Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Chapter 14
Professors Notes:
1) Trait variation is due to alternative version(alleles) of heritable factors(genes)
2) for each character an organism inherits 2 alleles, one from each parent
3) DOMINANT alleles mask recessive alleles
4) 2 alleles for a heritable character SEGREGATE during gamete formation & end up
in different gametes => LAW OF SEGREGATION
-PUNNETT SQURE => 3:1 RATIO
-Beginning of human genetics- hemophelia was recognized as hereditary ~500 A.D.
-1905: 1st published paper on a human genetic disorder
-Eugenics Movement: improve race by inducing young people to make a more
reasonable selection of marriage mates; to fall in love INTELLIGENTLY
A Section 1
Gregor Mendel and Genetics
-in the 1800s Gregor Mendel proposed that characteristics are passed to offspring
through discrete particles aka genes
-theory of BLENDING INHERITANCE, where parental characteristics are blended
together to generate the offspring characteristics, fails to explain mating results like
traits skipping generations
-in PARTICULATE INHERITANCE, parents give their offspring discrete heritable units
which can be expressed even if they do not appear in each generation
-a second problem w/ the theory of blending inheritance is that if the characteristics
of the offspring always exited qualitatively between those of the parents, eventually
all members of a species would become homogenous, displaying the SAME
characteristics
ex) particulate inheritance could explain how blue eyes and blond hair, for
example, often could disappear from a familys lineage for several
generations,only to have 2 brown haired, brown eyed parents give birth to a
blond, blue-eyed child
The basics of Mendels pea plant experiments
-Pea plants were good model b/c they have
1) multiple variable characters
2) short generation times
3) large numbers of offspring
4) controllable breeding
-Mendel first pollinated PURPLE flower with WHITE flower pollen; in the reciprocal
cross, WHITE plants with their stamens removed were pollinated with pollen from
PURPLE plants
-Mendel could breed plants that had different traits for the same character
-Before the cross-breeding experiments, Mendel first self-pollinated varieties for
multiple generations; this process gave rise to plants that only produced offspring
plants with the SAME trait => TRUE-BREEDING
-for the cross-breeding experiments, Mendel bred 2 true-breeding varieties that
differed at the character under investigation; Mendel bred TRUE BREEDING PURPLE
FLOWERED PLANTS with TRUE BREEDING WHITE FLOWERED PLANTS => PARENTAL
GENERATION(P GENERATION)
-the hybridization of the P generation results in hybrid offspring which constitute the
first filial generation, F1 generation. When 2 F1 hybrids mate, or when one F1 hybrid
self-pollinates, the offspring are part of the second filial generation, F2 generation.
Law of Segregation
- states that each individual has 2 factors that contribute to a phenotype and that
separate when gametes are formed
- individual organism has 2 alleles for every gene, one inherited from its mother and
one from its father; when this organism forms its own gametes, each gamete will
receive only one of these alleles, and this process is random
in the case of 2 different alleles at a particular locus, the organisms phenotype will
be determined by the dominant allele, which is able to mask the effects of the
recessive allele. In order for the recessive trait to be seen, both alleles carried by
the organism must be recessive
PUNNETT SQUAURE => diagram used to determine the ratio of diff. phenotypes and
genotypes in offspring, resulting from crossing parents with different combinations
of genotypes.
HOMOZYGOUS => 2 SAME ALLELES at a particular gene
HETEROZYGOUS => 2 DIFFERENT ALLELES at a particular gene
PHENOTYPE: organisms appearance, or observable characteristics
GENOTYPE: complete genetic make up
Law of Independent Assortment
-states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during
gamete formation
-MONOHYBRID CROSS=> mating btw. individuals who have diff. alleles at one genetic
locus of interest
-DIHYBRID CROSS=> cross btw. F1 offspring of 2 individuals that differ in 2 traits of
particular interest
Ex) Bb x Bb => B(brown), b(blue), BB(dark), Bb(Brown), bb(blue)
Section 2
Probability rules and simple Mendelian genetics
-P(X and Y) = P(X) x P(Y)
-P(X or Y) = P(X) + P(Y)
Section 3
Complex inheritance patterns from a single gene
-complete dominance occurs when the offspring always has the same phenotype as
one or both of its parents. one of the possible alleles is always dominant over the
other and always dictates the phenotypes
ex) BB(Brown) x bb(blue) = Bb(Brown)
-Incomplete dominance occurs when the heterozygous individuals display a different
phenotype than either the recessive or dominant homozygotes; neither of the alleles
are completely dominant, and the resulting intermediate phenotype is usually a blend
of the two possible traits.
ex) C^RC^R(Red) x C^BC^B(Blue) = C^RC^B(purple)
-Codominance: condition in which both alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are
fully expressed, with neither one being dominant or recessive to the other.
