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By : Amare Kassaw
Lecture Outlines
Introduction
Equalization Techniques
Diversity Techniques
Coding Techniques
Summery
Used Acronyms
Introduction
Mobile radio channel is particularly dynamic due to
Multipath fading
Doppler spread
As a result, the channel has a strong negative impact on BER of
any modulation and transmission techniques
To improve received signal quality in hostile mobile radio
environment, we need
Equalization
Diversity
Channel coding, ..
Each can be used independently or in tandem
Equalization Techniques
ISI is one of the major obstacles to high speed data transmission
over mobile radio channels.
If BS>BC of the radio channel (frequency selective fading),
modulated pulses are spread in time, causing ISI.
An equalizer at the front end of a receiver compensates for the
average range of expected channel amplitude and delay
characteristics.
Equalizers must track the time-varying characteristics of the
mobile channel and therefore should be time varying or
adaptive.
The second subscript( k) of the weights show that they vary with
time and are updated on a sample by sample basis
The error signal ek
Controls the adaptive algorithm
The error signal is derived by comparing the output of the
equalizer with some signal dk which is either
Replica of transmitted signal xk or
Which represents a known property of the transmitted signal
ek is used to minimize a cost function and iteratively update
equalizer weights so as to reduce the cost function
Algorithms types
Zero Forcing (ZF)
Least Mean Squares (LMS)
Recursive least square (RLS)
The speed of the mobile unit determines the channel fading rate
and the Doppler spread
Which is related to the coherent time of the channel directly
The choice of adaptive algorithm, and its corresponding rate of
convergence, depends on the channel data rate and coherent time
The number of taps used in the equalizer design depends on the
maximum expected time delay spread of the channel
The circuit complexity and processing time increases with the
number of taps and delay elements
Diversity Techniques
Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation by
finding independent (or at least highly uncorrelated) signal
channels or paths for communication
Idea: dont put all of your eggs in one basket
In fading channels, a signal power will fall below any given
fade margin at finite probability exists
Send copies of a signal using multiple channels
Time, frequency, space, antenna
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent
path may have a strong signal
Types of Diversity
Time diversity
Repeatedly transmits information at time spacing that exceed
the coherence time of the channel, e..g., interleaver
Spreading the data out over time & better for fast fading
channel
Frequency diversity
Transmits information on more than one carrier frequency
Frequencies separated by more than the coherence bandwidth
of the channel will not experience the same fads (eg., FDM)
Also spread spectrum (spread the signal over a larger frequency
bandwidth) or OFDM (use multiple frequency carriers)
Used to mitigate the frequency selective fading channel
Space diversity
Transmit information on spatially uncorrelated channels
Requires multiple antennas at transmitter and/or receiver
Example: MIMO, SIMO, MISO, virtual antenna systems
Multipath fading changes quickly over space
Hence, the signal amplitude received on the different
antennas can have a low correlation coefficient
Space diversity doesn't require additional
Rx
Tx
/2
Signals to be transmitted
Bandwidth for transmission
/2
The ratio of k/n is typically called the code rate, this ratio
determines the amount of additional redundancy inserted into the
code word.
The smaller the code rate the more parity bits are inserted into the
data stream.
Conclusion
Equalizers attempt to make the discrete time impulse response of
the channel ideal
Channels act as filters that cause both amplitude and phase
distortion of signals
Transmitters and receivers can be designed as filters to compensate
for non-ideal channel behaviour
Training sequences can be used to adapt equalizer weights
Multiple techniques are available for setting filter tap weights
Zero forcing
Least mean squares
Recursive least squares