SUZANA CARMEN CISMA

ENGLISH
AS INSTRUMENT IN
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

EDITURA PRINTECH

Scientific consultants:
Professor Nick Pringle, Universit Libre de Bruxelles
Professor David Lloyd, Coventry University
Professor Sylvia Encheva, Bergen University

If you want a thing done well, do it yourself.

(English proverb)
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
(English proverb)
If we cannot do as we would, we must do as we can.
(English proverb)

CONTENTS
PART 1
PRESENTATIONS.. 11
General traits of business presentations
Stages of a perfect presentation
The speaker
The speech
Materials
The conference room
Rehearsal
Real obstacles
Handling questions
Slides management
Tips for presenters in
international conferences & congresses
The language of presentations
Topics for student presentations
Evaluation criteria
Commenting on information
displayed on graphs
Product and service presentation
Text markers
Presenting yourself and your company
Presenting support services
Presenting sustainable development
Training and clarifying instructions
Presenting safety measures
Presenting legal issues
Presenting market organisation,
different players on the market
and trading on power markets
Financial reporting and control

PART 2
BUSINESS ACTIVITIES .. 89
Leadership and teamwork
E-Managers
Teleconferencing
Negotiations

PART 3
JOB INTERVIEWS .. 107
Interview structures
Interview styles
Interview roles
Human resource managers view
Main areas investigated
The telephone interview
Tips for phone interviews
The videoconference interview
The virtual interview
The selection interview
Group interviews
Interview preparation checklist
Tips for the job interview
Interview questions for applicants
Difficult questions
Questions a candidate may ask
Salary negotiation
Best candidate profile
Qualities employers seek
Ways to enhance interview skills
Answers employers must hear
What to do if you do not hear
from the employer
The language of job interviews
Explain your PAR.s
(Problem, Action, Result)
Create a portfolio of your work
Facts to gather before interviewing
Handling illegal questions
Repair, maintain, extend a dialogue
Mistakes to avoid
PART 4
JOB APPLICATION DOCUMENTS . 155
Europass CV
Cover letter
Voluntary work and its importance
in finding the desired employment:
history, relevance, and impact.

PART 5

BUSINESS WRITING 191

Paragraph writing
Formal and informal
Modals
Letter of inquiry
E-mails
Letters of application
Accepting a job offer
Declining a job offer
Accepting another job offer
Withdrawing from the job search
Rejection letters
Reference letters
Critical letters to coworkers
The memorandum
Marketing business plans
Frequent business abbreviations
PART 6

REFERENCES AND
ONLINE LEARNING SOURCES 251

PART 1

PRESENTATIONS
General traits of business presentations
Stages of a perfect presentation
The speaker
The speech
Materials
The conference room
Rehearsal
Real obstacles
Handling questions
Slides management
Tips for presenters in
international conferences & congresses
The language of presentations
Topics for student presentations
Evaluation criteria
Commenting on information
displayed on graphs
Product and service presentation
Text markers
Presenting yourself and your company
Presenting support services
Presenting sustainable development
Training and clarifying instructions
Presenting safety measures
Presenting market organisation,
different players on the market
and trading on power markets
Financial reporting and control
Presenting legal issues

10

GENERAL TRAITS OF BUSINESS PRESENTATIONS

Presentations are memorable when the content, the visuals

supporting it and the speech delivery are outstanding.
Basic principles of giving a presentation:
Keep It Short & Simple: the total length, the dimensions of
each part, and even the length of each sentence.
Know the audience: what they already know, what effect the
presenter wants to achieve.
Involve the audience: people remember a little of what they
hear, more of what they see, most of what they do.
Use visual aids, but do not totally rely on them. Slides with
graphs add variety and impact to the presentation; they
must be relevant, interesting, limited in number.
Never read full text lines from a slide; instead discuss the
graphs or bullet points on it.
Begin and end powerfully, as people remember the first and
the last things presented.
Explain what you intend to say, then say it, then remind
the audience of what you explained. Use the introduction to
prepare your audience for your theme. Then develop the
theme. At the end, remind them of the theme again.

11

STAGES OF A PERFECT PRESENTATION

PREPARATION

study the audience

prepare the presentation
organise the technical support
check the conference room
rehearse

PURPOSE

to provide instructions
to describe tools, processes, situations or products
to explain or interpret the data in a report
to raise awareness about important issues
to convince audiences/clients/potential buyers
to influence decisions
(company policy, acquisition of goods,
implementation of modern/efficient solutions)
to facilitate team work
to maintain or enhance the level of interest

PERSONALITY

involvement
dynamism
personal attitude and point of view
capacity of relating to the others and
of opening new communication channels
contagious moods

REHEARSAL
1. Repeat the text in your mind and in a loud voice when you
are alone
2. Look in the mirror; if possible, record your presentation
(audio, video)
3. Try to get feed-back and guidance after the rehearsal (avoid
being interrupted)

12

THE SPEECH
1. Write your own presentation
2. You are responsible for
Content (correct&updated information, effective, new,
original and modern perspectives)
Bibliography (rigorous and helpful)
Clarity (in demonstrations and descriptions)
Consequent attitudes the listeners manifest
3. Do not improvise and do not push your luck
=> show respect for your audience
4. Steps
I. Collect information connected with the topic (one box):
ideas, articles from newspaper and magazines, pictures,
quotations, anecdotes, objects, relevant statistics
II. Organise the material (several files, no more than 7)
Group the items of the collection according to themes
Select a key theme
Write the first draft
Eliminate redundant ideas
III. Possible final structures
A: objectives presentation objectives accomplished
B: narration: introduction story conclusion
C: problem solving: situation difficulties solutions
D: description: focusing attention importance of the
topic main message presentation of details and
mechanisms examples summary
5. Alternate activities
6. Avoid a too specialized or pompous language
7. Clear and coherent speech, suitable for note-taking
8. You may alternate
Formal/semi-formal speech,
Rigorous scientific presentations/captivating details,
Information and attitude.
9. The Summary
Reminds the main points.
Highlights the messages that the audience must
understand and remember.
Contains no new information.
10. The conclusion
Shows the logical outcomes of what has been said.
Often contains recommendations.
13

MATERIALS
1. Relevant
2. Able to focus attention and to point to the purpose of the
presentation
3. Elegant in form
4. Visible / audible / sufficient in number for everybody
5. I see and I forget, I do and I remember
6. You may provide check lists for guiding the audience's
observation of the materials used / displayed
7. Allow enough time for each item
8. They are auxiliaries: do not make them protagonists
9. Always be prepared with an alternative in case something
should go wrong
10. Mention their source

THE CONFERENCE ROOM

1. Visit it a day before and half an hour prior to your
presentation
2. Rearrange the furniture if necessary
3. If possible, attend somebody else's conference taking place
in the same space
4. Check the lights, the technical support and the acoustics
5. Rehearse a little in order to get used to the scenery

REAL OBSTACLES IN PRESENTATIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Notes and visual aids

Body language
Understatements
Excessive / Meaningless talk
Long introduction or conclusion
Reading from the slides

14

THE SPEAKER
1. Be elegant, effective and practical
2. Aim to know yourself better, be yourself and
courageously use your talents
Personal life experience, opinions and attitudes can
alter the message
Present things you know and you believe in; nothing
is more powerful than the truth
Ask for feedback and do not avoid team work
Do not imitate a model
Read a lot
Get constant moral support
3. Reflect upon your previous performance
and future intentions, trying to find ways of improvement
4. Do not recite your presentation; build it with the audience
5. Do not read word by word
It distracts everybody
It shows lack of: confidence, competence, preparation
It distorts your style
If you have to read, use a marker to highlight
the most important parts
6. Do not learn by heart. Focus on key words, images and
logical demonstrations, which could be written on cards
and kept at hand. Visualise a big comprehensive picture of
what you are going to say.
7. Speak clearly and loudly;
use your voice (intonation, volume) to emphasise ideas
and to create a pleasant atmosphere
8. Your non-verbal communication should convey the same
message as your verbal communication
9. Avoid redundancy and useless talk
10. Study your audience in advance:

number
social category
cultural background
interests
expectations
needs
time

probable questions
previous/next issues
previous/next speakers
reasons for
attending the presentation
prejudices
willingness to learn more

15

11. Make sure there is harmony between you, the message and
your image (clothes, hair style, make-up, keys or money
"talking" in your pockets, etc.)
12. Do not forget to smile and use some jokes, if appropriate
(avoid them when the presentation is being translated in
another language).

HANDLING QUESTIONS AFTER THE SPEECH

Inviting questions implies that the audience are less expert
than the speaker.
Beware of the total silence scenario.
Have one or two prepared questions to ask the audience.
Keep control of the meeting.
Inviting to discussion and sharing meaningful experience is
adequate when the audience have useful expertise. Often the
best solution is implementing a combination of discussion
and questions.
Be diplomatic in the interactions with the public.
Discretely manage the discussion flow.
Keep control, limit long contributions, and watch the time
In handling questions listen very carefully.
Ask for repetition or clarification if necessary.
Paraphrase the question to check you have understood it.
Take time to think - perhaps by paraphrasing the question.
Respond only to relevant questions.
Refer questioner to another authorised person
or to the bibliography if you cannot answer.
Suggest you will answer a question later if you prefer.
Check that the questioner is happy with your answer:
eye contact and a pause is often sufficient.
Do not allow one or two people to dominate.
Be polite.
Signal when time is running out: 'Time for one last question'.
At the end, thank the audience.

16

What to say if.

1. You want to invite questions and comments
That concludes the formal part of my talk. Thanks for
listening. Now I'd like to invite your comments.
So, now I'd be very interested to hear
your comments and opinions, and I think
we would all benefit from sharing experience.
Now we have fifteen minutes for
questions and discussion.
Right. Now, any questions or comments?
2. You understood the question but it is difficult
or impossible to answer
That's a difficult question to answer in a few words
It could be ...
In my experience ...
I would say ...
I don't think I'm the right person to answer that.
Perhaps our colleague can help ...
I don't have much experience in that field ...
3. You understood but the question is irrelevant
or impossible to answer in the time available
I'm afraid that's outside the scope of my talk/this
session. If I were you I'd discuss that with ...
I'll have to come to that later, perhaps during the
break as we're short of time.
4. You have not understood
Sorry, I'm not sure I've understood.
Could you repeat?
Are you asking if ... ?
Do you mean ... ?
I didn't catch (the last part of) your question.
If I have understood you correctly, you mean ... ? Is
that right?
5.

You check whether your answer is sufficient

Does that answer your question?
Is that okay?

17

18

TIPS FOR PRESENTERS

IN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES

1. Having determined your audience (experts in the field or

non-technical public who need to understand the general
idea of the discourse), the next step is to decide and select
what you want to tell them. In planning the presentation
you must first answer the question 'why do I want to talk to
these people?' Are you presenting scientific findings in order
to persuade the audience to make a policy decision, to
review your research, grant, or simply to explain your
research to colleagues?
2. The purpose of a presentation is to make the audience want
to understand more about your subject, and in turn want to
discover more afterwards. For example, at a conference, you
should assume that people have not read your paper (which
is normally the case), so you should try to make them want
to read it. Remember that at many conferences, there are
many people prepared to provide support for your research;
show them that you can deliver the products. Remember
that the audience will not know the topics as well as you do.
4. Under no circumstances should you read your paper. Even
if English is not your first language it is a mistake to read.

19

5. Remember that people have paid to attend the conference

and that they will complain to the organizers if they do not
find the event worthwhile. This will result in less support
and less opportunities for you to present your work in the
future. The success of the meeting depends on you.
6. You may wish to improve your presentation by encouraging
the audience to ask questions during your presentation. If
you decide to do so, please ask permission from the Session
Chairmen as sometimes this will not be possible as it may
disrupt the session schedule. You should be careful in such
cases not to be sidetracked or overrun the time allocated for
your paper.
7. Structure your presentation in a similar way to your written
paper. First introduce yourself and the presentation, then
move to the main body of the paper. This should start by
describing the problem to be addressed, followed by
explaining the methods you used and by the results you
obtained. Having done that, draw conclusions and describe
future work if relevant. Provide your audience with the clear
significance of your work, the new developments that you
have discovered and the main aspects of your research.
8. Practice your presentation in front of people who do not
necessarily understand your work so as to become more
explicit in your speech delivery.
9. Be sure that you keep to the schedule and always allow 3-5
minutes for questions and discussions. Timing is important
as you may be cut off by the Chairman before you have
presented your results and conclusions.
10. Your presentation will be greatly enhanced with the use of
good visual aids. Your aim is to make your presentation as
easy to follow as possible.
Try to use the landscape format where possible
because it is similar to the human vision.
Avoid vertical slides and transparencies.
Use colours wherever possible.
Insert your organization's name at the bottom of
each slide and maybe your own name.
The first slide has the title of your presentation,
your name and the conference title and date.
Do not use too many symbols and equations. The
audience can read them in the paper if necessary.
20

Have between 3 - 5 points per slide. More than 5 is

too many and you should use a second slide.
Allow 2 - 3 minutes per slide and remember to
pause so the audience can read the whole slide.
Do not block part of the slide or transparency (i.e.
by standing in front of the projector or by design (if
you wish to present parts of it later on).
Remember that a picture/graph is very informative.
Check beforehand that your visual aids are of good
quality and that they can be read from a distance.
Turn the slide and overhead projectors off if they
are not being used for your presentation.
Use the pointer as much as possible and always
try to face the audience as much as possible.
11. Let the organizers know well in advance if you are planning
to use other visual aids such as video tapes or computer
display terminals. If they are notified in advance they may
be able to provide better facilities.
12. Inform the organizers well in advance if you need to screen
simultaneously or use special projection facilities. Do not
assume that they will be available as a matter of course or
that they can be found at short notice.
13. Make sure your visual aids and slides are coordinated with
the conference visual aids well before the session: in the
same sequence with the program, the personal stick or CD
can open in a compatible format, the document is already
copied on the (conference) laptop ready to be displayed.
14. Meet your session chairman at least 10 minutes before the
session starts.

NOTES TO CHAIRMEN OF SESSIONS

1. Approach speakers at least 10 minutes before the session
starts.
2. Insist on good timing and be prepared to enforce it. Agree
with the speakers on timing signals before the
presentation.
3. Pay attention to the speaker, not the paper. Your job is to
manage the proceedings, stimulate questions and control
the discussion. If necessary, repeat questions so that the

21

rest of the audience can hear them. As Chairman, the

questions should in theory be addressed to you.
4. Be prepared to suggest that discussions should be
continued during the breaks.
5. Remember that you are there to help the speaker and the
audience, not yourself. Therefore, if you ask a question,
aim it to stimulate the discussion as well as answer your
particular interest.
(www.worldses.org)

22

SLIDES MANAGEMENT

1. The first visual should give the title of talk.

2. The second should show the structure of talk main
headings. (Contents/Main Ideas/Key Points)
3. The ante-penultimate slide is Conclusions
4. The penultimate slide is References complying with the appropriate citation rules for Bibliography and Webliography
5. The last slide reads Thank you (for your kind attention) and
contains a business e-mail contact address
6. Keep the text to the minimum amount (relevant key words
which you orally explain and elaborate on).
7. Each slide has a title, illustrations and text.
8. The background should not impede on text legibility
(therefore a picture is not advisable)
9. Never just read text from visuals.
10. Do not use too many visuals: the standard is 1/minute.
11. Click to move on to the next slide
(do not set automatic time intervals)
12. Avoid musical background
(your speech cannot be heard properly)
13. Use pauses: give audience time to comprehend and process
the data and pictures you present.

23

14.
15.
16.

Never show a visual before you talk about it.

Remove the visual once you finished talking about it.
Switch off equipment not in use.

17.

Use of colour
For slides, white writing on blue/green is good.
Use different colours if it improves message clarity
(e.g. pie charts)
Use appropriate colour combinations: yellow and
pink are weak colours on white.

18.

Use of room and machinery

Check equipment in advance.
Check organisation of room, equipment, seating,
microphones, etc.
Use a (laser) pointer on the screen (not your hand).
Have a good supply of pens, in case you use a
flipchart additionally
Check the order of all items you are going to use.

19.

You in relation to your audience

Decide the level of formality and dress accordingly.
Keep eye contact at least 80% of the time.
Avoid leaning against the desk, placing your hands
in your pockets, or playing with pens
Use hand gestures made from the shoulder.
Use available space to move, unless restricted by a
podium (but not too much or too fast)

24

THE LANGUAGE OF PRESENTATIONS

1. Greeting
Good morning/afternoon ladies and gentlemen.
(Ladies and) Gentlemen
2. Introductions
My name is ... and I'm here to/going to ...
I'd like to :..
I will talk to you about/tell you about/explain ...
First of all, can I say thank you for inviting me here today/
for coming/for your kind introduction.
3. Subject
I plan to say a few words about ...
I'm going to talk about ...
The subject of my talk is
The theme of my presentation is
I'd like to give you an overview of
4. Structure
I have divided my talk into (three) parts.
My talk will be in (three) parts.
I'm going to divide ...

25

First ...
Second ...
Third
In the first part ...
Then in the second part ...
Finally ...
5. Timing
My talk will take about ten minutes.
The presentation will take about two hours ...
but there'll be a twenty minute break in the middle.
We'll stop for lunch at 12 o'clock.
6. Policy on questions/discussion
Please interrupt if you have any questions.
After my talk therell be time for a discussion
and any questions.
7. Giving an overview of your presentation
I'll speak for about 20 minutes and leave time at the end for
questions.
Could I ask you to leave any questions until after the
presentation?
Please stop me at any time if you have a question.
Please bear with me, as English is not my first language.
I'd like to divide my presentation into 3main areas/2 parts.
8. Marking the progression of ideas
I would like to start by explaining/showing/describing
I would like to start with a brief introduction/a short film/
a quotation from/a story.
First/To begin with I'm going to ...
Now/Next/Finally I'd like to /let's I move on to/turn to ... /
look at/examine/analyse ...
9. Signalling different parts in a presentation:
Signalling the structure makes the organisation of the talk
clear, helps the audience follow the discourse, and helps the
speaker follow the development of his/her own talk.

26

 Ending the introduction

So that concludes the introduction.
That's all for the introduction.
Beginning the main body
Now let's move to the first part of my talk, about ...
So, first ... To begin with ...
Listing
There are three things to consider. First ...
Second ... Third ...
There are 2 kinds of.... The first is ... The second is
We can see advantages and disadvantages.
First, advantages. One is ... Another is ... A third
advantage is ... Finally ...
On the other hand, the disadvantages: first, second
Linking: Ending parts within the main body
That completes / concludes ...
That's all (l want to say for now) on ...
Linking: Beginning a new part
Let's move to (the next part which is) ...
So now we come to ...
Now I want to describe ...
Sequencing
There are (seven) different stages to the process: First
/ then / next / after that / then (x) /after x there's y, last ...
There are two steps involved. The first step is ....
The second step is ...
There are four stages to the project. At the beginning,
later, then, finally ...
I'll describe the development of the idea.
First the background, then the present situation,
and then the prospects for the future
10. Referring to visual aids
As you can see from this chart/diagram, ...
If you look at this graph/picture, you can see ...
This map/slide illustrates/shows ...
11. Concluding
Transition from the last part of the body to the summary/
conclusion:
Right, that ends (the ..third part of) my talk.
That's all I want to say for now on ...
Beginning the summary and/or conclusion
27

I'd like to end by emphasising the main points.

I'd like to finish with a summary of the main points/
some observations based on what I've said/ some
conclusions/ recommendations / a brief conclusion.
Concluding
There are two conclusions / recommendations.
What we need is ...
I think we have to ...
I think we have seen that we should ...
Finally/In conclusion I'd like to say that ..,
I'd like to end/finish I by saying .../with a brief
summary of ...
12. Questions and Answers
So, if you have any questions, I'll do my best to
answer them.
So, if there aren't any more questions, I'll end there.
Thank you very much for listening.

"EXCUSES" FOR
UNSUCCESSFUL PRESENTATIONS
1. The audience
was not interested
criticized my opinions
wouldn't listen to my speech, demanding diagrams,
examples, samples or pictures
2. The board of directions never liked me anyway
3. The time was too short
4. I had no chance to prepare the presentation properly
5. Nobody wanted to know the whole truth
6. There should have been a microphone, a projector, a screen
7. What can one expect from a presentation scheduled right
after lunch?

