Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is a scientific theorythat describes the large-scale motion of Earth's lithosphere. This
theoretical model builds on the concept of continental driftwhich was developed during the first few decades of the
20th century. The geoscientific community accepted the theory after the concepts of seafloor spreading were later
developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (on Earth, the crust and upper mantle), is
broken up intotectonic plates. On Earth, there are seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined)
and many minor plates. Where plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of
boundary; convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes,volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic
trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The lateral relative movement of the plates typically varies
from zero to 100 mm annually
Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its
own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries plates into the mantle; the material lost is
roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this
way, the total surface of the globe remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the
conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories (that still have some supporters) propose gradual shrinking (contraction) or
gradual expansion of the globe.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater strength than the
underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection. Plate movement is thought
to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in
topography and density of the crust, which result indifferences in gravitational forces) and drag, with
downward suction, at the subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by the
rotation of the globe and the tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and
their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

Stars
A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is
the Sun. Other stars, mostly in the Milky Way, are visible from Earth during the night, appearing as a
multitude of fixed luminous points due to their immense distance. Historically, the most prominent stars
were grouped into constellations and asterisms, and the brightest stars gained proper names. Extensive
catalogues of stars have been assembled by astronomers, which provide standardized star designations.

For at least a portion of its life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium
in its core, releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into outer space. Once the
hydrogen in the core of a star is nearly exhausted, almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than
helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star's lifetime and, for some stars, by supernova
nucleosynthesis when it explodes. Near the end of its life, a star can also contain degenerate matter.
Astronomers can determine the mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition), and many other properties
of a star by observing its motion through space, luminosity, and spectrum respectively. The total mass of a
star is the principal determinant of its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star,
including diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the star's environment affects its rotation
and movement. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities, known as a
HertzsprungRussell diagram (HR diagram), allows the age and evolutionary state of a star to be
determined.
A star's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed
primarily of hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements. Once the stellar core is
sufficiently dense, hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion, releasing
energy in the process. The remainder of the star's interior carries energy away from the core through a
combination of radiative and convective processes. The star's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing
further under its own gravity. Once the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted, a star with at least 0.4 times
the mass of the Sun expands to become a red giant, in some cases fusing heavier elements at the core or in
shells around the core. The star then evolves into a degenerate form, recycling a portion of its matter into
the interstellar environment, where it will contribute to the formation of a new generation of stars with a
higher proportion of heavy elements. Meanwhile, the core becomes a stellar remnant: a white dwarf, a
neutron star, or (if it is sufficiently massive) a black hole.
Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound, and
generally move around each other in stable orbits. When two such stars have a relatively close orbit, their
gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution. Stars can form part of a much
larger gravitationally bound structure, such as a star cluster or a galaxy.