ex) I^AI^A(Type A) x I^BI^B(Type B) = I^AI^B(type AB)
PLEITROPY => occurs when single genes may affect multiple phenotypic characters,
such as multi-symptom diseases in humans, sickle-cell disease, or cystic fibrosis
Section 4
Tracing alleles through a family history
a pedigree is a diagram showing the ancestral relationships and transmission of
genetic traits over several generations in a family
in practical application, pedigrees can be used to predict the future occurrence of
heritable disorders
examining the pattern of the inheritance of a trait in a pedigree can help determine
whether it is being inherited as a dominant or recessive trait
-Hemophilia
-Duchenne muscular dystrophy
-Color Blindness
Chapter 16
-WHAT IS THE GENETIC MATERIAL? (PROTEIN OR DNA?)
-GRIFFITH et al. showed that an unknown substance could TRANSFORM(CHANGE THE
GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE) BACTERIA
-HERSHEY AND CHASE used bacteriophage(a kind of virus) to determine what
substance the virus uses to reprogram bacterial cells
-FRANKLIN and WILKINS made X-ray diffraction images of DNA
-WATSON and CRICK used the X-ray images to deduce the double helix
-1953: WATSON AND CRICK RESOLVED 3D STRUCTURE OF DNA
-SYNTHESIZING A FUNCTIONAL GENOME: a team led by J.CRAIG VENTER has
succeeded in creating a synthetic bacterial genome and using it to control a cell
-DNA CONTAINS 3 COMPONENTS: NITROGEN-CONTAINING BASE, A PENTOSE
SUGAR(DEOXYRIBOSE), AND A PHOSPHATE GROUP
Lecture 3
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
Top 5 myths about CHARLES DARWIN
MYTH 1)
Darwin was the first to propose that life on this planet evolved
-many people proposed evolutionary ideas before Darwin, and many others
paved the way for his theory, even if they did not believe in evolution
themselves
-Evolution ideas began w/ ancient Greeks
-Empedocles believed plants came first, then animal
-Developed a theory of struggle among animals that foreshadows natural selection
-ARISTOTLE believed life forms were fixed, but his Scala Naturae inspired
evolutionary theories
-LINNAEUS developed a classification system that played a role in Darwins
evolutionary arguments
-did not believe in evolution
-used classification system to reveal the divine order of life
-considered the father of taxonomy
-evolution was supported by the geologic theory of GRADUALISM, but NOT by
CATASTROPHISM
-CUVIER, a hard core Catastrophist
-Paleontologist
-found diff. fossils in diff. strata and inferred extinction
-believed boundaries btw. strata due to catastrophes
-HUTTON and LYELL advocated gradualism
-believed earths features explained by processes currently operating
-implied earth is >>6000 years old
-Darwins own grandfather(ERASMUS DARWIN) proposed evolutionary ideas
-a leading intellectual in 18th century England
-wrote prose and poetry discussing origins of life from a single ancestor,
transmutation of one species into another and effects of competition and sexual
selection on species change
-LAMARCKS theory was published the year Darwin was born(1809)
-developed comprehensive theory of evolution that included discredited thy of
inheritance of acquired characters
-ALFRED RUSSELL WALLACE independently described an evolutionary mechanism
almost identical to Darwins
A WHAT IS DARWINS THEORY?
-observation
1) Members of population often vary greatly in their traits, and some of these traits
are heritable.
2) All species are capable of producing more offspring than their environment can
Lecture 4
Ch.22 Section 3 - Case For and Against Evolution
Argument 1: Evolution cannot be observed and therefore cannot be proven
Rebuttal: evolution is observed all the time!
-we cant observe the ENTIRETY of evolution and therefore rely on diverse lines
of evidence, just as we do in other fields
Argument 4: the first step toward complex adaptations could not have been
favored(=irreducible complexity)
Rebuttal:Initial steps will be favored if they offer even a slight advantage, even
for an entirely different purpose
Homologous characters
-Similarities due to common ancestry
-Anatomical homologies/ Molecular homologies
i.e. Mammalian forelimbs: homologous structures with very different functions
-Vestigial traits: historical remnants of traits for ancestors
-MOLECULAR HOMOLOGY: GENETIC CODE
Fossil record
-Why does it matter if evolution is true or not?
-Evolutionary thinking is crucial to agriculture
-One way to slow the evolution of pesticide resistance is to provide REFUGIA
-Biomedical field tends to avoid the term evolution when describing evolutionary
processes
-Fixing the antibiotic problem will require greater evolutionary awareness from
doctors, patients, and farmers.