TIPS
=> EXPRESS A POSITIVE ATTITUDE AND TURN NEGATIVE
CIRCUMSTANCES INTO ADVANTAGES
=> FOCUS ON THE QUALITY OF YOUR WORK
=> SHOW A HIGH SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY
(IT IS YOUR FAULT IF PEOPLE DO NOT PAY ATTENTION)

28

TOPICS FOR STUDENT PRESENTATIONS

1. Environment protection
Greenhouse effect
Acid rain
Wildlife extinction
Selective collection and recycling
Deforestation
Pollution
Ecology
2. Sustainable development
3. Energy shortage and alternative approaches
4. Depletion of fossil fuels and solutions to the problem
5. Saving energy
6. Renewable sources of energy
7. Quality standards impact upon consumers and production
8. Impact of product design on consumers habits & purchases
9. Famous technological
Achievements
Disasters
Accidental discoveries
10. Famous
Engineers
Scientists

29

11.
12.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.

Investors
Economists
Entrepreneurs
Managers
Agricultural approaches to various land types
Famous financial achievements and disasters
Accessing funds for business
Banking products
Loans and collaterals
EU funds for structural development
Company organisation
Corporate culture
Corporate leadership
Leadership in engineering and research
Management throughout history
Technological revolutions and wonders (the Ancient times,
the Middle Ages, the modern epoch.)
Smart homes
Smart communication
The impact of computers on business engineering
Strategies/policies on national & regional development in
the EU, the UK, the USA, etc.
Research management & engineering support in discovery
explorations and expeditions
The ideal manager and his/her professional qualities
The labour market and its current trends
Manipulation in advertising
The impact of mass media on daily life
Management of technological progress
Communication management
Organisational structures in companies & human resource
management
Tips for successful presentations, negotiations, interviews
Business correspondence: letters, e-mails, phone dialogues
Advice on writing reports, business plans, memos,
proposals, orders, etc
Production lines
Franchising
Outline the chronological development
of a successful and famous company
Remarkable Romanian engineers and entrepreneurs

30

38. Intercultural communication in

multi-cultural work-teams/work-stations
39. Migrating work force
40. Strategies for cultivating clients
41. Multinationals and public relations
42. Wholesales and retailers
43. Investment strategies
44. Quality and productivity
45. Quality maximisation strategies for Romanian products
46. Strategies for highlighting competitive advantages
47. Strategies for dealing with the competition
on the same market sector
48. The impact of EU standards
on the local industry/on the Romanian industry
49. SMEs solutions for the economic crisis?
50. Industrial espionage
52. Data bases security
53. For and against consumerism
54. Using statistics for planning your business
55. Globalisation
56. Economic Engineering in Agriculture & Rural Development
57. Accounting and Agro-tourism
58. Executive management
59. Implementing company organisation charts
60. Executive management organization chart
61. Functions of executive management
62. Position titles and job descriptions
63. Communication in business meetings
64. Hotel services and facilities
65. Hotel & Room types, facilities, services and rates
66. Hotel departments
A front office
B guest services/ uniformed services
C housekeeping
D engineering and maintenance
E security and safety
67. Human resources
68. Sales and marketing
69. Accounting
70. Meals, food and beverage
71. Travel agents

31

72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.

Working in a travel Agency: daily activities

Presenting the travel agency and its services
Organising travel formalities and selling tour packages
Advertising travel products and services - tour brochures
Dealing with difficult customers and handling complaints
Tour Guides
Geographical outline of Romania
Sightseeing and describing tourist attractions
Job requirements
The concept of Rural Tourism
Basic knowledge
Business, commercial and managerial correspondence
Hotel-quality assessment: process and terminology
Abbreviations / American versus British

32

EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR PRESENTATIONS

PREPARATION
1. research
2. content selection (concepts to include, length and depth,
technical details, number of key ideas), and structure,
(sequence, repetition, summarising)
3. Clear development, sequential description of processes,
chronological order of events, i.e. background ~ present ~
future.
4. organisation and text markers use
for discourse structure and highlighting facts
5. amount of details (relevant, not numerous)
6. clarity of message
7. global appearance and slide design
8. language accuracy (grammar, spelling, formal lexis)
9. wide range of vocabulary, suitable for topic and audience
10. rehearsal
11. adjusting to the anticipated audience
expectations
technical knowledge
size
questions, discussion, comments,
sharing experience/best practice
33

PUBLIC PERFORMANCE
1. speakers competence
(knowledge and presentation technique)
2. delivery: style (formal/informal), enthusiasm, confidence
3. commanding attention
4. leading into the topic
5. logical flow of ideas
6. points supported by examples
7. effective ending
8. voice control and volume modulation, speed,
tone, variety in intonation, pauses, clear pronunciation
9. fluent speech: simple, clear, adequate sentence length, use
of structure signals
10. non-verbal communication: posture, gestures self-confidence, and use of hands to point to relevant data, eyecontact, facial expression, movement in front of the public

VISUAL AIDS

type/design/clarity
relevance
audio /video input
script or notes

USE OF THE CONFERENCE ROOM

size/seating
equipment (does it work?)
sound quality
visibility

AUDIENCE AND SELF MANAGEMENT

Impact
Organisation
Clarity
Audience awareness
Audience involvement
Relationship between questions

34

Move around the topic with ease

Predict idea development and audience reactions
Effective time management
Summary of information in diagram(s)
Report the main features in graphs
with support of specific data.
A wide range of grammar and vocabulary.
Complex sentences and a wide range of functions
Relevant comparisons
No over-generalizations
Relevant connections in the text
Listen, read and write simultaneously, if necessary
Dealing with various types of questions and
the relationships between them
Concentration skills, focus on listening, not just hearing
Fluent, clear, and accurate speech
Relevant and appropriate answers
Functional re-organisation during the speech, if needed
Convincing development of the argument
Correct word and sentence stress and sentence rhythm.

IMPLEMENTING ELEVATED VOCABULARY

1. THINKING & LEARNING
VERBS: assess, assume, concentrate, consider, contemplate, deduce, deliberate, discriminate, estimate,
gather, grasp, graduate, justify, ponder, presume,
reckon, reflect, speculate, suppose;
ADJECTIVES: biased, dubious, ingenious, nave,
optimistic,
pessimistic,
plausible,
prejudiced,
sceptical, academic, ignorant, inattentive, intensive,
intellectual, knowledgeable;
NOUNS: dilemma, faith, inspiration, intuition,
lecture, notion, paradox, query, self-study, tuition,
tutorial;
2. PHRASES, PATTERNS, COLLOCATIONS
account: account for, (give) an account of, take into
account, take account of, by all accounts, on sb's
account, on account of;
35

associate: associate sth with;

balance: (hang) in the balance, strike a balance, upset
/alter/redress the balance, balance between,
on balance, off balance
basis: basis for, on a daily/temporary basis, on the
basis of/that
belief: express belief(s), belief in/that, contrary to popular belief, beyond belief, in the belief that, popular/
widely held/widespread/firm/strong/growing belief
conclusion: bring sth. to a conclusion, come to/arrive
at /reach a conclusion, jump/leap to conclusions, in
conclusion, conclusion of, logical conclusion
3. PHRASAL VERBS
come (a)round (to) = change opinion or decision because someone has persuaded you to agree with them
come up with = think of something: an idea or a plan
figure out = be able to understand something or solve
a problem; understand what someone is like and why
they behave in the way they do
make out = see, hear or understand someone or
some-thing with difficulty; suggest, imply
piece together = learn the truth about sth. by considering all the separate bits of information you have
read up (on / about) = get information on a particular
subject by reading a lot about it
think over = consider a problem or decision carefully
think through = consider the facts about something
in an organised and thorough way

36

COMMENTING ON INFORMATION
DISPLAYED ON GRAPHS
1. Introducing the exhibit
I'd like to show you this graph.
Have a look at this diagram.
I think this bar chart will be of interest to you.
2. Labelling the exhibit
It's a graph showing the seasonal sales of ...
It's an advertisement for
It's an organization chart of
It's a message from ...
3. Describing the structure of the exhibit
The horizontal axis shows ...
The vertical axis represents
The curve shows ...
4. Describing the main features of the exhibit
You will see immediately that
Its most significant feature is
A very interesting point is
5. Describing the content of an exhibit
Sales rose/went up/increased/climbed
37

Sales peaked/peaked out ...

Sales stood at.
Sales levelled out / flattened out
Sales bottomed out
Sales rose slowly/steadily/quickly/suddenly/gradually
Sales fell/dropped/slumped/decreased/plunged
This was due to ...
This was the result of...
This caused
This led to
6. Interpreting an exhibit
This seems to suggests that
In my opinion it means that ...
This implies that ...
It is quite clear that ...
7. Presenting opinions
My view is that ...
I think that ...
My opinion is that ...
8. Making recommendations
I think we should
I feel we ought to
I suggest that we
I recommend that .

(David Kerridge, Presenting Facts and Figures, Longman, 2007)

38

Describing the content of an exhibit:

(Brian Howe, Portfolio Case Studies for Business English, Longman, 1990)

Describing trends:

(Marc Dfourneaux, Do You Speak Science? Eds. Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1997)

39

Note the following ways to say numbers (cf. Anthony Cosgrove

English at Work, Cambridge University Press, 2011):
Currencies:
$6.50 six dollars fifty 6.15 six pounds fifteen
Decimals: note that a decimal point is written as a 'dot',
not a comma like in some languages.
6.5 six point five
0.25 nought/zero point two five (NOT point twenty five)
Large numbers: a comma can be used to separate
thousands from hundreds. Notice the use of 'and' in
British English.
6,200 six thousand two hundred (in BrE and AmE)
6,280 six thousand two hundred and eighty (in BrE, but
AmE has no 'and' here), 2m two million. (NOT millions),
25m two point five/two and a half million
Use the verbs: to double, to triple, to halve.
Use the nouns: a rise, growth an improvement, a fall, a
drop, a peak, a recovery, a half, a doubling.
Manufacturing industry orders in January rose 11. 1%
from the same period a year earlier, compared with
forecasts of an 11.2% rise. (Wall Street Journal website)
Note the following prepositions:
Sales increased from $5.4m to $5.8m. (start and finish
figures). Sales increased by $O.4m. (difference between
start and finish figures). There was an increase in sales
of $O.4m. (after a noun or noun phrase). There was a 3%
increase in sales. (before the thing that is changing). The
share of U.S. capital spending devoted to information
technology has more than tripled since 1960, from 10% to
35%. Fields such as biotechnology are booming.
(Business Week website)
We'll raise/lower/cut/maintain his salary. (with an object)
Inflation will rise/fall/grow/go up. (without an object)
We'll increase/decrease/improve/recover our market
share. (with an object) AND Our market share will
increase/decrease/improve/recover. (without an object)
Speed Amount Lexis: quickly/quick rapid change, significantly/significant, gradually/gradual constant, regular
change sharply/sharp,steadily/steady slow, step-by-step
change, slightly/ slight. Examples: Sales grew steadily.
There was a steady growth in sales. So far, 6.25 billion
40

USD has poured into Romania over the last decade/with

last year's figures showing a slight increase according to
the latest Trade Registry data. (Bucharest Business Week
website)
Which of the graphs below best illustrates the movement
described in each of the following sentences?
1. The market is showing some signs of growth.
2. The market is extremely volatile.
3. The pound slipped back against-the dollar.
4. The Swiss franc is staging a recovery.
5. The lira lost ground slightly_
6. There's been a dramatic downturn in the market.
7. There's been an upsurge of interest in gold.
8. The share price bottomed out at 115p.
9. Sugar peaked at $400'a tonne.
10. Profits will level off at around 1.1 bn.
11. Sales hit an all-time low.
12. There hasn't been much movement in the price of tin.

The financial press is full of expressions of change and

development. Enter the following verbs in a chart according to
the type of change they describe: slump, rise, recover, plunge,
pick up, plummet, drop, soar, bounce back, take off, climb,
rally, fluctuate, fall, stabilize, slide, flatten out, crash, hold
steady, escalate, decline, rocket, dip.

(cf. Anthony Cosgrove English at Work, Cambridge University Press, 2011)

41

Units and Abbreviations (cf. Yates, Fitzpatrick, Technical English, Longman, 1990)

42

43

Women
Clothes
Sizes
UK

USA France Italy

Women
Shoes
Sizes

Men
Suits

UK USA Europe

UK USA Europe

Men
Shirts
UK USA Europe

Men
Shoes
UK USA Europe

TIME AROUND THE GLOBE

44

Children
Sizes
age

c
m

age

c
m

PRODUCT AND SERVICE PRESENTATION

1. Describing the features and benefits of a product

This is our new (product).
Although it is based on the previous version , its main
system has been completely redesigned.
The major new feature is ...
This works by ...
The big advantage of this is ...
Another major selling point is ...
2. Comparing competitive products
The (product)
has the edge on ...
compares well with
performs better than
is ahead of ...
is far ahead of
is superior to the previous versions
The major difference between this and the former models is ...
One interesting new feature is ...
Another improvement we have built in is ... s
The device here is for
The major benefits of this product can be summed up as
(cf. B. Howe, Portfolio Case Studies for Business English, Longman, 1990)

45

46

TEXT MARKERS

Here follows a list of text markers compiled from Virginia

Evans, Successful Writing for Proficiency, Express Publishing,
2006, to which researched syntactic and lexical units from
Michael Vince, Advanced Language Practice, Heinemann ELT,
1994, were added, as well as students own contributions.
Introducing personal opinions
In my opinion
In my view
To my mind
To my way of thinking
I am convinced that
It strikes me that
It is my firm belief that
I am inclined to believe
It seems to me that
As far as I am concerned
I think/believe that
I reckon that
It is my impression that
As for me/As about me
From my standpoint
My perspective is

47

 As I see it/things
Personally I think
I would rather/sooner focus on
They had better/should/ought to
Listing advantages
One advantage of
Another advantage of
One other advantage of
An argument in favour of
A further advantage of
The main advantage of
The greatest advantage
The first advantage of
Listing disadvantages
One disadvantage of
Another disadvantage of
One other disadvantage of
A further disadvantage of
The main disadvantage of
The greatest disadvantage of
The first disadvantage of
An argument against
Listing points
Firstly
First of all
In the first place
Secondly
Thirdly
Finally
Giving examples
For example
For instance
Such as
Like
In particular
Especially
A good example is.

48

 Take ..., for example.

. is a case in point.
'In places such as ...
Sequencing and prioritizing ideas
Beginning: first (of all), to start/begin with
Continuing: secondly, after this, after that,
next, then, afterwards
Finalizing: finally, lastly, last but not least
Show contrast appearance/reality
Initially
At first
On the contrary
In contrast to
Contrary to
By contrast
Adding more points to the same topic
What is more
Furthermore
Apart from this/that
In addition to
Moreover
Besides this
Not to mention the fact that
Not only but also
Both and
And
Both
Too
Also
As well
As well as
Above all
On top of that
After all
Expressing cause
Because (of)
As

49

Since
Owing to the fact that
Due to the fact that
On the grounds that
In view of
For this/that reason
Seeing that
Now that
Given that
For
In that
Inasmuch as

Expressing effect
Therefore
So
Consequently
As a result/consequence
Hence
Thus
The + comparative, the + comparative
Expressing purpose
So that + may, might, can, could, shall, should, will, would
So as to, In order to
In case
With the purpose of
With the intention of
Stating popular conceptions
It is popularly believed
People often claim that
It is often alleged that
It is a popular belief that
A popular misconception is
It is a well known fact
People point out
People feel that
Some people argue
Many agree that
Accustomed to the popular belief that

50

Make general statements

As a rule
Generally
As a general rule
In general
By and large
On the whole
Globally
Generally speaking
It is generally perceived
It is felt that
Separating the truth in partially correct statements
To a limited extent
To a certain extent
To some degree
In a way
Up to a point
In a sense
Emphasizing a point
Possessive + own
Compounds with ever + modal
Echoing phrases with so
Little does she appreciate
So + adjective + that
Such+ noun + that
Indeed
Naturally
Clearly
Obviously
Of course
Needless to say
Certainly
Surely
Sheer
Pure
Complete
Thorough
Absolute
Strongly

51

Major
Utter
Explicit
Total
Perfect
The very thing
Entire
Outright
Positive
True
Genuine
Indeed
Not at all
Not in the slightest
Not the least bit
Nothing left at all
None left whatsoever
The
Do
By no means
By all means
Even

Define reality
It is a fact
Actually
The fact is that
As a matter of fact
The fact of the matter is that
In practice
Indeed
After all
In fact
In effect
Balance: the other side of the argument
Opponents of this view say argue/claim/believe/admit/
acknowledge (that)
While it is true to say that in fact it should
be viewed with caution
The fact that contradicts the idea/belief that

52

Still, it is argued that

There are people who think that
Contrary to what most people believe
As opposed to the above ideas
Certain members expressed disapproval
On the one handon the other hand

Referring to other sources

With reference to
According to
As for
As about
Setting the limits of knowledge
To the best of my knowledge
As far as I know
For the same reasons
In my knowledge
Negative addition
Neither nor
It is not , and neither/nor is
It is not , and the other is not, either.
Make contrasting points
Yet
However
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
But
Even so
Still
Although
Though
Even if/though
Even so
While
Regardless of the fact
In spite of the fact that
Despite the fact that
All the same

53

Irrespective of the fact

Whereas
Whilst
In any case
Anyway
Instead
For one thing and for another

Give alternatives
Or
Either , or
On the one hand , on the other hand
Alternatively
Another solution/perspective would be
Whether or (not)
Similarities
Similarly
Likewise
In the same way
Identically
Exception
Apart from
Except for
But
With the exception of
Clarify
It means
That is to say
Let me be more clear
The bottom line is
Rephrase
In other words
To put it another way
Namely
Lets go to the point

54

Express condition
On (the) condition that
Provided that
Providing (that)
Only if
If only (+ regret)
As long as
In the event of/that
Under the circumstances
Under no circumstance/condition
In case
If
If so
Otherwise
Or else
Unless = if not
Assuming that
Suppose
Supposing that
So long as
Indicating consequences
Consequently
Then
So
In which case
Insofar as
So that
As a result
As a consequence
Comparing
As as
Just as as
Not quite as as
More than
Less than
Twice as as

55

Concluding
Lastly
All in all
Finally
Therefore
To sum up
On balance
In conclusion
On the whole
All things considered
For the above mentioned reasons
Taking everything into account
Taking it all into consideration
Summarize
In short
Briefly
To put it brief(ly)
I would like to conclude stating that
Some final observations
Lets make a summary of the previous points
Asking/inviting questions
I invite you to ask questions, make comments
and share experience
I would be very interested in hearing your questions
If you have any questions please feel free to interrupt
I would be glad to take any questions at the
end of my presentation
Context approximations
Almost
About
Approximately
Largely
Altogether
Next to
In the vicinity of
Neighbouring
Out of all proportion
Few/little (insufficient) BUT (quite)a few/little(enough)

56

Somewhat
Tremendously
Enormously
Really
As a rule
Regularly
Even
Mainly
Mostly
Too
Nearly
Virtually
Vaguely
Hardly ever
Extremely

Define time
When
Whenever
Before
Until
Till
After
Since
Last
While
Whenever
As soon as
As
During
By the time
Sooner or later
Ever
Never
Just
Already
In the foreseeable future
Next
Now
Currently
For the time being

57

Every
Always
Often
Seldom / rarely
Sometimes
Usually
Then
Subsequently
Eventually
At no time
Long-term
In the long run
In perspective
Once in a while
Once
The moment that
Immediately
Straight away
Directly
From time to time
Twice a week
Every now and then
Accidentally
It will last/take
Day in, day out
Day after day
Time and time again
Over and over again
Hardly when
Barely when
Scarcely when
No sooner than
At the same time
Meanwhile
Afterwards
Earlier
On time
In time
Daily
Quarterly
Hourly

58

 Later
Previously
Beforehand
Defining space
Where
Wherever
There
Here
Over here/there
On the premises
The venue is
On location
Estate/building
Space/land/property
Defining position
On
Under
Opposite
Across
Inside
Upside down
Reversed
Beneath
Through
Beyond
Outside
At the corner
In the corner
In front of
Relatives
Who
Whom
Whose
That
Whoever
Which
Whichever

59

Reference
Regarding
Concerning
Referring to
With respect to
With regard to
With reference to
About
Proportions
per cent
High/low percentage of
The majority of
The minority of
A significant number of
Relevant amount/sum
Meaningful quantity
Over one third
Half
Two quarters
Three fifths
One in 8 people
Four out of six
Share
To double
To triple
Threefold
Twofold
Comment adverbs & phrases
Presumably
Naturally
In all likelihood
Notably
Apparently
Kindly
Definitely
Luckily
Sadly
Seriously
Interestingly

60

Surprisingly
Carelessly
Unbelievably
Undoubtedly
Wisely

Trends
Raise
Lower/cut
Maintain
Remain stable
Plummet
Fall
Grow
Go up
Go down
Increase
Decrease
Boom
Improve
Recover
Drop
Peak
Large modification
Sudden alteration
Small change
Sharp
Slight
Quick/rapid
Regular
Constant
Steady
Gradual
Slow
Step by step
Stay the same
Be flat
Hit a low
Remain high
Reach a peak
Be/stand at

61

Decline
Fluctuate
Level off
Drop/fall back

Asking for opinions

What do you think about..?
How/What about ... ?
How do you feel about.?
What are your views on ?
Do you think ... should ..?
From my point of view, .
If you ask me, ...
Generalisations
On the whole, ...
Generally speaking, ...
By and large, .
I feel sure that .
Giving opinions
I think/feel/ believe ....
In my opinion ...
It seems to me that ...
As I see it ...
For me, .
I do not think ...
I have mixed feelings about it.
I doubt whether .:
I'm certain that ...
I'm in two minds about it.
I'm afraid I have no idea. '.
Agreeing
I completely agree with you.
That's absolutely right.
I don't agree with you / that .
I see what you're saying, but.
My thoughts entirely ...

