid crystalline (LLC) phases are
applied to direct the MnO2 deposition.120,129,133,136 MnO2
electrodes with oriented nanobrous, nanotubular and
mesoporous ravine-like morphologies are attained, as shown
in Fig. 9.120,129,133,136 For electrodeposition on etched, nanoporous substrates, selective dissolution of copper (Cu) from a
NiCu alloy layer is conducted to obtain a nanoporous Ni
substrate, followed by anodic electrodeposition of MnO2.138
Schematic illustrations for preparing a high-porosity Mn oxide
electrode are depicted in Fig. 10a.138 Fig. 10bd show SEM
micrographs of the as-deposited NiCu alloy lm, the nanoporous Ni lm, and the high-porosity Mn oxide electrode.138
This idea was also applied to obtain high-porosity Mn oxide
deposits based on micro-etched duplex stainless steel (DSS).139
2.2.3 Cathodic electrodeposition. Cathodic deposition of
manganese oxide thin lms can be realized through two
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This reaction was employed for the fabrication of nanostructured manganese dioxide lms by galvanostatic, pulse,
and reverse pulse electrodeposition.141145 The deposition rate,
composition, and microstructure of the deposits are dependent
on the concentration of active MnO4 species. Electrodeposition
from a relatively dilute solution containing 0.02 M NaMnO4
resulted in the formation of brous lms with a birnessitetype crystal structure, while smoother and amorphous
lms were obtained using 0.1 M NaMnO4 solutions.141145
Typical surface morphologies of electrodeposited MnO2
lms prepared under dierent conditions are compared in
Fig. 11c and d.143
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was also observed for the Mn/Ni mixed oxides, and the
enhanced properties were attributed to the increased surface
area of the mixed oxide due to the formation of micropores.44
Electrochemical co-deposition of Mn/Ni mixed oxides from
Mn(II) and Ni(II) containing solutions was also applied to
prepare thin lm electrodes. The rate of anodic deposition for
manganese oxide is much larger than that for Ni oxide under
potentiostatic conditions, as shown in the linear sweep
voltammograms in Fig. 15a.38 The Ni content of binary
MnNi oxide electrodes is raised by applying a relatively
positive potential and a high Ni2+/Mn2+ ratio (e.g., 10 : 1)
during co-deposition. Addition of Ni oxide into the MnO2
electrodes changed the shape of the grains from spherical into
at, as shown in Fig. 15b and c, but a similar brous feature
was maintained at higher magnication.38 The a-(Mn,Ni)xOy
with B18 wt% Ni showed higher capacity, better electrochemical reversibility, and high-power characteristics in a
mixed electrolyte consisting of Na2SO4 and NaOH with
pH of 10.1.38
Potentiodynamic methods are another eective electrochemical strategy to realize co-deposition of nanostructured
and microporous nickelmanganese oxides onto inexpensive
stainless steel substrates.39 A scan rate of 200 mV s 1 between
the potential limits of 0.0 and 1.4 V was employed for the
deposition. At high scan rates, the deposition rate is low, and
accordingly, more than 300 cycles were required to deposit the
required amount of manganesenickel oxides with an atomic
ratio of 65 : 35. Enhanced electrochemical properties were
observed in this type of mixed oxide electrode. For instance,
specic capacitance (SC) values of 621 F g 1 and 377 F g 1
were obtained for CV scan rates of 10 and 200 mV s 1,
respectively.39 These values of electrochemical performance
are much higher than those obtained with just MnO2. Since
the mass loading of the manganesenickel oxides was not
reported, it is dicult to compare with other systems.
3.1.2 MnCo mixed oxide compounds. Cobalt oxides are
another candidate material for electrochemical supercapacitor
applications.8,159161 However, it is noted that cobalt oxides
have a narrower operation potential window of approximately
0.5 V and require a basic working electrolyte for supercapacitor
applications, compared with manganese oxide-based electrode
materials. Incorporation of Co oxides in Mn oxides has been
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Fig. 18 CV curves of coprecipitated electrodes consisting of MnFe2O4/carbon black powders treated at dierent temperatures: (a) 50 1C and
200 1C, (b) 300 1C, 350 1C, 400 1C and 500 1C. Scan rate was 20 mV s 1. (Adapted from ref. 167, reprinted with permission. Copyright 2005,
The Electrochemical Society.)
Fig. 19 (a) Twenty-one serial in situ MnK edge XAS spectra for Mn90Fe10 oxide measured at various applied potentials. (b) The dependence of
the Mn oxidation state with respect to the applied potential, obtained from (a). (Adapted from ref. 170, reprinted with permission. Copyright 2008,
Elsevier Ltd.)
(8)
(9)
(10)
Fig. 20 (a) Cyclic voltammograms and (b) Nyquist plots for RunMn1 nOx (n = 0.1) and MnO2 electrodes at dierent applied potentials in the
frequency range of 10 2104 Hz. Both powders were calcined at 170 1C. (Adapted from ref. 42, reprinted with permission. Copyright 2009, Elsevier
Ltd.)
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Fig. 23 (a) and (b) Morphology of the as-deposited PANI matrix and MnO2PANI composite; (c) specic capacitance and specic energy of
MnO2PANI electrodes at various discharge current densities with various specic masses of MnO2. The specic mass of PANI was kept constant
at 4 mg cm 2. (Adapted from ref. 56, reprinted with permission. Copyright 2004, The Electrochemical Society.)
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Fig. 27 Nano-scale MnO2 deposits formed on CNT architectures through electrochemical deposition. (a) Surface morphology of petal-shaped
g-MnO2 deposited on CNTs; (b) and (c) manganese oxide nanoowers on vertically-aligned CNT arrays. (a, reproduced from ref. 215, reprinted
with permission. Copyright 2008, Elsevier Ltd.; b and c, reproduced from ref. 214, reprinted with permission. Copyright 2008, American Chemical
Society.)
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4. Concluding remarks
The full potential of manganese oxide-based electrochemical
supercapacitors has not been realized yet, as outlined in the
present review; however, a solid groundwork for future technical
advancements has been established. Innovative manufacturing
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Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge funding contributions from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
of Canada and Versa Power Systems (VPS).
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