Lecture 5
Chapter 23 Section 1-2
-Populations evolve, individuals do not
-Hardy-Weinberg Principle can be used to test whether population is evolving
Population: localized group of individuals of the same species that can
interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Evolution: change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to
generation
-given a series of assumptions, allele frequencies and genotype frequencies will not
change between generations
Assumptions: NO SELECTION
NO MUTATION
NO MIGRATION
INFINITELY LARGE POPULATION
RANDOM MATING
-if these assumptions are met, allele and genotype frequencies will not change
between generations
TERMINOLOGY:
imagine a population made of 100 diploid individuals: 40 AA, 40 Aa, and 20 aa
GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES: 40/100 AA, 40/100 Aa, 20/100 aa
ALLELE FREQUENCIES: (80+40)/200A, (40+40)/200 a
GENOTYPE NUMBERS: 40 AA, 40 Aa, 20 aa
Evolutionary processes
-Mutation and sexual recombination produce new variation
-Selection, drift, and gene flow alter allele frequencies in a population
Mutation
-The raw material of evolution
-a two edged sword - most mutations are deleterious but a few are beneficial and
these provide the basis for evolutionary change
Kinds of mutations
1) Point mutation:
-single-base substitutions caused by DNA polymerase errors in either DNA
-if the mutant 2n gamete is lucky enough to fuse with another mutant 2n
gamete
Single mutations rarely produce significant adaptive change. Most mutations are
neutral or deleterious
Lecture 6
Chapter 23 Sec. 3-4
Natural Selection
-differential survival and/or reproduction results in certain alleles being passed to the
next generation in greater proportions
Random Genetic Drift
-changes in allele frequencies within populations which result from chance variation
in individual survival and reproduction
-most important in small population
-can result in maladaptive evolution
Gene flow
-consists of genetic additions or subtractions from a population, resulting from
movement of fertile individuals or gametes
-causes a population to gain or lose alleles
-tends to reduce differences between populations over time
Modes of Selection:
Stabilizing
Directional
Disruptive
Sexual:
-natural selection for mating success
-can result in sexual dimorphism
-sexually selected traits may be bad for survival
Lecture 7
Chapter 24 Sec.1-2
Are species real?
-species are the fundamental unit of organization in nature
-Ornithologist Ernst Mayr identified 137 birds in Papua New Guinea
-Native Papuans already had names for 136 species. There are about 8.7 +/- 1.3
million SE
Biological species concept is most popular, but does not work in all situations
-asexual taxa
-fossils
-taxa not amenable to breeding studies
1) Postzygotic barriers prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile
adult
A. Reduced hybrid viability
-Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrids
development
-i.e. Rana pipiens x Rana sylvatica hybrids do not survive more than a day
A. Reduced hybrid fertility
-even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile due to problems at meiosis
-i.e. Ligers(males sterile)
A. Hybrid breakdown
-some first-generation(F1) hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another F1
hybrid or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or
sterile(i.e. the tidepool copepod Tigriopus californicus)
Modes of Speciation
1. Allopatric(allos=other, patra=homeland)
-gene flow impeded by physical or geographic barrier
-selection and drift lead to reproductive isolation
1. Sympatric(sym=same, patra=homeland)
-takes place in geographically overlapping population
-can occur through chromosome changes or through non-random mating
Lecture 8
Ch.24 Section 3, Ch.25 Sec.1-2
Macroevolution
Critique of macroevolutions:
1) irreducible complexity
-rebuttal: pieces of complex systems often have functions of their own
-i.e. bacterial flagellum made of parts that could serve other function
-i.e. eyes with a range of complexity still function
1) No one has observed the evolution of new species
-rebuttal 1: there has been little time to observe the origin of new species, since
human history spans < 0.006% of biological history
-rebuttal 2: we have observed the origin of new species?
-many cases of speciation via laboratory selection experiments
-many cases of new species originating by spontaneous polyploidy and/or
hybridization
-many cases of new species arising naturally w/o polyploidy or hybridization
of cells
-the products of one class of homeotic genes, called Hox genes, provide positional
information in animal embryos
-changes in Hox genes controlled evolution from fish fins to tetrapod limbs
-duplication of Hox genes affected the evolution of vertebrates from invertebrates
-Hox genes drove evolution of insect body plans
Hallmarks of Macroevolution
1) Evolution is not goal oriented
-fossil record often shows apparent trends
-important to consider not just the surviving branch, but the entire evolutionary bush
-the appearance of an evolutionary trend does not imply that there is some intrinsic
drive toward a particular phenotype
1) Evolution DOESNT equal progress from simple to complex
-b/c all organisms evolved from a common ancestor, we all have as many years of
evolution behind us. Some lineages become more complex, others become simplified
-Chimps are more highly evolved than we are!