62

PRESENTING YOURSELF
AND YOUR COMPANY

Any company structure includes the following departments:

1. Administration
2. Finance
3. Human Resources
4. Information Technology
5. Marketing
6. Production
7. Purchasing
8. Quality
9. Research and Development
10. Sales and Distribution
Match the departments (1-10) with the quotes (a-j).
a. We are very dependent on technology; my job is to ensure
that all the hardware and software is operational.
b. I am responsible for sourcing all materials, equipment and
components needed by the firm.
c. My team provides detailed figures to assess the health of the
company.
d. The Marketing Department identifies gaps in our product
range. We create the new products and then test them.
63

e. We are concerned with manufacturing in our two factories.

f. When a job becomes vacant or a new post is created, we take
care of recruitment and selection.
g. We work with a large team of national representatives whose
job is to get orders from customers and then ensure that
the orders are delivered.
h. My department has a wide range of responsibilities from
running the post room to organising office furniture.
i. We find out what customers want, set the prices and
organise promotion campaigns.
j. I ensure that all products are manufactured to the highest
possible standard.
What is your job title in English?
How do people address you at work by your first name or
surname?
Which of the following is not the right thing to say when
presenting your business card?
a. Here's my card.
b. Let me give you my card.
c. I present my card to you.
d. This has my full job title and contact details.
Describing your job
Complete the sentences with the correct preposition.
1 I work ABC.
2 I report directly.. the Head of Distribution.
3 I'm in charge ..a small team.
4 I'm responsible.. developing new business.
5 I specialise .. renewable energy projects.
6 I'm interestednew energy sources.
7 My job consists two main functions.
8 I take part .board meetings every month.
9 Currently I'm working.. an interesting project.
Look at these statements from a meeting.
Express the same idea using the words given.
e.g. Hi, my name's Sam Geary and I'm with ABC Energy.
Hi, my name's Sam Geary and I work for ABC Energy.

64

1. Our main business is energy supply and services.

We work
2. There are over 6,000 employees in the company.
The company.
3. There are three main divisions in the company.
The company is divided .
4. I'm responsible for developing business with small
and medium-sized enterprises
I am in charge
5. I joined the company three years ago.
I have been
6. Part of my job is to research new technologies.
My job involves
7. ABC Energy was originally a distribution company.
ABC Energy started life..
8. Our current objective is to develop energy services.
At the moment we ..
9. I hope I'm not telling you things you know already.
Forgive me.
10. Can I give you any other specific information?
Is there anything.
Match the expressions from the conversation 1-8
with expressions that have the same meaning a-h.
1. It hadn't occurred to me.
2. By and large, ...
3. As far as is concerned

a. I don't think that matters.

b. I can see good and bad things
about ...
c. In terms of ...

4. There's a real issue with... d. At the end of the day, it's

about ...
5. That's not really an issue. e. Generally speaking, ...
6. Ultimately, it's a question f. That's absolutely right.
of ...
7. I totallly agree with you.

g. I hadn't thought of that.

8. I have mixed feelings h. ... is a real concern.

about ...
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing, Heinle Cengage
Learning, 2010)

65

66

PRESENTATIONS FOR SUPPORT SERVICES

How are certain support functions (like accounting and

purchasing) organised in your company? Are they centralised
at the head-quarters, decentralised to the business units or
are they out-sourced?
Read the text about shared service centres.
Answer the question:
1 What are their main benefits?
2 What are the main problems in implementing them?
3 What is one solution to this problem?
Shared services centres are a way of consolidating
support functions, such as IT, HR, or Accounting, into a single
provider for the whole company. If you can replace 100 people
working at various sites with 50 people working in a single
shared services centre, the cost and efficiency benefits can be
enormous.
Transferring accounting processes (like payment of
invoices or management of the payroll) from a number of
offices to one or two large integrated centres does not sound
too difficult. But if you are a company which has traditionally
decentralised its operations, you may experience resistance to
change from staff who are unwilling to relocate or retrain.

67

Resistance may also come from trade union leaders, who

will be suspicious that this is the first step to the outsourcing
of support functions.
So it is better for everyone if the transition to more
centralised support functions is done gradually. Bear in mind
that not all centralisation is helpful: you do not have to go all
the way down this route if it does not suit your companys
situation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Find words/expressions in the text with these meanings:

the only supplier of something..
different locations.
the list of the amounts to be paid to employees
don't want to.
subcontracting to external companies..
step by step.
is not right for..

Complete the sentences with which, whose, whom, or where.

1. Ill ask Jim, . is the expert in these matters.
2. This is the number of the bank account into .. the
money will be paid.
3. She's the person. idea it was to introduce shared
services centres.
4. London is the town..I was born.
5. Munich, is where I work, is a much smaller city.
6. It's a department.main function is to reduce costs.
7. The GMT union, . I belonged to many years ago, still
has a lot of members.
8. The Chief Accountants to we spoke said that the
document helped with reducing all risks.
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)

68

PRESENTATIONS
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

What does the term 'sustainable development' mean to you?

Summaries of the responsibilities which a company has to its
stakeholders:
To ensure customer .....................
To give shareholder ....................
To have a positive ..................on the local community
To guarantee fair ......... of suppliers
To offer job .............. to employees
Read the opinion of Richard Branson, the CEO of Virgin.
Do you agree with him?
'We put employees first, customers second, and shareholders
third. Because if your employees are happy, they will do a
better job, which makes your customers happy, which leads to
more sales, which makes your shareholders happy'
Which stakeholder group would you say your company puts
first? Why?
Read the text on energy companies and sustainable development. Answer the following questions.

69

a) How are energy companies' responsibilities for sustainable

development different from those of other companies?
b) In what ways are they the same?
Sustainable development
Energy companies have a particular role to play in this field, as
they rely, more than many other businesses, on the world's declining natural resources. So, the first priorities for an energy
company in its sustainable development policy are:
combating climate change
conserving resources and promoting energy efficiency.
Linked closely to these aims are two other goals:
innovating to find technologies that will improve our
environment
working with environmental charities around the
world.
There are also the more general targets of sustainable development to consider. For any company, they involve taking care of
the interests of all the stakeholders. In the case of employees,
it means:
offering job security, a safe working environment and
career opportunities
promoting equal opportunity and diversity.
In the case of shareholders, the local community and suppliers, it means:
ensuring strong company performance, growth and
job creation
fair treatment of suppliers
Find words or phrases in the text with these meanings:
1. depend on ...
2. decreasing ...
3. fighting
4. connected strongly
5. looking after
6. encouraging people from different backgrounds
7. guaranteeing
8. just/ honest
Create sentences and discuss the meaning of these phrases:
mineral resources, climate change, environmental charities,

70

sustainable development, energy efficiency, job security,

company performance, equal opportunities, local community.
Discuss:
1. What are the benefits of green facades on buildings?
2. What kinds of vehicles have used natural gas up to now?
How will they evolve?
3. Who are the main partners in a sustainable project?
4. What can students do to get information and act on it?
Complete these phrases. Put one word in each space.
1. We are looking out for interesting projects to . involved .
2. We were so .. that we agreed .. almost immediately.
3. We .. a small subsidiary to develop this technology.
4. Initially its funds came from us, but soon it will be
5. Its ideas have been . .. across the region.
Choose the correct tense to complete these sentences.
1. We have been working / worked with them since 2006.
2. We have published / published our first sustainable development report 4 years ago.
3. The first climate change targets have been set / were set at
the Kyoto Conference.
4. So far we have had / had little interest from business
customers in our green tariff.
5. We have been launching / launched our energy-saving
initiative in 2007
6. For the last 5 years we have been developing / developed
more efficient wind turbines.
7. We have always been committed / were always committed to
social responsibility.
8. Last year we have invested /invested 1.4 million in
community projects.
What sustainable development projects is your company
involved in?
What is the purpose of these projects?
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing, Heinle Cengage
Learning, 2010)

71

72

PRESENTATIONS
FOR TRAINING AND CLARIFYING INSTRUCTIONS

What was the last training course you attended?

What kind of training was it?
What methods did the trainer use to motivate you to learn?
Complete and then answer these questions which you could
ask to check instructions. Use the -ing form or infinitive of the
verb given.
1. Did you say that we should close the doors when (leave) the
building?
2. What should we do if we don't remember (close) the doors?
3. Are we allowed to get out of the building more quickly by
(use) the lift?
4. Should we try (help) others or just look after ourselves?
5. What would be the right thing (do) if the fire was in the
corridors and the emergency stairs?
6. What was the point you made about (take) personal
possessions with us?
7. So, whose job is it (ensure) that everyone is out of danger?
8. I didn't follow what you said about when it was safe (return)
to the building.

73

During a training course you will sometimes need to ask for

help or clarification. These statements are all ways of doing
this, but they are too direct. Change them to make them sound
more polite, using the words given in brackets.
1. I didn't hear you.
.(repeat)
2. I m lost.
.(confused)
3. I don't understand what you said.
.(follow / you)
4. This is too theoretical for me.
(give me a practical example)
5. Explain that again.
.(go through, time)
6. Tell us why we, need to do it this way
.(the reasoning / behind)
7. What do you mean, better?
.understand/mean/by)
8. You've given us too much information
.. (take in / at once)
Discuss the questions.
1 Who is a training for?
2 How does the trainer try to engage the audience?
3 What health and safety issue does a trainer address?
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)

74

PRESENTATIONS
FOR ENSURING SAFETY

What are the most common types of accident in your

company? How serious are these, usually?
Complete the words in these sentences describing workplace
accidents. The first two letters have been given.
1. He was badly bu.. in a fire.
2. No-one was killed, but three people were in.
3. There were no ca.. reported as a result of the explosion.
4. Three workers were ex.to a small dose of radiation. .
5. The pipes were da by a mechanical digger.
6. The driver was elby an overhead electricity line
7. He su. severe shock, but otherwise he was not hu. .
Complete these safety notices with the correct verb.
careful!
.. special care!
attention!
..of live lines!
Always ..protective clothing!
Do not .your life at risk!

75

Complete the sentences. Use these words: prevented, followed,

assessed, encouraged, taken, provided.
1. First, all safety risks must be properly
2. Precautions can then be . to control these risks.
3. Regular training in safety procedures must be ... for all staff.
4. Staff must be monitored to check that safety procedures are
constantly being
5. Good practice can be . by a system of rewards.
6. Bad practice can be by strict supervision and control.
Answer the questions.
1 What is the CEO's role regarding safety?
2 Why is safety taken so seriously?
3 What must managers do?
Complete the phrases:
1. If there's an accident, he can't .. the ..
2. Safety is a . of mind
3. The consequences of cutting . when laying an underground gas pipe are too serious
4. Everything has to be done . the book.
5. Carrying out work safely should be secondto every
employee.
6. Managers must lead by..
7. It's about ..what you preach..
What do you think each idiom means? Formulate your own
definitions. Now match these definitions with the next phrases:
a. to follow the same principles yourself that you tell others to
follow ..
b. an approach or a way of thinking ..
c. an instinct, something that you do without needing to be
reminded..
d. to follow procedures correctly
e. to take the quickest and easiest route, but not the correct
route
f. to give responsibility to someone else rather than take it
yourself
g. to act in a way that shows others how to act.

76

Read the account of an accident on a gas network. What

caused the gas leak? Where did the explosion take place?
Following a gas explosion on the sixth floor of the Hotel Plaza,
Titas Transmission and Distribution Ltd. will conduct a full
survey of the citys gas pipe network. Engineers were repairing
a gas pipeline leakage close to the hotel when the accident
happened. They found that an electrical cable had been laid
too close to the pipe. Over a period of time sparks from the
cable had eroded the pipe. They shut down the gas supply in
order to carry out repairs, but it seems that gas had already
leaked into an enclosed room higher up in the building and
that some other spark triggered the explosion. Luckily, there
were no casualties.
Complete the account of an accident at a nuclear power station
in Japan. Use the correct past tense form, active or passive, of
the verbs in brackets.
On August 9th, 2004 four contract workers (kill) and
seven .. (be) seriously injured at a Japanese nuclear power
plant in Mihama. They (carry out) routine maintenance
work when a cooling pipe (burst) and (discharge)
steam at a temperature of approximately 270 degrees Celsius.
Four .. (die) immediately and the others . (take) to hospital
where they..(treat) for burns and heart and lung damage.
It seems the pipe burst because not enough cooling water
(inject) into the reactor's turbine. Company officials said that
no radiation . (leak) from the burst pipe because the
water was part of the secondary cooling system. Consequently
they.. (decide) not to evacuate the local area. A safety
spokesman said the disaster could have been prevented if the
plant had been equipped with a better leak detection system.
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)
Think about a workplace accident that you know of.
What happened? What was the background? What
action was taken as a result?
Discuss the impact of such events upon tourism.
Comment on the roles of spokespeople and, media and
advertisement in such cases.

77

78

PRESENTING
THE DIFFERENT PLAYERS AND
THE ORGANISATION OF THE MARKET
Which activities in the supply chain does a company manage?
Is your company independent or part of a larger group?
Describe the way a business sector has changed over the last
20 years. Use the words: state, capital, regulated, entrants,
historical, subcontractors, and competitors.
Create sentences with these words: dominated, monopoly,
domestic, expenditure, maintenance, sustainable, construction
Match words 1-7 with their meanings a-g.
1. unbundle
a. remove government controls
2. deregulate
b. sell products more cheaply than
3. end user
c. everything owned by a company
4. border
d. consumer
5. incumbents
e. historical companies
6. undercut
f. separate
7. assets
g. frontier
Read about the European market.

79

What are your views on the EU policy in your field?

Are these statements true (T) or false (F)? Explain.
1. There is now a single market in Europe.
2. The amount people pay for similar products and services is
very different from one European country to another.
3. You have to separate integrated companies before you can
have real competition
4. Business giants agree unbundling will benefit consumers.
5. Companies from outside the EU could benefit if member
states are forced to unbundle.
Complete the second sentence so that it expresses the same
idea as the first.
1. Despite the European Commission's efforts, there are still
very few cross-border sales.
Although the European Commission has made efforts, there
are still very few cross-border sales.
2. There is great competition, but prices have not come down.
Despite .
3. They have relaxed regulation and encouraged competition.
As well as .
4. In addition to exporting gas to Europe, Russia also exports
gas to China.
Russia exports gas.
5. In theory, there is an open market. However, prices still vary
a lot from one country to another.
Although..
6. The plan failed because there was not enough support for it.
The plan failed owing to
These words describe mergers and acquisitions.
What is the difference in meaning between each pair?
1 to take over / to merge
2 to sell off / to spin off
3 a merger / a joint venture
4 to acquire / to buy a stake in
5 a takeover bid / a leveraged buyout
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)

80

Imagine you are an industry analyst talking about trends in

your business sector. What will happen about these things?
a. big mergers and acquisitions
b. smaller scale acquisitions
c. spin-offs
What other predictions can you make for the structure of this
industry? What role does the government play in your business sector? Is it an important role or just a minor one?
Use the table to create sentences with the derived words; note
that syllable stress changes between the verb and the noun.

Verb
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to

explore
produce
trade
wholesale
retail
store
supply
subcontract
regulate
consume

Activity
Person / Type of company
An EP company
production
a trader
wholesale
a retailer
storage
a supplier
a subcontractor
regulation
a consumer

Make sentences about the roles of the different players in a

competitive energy market. Use the appropriate modal verb.
1. Energy companies / subcontract work.
2. Electricity companies / be allowed to cut off the supply to a
customer who does not pay the bill.
3. Power generation / remain under government control
4. The regulator / control energy prices to the final consumer.
5. The regulator / ensure fair competition on the market.
6. Regulators / encourage network operators to be efficient.
7. Consumers / be able to change their supplier as often as
they like.
8. Consumers / reduce consumption if they do not want to.
Answer the questions:
1. Which types of company does the government regulate?
2. How does it help to ensure security of supply to users?
3. Which types of consumer does it especially aim to protect?
81

Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as

the first.
1. The equipment is old-fashioned, but it works well.
Although
2. It costs lot of money. Nevertheless, I think it is worthwhile.
In spite of
3. Although it is an expensive form of energy now, the costs
will come down.
, but .. .
4. There were technical difficulties, but the project went ahead.
Despite
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)
Discussion:
What business opportunities can you see for services
companies in todays world, where sustainability and
environmental protection are increasingly important?
How do you think your line of business was affected by
the financial crisis of 2008?
Why does a company go bankrupt?
What are the objectives of trading in your line of work?
Why do you think traders are paid so much money? Are
they paid according to their qualifications, their ability,
the demands of the job, or the profits they make for the
company?

82

PRESENTING
FINANCIAL REPORTING AND CONTROL

Is your company listed on the Stock Exchange or does it have

only private (or state) shareholders?
What are the implications of this for financial reporting?
1.1 There are three main types of company financial
statement. Match the name of the statement with the correct
definition.
The profit and loss account
The cash flow statement
The balance sheet
1 _______ shows all the things the company owns (its assets)
and all its debts (its liabilities).
The basic equation is assets = liabilities + shareholders' equity.
2. ____________ shows how much cash is available to the
company (in a given period. In other words, cash receipts
minus cash payments. This is not the same as the companys
working capital, which equals current assets minus current
liabilities.
3. ________ lists all the income and expenditure from
operations. The income includes the turnover {total revenue
from sales) and any other income.

83

Write the opposite of these financial terms. Use these words:

1. variable costs
5. current .
2. income
6. profit .
3. assets.
7. creditor .
4. gross .
8. profitable
Choose the correct prepositions to complete this description of
how options work.
An option is a right to trade a financial product (the underlying
asset) 1 in /on / at a certain price 2 by / until/ up to a specified
date. The seller is legally obliged to sell the asset during this
time if the buyer chooses to buy. But the buyer has no
obligation to buy it 3 to / from / by the seller. He can simply let
the expiry date pass 4 instead / before / without doing
anything. Imagine you are interested in buying some land,
which is valued: 5 at / on / for 100,000. You think you can
get permission to develop the land, sell it 6 from/ for / to a
developer and make money 7 by / on / in the deal. Unfortunately, you do not have the money to buy the land 8 in / at/ by
the moment. So the seller agrees to give you an option to buy
the land 9 for/ with / from 100,000 10 in / at / on or before a
certain date for example, 11 by I within / during one year. So
you pay the seller 5,000 to have this option and it is
guaranteed 12 by / to / on a legally binding contract. Then you
try to get planning permission to develop the land. If you are
successful, the value of the land will increase 13 to I up to /
towards 300,000 and you will exercise your option and buy
the land. When you sell it 14 over / forward / on to the
developer, you will make 195,000. If planning permission is
denied, 15 on I in / at the other hand, you will not exercise the
option, because you are not obliged to. In this scenario you will
lose 5,000. (Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown
Publishing, Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)
Comment upon what these abbreviations stand for?
HR CHP CO2 the EU IT the IAEA
the UN

R&D

The only serious interest in renewables has been when

governments have subsidised it, or have imposed targets on
industry with schemes like Green certificates. What is your
view on this statement and do you think it is fair?

84

PRESENTING LEGAL ISSUES

Study the synonyms for the field of legislation in the electricity

sector in Switzerland. Match the words in the text in italics 110 with these meanings:
a. voted in favour of
(1 passed
b. states
2 came into force
c. became Law
3 calls for
d. in accordance with
4 requirement
e. condition
5 shall be
f. guarantee
6 stipulates
g. requires
7 ensure
h. must be
8 enforce
i. have the right to
9 Under
j. force companies to obey
10 be entitled)
The draft Electricity Supply Act of Switzerland was first
submitted to the Swiss parliament in 2004. The parliament 1
passed it in 2007 and it 2 came into force on 1 January 2008.
The law 3 calls for the opening of the market in two stages.
After five years all consumers will be eligible to choose their
electricity supplier but will also have the option to remain captive. The second stage, full liberalisation, is subject to optional
referendum. A specific 4 requirement is that an independent
transmission network operator, Swissgrid, be set up which 5

85

shall be majority Swiss-owned. The Swiss distribution companies must transfer ownership of the network to Swissgrid within five years. The act also 6 stipulates that a new regulatory
body be established. The regulator will 7 ensure compliance
with the provisions of the act and 8 enforce them if necessary.
The regulator will no longer issue tariffs, but will arbitrate, in
any disputes between competitors. The new law also promotes
renewable energy. 9 Under the act, independent generators will
10 be entitled to remuneration at cost for feeding renewable
energy into the system.
Complete the steps in the law passage process, from the initial
law writing to its changing or cancelling. Use these words:
passed, amended, applied, drafted.
The law is 1..

The law is debated.

The law is 2 .

The law comes into force

The law is 3

The law is challenged in the courts.

The law is 4 0R repealed

What laws affecting the energy industry have been passed in
your country in recent years? What were the main aims of the
laws? How have they influenced your line of business?
Use the third conditional form of the verbs in brackets.
1. If they(consult) people in the industry first, they(draft)
the law very differently
2. If the government (not be) in such a hurry, they
(debate) the law properly.
3. If they .(think) more carefully about the consequences for
companies, the law (not be passed).
4 If the law(not be passed), we(not have to) increase prices
5.We.(support) it if the government(accept) our amendment
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing, Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)

86

PART 2
Leadership and teamwork
E-Managers
Teleconferencing
Negotiations

87

88

LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK

Proficient leadership does not solely stem from the

chance or the right connections to get to the highest level of an
organization, and has very little to do, if anything at all, with
opportunity. True leadership involves management & scientific
knowledge in the field, certain features of temperament and
character role model assets, and hard work with vision.
Effective leaders prove extensive life experience and the
ability to focus the teams interests away from conflict and
towards results, providing progress opportunities as well as
constructive approaches. Universities should simultaneously
offer scientific training, life-long learning abilities and frameworks, character building and cultivation of effective and
persuasive communication skills. By definition, the leadership
style defines the manner and approach of providing direction,
of implementing plans, and of motivating people.

89

As early as 1939, Kurt Lewin led a group of scientists

involved in research efforts aimed at identifying different styles
of leadership. The result proved to be influential, establishing
the three major leadership styles:
Authoritarian or autocratic;
Participative or democratic;
Delegative or Free Reign;
Good leaders use all styles, with one of them normally
dominant, whereas bad leaders tend to pursue one style only.
Nowadays e-environments are widespread and challenge direct
interactions between people, modifying communication styles,
messages, and leadership assertion. Virtual environments may
act as masks, protective shields, or emotional buffers in protagonists professional networking.
The above mentioned leadership styles become diluted in
a dialogue altered/filtered by modern technological means,
especially in the area of the clues provided by the non-verbal
communication to the significance and consequences of the
global idea being conveyed; therefore students should become
aware of any authority distortion in and via e-activities.
E-activities is a term referring both to the e-based or
facilitated processes of teaching and learning, as well as to the
e-mediated communication at work. The concept envisages the
impact and the distortions which may stem from otherwise
useful and time-saving tools.
The forces influencing the style to be used include:
The time available;
Relationships based on respect & trust/disrespect;
Information owned by the boss/employees/both;
Employees training and task solving proficiency;
Internal conflicts and stress levels;
Task: un/structured/complicated/simple;
Laws, established procedures, training plans;
Respected and proficient leaders use all three styles,
depending on the forces involved between the followers, the
leader, and the situation. Here are more detailed examples:
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just
learning the job. The leader is competent and a good coach.
The employee is motivated to get a new skill. The situation
represents a new environment for the employee.

90

 Using a participative style with a team able to do the job. The

leader knows the problem, but does not have all data. The
capable employees want to become part of the team.
Using delegative styles with subordinates who know more
than the leader does. Executives cannot do everything and the
employees take ownership of the job. In addition, this enables
the boss to attend to other emerging issues.
Using all styles when telling employees that a procedure is
not working well and a new approach must be established
(authoritarian). Asking for ideas and input on creating a new
procedure (participative). Assigning tasks to implement the
new procedure is a mark of the delegative style.
The authoritarian style is used when leaders tell their
employees what they require and how they see it accomplished,
without getting advice from the followers.

Appropriate conditions for use imply total knowledge to

solve the problem on the part of the chief. In addition, time is
short and employees are highly motivated. In organizations
lacking solid culture and respect for procedures, people
consider this style a means for emotional discharge, and use
demeaning language towards subordinates, lead by threats,
and abuse power. This is not the authoritarian style, but
rather it is an abusive, unprofessional approach, informally
called bossing people around. Such behaviour has no place in a
leader's repertoire, and is restricted by self-censorship in eenvironments. Normally the authoritarian style is implemented
on rare occasions.
The participative style is best suited for getting commitment and motivation from the employees, but it requires more
time and characteristic areas of activity, with specific features
of age and educational background. The leader includes one or
more employees in the decision making process (determining

91

what to do and how to do it), still keeping the final decisionmaking authority. Superficial observers consider this style a
sign of weakness, but it is a sign of strength, with the leader
being highly respected by the subordinates. It is normally
implemented when the chief has part of the information, and
the rest have other bits. A leader is not expected to know
everything; this is why knowledgeable and skilful employees
are hired. This approach generates mutual benefit: it allows
people to be part of the team and allows the top management
to make better decisions. It seems to be the best suited for eactivities in business.
In the delegativefree reign style leaders allow employees
to make decisions. Nevertheless, the leader still is responsible
for the decisions taken. It is used when employees can analyze
the situation and determine what the course of action and how
to proceed. The leader cannot do everything; therefore s/he
must set priorities and delegate certain tasks. This is not a
style to use for the purpose of blaming the others when things
go wrong, but rather to be used when the leader fully trusts
the team. It has to be used wisely, as it requires non-interference in the affairs of others and creative independence in
problem solving or in the elaboration of new designs.
There are positive and negative approaches to leadership.
Most leaders do not strictly implement one style but range between extremes. The ones primarily focusing on the positive are
seen as real leaders, being identified by quantifying the
number of employees afraid to express disagreement with
managers. When approaching workers, positive leaders use rewards like education and independence, to increase motivation
levels, while negative employers enforce penalties. It is effective
but must be used carefully due to a high emotional cost. Bad
leaders are domineering and superior, and only use penalties
(job loss, pay cuts, public reprimands). A common misconception is that authority&productivity increase when frightening
workers, but the morale falls and triggers low productivity.
The paternalistic style is worth a special mention. The
authority regulates the conduct of those under its control,
caters for their needs and protects them. Passing along orders
and setting a personal example gives purpose, direction, and
motivation. Under certain circumstances with specific cultures
and individuals, the paternalistic decision-making style might

92

be required, and it is expected by all parties involved: those in

charge and their followers. The distribution of power, authority
and task assigning processes is illustrated by the diagram of
vertical leadership, and suits leadership in multinationals
working on complex projects. However, when paternalistic or
autocratic styles are relied upon too intensely, whereas the
employees are ready and/or willing to implement a more
consultative approach to management, then indeed it becomes
quite damaging to the performance of the organization.

In horizontal leadership the concepts of consideration

and structure are of key importance:
Consideration epitomizes the focus on workers human needs,
team work and psychological support.
Structure denominates task orientation: leaders get results
by keeping people busy and urging them to produce.
There is evidence that considerate style leaders are
higher performers and are more satisfied with their jobs. The
concepts are independent of each other and not opposed: a
considerate leader need not lose structure.
Team leadership patterns refer to approaches in which
special attention is focused on cultivating both leadership and

93

a sense of hierarchy combined with discipline. The four layers

in the Team Leadership Model deal with the following aspects:
Effective team performance, based on the leaders mental
model of the situation. Thus it is determined whether the
situation requires action or just monitoring;
Assigning internal or external leadership;
Establishing task / relational / environmental intervention.
Lack of leadership prevents team performance, so groups
trained by e-activities demonstrate proficiency in the following
areas:
Clear elevating goal and a vision;
Results driven structure;
Competent teams with the right number and mix;
Unified commitment: a team, not a group;
Collaborative climate towards common purposes;
High standards of excellence;
Principled leadership as central driver of excellence;
External support ensures the adequate resources;
While there are several team leadership models, Hill's
team model is perhaps the best known as it provides the leader
or a designated team member with a mental road map to help
diagnose team problems, and then take appropriate action to
correct team problems. Leadership has clear impact on people
by giving purpose, direction, and motivation while operating to
accomplish the mission and improving the organization. Here
are the key steps in ensuring effective leadership, perfectible
by e-activities:
Focus on goals by clarifying and/or getting agreement;
Restructure plans, processes, roles, so as to get desired
results (process improvement);
Guide decision-making processes so that better data are
obtained, and coordination is improved;
Network to increase influence and gather information;
Advocate and represent the team showing it at its best;
Support the team providing resources and recognition;
Buffer the team from environmental distractions;
Assess the environment by surveys and performance
indicators to determine its impact on the organization;
Share information with the team;
Train members through both formal and informal means;
Assess performance and confront when necessary;

94

 Use collaborative methods to involve all team members;

Manage conflict;
Build commitment and team spirit;
Satisfy team members needs;
State what you expect from your team members;
Here follows a graphic representation of
Hills Team Leadership Model.

There are pieces of evidence which support the idea that

one is born with leadership qualities, but some other traits can
be educated and cultivated. Among them we can find:
Innate personality features such as charisma
Leaders vary their leadership style depending on the
situation; for example, the type of organizational culture,
the nature of the task, and the subordinates experience.

95

Leaders need extensive experience before they can become

good leaders.
Leadership is a collective enterprise whereby a group of
people working together have a vision and implement a
strategy; it does not depend on one individual exclusively.
People need to learn about leadership processes (including
how to motivate and communicate with people) by doing
courses and receiving training from mentors.

96

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP STYLES

HOW TO BE AN E-MANAGER

It is true that the Internet changes the skills required

from managers, but not fundamentally so. Anyone who is a
good manager can also become a good e-manager. However,
certain qualities have become even more important than they
used to be. For busy managers working their way up into the
Internet economy, here are valuable rules to implement:
Being quick is more important than being large. Indeed,
large companies find it hard to be speedy as they may
take several months to reach a decision. Moreover,
production cycles grow shorter; consumers expect
service around the clock; companies perform in parallel
tasks that they would once have done sequentially.
Ultimately, speed is a characteristic of a company's
decision-making processes.
Human beings are the most important of all corporate
inputs. Companies need fewer but better employees
with new talents, skills and attitudes. In addition to
this, completely new jobs have emerged over the past

97

few years, such as information architect or e-business

officer. Companies need new ways to hire and retain
such people. They also need new ways to measure their
performance.
The open nature of the Internet drives its success.
Many e-businesses allow their partners, suppliers or
consumers an extraordinary degree of access to their
databases and inner work. To allow another business
inside the corporate machine in this way requires trust,
and a willingness to expose your weaknesses to others.
The Internet creates many new opportunities for teams
and companies to work together. Only as companies
learn new ways for their own people to collaborate do
they fully begin to realise the opportunities to network
with customers, suppliers and partners. Teams may be
separated by time zones or by geographic distance, or
they may work for different employers: widespread outsourcing means that companies can now manage many
alliances, which calls for a different approach from that
required in managing the competition.
The Internet is discipline, protocols and standard
processes because a software program replaces human
actions. Companies need to insist on a standard look
and feel for their websites to avoid confusing customers,
and they need to insist on common practices within the
company, on such issues as purchasing, to obtain real
productivity gains from the Internet.
Given the pace and complexity of change, communicating strategy to staff matters more than ever. All
websites that companies design to reach their staff,
their customers or their corporate partners often start
off by carrying far too much information.
New opportunities have opened for firms to deepen
their relations with customers. Companies concentrate
less on product and process management, and more on
the customer, treating each as an individual and trying

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to provide him with precisely the product he wants.

This shift, made possible by enriched communications,
is altering the global shape of many companies.
The revolution in communications increased focus on
selecting workforce skills&knowledge. The development
of sophisticated databases and intranets makes it
possible for companies to build a core of knowledge
that they can draw upon across the globe. But this is
not easy. Getting intelligent people to share know-how
takes more than mere money or clever software although both can help.
Plenty of bosses, especially in Europe and Asia, do not
know how to use the Internet, and wear their ignorance
as a badge of honour. Chief executives who have never
written their own e-mails, bought products or services
online, or spent time inspecting their competitors' sites,
are a clear danger for their business.
Old-economy managers should see the challenge ahead
for what it is: the most revolutionary period they have ever
experienced in corporate life. It is frightening and exhausting,
but it will also be enormously exciting. It may even be fun.
The Economist Newspaper Limited, London (9/77/2000)

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100

TELECONFERENCING

Stages of teleconferencing are as follows:

1. Welcome the participants and begin.
2. Ask the participants to introduce themselves.
3. Ask each participant to give their results and comments.
Insist they are brief.
4. Ask the project leader to begin.
5. See if anyone wants to comment on what they have heard.
6. Conclude the meeting and thank everyone.
Useful language in teleconferencing:
I think James has just joined us. Welcome, James.
OK. I think we're all present. Let's begin.
Can everyone hear me clearly?
Can I just ask each of you in turn to introduce yourselves /
give your name and job title?
Before you speak, please identify yourself to the group.
Please keep your comments short and to the point.
If you talk for too long, I may interrupt you.
Does everyone have a copy of the report in front of them?
You should all have received a copy of the agenda.
I'd like to begin by asking Nick to say a few words about ...

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I'd like to ask everyone in turn to give a brief update on their

project.
OK, thank you, Jane. Time is short, so I think we should move
on ...
Can I bring in Thomas here? Tom, can you give us your views
on this, please?
Would anyone like to comment on that?
Does anyone have something they'd like to add?
I think we've covered all the main items.
If I can just summarise what we've agreed ...
Nick, you'll look into ... and report back at the next meeting./
Nick, you'll take care of ...
Henry will send out the minutes of this meeting to all of you in
the next couple of days.
Thank you everyone. It was a very productive / useful meeting.
Thank you everyone for your time and contributions.
Correct the sentences from a presentation in teleconferencing:
1. First of all, I'd like to tell how happy I am to be here.
2. I am very pleased to have opportunity for speaking to you.
3. I'd like to begin with giving you a little of the history of this
issue.
4. I speak for 20 minutes and then answer your questions.
5. I am going to divide my talk with three parts.
6. If you look this chart, you can see
7. Please feel free to interrupt at some time if you have a
question.
8. So, in conclusion, I would just like to go back the points
again.
Prepare a one-minute presentation about a current project.
Use any useful phrases from the language synopsis above.
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)

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NEGOTIATIONS

Agreeing on a procedure
I think we should first of all establish a procedure.
May I suggest that we begin by ... ?
After that ...
Finally ...
That's OK with us.
Fine.
Opening the negotiations
Can we begin by outlining our view of the situation?
Our position is this.
What we are looking for is ...
Our position is quite clear.
Firstly, ...
Our main worry is .
We hope to achieve
Let me outline our position ...
Our position is this: ...
Let me explain what it is we're looking for.
Exploring positions
How important is ...
Supposing we were to say ... ?
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Can we clarify ... ?

This is the most important factor from our point of view.
How would you feel if ... ?
Establishing the bargaining zone
There is no problem as far as ... is concerned.
We could not accept.,..
That would be out of the question.
Let's take a purely hypothetical situation.
The main problem here is ...
Suppose that we ... ?
Would you be willing to ... ?
We have no room for manoeuvre here.
Bargaining
We can offer ...
We could not go beyond .
We would be willing to .
This is our final offer.
What would you say if ... ?
Our proposal would be ...
Our bottom line is ...
We could accept this only if ...
We would have to refer back on this one.
This would present real problems for us.
Making proposals and recommendations
If you were able to ..., then I think we could
Would you be willing / able / prepared to ?
In return we could ...
I think we should (do) / It would be better if we (did)
Highlighting the important points
The bottom line for us is ...
For us the key thing is ...
Rejecting / Accepting
That would be difficult for us,
That sounds fine
I don't think that would be a problem,

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Being direct
To be perfectly honest ...
To tell you the truth ...
Helping them to see it your way
If you look at it from our side / point of view ...
If you put yourself in our shoes ...
Buying time
I would need to talk to my ...
Could we come back to that point in a moment?
If we could leave that for now
Settling
So can we agree that we will
So, if I could just sum up, you have agreed to
I think we're within reach of an agreement here.
The last sticking point is ...
We can accept that.
It's a deal then.
There are a few loose ends we'd like to tie up.
If you can see your way to ...
That would be acceptable to us.
I think we have an agreement.
How would you describe your own negotiating style?
Are you tough and demanding or do you prefer a gentler and
quieter approach?
Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as
the first. Use the words in brackets.
1. We'd like a reduction on the asking price.
Can you .. ? (discount)
2. We still have to resolve a few issues.
There . . (obstacles)
3. They refused to move from their position.
They didn't. (concessions)
4. How low can you go on the price?
What .... ? (bottom line)
5. We cannot change the price.
The price ....(negotiable)

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6. We have drawn up a preliminary contract.