1) Novel features often arise through intermediate stages, each of which serve a
function(partial wings can be adaptive)
2) Evolution recycles features and puts them to new uses
-many characters evolved for purposes other than those for which they are currently
used( =exaptation)
-feathers evolved for insulation, co-opted for flight
-protein used for cell adhesion in multicellular organisms first evolved in single
celled choanocytes
1) Evolution leaves baggage behind
-appendix(human evolutionary baggage)
-trachea and esophagus share opening(leads to choking)
-blind spot
Lecture 9
Chapter 26 Sec 1-3 : Phylogenetic Systematics
Phylogeny: evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
Taxonomy: science of naming and classifying organisms
Systematics: scientific system for classifying organisms
Phylogenetic systematics: classification of organisms by their order of branching on
an evolutionary tree
Old-school taxonomy
-developed by Carolus Linnaus in 18th century
-includes 2 part format for scientific names(binomial nomenclature) and hierarchical
classification system(e.g. Kingdon, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
-still in use today(although Domain has been added as the most inclusive hierarchical
category)
Taxonomic tips
-species is both the singular and the plural form
-genus is singular, genera is plural
-in a binomial name, the first letter of the genus(but not the species) is capitalized,
i.e. Homo sapiens
-the entire binomial is italicized or less commonly, underlined
Old-school Linnaean categories have been criticized because they dont always form
monophyletic groups
A. monophyletic
B. paraphyletic
C. polyphyletic
PhyloCode
-proposed classification system
-only monophyletic groups would be recognized
-most species names would remain unchanged
-traditional taxonomic ranks(family,order,class...) would no longer exist
-the best tree is the tree w/ the highest likelihood given certain rules about how
DNA changes over time
-more computationally intensive than maximum parsimony appraches
Lecture 10
Chapter 26 Sec.4-6 Insights from Molecular Systematics
-Molecular trees span both short and long periods of time b/c molecules evolve at
different rates
-Conserved sequences like ribosomal RNA(rRNA) resolve deep divergences
-Rapidly evolving sequences like mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) resolve more recent
divergence
The Aftermath
-Libyan National Experts Committee said the Western reports lacked epidemiological
evidence and scientific proof
-114 Nobel laureates signed petition urging that the scientific evidence be permitted
in court
-Libyan court upheld death sentence
-Death sentence commuted and prisoners eventually freed after complex
negotiations involving aid, trade, debt write-offs and payments sent to the infected
childrens families
1. Source of SARS
-Phylogeny supports hypothesis that virus originated in bats
-bats appear to be a reservoir for a number of human viruses(ebola,hendra,nipah)
Why are so many viruses jumping to humans from other animals in recent times?
-human populations expanding into animals territory
-different species increasingly brought together in markets, farms, ranches
-increased travel and trade between regions
1. Source of 2009 H1N1 outbreak
-virus derived from avian, swine, and human strains, all circulating in pigs
-molecular clock analysis suggests that ancstors of the 2009 outbreak had been
circulating undetected for btw. 9-17 years
1. Plagues in the 6th, 14th, and 19th centuries
-samples from modern victims and skeletal remains show that all 3 plagues caused
by the bacterium Yersinia pestis
Lecture 11
51.1- 51.5
Behavioral Evolution
What Is Behavior?
Behavior
A
Fixed action pattern in sticklebacks: The red belly of an intruding male stimulates
attack from resident male
Generally irreversible
Sexual Selection
A Human Sociobiology
Sexual Selection
A
A
A
Female reproductive success low and stable- limited by number of pregnancies she
can carry
A
A Male reproductive success highly variable - limited by number of successful matings
In some species, sex roles reverse
A In seahorses and pipefish, males carry young in pouch and provide all parental care
Consequences of reproductive asymmetry
A
Sexual Selection
Human Sociobiology
Darwin (1859) thought that atruism presented a special difficulty, which at first seemed to
me inscrutable, and actually fatal to my whole theory
Individuals do not act for the good of the species because cheater alleles will win
Instead, individuals may maximize their inclusive fitness (the total effect an individual has
on proliferating its genes) by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives (e.g. kin
selection)
Evolution of Social Behavior
Sexual Selection
Human Sociobiology
Lecture 12
Conservation Biology and Conservation Genetics (56.1,56.2)
Ecology
Behavioral ecology
Physiology
Molecular biology
Genetics
A Evolution
The field of Conservation Biology has grown in response to concerns over loss of
biodiversity
A
Official reports show that were losing diversity at all levels (ecosystem diversity,
species diversity, genetic diversity)
Inbreeding depression
Breeding with close relatives increases the chance the parents will share the same
deleterious recessive alleles
Examples:
A
Melanic moths
Pesticide tolerance
Species with low genetic variation are particularly vulnerable to environmental challenges
Species with low genetic variation are particularly vulnerable to environmental challenges
Low genetic variation and small population size can interact to cause an extinction vortex
Extinction vortex in prairie chickens
Populations of the greater prairie chicken were fragmented by agriculture and later
found to exhibit decreased fertility
The declining population rebounded, confirming it had been on its way down an
extinction vortex
Inbreeding
Overlapping generations
Not clear that the subspecies is morphologically distinct from other subspecies