We (drafted)
7. We reached a compromise with them.
They . (halfway)
The first thing to do in any negotiation is to find out the other
party's situation and needs.
1. So, can you. me some details about your company?
2. How do you renew your product range?
3. ..I ask how you budget for this capital investment?
4. Is that a cost you are.. to reduce?
5. Am I right .thinking that you're satisfied with the
services you've used up to now?
6. How important is the issue of quality .you?
7. Have you ever other types of solutions?
8. And speaking, what quantities did you have in. ?
When negotiating, we often use the conditional form would +
infinitive to say, in a polite way, that something is possible, but
not definite. Complete these statements from a negotiation.
Use would with one of these verbs: have, be, reserve, be, need,
offer, depend, try.
1. I ..to talk to my boss about that first.
2. That ..quite difficult for us.
3. you. us any discount on that?
4. That .on the quantity ordered.
5. I don't think .we a problem with that.
6. In return we ..to give you accurate estimates of our needs.
7. We the right to use other suppliers, if necessary.
8. I think we able to agree to those conditions.
(Paul Dummett, Energy English, Summertown Publishing,
Heinle Cengage Learning, 2010)

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PART 3

THE JOB INTERVIEW

Interview structures
Interview styles
Interview roles
Human resource managers view
Main areas investigated
The telephone interview
Tips for phone interviews
The videoconference interview
The virtual interview
The selection interview
Group interviews
Interview preparation checklist
Tips for the job interview
Interview questions for applicants
Difficult questions
Questions a candidate may ask
Salary negotiation
Best candidate profile
Qualities employers seek
Ways to enhance interview skills
Answers employers must hear
What to do if you do not hear
from the employer
The language of job interviews
Explain your PAR.s
(Problem, Action, Result)
Create a portfolio of your work
Facts to gather before interviewing
Handling illegal questions
Repair, maintain, extend a dialogue
Mistakes to avoid

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108

THE JOB INTERVIEW

It is common knowledge that interviewers already form

opinions on candidates from the early stages of selection, right
after submitting their job application materials.
Examiners manifest facilitating attitudes in discussions
when they expect competent interlocutors, encouraging the
presentation of their strong points; thus, by carefully designing
answers to probable questions, the candidate can actually help
interviewers find achievements and qualities, not weaknesses.
Applicants provide complete&clearly drafted documents:
a detailed Curriculum Vitae
a letter of application for the job, referring to the CV, and
emphasizing skills, strong points, achievements, adaptability,
compatibility with the job description
references, if required
samples of previous work, available on request
a letter of presentation written by the candidate, explaining
suitability for the job and possible results.
a letter or phone call confirming the candidates positive and
active attitude towards the interview.
The art of interviewing and successfully being interviewed can be acquired, and students may access it, provided
that they work hard and cultivate their (foreign language) communication skills, becoming outgoing, practical, resourceful
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and effective professionals. Candidates mistakes stem from

the comprehensive structure of interviews, intended to cover
all the important aspects in the applicants education, work
experience, and attitudes.

INTERVIEW STRUCTURES
There are two structures commonly used in current
practice: the Seven Points Plan, devised by Alec Rodger, and
the Five Points Plan, devised by John Fraser.
THE SEVEN POINTS PLAN:
1. Physical traits (fit for the job: aspect, endurance, health,
charisma, and stress coping mechanisms)
2. Knowledge (qualified and experienced for the job)
3. Intelligence (smart, creative, resourceful, practical, original,
able to meet the demands of the job)
4. Special aptitudes and skills required in daily work (linguistic,
numerical, interpersonal)
5. Interests, hobbies (spending own time and money in relation
to personal motivation for a certain job)
6. Temperament/personality (impact on colleagues)
7. Circumstances (how events affected the applicants career
and quality of work)
THE FIVE POINTS PLAN:
1. Impact (specific thoughts, attitudes and reactions triggered
by the candidates aspect/speech/behaviour)
2. Qualifications, work experience
3. Naturally born abilities, talents, aptitudes, thinking speed,
courage in decision making
4. Motivation
5. Adjustment to unpredictable situations or people
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGERS APPROACH
Interview stages have evolved much recently, in point of
the structure and the media used. While most still are the
standard face-to-face type, technological advancements have
made it possible for employers and applicants to connect
quickly by phone, videoconference, and even virtual job fairs.

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MAIN AREAS INVESTIGATED IN JOB INTERVIEWS

General Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What are your strengths and weaknesses?

Why did you leave your last job?
Why should we hire you?
What is most important to you in a job?
What questions do you have for me?

Motivation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What have you done that shows initiative?

What career objectives have you achieved?
How do you measure success?
What rewards mean most to you?
What projects make you feel enthusiastic?

Problem Solving Approaches and Skills

1. What is your most creative work-related idea?
2. Describe a difficult problem you solved.
3. What problem solving strategies work for you?
4. Explain why you could not accomplish a task.
Integrity Indicators
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Tell me about a time when you were not honest.

Your reaction if asked to do unethical things.
Your reaction when seeing dishonest co-workers.
When did you last break a rule?
Your previous employers opinion about you.

Teamwork
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Describe your management style.

A conflict with co-workers and how it was solved.
How do others see you?
Whom do you dislike working with?
What three words describe you?

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THE TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

An adequate resume brings the candidate to the next
step, which is a telephone interview. This phone screen usually
takes place with a company recruiter or HR staffer to prequalify the applicant for the opening.
USEFUL TIPS FOR PHONE INTERVIEWS:
Minimize distractions; conduct the call from a quiet setting
and use a landline (more reliable than a mobile phone),
disabling the call-waiting function.
As the interviewer cannot read body language, verbalization
of thoughts is important.
Discussion flows by adequate speech pattern use.
Clear/loud/confident voice, suggestive intonation.
Resume, cover letter, and company research should be kept
at hand, together with a bulleted list of speaking points or
questions; pen and pad must also be available for taking
notes.
Action steps to take during the phone screen, to help move
forward to the face-to-face interview:
1. Self branding, to instantly stand out. The best way is to
develop a personal branding statement, a short sentence
describing personal profile, strengths, and the major benefit
offered to the employer. It must be memorable, focused, and
specific in point of budget.
2. Enthusiasm. A positive attitude is essential for the personal
marketing efforts, as is the conviction of being a valuable
candidate for the job.
3. Careful listening and answers. One of the major complaints
from employers and recruiters is that too often the
candidate does not answer the question being asked. Trying
to anticipate the next question and absence of visual cues
increase the difficulty of self correcting and rephrasing the
applicants points.
4. Mention target company achievements: products, good
management, and special marketing approaches.
5. At the end of the phone interview, take initiative and ask
about scheduling a face-to-face interview.

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THE VIDEOCONFERENCE INTERVIEW

To be interviewed on camera is intimidating, so rehearsal
by doing a trial run proves useful. The mock interview should
be recorded and studied for improvement areas (eye movement,
good posture, neutral background, and candidate as focal
point by clearing the stage).
Video interviews are conducted at videoconference sites,
the recruiter's workplace or the employer's satellite office. If the
interview is at home, a well-lit, professional-looking setting
must be chosen, and computer web-cam and microphone
should be checked in advance for proper functioning.

THE VIRTUAL INTERVIEW

Wearing appropriate avatar apparel is essential (an
avatar is a computer-generated icon created to represent the
candidate online). When attending a virtual job fair on Second
Life, a popular online community, for instance, the avatar
should look professional, not entertaining. Messages should be
carefully written, focused on accuracy, not speed, proofread,
and free of emoticons and cyber slang. Hiring managers will
likely forgive a typo or two, but grammatical errors will cause
them to question the applicants skills and attention to detail.

GROUP INTERVIEWS
A group interview may be demanding, but it offers the
candidate clear insight into what working with those people in
that firm would be like. In such interviews the applicant is
additionally pressured by a team of new potential colleagues.
Companies round up all interviewers and interviewees at
once for the sake of efficiency.
The key concept here is teamwork and they also want to
assess candidates performance in a group and their networking skills.
It may be very formal, with a script containing a set of
questions, or it could be just a conversation between the applicant and the others in the room.

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Such interviews call for extra skills, efforts and actions, in

order to succeed:
Preparation performed by finding a list of people present
(clues about specific areas of expertise and about the company hierarchy), by searching key points about the firm,
and by organizing personal achievements so as to best fit
the job requirements.
Establish a connection, which implies addressing the interlocutors by name and keeping eye contact.
Avoid favourites, as it is dangerous to assume whose opinion
matters most in the hiring decision.
Show a facilitating attitude towards the hesitating people
(invite them to join the discussion and ask for clarifications,
additional remarks or questions, thus taking partial control
over the interview).
Diplomatic and tactful attitude in disagreements, using the
constructive points in others views.
Avoid relaxation. In informal interviews, a casual atmosphere
prevents best results. Interviewers may seem informal, but
they vote on hiring afterwards.

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR APPLICANTS

Be yourself during the interview with a prospective
employer. Companies seek workers who not only have the
skills to perform the job, but also the personality to thrive
within the corporate culture.
EDUCATION
1. Why did you choose this field of activity/specialization?
2. Why did you attend that particular university?
3. Which were the most/least interesting aspects in your work
for the graduation project?
4. What other qualification do you plan to get?
5. What is the connection between your studies and the work/
duties you will be required to perform?
6. Briefly present a project you worked on.
7. Describe the personal learning style and specify planning
modalities for achieving a given task.
8. Enumerate your fields of high/low competence.
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9. What exactly did you enjoy during university?

10. Name differences in student training between your university and others offering the same degree.
11. What breakthroughs in your line of work have captured
your attention lately?
CAREER
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

What are your career goals?

Where do you see yourself in 5-10 years time?
Why are you interested in this domain?
How will studies contribute to your career?
What satisfactions should your career bring you?
Portray the ideal manager in your perspective.
What do you expect from this job?
What plans do you have regarding obtaining future
qualifications? Specify and give reasons.
21. Are you interested in management? Why? How do you feel
you can contribute to its improvement?
22. Share some of your ambitions with us.
POSSIBLE EMPLOYMENT
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

Why did you decide for a job in this company?

What do you know about this firm?
Do you have acquaintances employed here?
What aspects in this job/position interest you?
Why would the interviewers select you?
How could you contribute to the effectiveness of this team/
position/company?
29. What duties do you feel ready to perform?
30. Which are the main difficulties/opportunities in our firm/
field of activity?
31. How long do you plan to stay with our firm?
INTERESTS, ATTITUDES, PERSONALITY
32.
33.
34.
35.

Describe yourself. Provide examples.

How would your friends portray you?
How would your parents depict you?
What are your strong points as a person?
Which qualities do you rely on in facing difficulties?
36. Speak about your weaknesses/overcoming them.

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37. What do you expect from your manager?

Do you think you could be/become a good manager?
38. What are your interests/hobbies?
39. How do you usually spend your spare time?
What if you had more time/money/opportunities?
40. How do you spend your holidays?
41. Which newspapers do you read? Why?
42. Which is the latest book you have read?
43. What do you spend your money on?
44. How have your interests and hobbies shifted since you
became a student/graduated?
45. What motivates you?
46. Which sports do you like/practice?
47. Enumerate the certificates you have obtained.
48. What social environment stimulates you?
49. Enumerate some of the responsibilities you had.
50. What is your best achievement in college?
MISCELLANEA
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.

Speak about your family.

What is your parents opinion on your career?
If you do not get this job, what will you do?
What other firms have you applied to?
How can you achieve your career goals here?
Could you describe a typical day at your work?
What job would you like to do later?
Do you think you would ever want to work abroad?
Do you work or are you a student?
How do you spell your family name?
Is it easy to find interesting jobs in your country?
What do you find most interesting about your studies/job?
What skills do you think employers look for in young
people nowadays?

There are no good or bad answers in a job interview; all

answers are relevant as they show the personal way of reasoning and the speed of adapting to certain situations. Candidates responses indicate motivation and illustrate individual
attitudes towards work/progress/team efforts. By selecting
applicants not only on basis of documents/official records, but

116

also, and mainly, on interviews, employers get to know as

much as possible about their potential employees experience,
personality and goals.
INTERVIEW PREPARATION CHECKLIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

What exactly do I know about the company?

What do I know about this job and position?
Do I know about the interviewers/selection process?
What is my thirty words self-presentation?
What are my strengths versus other candidates?
Which of my achievements may be of special interest for the
interviewers/company development?
7. Which are the weak points in my application and how can I
overcome such difficulties?
8. Possible/advisable questions for me to ask.
9. Identification of best references for the position.
10. What image about myself do I want to project?
TIPS FOR THE JOB INTERVIEW
First impressions are critical for the hiring process. In
fact, executives say they form an opinion about hiring a candidate within ten minutes, despite spending about an hour in
the actual interview. Here are some tips that may help young
graduates highlight their relevant work in the field:
BEFORE THE INTERVIEW
An accomplishment resume, not a job-description resume
should be submitted. Most applicants write the latter,
listing not only what they did, but what anyone would have
done. Potential employers are interested in unique, special,
or distinctive features in the candidates activity, its scope
and results.
Ways of presenting previous personal interactions with
authority representatives must be outlined in advance
(managers/team leaders, tasks performed liking/disliking
the people involved and situations when personal work was
criticized or praised).
Research on company products and services must be done.
Job descriptions must be studied carefully because they

117

generate interview questions. Interviewers quickly eliminate

candidates who do not have the basic and easily available
information.
Body language, appearance and overall demeanour should
be assessed by someone close. Also, relevant answers to anticipated questions must be practised.
Attire should be chosen according to the culture of the workplace (professional, denoting prosperity, not assuming visibility only from the shoulders up). The interview is the candidates opportunity to show their talent, and maintaining
proper appearance will ensure exclusive focus on abilities.
The briefcase for the interview should contain the advertisement, the invitation to the interview, updated CV copies,
relevant references, the cover letter, favourable materials on
the company and significant samples of previous work.
Early arrival to the interview location.

DURING THE INTERVIEW

Basic etiquette rules are to be observed, and being as
informal as the interviewers must be avoided. They are in
their own environment, but the candidate is a guest.
Proactive/constructive attitudes, adapting personal speech
to the audience and avoiding popular culture clichs (gum,
slang, bored or aggressive postures). The right attitude is
confident enthusiasm, with a body language consistent with
it; eye contact and nodding in agreement show engagement.
The candidate should not try to outwit or outguess the interviewer, as it is not a battle of wits.
Interviews mean asking the candidate questions that require
complex answers, giving reasons for actions and decisions.
Most companies conduct behavioural interviews, being
more interested in how and why as opposed to what. They
want to see personal approaches and motivation.
Personal data overload or overstating qualifications and
achievements will not bring advantages.
Specific achievements are supported by examples, proving
that the candidate is an asset for the firm. Discourse
markers clarify the logical development of the applicants
argument, and the use of dynamic verbs (achieve, design,
develop, implement, improve, verify) indicate an active and
dedicated employee.

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Direct or indirect questions regarding personal teamwork

skills must be expected (contribution to the most challenging project and its outcome; explanation for the role
generally/preferably assumed in a team; description of
challenging work environments; presentation of a case
solved only by co-operation).
Taking time to compose personal thoughts before answering
a complex question is good advice. If the candidate does not
know the answer, he should not fake it, but instead ask for
additional explanations or details required by a relevant
response.
Interviewers do not assess an applicant solely on content;
they also note how answers are formulated, in order to
evaluate thinking processes, creativity and personal
problem solving strategies.
Disparaging previous employers/colleagues is useless and
lowers the applicant.
Using humour is an effective way to answer a strange/trap/
confusing question, but using jokes too often means not
taking matters seriously.
Even if the interview is not going well, candidates should not
give up. The hiring manager may have a different opinion
about the success of the meeting, or may know of other
openings in the firm.

AFTER THE INTERVIEW

Follow up. Whatever the format, thank-you notes are
well received. When a candidate sends a thank you note, it
shows that the person is truly interested in the opportunity,
and this simple gesture can distinguish one applicant over
another. It is a means for applicants to re-state the skills and
expertise they would bring to the organization, and address
any outstanding concerns remaining from the interview.
According to surveys, about 85% of executives say that a postinterview thank-you note has had some influence on the hiring
decision. Only half of the candidates in an interview will send
thank-you notes. Surveys also suggest that hiring managers
are divided in terms of preference for receiving thank you notes
by email or letter. It is, therefore, up to the candidate to decide
which method best fits the culture of the organization.

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DIFFICULT QUESTIONS
Job interviews surprise, confuse, and, at times, purposefully provoke the candidates. This attitude is not to be taken
personally, as it is meant to reveal true selves and basic reactions, which are assessed in point of suitability for the job by
the board of interviewers. The aim is to see if the applicant is
self-possessed, logical, objective, balanced, and creative.
Samples of questions and suggestions on the appropriate
response approach are:
1. What is your idea of success in life?
2. What have you learnt in your previous jobs?
3. Why did you dislike about former workplaces?
4. Why have you taken so many training courses?
5. Explain how you take decisions.
6. Speak about some of your weak points.
How do you manage to overcome them?
7. Are you willing to relocate, travel long distances, for long
intervals of time, work long hours or part-time, if required?
8. Why should I hire you?
9. How do you make yourself indispensable to a company?
10. What is your greatest weakness?
11. How do you complete all your work with a hectic schedule?
12. Tell me about a time when you had to accomplish a task
with someone who was difficult to get along with.
13. How do you accept direction and, at the same time, maintain a critical stance regarding your ideas and values?
14. Give examples of activities&surroundings that motivate you.
15. Tell me how you handled an ethical dilemma.
Answer strategies:
We need technical and interpersonal competence, proved
in internship or co-operation experience
Students who have interned or completed cooperative education assignments generally answer the question best because they know what working for a company entails.
I have difficulty with this thing, and these are the strategies I use to get around it. I'm not the most organized of
individuals, so I answer my e-mails and phone calls right
away. I'm aware of the problem and I have strategies to
deal with it.

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I have a day planner and I map out all my assignments,

as I am a plan ahead kind of individual
I am sensitive to the needs of others, so I can still influence them, I do not just avoid them.
Most business and technical disciplines are teamwork
professions and require getting along with as well as motivating other people

In answering such questions make sure you:

list the top three requirements of the job from a personal
perspective, revealing your strong points
summarize personal skills and experience matching the job
description.
end by stating interest in the organization.
show willingness to go the extra mile.
attach money value to personal evidence of work
explain personal ideas (if any) for improving a new feature of
the product or a new process that is relevant to the position.
Qualities to reveal and illustrate in a job interview:
ambitious
dynamic
motivated
polite
tactful
well trained
enthusiastic
competent communicator

competent
energetic
organized
reliable
diligent
goal oriented
resourceful
self confident

DIFFICULT NEGOTIATION: THE SALARY

Money (as salary, bonuses, compensations, stock-option
investing, benefits, and courses) is not the main topic of the
discussion.
Most common errors are mentioning salary too soon and
stating specific numbers. The employer should be informed
that the applicant is looking for a market-competitive salary,
and that the entire compensation package is being considered.
Honesty and accuracy are needed, not changing numbers through the interview process, or rounding the current/
past salary.

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Candidates tend to forget about the total package of

compensations and focus exclusively on basic salary as the
determining factor in deciding to accept/reject an offer, but
there are other items to consider, such as benefits, short and
long-term career growth, personal satisfaction, the culture of
the organization, company philosophy, company size or reputation, and the work/life balance.
Candidates think they will get a significant increase in
salary just because they move on to a new role. While in some
cases it may be true, the reality is that a new opportunity does
not guarantee new fortunes.
Concentrating on personal career goals should be the
priority, not the money. The offer should contain a fair compensation package, based on the candidates skills and the
organization's needs. Telling the truth from the beginning sets
the tone for the relationship with the hiring manager/recruiter.
Revealing other data after the hiring offer negatively impacts
manager/worker relationships.
QUESTIONS A CANDIDATE MAY ASK
As a job seeker, the key to a good interview is to find out
as much about your potential employer as possible.
Asking these questions will not only make you appear
more committed as a candidate, but will also give you better
insight into both the challenges and opportunities that may lie
ahead for you.
Actually you must be asking the kinds of questions
designed to make the interviewer sit up and take notice.
It is no longer enough to be qualified. If you want a job in
todays business environment, you have to shine, and there is
no better way to show your excellence than by asking excellent
questions designed to:

Highlight your qualifications.

Demonstrate your confidence.

Understand the employers challenges.

Make yourself accountable.

Advance your candidacy.

Gather the data you need to make career decisions

Show you know the basics of the job you seek

Demonstrate commitment, interest, and abilities

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Questions are the best way to demonstrate that you

understand firm challenges, emphasize how you can help the
company meet them and show your interest in the most unmistakable manner possible, by asking for the position.
Lack of questions at the end of an interview shows lack
of interest in the organization. Almost all interviewers will leave
about five minutes at the end to answer questions.
This opportunity can be used to clarify certain points
about the firm, about its style and patterns of work, and,
above all, for proving genuine interest in the job and company.
Examples:
What makes this firm unique as compared to its competitors
on the national/international market?
How has the Internet affected your business?
What are the main objectives and additional responsibilities
of this position?
How is the future development of this position seen by the
management in the long run?
1. What happened to the person who previously did this job?
(If it is a new position: How has this job been performed in
the past?) You need to know any problems or past history
associated with this position. For instance, was your
predecessor fired or promoted? Is this a temporary position
or brand new? The answer will tell you about management's
expectations and how the company is gearing to grow.
2. Why did you choose to work here? What keeps you here?
Although you may like this company, you are an outsider.
You need to find out what an insider has to say about
working there. Who better to ask than your interviewer?
This also forces the interviewer to step out of their official
corporate role and answer personally as an employee and
potential co-worker.
3. What is the first problem the person you hire must attend to?
You need to be on the same page as your new manager, as
well as be clear on what the initial expectations are and
what you can deliver. You do not want to be misled about
the job requirements and end up overwhelmed after the first
week on the job.

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4. What can you tell me about the individual to whom I would

report? You need to know about the company, but most
importantly about the management style as your time will
be spent working for a specific manager. If you are an
independent type used to working through solutions on
your own, you will not be productive when are supervised
by a micromanager.
5. What are the company's five-year sales & profit projections?
You need to know about the future of the company you plan
to spend several years of your life working for. You might
want to ask about the company's future plans for new
products and services or any planned market expansion. Of
course, you have done your own research, but nothing is
better than an insiders perspective. This also shows you
are serious about this company.
6. What's our next step? This is your closing and the most
important question to ask at the end of the interview. You
need to know what happens after this point. Many books
advise asking for the job now, but most people may feel too
intimidated to bluntly do so. With more candidates already
scheduled for interviews, the company is not likely to make
you an offer yet. You may also need to do some additional
research on the company, making it too early to ask for the
job. A good compromise is to set a plan for follow-up. You
will gauge the company's enthusiasm with the answer.
7. What exactly does this company value the most, and how
do you think my work for you will further these values?
8. What kinds of processes are in place to help me work
collaboratively?
9. Whats the most important thing I can accomplish in the
first 60 days?
10. Can you give me some examples of the most and least
desirable aspects of the companys culture?
11. Am I going to be a mentor or will I be mentored?

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12. How will you judge my success? What will happen six
months from now when I have demonstrated that I have
met your expectations?
13. Now that we have talked about my qualifications and the
job, do you have any concerns about my being success-ful
in this position?
14. How do you define successful performance in this position?
15. Am I correct in my understanding that the role of suchand-such job entails such-and-such?
16. Is there special training you require or suggest for someone
holding this position?
17. How do you envision this company changing in five years?
18. How do this unit's targets contribute to the overall company goals?
19. How will the current economic trend influence this department?
20. Which problems facing our industry will affect this unit?
21. What challenges will I inherit when I take this job?
22. To whom will I report and who will report to me?
23. Will I have hiring/firing authority within my area?
24. What have you found to be the most important traits of
someone who is successful in this position?
25. Could you tell me how long you have worked for this company and about how you grew into your current position?
26. What projects/goals will bring success to your department
or team?
27. What is your feeling about how I would fit into this
organization? (This is a good closing question for the interview)

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BEST CANDIDATE PROFILE

The Best-Prepared Candidate. The applicant who invested
most pre-interview time in learning about the employer has
a big advantage over the rest. It is useful to know which
business issues (e.g. aging client base, lack of infrastructure, or global competition) the company is up against,
so as to be ready to talk about personal input in those areas.
The Most Self-Aware Candidate is frank about his areas of
proficiency and equally frank about subjects where he lacks
knowledge, but is eager to learn. He is the opposite of the
annoying candidate who is an expert in all possible subjects.
The Most Intellectually Curious Candidate. Interviewers want
to answer smart, insightful business questions on current
trends in the industry and the competition's impact on next
quarter's sales. The hireable applicant asks thoughtful
questions about the job and the organization.
The candidate who has prepared professional references, who
expresses a positive attitude, adapts the speech to the
audience, gives specific examples for illustrating personal
professional background, and is prepared to transform his
strengths in benefits for the company he is applying for.
Techniques of addressing others, of expressing personal
points of view, strategies for solving problems, displaying work
experience and conducting dialogues can be learnt and practised, therefore the success of an interview lies in preparation,
in constructive self criticism and in constantly monitoring the
personal progress. Interlocutors generally tend to be tolerant
towards certain foreign language errors but when it comes to
mistakes in meaning, in addressing the others, or in complying
with the culture-bound traditions and standards of politeness,
the dialogue ceases.
There are as many different possible interview questions
as there are interviewers, so here is a list of 100 more potential
interview questions.
BASIC INTERVIEW QUESTIONS:
Tell me about yourself.
What are your strengths?
What are your weaknesses?
Why do you want this job?

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Where would you like to be in your career 5 years from now?

What's your ideal company?
What attracted you to this company?
Why should we hire you?
What did you like least about your last job?
When were you most satisfied in your job?
What can you do for us that other candidates cannot?
What were the responsibilities of your last position?
Why are you leaving your present job?
What do you know about this industry?
What do you know about our company?
Are you willing to relocate?
Do you have any questions for me?

BEHAVIOURAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS:

What is your latest project, and what is its outcome?
Give me an example of a time that you felt you went above
and beyond the call of duty at work.
Can you describe a time when your work was criticized?
Have you ever been in a team where someone was not doing
their best? How did you handle it?
Tell me about a time when you had to give someone difficult
feedback. How did you handle it?
What is your greatest failure? What did you learn from it?
What irritates you about other people? How do you face it?
If I were your supervisor and asked you to do something
that you disagreed with, what would you do?
What was the most difficult period in your life, and how did
you deal with it?
Give me an example of a time you did something wrong.
How did you handle it?
Tell me about a time where you had to deal with conflict on
the job.
If you found out your company was doing something
against the law, like fraud, what would you do?
What assignment was too difficult for you, and how did you
resolve the issue?
What's the most difficult decision you've made in the last
two years and how did you come to that decision?

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Describe how you would handle a situation if you were

required to finish multiple tasks by the end of the day, and
there was no conceivable way that you could finish them.

SALARY QUESTIONS:
What salary are you seeking?
What's your salary history?
If I were to give you this salary you requested but let you
write your job description for next year, what would it say?
CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONS:
What are you looking for in career development?
How do you want to improve yourself in the next year?
What kind of goals would you target if you got this job?
If I were to ask your supervisor to give you additional training or exposure, what would they suggest?
GETTING STARTED QUESTIONS:
How would you quickly establish credibility in the team?
How long will it take you to make a significant contribution?
What do you see yourself doing in the first days of this job?
If selected for this position, can you describe your strategy
for the first 90 days?
MORE ABOUT YOU:
How would you describe your work style?
What would be your ideal working environment?
What do you look for in terms of culture: structured or
entrepreneurial?
Give examples of ideas you've had or implemented.
What techniques and tools do you use to keep yourself
organized?
If you had to choose one, would you consider yourself a bigpicture person or a detail-oriented person?
Tell me about your proudest achievement.
Who was your favourite manager and why?
What do you think of your previous boss?
Was there a person in your career who really made a
difference?
What kind of personality do you work best with? Why?
What are you most proud of?

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What do you like to do?

What are your lifelong dreams?
What do you ultimately want to become?
What is your personal mission statement?
What are three positive things your last boss would say
about you?
What negative thing would your last boss say about you?
What three character traits would your friends use to
describe you?
What are three positive character traits you do not have?
If you were interviewing someone for this position, what
traits would you look for?
List five words that describe your character.
Who has impacted you most in your career and how?
What is your greatest fear?
What is your biggest regret and why?
What's the most important thing you learned in school?
Why did you choose your specialisation?
What will you miss about your present/last job?
What is your greatest achievement outside of work?
What are the qualities of a good leader? A bad leader?
Do you think a leader should be feared or liked?
How do you feel about taking no for an answer?
How do you think I rate as an interviewer?
How would you feel about working for someone who knows
less than you?
Tell me one thing about yourself you wouldn't want me to
know.
Tell me the difference between good and exceptional.
What kind of car do you drive?
There's no right or wrong answer, but if you could be
anywhere in the world right now, where would you be?
What's the latest book you have read?
What magazines do you subscribe to?
What's the best movie you've seen recently?
What would you do if you won the lottery?
Who are your heroes?
What do you like to do for fun?
What do you do in your spare time?
What is your favourite memory from childhood?

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BRAINTEASER QUESTIONS:
How many times do a clock's hands overlap in a day?
Tell me 10 ways to use a pencil other than writing.
Sell me this pencil.
If you were an animal, which one would you want to be?
STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE YOUR INTERVIEW SKILLS
Interviewing is a learnt skill, and there are no second
chances to make a great first impression.
Practise Good Nonverbal Communication
Demonstrate confidence: stand straight, make eye contact and
connect with a firm handshake. The first nonverbal impression
can be a great beginning - or a quick ending - to your interview.
Dress for the Job and Company
Today's casual dress codes do not give you permission to dress
as "they" do when you interview. It is important to know what
to wear to an interview and to be well-groomed. Whether you
wear a suit or something less formal depends on the company
culture and the position you are seeking. If possible, call to
find out about the company dress code before the interview.
Listen
From the very beginning of the interview, your interviewer is
giving you information, either directly or indirectly. If you do
not pay attention, you miss a major opportunity. Good communication skills include listening and letting the person know
you heard what was said. Observe your interviewer, and match
that style and pace.
Do not Talk Too Much
Telling the interviewer more than he needs to know could be a
fatal mistake. When you have not prepared ahead of time, you
may digress when answering interview questions, sometimes
talking yourself out of the job. Prepare for the interview by
reading through the job posting, matching your skills with the
position requirements and relating only that information.
Avoid Being Too Familiar
The interview is a professional meeting to talk business in a
formal style. Your level of familiarity should mimic the interviewer's. It is important to bring energy and enthusiasm to the
interview and to ask questions, but do not overstep your place
as a candidate looking for a job.

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 Use Appropriate Language

The applicant should use professional language during the
interview and should be aware that any inappropriate slang or
references to age, race, religion, politics or sexual orientation
could end the interview unfavourably at that point.
Adequate attitude
Attitude plays a key role in your interview success. There is a
fine balance between confidence, professionalism and modesty.
Overconfidence is as bad, if not worse, as being too reserved.
Answer the Questions with examples
Interview questions are designed to elicit a sample of the
candidates past behaviour, so you should give a specific
example to prove your ability and talk about your skills.
Ask Questions
Be ready to ask questions that demonstrate an interest in what
goes on in the company. Asking questions also gives you the
opportunity to find out if this is the right place for you. The
best questions come from listening to what you are asked
during the interview and asking for additional information.
Do Not Appear Desperate
The candidate must look cool, calm, and confident, appearing
to know s/he can do the job. The desperate approach impedes
on competence and confidence.

KEY INTERVIEW ANSWERS

EMPLOYERS NEED TO HEAR
Most inexperienced candidates tend to think that the job
interview is a competition to outwit the interviewer. The reality
is that employers have neither the time nor inclination to play
games, especially when hiring.
The interviewer is not trying to outguess the applicant;
he is trying to assess the answers to six key questions:
1. Do you have the skills to do the job?
The employer must first determine whether the candidate has
the necessary hard skills for the position, e.g., the programming knowledge for a database administration job. By really
probing into what the candidate has done in the past, an interviewer can tap into the hard skills. The interviewer is also

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looking for key soft skills to succeed in the job and in the
organization, such as the ability to work well on teams and the
requisite common sense to figure things out with some basic
training.
2. Do you fit?
The organization's first thought is about fitting and potentially
fitting in a certain department. That means the interviewer is
trying to pinpoint not only whether the candidate matches up
well with both the company's and department's activities but
also whether s/he will complement the talents of the potential
co-workers.
3. Do you understand the company and its purpose?
If the organization fits well with your career aspirations, you
will naturally be motivated to do good work there and stay
longer with the firm.
4. How do you stack up against the competition?
You are being evaluated in relation to other candidates for the
job, so the interviewer will constantly be comparing your
performance with that of the other candidates'.
5. Do you have the right mind-set for the job and the firm?
The interviewer is always looking for someone who has a cando type of attitude, someone who wants to be challenged and is
internally motivated to do well. An employer cannot train for
this essential trait. Without this quality, the employee will end
up being a lower-performing employee.
6. Do you want the job?
Most employers know better than to believe everyone they
interview actually wants the position being offered. They
understand some candidates are exploring their options, while
others are using an interview with a company they don not
care about to perfect their interview skills. So you have to
prove you really want the job.

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WHAT TO DO IF YOU DO NOT HEAR

FROM THE EMPLOYER
Before your interview has ended, your interviewer should
inform you of the organization's follow-up procedures: from
whom (same person who interviewed you, someone else), by
what means (phone, e-mail), and when you would hear from
the organization again.
If the interviewer does not tell you, and you do not ask,
use your follow-up/thank-you letter to ask.
If more than a week has passed beyond the date when
you were told you would hear from the employer, call or e-mail
to politely inquire about the status of the organization's
decision-making process.
A polite inquiry shows that you are still interested in the
organization and may prompt the employer to get on schedule
with a response.
In your inquiry, mention the following: name of the
person who interviewed you, time and place of the interview,
position for which you are applying (if known), and ask about
the status of your application.

INTERVIEW ROLES
Your role in an interview will determine what you will try
to do during the interview and the kind of language you will
use. Interviewer and interviewee may share a common purpose,
but they may also have specific goals. In a job interview, both
interviewer and interviewee share the purpose of finding out if
the candidate and the job are well matched. The interviewer
will be looking for the best candidate, whereas the interviewee
will be trying show that s/he is the best person for the job.
Whether you are an interviewer or interviewee, begin by
thinking about your own goals and the goals of the person
opposite you.
PREPARING FOR A JOB INTERVIEW TO MEET THE ROLES
In order to be a successful interviewee, you need to know
what the interviewer is looking for. Selection criteria vary from
job to job and from employer to employer. To prepare for an in133

terview, you should do as much research as you can and try to

work out what kind of person the employer will be looking for.
Brainstorming questions that are likely to come up in an
interview will help you put on a better performance. The employer wants to know if you are the best candidate for the job.
The question underlying every other question is: "Why
should we hire you?" General questions are designed to find
out about your personality and attitude to work. Job specific
questions are designed to assess your suitability for the job.
Many employers ask questions based on your resume.
They may appear to structure the questions on your report of
work experience, education and extra-curricular activities, or
their criteria for the job. Either way, both factors play a part
and you need to consider both as you prepare.
Some questions seem simple but are actually designed to
give you an opportunity to show yourself in a positive light.
Avoid giving short, obvious answers and take the opportunity
to talk. Make sure that your answer is relevant, interesting and
allows you to show your strengths. Answers should not sound
as if prepared in advance and should be delivered naturally
and convincingly.
During interviews, candidates sometimes come across situations where they are lost for words. Apart from anticipating
general and job specific questions, you develop strategies for
handling difficult or unexpected questions.
At the end of an interview, the interviewer usually invites
the interviewee to ask some questions. Prepare some questions
appropriate to the post. This is not the best time to clarify
queries about the job requirements and salary, which can be
done later if you are actually offered the job. Ask questions
politely and do not seem critical of the company or the job. If
you cannot think of a question, or your prepared ones have
already been answered, politely decline to ask questions.
THE LANGUAGE OF JOB INTERVIEWS
The language you use in a job interview will create an
impression on the interviewer.
Choice of words: the same information can be presented in
a positive or negative way. For example: 1. I am keen to
acquire new skills to apply to the job. 2. I don't know how to do
that so I would need training. The former is more likely to

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create a favourable impression than the latter. When preparing

answers, think carefully about the impression your choice of
words will make.
Verb tenses: when you make a statement about yourself it
is important for the employer to understand whether what you
are describing is:
Something you did in the past but are no longer
doing (past tense)
Something you did in the past and are still doing now
(present perfect tense)
Something you are doing now and intend to do in the
future (present continuous)
Something you do habitually (present tense)
Something you intend to do (future tense)
The wrong tense can be confusing or it can create a false
impression.
INTERVIEW YOUR INTERVIEWERS
Most interviewers encourage you to ask questions. Have
questions prepared in advance. This shows an active interest
in how you will fit into the organization.
Ask questions that deal with the job duties, expectations,
and management or communication styles of the library.
Listen carefully. Watch their interactions with each other.
Would you like to work with these people? Would you fit in
with their expectations? Will the job challenge you?
Use this meeting to evaluate whether you would like the
job, should they offer it to you.
BE YOURSELF
It is important that your interviewers know what they
are getting and that you know that you will work well together.
Guarding your answers or saying only what you think they
want to hear, will make you appear dishonest.
Phrase your answers in a positive light. Leave your interviewers with a positive impression of your attitude.For example
you might say that speaking to groups is the area in which you
need the most improvement, but that you have improved consistently since high school.
Try not to let nervousness block your reactions. Interviewers will remember someone who shows enthusiasm.

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In a telephone interview, make your voice sound energetic, warm, cheerful and clear. Your interviewers are listening
for signs of enthusiasm and interest in the job.
THANK EVERYONE IMMEDIATELY
If possible, thank your interviewers individually before
leaving the interview. Write thank-you letters to each person
who interviewed you, or mention each person's name in one
letter. Recap the major assets you would like them to remember about you. Correct issues that might have been misunderstood. However, keep the letter short and positive. Thank you
letters are surprisingly rare and incredibly effective.
KNOW YOUR PAR.s
A job interview is a bilateral communication where you
and the employer will be making sales pitches. Attend this
meeting knowing what you have to offer, and make a short list
of your strengths, especially the ones you know will interest
this particular manager.
Practice telling at least three stories that illustrate your
strengths in a PAR format (Problem, Action, and Result). Prepare
to insert them throughout the interview in response to relevant
questions.
CREATE A PORTFOLIO OF YOUR WORK
If you have samples that demonstrate your relevant
skills, bring them to the interview in a briefcase. When the
appropriate question is asked, refer to your samples as a way
of showing your talent. The act of showing the interviewer
something tangible results will change the pace of the dialogue
and make a memorable impression about your achievements.
Do not bring a sample if it is larger than what you can carry in
one hand or more elaborate than what can be taken out of its
case and presented in ten seconds or less. Your portfolio
should make you look good, not clumsy.
ANSWERING INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Your interview is likely to last 20 30 minutes. During
that time, the interviewer will try to learn the following:
The level of your experience and skills
Your willingness and ability to learn

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 A sense of your personality, professionalism, commitment

An indication of how you would fit into the organization
Answers to specific questions
INTERVIEW STYLES
There are two styles of interviewing: traditional and
behaviour-based. Traditional questions are direct and tend to
give the interviewee the sense that s/he is being tested, as if
there are right and wrong answers. Traditional questions might
be like these:
Why do you want to hold this position?
Aside from money, what will you gain from having this job?
What motivates you to excel?
Behaviour-based questions invite the job applicant to tell
a story. The theory is that by hearing about a job seeker's past
behaviour, the employer can predict his future behaviour. Here
are some sample behaviour-based questions:
What accomplishment are you particularly proud of?
When did you handle conflict with your boss, colleagues, or
subordinates? Tell me about it.
Tell me about a situation that demonstrates your work habits.
Describe a time when you and your superior were in conflict
and how it was resolved.
Give behaviour-based answers whenever possible. Even
when asked traditional questions, take every opportunity to tell
a short story about one of your accomplishments, a scenario
that demonstrates your style of work, or an example of your
skills in action. Your behaviour-based answers will make your
interview more memorable, more meaningful, and more fun for
the manager.
For practice in answering traditional and behaviourbased questions, here are some interview questions that might
be asked of an applicant going for a position at any level in an
organization. After each question, you'll find an analysis of the
question, which may help you understand how to answer such
a question in your job interview.
1. Could you please tell me about yourself?
Although this topic is broad, keep your answer focused and
relevant to the job you're applying for. Mention the top three
or four aspects of your experience, skills, interests, and
personality that make you a qualified candidate for the job.

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2. What are your long- and short-term career goals?

The interviewer is trying to understand why you want this
job and how long you are going to hold that position. The
ideal answer will assure the employer that you are worth
his investment: training you, introducing you to clients,
entrusting you with responsibility. Your answer should
assure him that you will remin there for a long time.
3. Outside of work, what are some of the things you do?
Employers know that what an applicant does for free can
speak louder about his character than what he does for
money. Tell the interviewer about something in your nonprofessional life that reveals you are a good person.
4. What strengths do you bring to this job that other
candidates might not?
There's no hidden message here. The employer is giving you
the floor to sell yourself for the job. Prepare well for this
answer and deliver it with confidence. Present yourself
using brief achievement stories whenever possible.
5. Do you consider this a lateral or vertical career move?
This question is designed to find out how challenged you
will be on the job. If you aren't challenged, you will get
bored and move on. If you are too challenged, you might not
make it past the first week. Your answer will also give the
employer a sense of whether you aim for a just a little or a
big increase in salary.
6. Why do you want to leave your current position?
Avoid negative aspectsand say: "It is time to move on in my
career" or "I am looking for a greater challenge."
7. Why did you leave your last job?
The interviewer wants to know if there are any underlying
problems like: lack of commitment, difficult personality, and
poor performance. Employers do not want to take on someone who has a record of walking out on jobs or getting fired.
Respond in positive terms, without lying. Here you need to
talk about the concept of needing more of a challenge, and
leaving for a company with more opportunities. You can
explain a valid reason as long as it has no negative tone.
8. Please explain why you have a gap in your employment
history. The employer is looking for any problems in your
personal life that might become his problem if he hires you.
Explain your gaps honestly; dwell on activities that support

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9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

your job objective. If you do not have anything relevant to

say, then talk about activities that show your strength of
character and helped you know what you really want to do
next: the job you are interviewing for.
Of all the problems you had at your previous position, which
was the hardest to deal with?
Do not let on that you had of problems, even if you did.
Instead, refer briefly to an area you-and probably the rest of
the world-find challenging, and move right on to how you
have learnt to deal with it.
What project required you to work under pressure? And
what were the results?
How you respond to this question will tell the interviewer
whether or not you like working under pressure. Be honest
and positive. All jobs bring with them a certain amount of
pressure, but some have a lot more than others. So give an
example where the level of pressure was just right for you,
which will suggest how much pressure you are looking for
on your next job.
What college experience are you especially proud of?
If you have just graduated, this question is an opportunity
to give balance to the fact that you do not have much paid
experience. Spotlight your job objective.
What training are you planning to pursue at this point?
You want to look dedicated to developing your profession
but you do not want to appear unable to dedicate yourself
100 percent to the job. Make it clear that your number one
priority is your job; developing your profession is second.
Why do you want to work for this company?
Talk about the values and mission or vision statement of
the company (research to find out what these are). You can
discuss how the company is a growing one in the industry
and you want to be part of such progressive firms that hold
the values of customer service. Essentially the answer
needs to relate to the company's own values.
What do you know about this company and our products?
This question is trying to find out if you have researched
the company and by knowing about their products how you
would contribute to the company.
What makes you the best person for this job, why should
we hire you instead of someone else?

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16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

This is your chance to bring all your skills together in a

brief way to tell the employer exactly why you are the best
person. Focus on the skills they require for the job and
the experience you have in these skills or your tertiary
education. Have the response to this question well prepared and be able to say it confidently.
How do you spend your spare time?
They are trying to find out if you are a team person: you
play team sports, or you prefer working alone, if you are
outgoing and you enjoy adventure. In your spare time you
do what you enjoy, so think carefully about these and
ensure your responses are appropriate to the expected
profile and the job description.
How would you handle an angry or upset client?
For this question it is best if you can use an example of
how you have handled a difficult situation in the past. You
need to talk about conflict resolution skills, focusing on
the facts and not on emotions, calming the customer,
listening to their needs and trying your best to have their
needs met, if it is within your power to do so.
What are your greatest strengths?
Answer this honestly but try to focus on the qualities or
skills that they have specified in their advertisement or
skills that would be required to do the job and talk about
where these strengths come from: tertiary study, employment history, volunteer work, etc.
What are your greatest weaknesses?
You should be able to turn this into a positive statement.
An example is: a perceived weakness of mine is that I am
a perfectionist and I try to complete all tasks to a high
degree of efficiency but this can tend to get me overloaded
in my work so I need to try and find a balance.
What does "team work" mean to you?
To answer this question you need to talk about a group of
people working together to achieve a desired outcome in
the most cost effective and efficient way. This includes
qualities such as flexibility. Give an example of how you
worked in teams before and the benefits provided. Also
mention that you can work as a member of a team but
you are quite confident in your abilities to work alone
when required.

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21. Are there any questions that you have?

You should always have a least two questions prepared. If
they have answered them throughout the course of the
interview then tell them: yes I did have two but you have
now answered them, thank you. By asking questions you
prove you are enthusiastic about the company/position.
More Interview Question Samples:
l. Why have you decided to apply for this position?
2. What are your important strengths and weaknesses?
3. List three of your most important accomplishments.
4. What kind of work environment do you prefer?
5. What motivates you?
6. How are you qualified for this job?
7. What supervisory or management experience have you had?
8. How would you characterise your supervisory style?
9. The employee in this position must be innovative and proactive. Describe what you did to prove these qualities.
10. How would you rate your communication skills and what
have you done to improve them?
11. What else besides your school and job experience qualifies
you for this job?
12. What have you read lately, and what are you reading now?
13. This position involves some specific skills (language, computer, administration). How does your background fit?
14. Tell us about yourself and your option for this line of work.
15. What are the personal characteristics and qualities you
would bring to this position that would be particularly
helpful in fulfilling the responsibilities of this position?
16. What professional groups are you a member of, and how
active have you been in those groups?
17. Do you prefer to work independently or as part of a team?
18. What appeals to you about this position/this company?
19. What are the aspects of your present position that you like?
20. Which aspects of your most recent position do you dislike?
21. What do you see yourself doing five or ten years from now?
22. Starting with your latest job, would you tell me about your
achievements that were recognized by your superiors?
23. What are the things you would like to avoid in a job? Why?
24. What are some of the things on your jobs that you feel you
have done particularly well?

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25. What does success mean to you? How do you judge it?
26. Who or what in your life would you say influenced you
most with regard to your career objectives?
27. What traits or qualities do you feel could be strengthened
or improved?
28. What things do you feel most/less confident doing?
29. What are the things you are either doing now or have
thought about doing that are self development activities?
30. Tell me about a time when you had work problems that
were difficult for you.
31. Customers frequently create pressure. What has been your
experience in this area?
32. What types of pressures do you experience on your current
job? How do you cope with these pressures?
33. Describe a time when you were under pressure to make a
decision. Did you act immediately or take time in deciding?
34. What types of things make you angry? How do you react?
35. How do you react when you see co-workers disagreeing?
Do you become involved or hold back?
36. Do you prefer to have a job in which you have well laid out
tasks and responsibilities, or one in which your work
changes frequently?
37. In your current position what types of decisions do you
make without consulting your immediate supervisor?
38. What experience have you had in dealing with difficult
customers in person/over the phone?
39. Describe a problem person you had to deal with. What did
you say or do? Did you plan your strategy in advance?
40. What is your experience in dealing with the general public?
When have people really tried your patience?
4l. What important goals did you set in the past, and how
successful have you been in accomplishing them?
42. What things give you the greatest satisfaction?
43. Would you describe yourself as different at the office and
in private?
44. In what ways do you think you can make a contribution to
our department?
45. Describe your most rewarding experience.
46. What do you know about our company?
47. Why do you think we should hire you?
48. What will a supervisor tell me about your 2 weakest areas?

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49. If you were hiring someone for this job, what qualities
would you look for?
50. What does the term two-way communication mean to you?
When did you successfully use two-way communication?
51. How did you organize your work in your last position?
What happened to your plan when emergencies came up?
52. Describe how you determine your priorities on your job.
53. Describe how you schedule your time on an unusually
hectic day. Give a specific example.
54. Are you a person who likes to try new things, or stay with
regular routines? Give an example.
55. If we had to contact your staff from your previous position,
what do you think they would say about you?
56. What do you do on your days off?
57. If you had a million dollars what would you do?
58. What would you do if people come to work late regularly?
59. What makes you happy?
60. What was your greatest working achievement?
6l. When are you available for work?
62. Have you ever done this kind of work before?
63. What have you done to prepare for this interview?
64. Tell me about the tasks you perform easily/with difficulty.
65. What kind of salary do you need?
66. How do you schedule your time at work?
67. How often were you absent from work in your last job?
68. Is your health an impediment in your work?
69. What community groups are you involved in?
70. Are you available to work overtime and Saturday mornings?
71. What five words would you say describe you best?
72. What was your last employer's opinion of you?
73. What has lately impeded your long-range goals?
74. What kind of machines or equipment have you worked
with, what kind of equipment can you operate?
75. Would you work under pressure or tight deadlines?
76. Are you thinking of going back to school or further study?
Frequently Asked Questions
1. Tell me a bit about yourself in relation to this position.
2. What are your salary requirements?
3. Why do you want to works as a/n
4. What didn't you like about your last job?

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5. What qualifications do you have that make you a good candidate for this job?
6. What is your idea of success?
7. What makes you better suited for this job than the other
applicants I've already interviewed?
8. What are your professional goals?
9. What have you done that illustrates leadership skills?
10. What did you do in your job as
11. What are your strengths/weaknesses visible in this job?
12. How did your education prepare you for this job?
13. What is your impression of our firm?
14. What are your long-range goals? What do you want to be
doing five years from now?
15. Why did you choose this particular field of work?
16. Do you prefer working with others or by yourself? Are you
a team player?
17. How can I be sure you are able to make quick decisions?
18. Are you willing to work overtime?
19. What have you accomplished in you career/education?
20. What have you done/plan to do about your professional
development?
21. What inrerests you most about this position?
22. What kinds of decisions are most difficult for you?
23. How do vou feel abour your progress so far in your career?
24. How long will you stay with the company?
25. Have you done the best work you are able to do?
26. Why do you want to change jobs?
27. How many people have you supervised?
28. What are the reasons for your success?
29. How would you describe your personality?
30. What are you most proud of having done in your job?
31. What was the worst problem you have had in your present
job? How did you solve it?
32. What is the best idea you've had this month?
33. What excites you about the job you're doing now? What
worries you?
34. What kind of work do you like best/least?
35. What kind of supervisor do you like to work for?
36. Do you consider yourself ambitious?
37. Why should we hire you for this position?

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38. What do you think should determine the progress a person

makes in his/her career?
39. What are the main things you have learnt from your work
experience?

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR MANAGERS

If you are interested in a management position you may be
asked questions not required of non-management candidates
Questions about:
Budget
Company policy
Management style
Conflict management
Consensus building
Team development
Organizational systems
Supervisory skills
P&L responsibility
Goal achievement
Public relations
Investor relations
Here are some questions you might find yourself answering in
your executive interview.
1. Tell me about a time when you developed or re-organized a
procedure successfully.
Here is a chance to look good by talking about one of your
favourite achievements. While telling the story, keep in mind
what tasks you might be asked to perform at the job you are
applying for and highlight elements that relate to your next job.
2. When did you initiate a policy or project, and how did your
idea affect the organization?
Employers want to hear how you affected the bottom line,
since it implies that you will be able to do the same for them.
Tell a story demonstrating that you understand how success is
measured in your line of work, and that you are able to achieve
it to the satisfaction of your employer.
3. Could you describe a challenging problem you solved and
what the long-term result of your solution was?
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Most employees dislike admitting that they have problems, but

the truth is that everybody does. It is the way people handle
problems that shows their real talent. Describe a time when
you either took on a problem and solved it, or you were in the
middle of a project and a problem came up unexpectedly.
4. What was the toughest budget issue you ever faced? Could
you tell me about it?
Budget management is important to employers. Decide how
involved you want to be with the budget on your next job: if
you want to manage a budget, talk about a time when you did
a good job with the money; if you hate dealing with budgets,
tell about a time when you worked with someone else on it.
5. Describe a creative approach you used to increase profits.
There are two ways to increase profits: decrease spending and
increase revenue. This question is designed to find out if you
are going to bring new profit-making ideas to the company,
especially ones that work. So discuss a time when you either
cut costs or drove up revenues.
6. Give me an example of how you built consensus in the team.
An effective manager makes everyone in his staff experience
success, both individually and as a group. To respond to this
question, you could speak about one of your experiences in
morale building, creating incentive programs, or using your
management style to increase cooperation among your staff.
7. When did you solve a conflict among your subordinates?
Conflict resolution is a valuable skill. With downsizing, mergers, and problems in corporate management, this could be a
valuable opportunity. Put yourself in the interviewer's shoes to
know what interpersonal issues are current stumbling blocks
in the company. Then come up with an experience of your own
that parallels the company's.
8. When did you represent the company or your department
before a group of people?
Here is your chance to show where your presentation skills lie.
If you enjoy public speaking, describe convincing presentations
you have done. If you are not comfortable in front of large
groups (not all of us are), refer to a time when you delivered a

146

message to either a small group or to an individual, and do not

forget to emphasize the positive result of your presentation.
9. When did you have to sell an idea within your company and
how did it work out?
The employer wants to quantify your courage and persuasion.
Think of a time when you persuaded someone or a group to
follow your lead to a successful end. Your experience should
focus on a serious business matter, or maybe a personal interaction that turned out well.

ILLEGAL QUESTIONS
Various federal, state, and local laws regulate the questions a prospective employer can ask the job candidate. In the
hope of reducing hiring discrimination, the government has
stepped into the interview room and stated that, before the job
offer, it is illegal for an interviewer to ask direct questions on
issues that could lead to discrimination: gender, sexual preference, health, marital status, children, family planning, religion,
and political opinions.
An employer's questions - whether on the job application,
in the interview, or during the testing process - must be related
to that job. For the employer, the focus must be: "What do I
need to know to decide whether this person can perform the
functions of this position?"
If asked an illegal question, you have three options:
You can answer the question you are free to do so, if you
wish. However, if you choose to answer an illegal question, remember that you are giving information that is not related to
the job; in fact, you might be giving the wrong answer, which
could harm your chances of getting the job.
You can refuse to answer the question, which is well within
your rights. Unfortunately, depending on how you phrase your
refusal, you run the risk of appearing uncooperative or confrontational - hardly the ideal candidate.
You can examine the question for its intent and respond with
an answer as it might apply to the job. For example, the
interviewer asks, "Are you a U.S. citizen?" or "What country are
you from?" You have been asked an illegal question. You could
respond, however, with "I am authorized to work in this State."

147

Even though it may be illegal for an interviewer to ask a

certain question, it is not illegal for you to answer it.
So think carefully before answering and figure out whether it is to your advantage to respond honestly or to hedge the
issue.
If you do not want to answer the question, do not accuse
the interviewer of having broken the law. Instead, take a minute to understand what is behind the question: if he has
asked if you have kids, maybe he is concerned that you may be
distracted from work; in that case, you could answer "I believe
you are concerned about my attendance on the job. Let me
assure you that my personal life won't interfere with my work."
or "I can meet the travel and work schedule that this job
requires."
You cannot be discrimitated by your native tongue, but it
is relevant for the job if you can read/speak/write fluently
in the required language for proper task performance.
You cannot be discrimitated by age, but you need to be
over 18, or have the relevant major.
You cannot be discrimitated by marital status, but you
can be asked about willingness to relocate or travel for the
job, as well as being able and willing to work overtime if
necessary, assuming it is asked of all applicants.
You cannot be discrimitated by clubs/social organizations
you select, but the professional&trade groups you belong
to may be relevant for the position or for your ability to
perform the job.
You cannot be discrimitated by criminal record or military
training.
You cannot be discrimitated for physical appearance or
disabilities, but you must meet the minimum standards
essential for the safe performance of the job. (Exam results must be kept strictly confidential, unless emergency
medical treatment is required, and supervisors may be
informed about necessary job accommodations, based on
exam results.)

148

JOB INTERVIEW TIPS

To avoid going into an interview with anxiety about the
possibility of unpleasant questions emerging, do two things:
1. Review your CV before you send it out to be sure it
does not highlight anything that would instigate conversation on those topics.
2. Make a list of the questions you are afraid of, and
practise answering them in a positive way.
When closing the interview, thank the interviewer by
name: "Ms. Jones, this interview has been really helpful and
enjoyable. Thank you!" or "I'm very interested in this job. What
is the next step in your hiring process?"

Facts to get before the interview: key people in the organization, major products or services, size in terms of sales and
employees, locations other than the one in your community,
company organizational structure, its major competitors,
and view on the company by clients, suppliers, competition,
as well as the latest news reports on the company or on
local or national news that may affect the company.
Get clear directions to the interview site and arrive on time
or early for your meeting.
A professional-looking outfit will impress most employers,
even if you would not usually dress up everyday on the job.
Women should dress modestly and not wear perfume, bulky
jewellery, and excessive makeup. Men should avoid cologne.
When you pack your bag for the interview, be sure to put in
a few copies of your resume, a pen, note pad, and that list
of questions you want to ask. Also bring samples of your
work, which is relevant to the job you are applying for.
Your interview starts the minute you walk in the company
and lasts until you exit. So, be alert from start to finish:
read company materials while you wait, introduce yourself
in a courteous manner, listen and use body language to
show interest, smile, nod, and give nonverbal feedback to
the interviewer, and ask about the next step in the process.
Smile, especially when you first meet the interviewer. That
first impression will remain in the manager's mind.
You need a confident handshake: yhe right amount of tension in your grip is important - not too tight, not too limp.

149

Eye contact is a form of communication and it possesses

the magical ability to build rapport, so maintain eye contact
when you are talking and when your interviewer is talking.
Keep good posture that shows you are alert and focused.
Avoid negative body language. In other words, do not cross
your arms over your chest, do not clench your fists, do not
clutch your purse or briefcase tightly, or do anything that
might indicate insecurity, hostility, or resistance to change.
Listen carefully to what the interviewer says; ask questions
when you do not understand, because it will help you give
the best response.
Answer questions with an appropriate balance of confidence
and modesty.
Respond with answers based on PAR (Problem, Action, and
Result): What was a problem you faced? What action did
you take to solve it? What was the result?
Shift your interview from interrogation to dialogue
Once in a while answer a question by saying what somebody else has said about you: "My supervisor always used
to say, 'Bob's the one you want around when it's time to
launch a product.'"
It's best to be quiet for a minute before you answer a
question. It helps you gather your ideas and give adequate
answers. The employer will appreciate the fact that you are
thoughtful.
Be honest, even if it means saying you do not know something or you do not have particular experience. You may
need to say something like: "No, I have never done that, but
I know I can do it, or I think I would be good at it."
Be prepared to tell stories that demonstrate how you work
with people, as the interviewer is undoubtedly curious as to
how you will fit in with his staff. Remember to weave your
stories into the answers of pertinent questions.
A good way to build rapport is to use your interviewer's
name when you answer a question. So learn his name and
practice the pronunciation beforehand.
Delay the discussion on salary history and expectations
until you fully understand what is entailed in the job and
you have had time to think about what is fair.

150

When introduced to potential co-workers, be friendly. Your

interviewer may be watching to see how you interact with
his staff and may later ask employees how they liked you.
Send a thank you letter as soon as your interview is completed. Print on one side of the paper.
Use a font size of 10 to 14 points.
Use non-decorative typefaces.
Choose one typeface and stick to it.
Avoid italics, script, and underlined words.
Avoid horizontal/vertical lines, graphics, shading.
Do not fold or staple your resume. If you mail it,
put it in a large envelope.

TOP QUALITIES EMPLOYERS SEEK

Employers say they are impressed by job candidates who
have excellent communication skills, good self management
and grooming habits, and relevant work experience. They also
need trustworthy new hires that can move right in, get along
with their co-workers, and get the job done without having to
be instructed and guided through it at each step.
1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
2. Honesty and integrity
3. Teamwork skills (works well with others)
4. Interpersonal skills (relates well to others)
5. Motivation and initiative
6. Strong work ethic
7. Analytical skills
8. Flexibility and adaptability
9. Computer skills
10. Organizational skills
In the interview, you should be prepared to
give information (personal and non-personal)
give your opinion and justify it
explain and/or suggest something
express preference, compare and/or contrast issues
summarise and analyse
describe something or narrate an event
speculate
check on comprehension
repair, maintain and extend a conversation.

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Impress the interviewer and increase your impact by:

effectively communicating in English with your peers.
using complex grammatical structures accurately (tenses,
conditionals, the passive voice).
inserting discourse markers and linking words
expressing ideas without new lexis from the dictionary.
making complex sentences to explain&extend your ideas.
understanding a variety of English accents (British, American,
Canadian, Australian, etc).
use appropriate conversational and cultural interaction in a
variety of situations. A positive, confident attitude will help.
Practise using different sentence structures.
Practise paraphrasing - if you do not know a particular word, try to explain what you mean using
different words. Get some strategies: to repair the
conversation if things go wrong.
If you cannot think of a real situation to discus,
hypothesize; you need to be fluent
It is important to understand that your speaking
cannot improve without intense practice.
MISTAKES TO AVOID
1. Not knowing personal aims. Candidates must demonstrate
they are a good choice for the company, and assess if the
job is adequate for their professional career it is not just
asking for a job.
2. Being too needy.
3. Inadequate nonverbal communication.
4. Compromising position. Applicants participate in interviews as equals, not as subordinates of the interviewer.
5. The answers-only routine. An interview is a conversation,
not a list of brief answers.
6. Digressions and telling interviewers more than they need to
know. Silence must not be filled up with unnecessary talk.
Candidates stories should be 60-90 seconds long, with a
relevant point.
7. Familiarity. Interviews are professional business meetings
and should be dealt with accordingly.

152

8. Making assumptions. Effective interviewing is collecting information in real time, taking good notes, and responding
to the given facts, not guessing, but asking for clarifycations if necessary.
9. Getting emotional. When emotions come into an interview,
failure follows, so maintain a calm, open-minded attitude.
10. Not asking specific questions. Applicants must have a list
of several prepared questions about the company/position
/employees. Questions must begin with what, how, why,
and simple yes/no questions are to be avoided. Interviewers are not impressed by applicants with no questions.
11. Do not imitate film clichs.
do not chew gum, do not smoke
do not dress too casual; obey the company or that
line of work dress code
do not wear sun glasses or a Bluetooth earpiece
do not use too much cologne or perfume
do not overstate your qualifications
do not ask about the compensations and benefits
do not disparage your previous employer
if you do not know the answer, do not fake it
do not hesitate to ask for more explanations when
you really need them for an appropriate answer
do not express aggressive or bored attitudes
12. Do not leave your cell phone on.Do not take phone calls or
text during an interview.
13. Do not arrive too early or too late
14. Failing to research the employer in advance.
15. Failing to demonstrate enthusiasm.
16. Inquiring about benefits too soon.
14. Being unable to explain how your strengths and abilities
apply to the job in question, or why you are a valuable
asset for the company.
15. Forgetting to bring a copy of your resume and/or portfolio.
16. Failing to remember what you wrote on your own resume.
17. Asking too many questions or none at all.
18. Being unprepared to answer the standard questions.
19. Failing to listen carefully to what the interviewer is saying.
20. Talking more than half the time.
21. Interrupting your interviewer.

153

22. Neglecting to match the communication style of your interviewer.

23. Yawning or slouching.
24. Bringing along a friend, or a family member.
25. Laughing, giggling, whistling, humming, lip-smacking.
26. Saying "you know," "like," "I guess," and "um."
27. Name-dropping or bragging or sounding like a know-it-all.
28. Asking to use the bathroom.
29. Being falsely or exaggeratedly modest.
30. Shaking hands too weakly, or too firmly.
31. Failing to make eye contact or staring.
32. Taking a seat before your interviewer does.
33. Becoming angry or defensive.
34. Complaining that you were kept waiting.
35. Complaining about anything.
36. Letting your nervousness show.
37. Over-explaining why you lost your last job.
38. Checking the time.
39. Over-sharing.
40. Sounding rehearsed.
41. Failing to ask for the job.

154

PART 4
Europass CV
Cover letter
Voluntary work and its importance
in finding the desired employment:
history, relevance, and impact.

155

156

CV EUROPASS
Europass

CV with
ICT skills

European Skills
Passport

Diploma
Supplement

Certificate
Supplement

Language
Passport

Mobility

EExperience

ADVANTAGES OF EUROPASS DOCUMENTS

Europass has played an important role in helping people to
gain learning opportunities in another European country.

Europass has helped individuals to be accepted to the Lifelong Learning Programme and to be admitted to educational
institutions.

157

Europass has also helped individuals to change their job or

location and compared to the last evaluation in 2008 the
contribution of Europass had significantly increased.

Although younger people have the highest access to Europass documents, the impact of Europass on occupational /
educational experience was felt within all age groups.

Unemployed and volunteers had experienced the lowest

usage levels of the Europass documents.

Moreover, Europass documents had the lowest impact on

unemployed, except for the Europass Certificate Supplement
which almost equally well helped all who used it.

Europass
Curriculum
Vitae

Insert photograph.
Remove heading if not relevant

Personal
information
Surname(s)/ First Surname(s) First name(s)
name(s)
Address(es)
House number, street name, postcode,
city, country
Telephone(s)
Mobile:
Fax(es)
(remove if not relevant, see instructions)
E-mail
(remove if not relevant, see instructions)
Nationality
(remove if not relevant, see instructions)
Date of birth
(remove if not relevant, see instructions)
Gender
(remove if not relevant, see instructions)
Desired
(remove if not relevant, see instructions)
employment /
Occupational field

Work experience
Dates
Add separate entries
for each relevant post occupied,
starting from the most recent.
Occupation or
position held

158

Main activities
responsibilities
Name &address
of employer
Type of business
or sector
Education and
training
Dates

Add separate entries

for each relevant course you have completed,
starting from the most recent.

Title of
qualification
awarded
Principal
subjects/occupa
tional skills
covered
Name and type of
organisation
providing
education and
training
Level in national (remove if not relevant, see instructions)
or international
classification
Personal skills
and
competences
Mother tongue(s) Specify mother tongue
if relevant add other mother tongue(s),
Understanding

Speaking

Other language(s) LisReading Spoken

Self-assessment tening
InterEuropean level (*)
action

Writing
Spoken
production

Language
Language
(*) Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages

159

Social skills and Replace this text by a description of such

competences competences and indicate where
they were acquired.
Organisational Replace this text by a description
skills and
of these competences and indicate
competences where they were acquired.
Technical skills Replace this text by a description
and competences of these competences and indicate
where they were acquired.
Computer skills Replace this text by a description
and competences of these competences and indicate
where they were acquired.
Artistic skills and Replace this text by a description
competences of these competences and indicate
where they were acquired.
Other skills and Replace this text by a description
competences of these competences and indicate
where they were acquired.
Driving licence State here whether
you hold a driving licence and if so
for which categories of vehicle.
Additional
information
Annexes

Include here any other information

that may be relevant,
for example contact persons, references, etc.
List any items attached.
(Remove heading if not relevant,
see instructions)

The most important European added value of Europass

initiative was the creation of international, recognised and uniform documents to record qualifications, skills and experience.
An effective support system and a well developed brand image
led to international recognition of the documents, which was
the key reason why end-users chose them and not their
alternatives.
The possibility to use the documents as a portfolio and
the focus on learning outcomes were particularly important
unique features of Europass documents.

160

Impacts

Generic impact: improved social and economic conditions in the EU

Increase in the realisation

of mobility
opportunities
education, volunteering
and labour
The Europass
documents
also
had a(inpedagogic
impact
as
market)
they encouraged individuals and institutional stakeholders to
reflect on their learning or to provide guidance on learning outcomes, and to communicate them in a clearer way.

Results

Increased awareness of transparency instruments by all stakeholders

Increased use of transparency instruments

Improvement in understanding and recognition of competences and qualifications within

countries, sectors and various educational stages
Improved transparency of qualifications and competences

Outputs

The Europass documents (ECV, ELP, EMD, ECS, EDS) and development of new transparency
instruments
Europass electronic platform
Network of the National Europass Centres
Promotion, dissemination activities and communication with other organisations and
stakeholders in the area of transparency

INSTRUCTIONS
Drawing up the CV is an important step in looking for
any job/training. This document is often the first contact with
a future employer. It needs to get the readers attention fast
and to demonstrate why you should be given an interview.
Employers generally spend no more than a minute on each CV
when making an initial selection from applications received. If
you fail to make impact, you will waste the opportunity.
Before starting to write the CV, remember key principles:
Take care over the presentation of your CV: set out your
qualifications, skills & competences clearly and logically,
so that your specific attributes are easily seen.
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Pay attention to all relevant detail, both of substance

and presentation; there is no excuse for mistakes in
spelling and punctuation
Concentrate on essentials: a CV must be brief and two
pages are enough to show who & what you are. A three
page CV is considered too long, even if your experience
is outstanding.
If your work experience is still limited (because you have
just graduated from school or university), describe your
education and training first; highlight work placements
during training (see online examples);
Focus on key information that brings added value to the
application: work experience or training which is old or
not relevant for the application can be omitted.
Adapt your CV to suit the post applied for. Systematically check your CV every time you want to send it to an
employer to see if it corresponds to the profile required;
highlight your advantages according to specific requirements of any prospective employer. Good knowledge of
the company will help you tailor your CV according to
the appropriate profile.
Do not artificially inflate your CV; if you do, you are
likely to be found out at the interview.
Keep to the structure of the template. The Europass CV
allows you to present your qualifications, skills and
competences in a logical order:
- personal information;
- description of your work experience;
- description of your education and training
(which may appear before the heading Work
experience for users with limited work experience; to invert the order of the two headings, use the copy/paste command in your
word processing software);
- detailed inventory of your skills and competences, acquired in your training, work and
daily life.
Notes:
- print your curriculum vitae on white paper;
- retain the suggested font and layout;

162

- avoid underlining or writing whole sentences in

capitals or bold: it affects text readability;
- do not split an entry under one heading over two
pages (e.g. your list of training courses); to avoid it
use the page break command in the software;
- the boxes containing the various headings should
not appear when the document is printed.
Be clear and concise: your profile must be appreciated
by the potential employer after a few seconds reading.
In consequence:
- use short sentences;
- concentrate on the relevant aspects of your
training and work experience;
- explain any breaks in your studies or career;
- remove any optional heading (e.g. if you have
no Artistic skills and competences or if you
consider that such skills and competences do
not bring added value to your application, remove the entry using the cut command in
your word processing software.
Have someone else read your CV on completion. Check
your CV carefully once you have filled it in to remove
any spelling mistakes and to ensure it is laid out
clearly and logically. Have someone else read your CV
so that you are sure the content is clear and easy to
understand.
Do not change the wording of the left-hand column and
keep to the layout and font used in the template.
Insert photograph if requested. A picture is not essential in a CV, unless requested by the employer; the
format is preferably jpg.
State your surname(s) (preferably using small capitals)
and first name(s), (preferably using lower case), consistent with the rules that apply in your country. If you
have more than one other name, start with the one you
usually use.
State your complete postal address(es) where you wish
to be contacted: the number, then the street, flat, district, zip code, country. Clearly state the address at
which you can be contacted quickly. If your perma-

163

nent address is different from where you are living at

present, you may write both addresses, stating the
dates between which you can be contacted at each; the
order in which the items in an address appear may
vary from country to country; follow the rules that
apply so that post will reach you quickly; do not forget
the country code if you are applying abroad.
State the telephone number(s) where you wish to be
contacted; if necessary, give specific days and times
when it is possible for them to reach you (so that you
can be contacted quickly. If you wish to send your CV
to other countries, give the country prefix and any
regional prefix in brackets. These two prefixes should
be joined by a hyphen, e.g.: (44-20) 80 12 34 56 for a
number in London. Divide the principal number into
groups of two from the right-hand side, the last group
consisting of three digits if the number is odd (groups
are separated by a space, not by a full stop), e.g. (353-1)
220 20 20 for a number in Dublin.
Write your fax number(s), using the same rules as for
your telephone number(s)
Write your e-mail address(es) in full, specifying if it is
your personal or professional address
You can give your date of birth as dd/mm/yyyy
Desired employment/Occupational field: specify your
job target or occupational field, e.g.: Database manager
and administrator; this entry gives an immediate overview of your profile by focusing on core competences.
Work Experience: under this heading, make a separate
entry for each relevant job held, starting with the most
recent.
- if you are applying for your first job, do not
forget to mention work placements during
training which provide evidence of initial
contact with the world of work;
- if your work experience is still limited (because you have just left school or university),
describe your education and training first (to
invert the order of the two headings, use the
copy/paste command in your software);
- highlight work placements during training;

164

- for the sake of brevity, focus on the work experience that gives added weight to your application. Do not overlook experience which
may be an asset even if it is not directly
related to the profile of the job for which you
are applying (e.g., time spent abroad, work
bringing you into contact with the public);
Write the dates to show how long you held the job in
question. State your job title or the nature of your occupation,
e.g.: mechanic, maintenance technician, or receptionist. State
the main activities and responsibilities in the job description
you had: computer maintenance, relations with suppliers.
If necessary, quantify your responsibilities (percentage of
working time, length of time spent on each occupation. State
the name and address of the employer; if relevant, add more
information (telephone, fax, e-mail, Internet address orwebsite).
Education and training includes a separate entry for
each course completed, i.e., each course leading to a
qualification, starting with the most recent.
- there is no need to show all your qualifications: do
not go back as far as primary school if you hold a
university degree; focus on qualifications which
are an asset to your application;
- write the dates to show how long the course lasted;
mention the title of qualification awarded; avoid
using abbreviations on their own;
- summarise the main subjects or occupational
skills taught during the course in question,
grouping them together if necessary for the sake
of brevity; combine items, and focus on the
occupational skills which would be an asset if
you were appointed.
- state the name (and if appropriate, the address)
and type of the institution attended; if the level of
the qualification corresponds to an existing
national or international classification system,
state the level within the classification concerned
(national classification, ISCED).For more data on
ISCED (International Standard Classification of
Education) devised by UNESCO see: www.uis.
unesco.org/ TEMPLATE/pdf/isced/ISCED_A.pdf

165

Personal skills and competences is dedicated to skills

and competences acquired in the course of life and
career but not necessarily covered by formal certificates
and diplomas. It aims to give a complete picture of your
abilities. The headings (languages, social, technical,
organisational, computer-related, artistic and others)
allow you describe skills and competences acquired
both in the course of your education and training
(during your studies) during seminars or continuing
training sessions, and in a non-formal manner (in the
course of your occupational or leisure activities).
Delete any heading under which you have nothing
relevant to say, using the cut command menu in your
word processing software.
Social skills and competences refer to living & working
with other people, in positions where communication is
important and situations where teamwork is essential
(culture and sports in multicultural environments).
Describe your social skills and competences and
specify in what context they were acquired (through
training, work, seminars, voluntary or leisure activities):
- team spirit;
- good ability to adapt to multicultural environments, gained though my work abroad;
- good communication skills gained through
my experience as sales manager.
Organisational skills and competences refer to coordination and administration of people, projects, budgets;
at work, in voluntary work (culture and sports) or at
home. Say in what context they were acquired (in work,
training, seminars, voluntary or leisure activities, etc.).
- leadership (responsible for a team of 10);
- sense of organisation (experience in logistics);
- experience in project and team management.
Technical skills and competences refer to mastery of
specific kinds of equipment and machinery, other than
computers, or to technical skills and competences in a
specialised field (manufacturing industry, health,
banking). Describe your technical skills&competences,
stating in what context they were acquired (through
training, work, seminar, voluntary or leisure activities)

166

- good command of quality control processes (I

was responsible for the implementation of
quality audit in my department);
Computer skills&competences refer to word processing
and other applications, database searching, acquaintance with the Internet, advanced skills (programming).
- good command of Microsoft Office tools
(Word, Excel and PowerPoint);
- basic knowledge of graphic design applications (Adobe Illustrator, PhotoShop).
- computer skills&competences are assessed
and recognised via the European computer
driving licence (ECDL), an internationally-recognised standard of competence certifying
that the holder has the knowledge and skill
needed to use the most common computer
applications efficiently and productively; for
more information regarding ECDL, go to:
http://www.ecdl.com/main/region_eur.php
Artistic skills & competences which are an asset (music;
writing; design) should be mentioned. Specify in what
context they were acquired (training, work, seminars,
voluntary or leisure activities).
You may state any other skill(s) which are an asset and
are not mentioned under previous headings (hobbies;
sports, positions of responsibility in voluntary organisations). Specify in what context they were acquired
(training, work, voluntary or leisure activities).

THE LANGUAGE PASSPORT

It is a document that allows you to present your language
competences and qualifications in a logical order:
1. personal information;
2. for every relevant language:
your skills description based on self-assessment;
your diploma(s) and certificate(s);
relevant examples of your experience
of the language and its culture.
167

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE LANGUAGE PASSPORT

Print your document on white paper;
Retain the suggested font and layout;
Avoid underlining or writing whole sentences in capitals or
bold: it affects the readability of the document;
Do not change the wording of the left-hand column
Remove any heading left blank.
Be clear and concise. An impression of your profile should
be gained after just a few seconds reading. Include only relevant elements of education and experience. Be realistic in
your self-assessment. Any over-estimation of skills may be
revealed during an interview or your probationary period.
Check your document on completion. Check your Language
Passport carefully once completed to remove any spelling
mistakes and make sure it is formulated clearly and logically.
In deciding on your levels for the five headings, read the
descriptions in the self-assessment grid carefully. The descriptions concentrate on what you can actually do in the language.
Try to think of situations where you have used the lan-guage
and relate those to the general descriptions in the selfassessment grid. If you have a European Language Portfolio,
you can use its more detailed descriptors to assess your
language proficiency and monitor your progress.
Diploma(s) or certificate(s) (optional)
Specify any relevant
language
certificate(s) and/or
diploma(s) you have
obtained. Include the
awarding body (the
organisation which
awarded the diploma
or certificate), the
year of award and
the European level if
it is mentioned on
the original
certificate or
diploma, e.g.:
Diploma(s) or
certificate(s)
Title of diploma(s) or
certificate(s)

Diploma in Spanish as a
foreign language (DELE)
(Nivel Intermedio /
Intermediate Level)

University
of Sala
manca
(Spain)

Awarding body

Date

168

2002

Inde
pendent
user
(B2)

European Level (***)

Select your most recent and most relevant experience(s).

If you do not have any relevant experience of a language, delete
the heading. Delete any line or sections that you do not wish to
complete. To delete a section, use the Table commands menu
in your word processing software. If you need to add further
sections for more languages, use the copy/paste command in
your word processing software as many times as required.
When you submit your completed Language Passport to
somebody, do not forget to include a copy of the self-assessment grid. The person reading your Language Passport may
not be wholly familiar with the European levels.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE SELF-ASSESSMENT GRID
The self-assessment grid is based on the six level scale of the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
developed by the Council of Europe.
The grid consists of three broad levels as follows:
Basic user (levels A1 and A2);
Independent user (levels B1 and B2);
Proficient user (levels C1 and C2).
To self-assess your foreign language level, read the descriptions below and write your level (e.g. Proficient user - C2) in
the appropriate box of your Language Passport (Listening,
Reading, Spoken interaction, Spoken production and Writing).
Understanding
Listening
A 1: I can understand familiar words and very basic phrases
concerning myself, my family and immediate surroundings
when people speak slowly and clearly.
A 2: I understand phrases and the highest frequency vocabulary related to areas of most immediate personal relevance (e.g.
very basic personal and family information, shopping, local
area, employment). I can catch the main points in short, clear,
simple messages and announcements.
B 1: I understand the main points of clear standard speech on
familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, and
leisure. I can understand main points in radio/TV programs on
current affairs or topics of personal/professional interest when
the delivery is relatively slow and clear.

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B 2: I can understand extended speech and lectures and follow

even complex lines of argument provided the topic is reasonably familiar. I understand most TV news and current affairs
programs. I can understand most films in standard dialect.
C 1: I can understand extended speech even when it is not
clearly structured and when relationships are only implied and
not signalled explicitly. I can understand TV programmes and
films without too much effort.
C 2: I have no difficulty in understanding any kind of spoken
language, whether live or broadcast, even when delivered at
fast native speed, if I have time to get familiar with the accent.
Reading
A 1: I can understand familiar names, words and very simple
sentences, for example on notices and posters or in catalogues.
A 2: I can read very short, simple texts. I can find specific, predictable information in simple everyday material such as advertisements, prospectuses, menus and timetables and I can
understand short simple personal letters.
B 1: I understand texts that consist mainly of high frequency
everyday or job-related language. I understand the description
of events, feelings and wishes in personal letters.
B 2: I can read articles and reports concerned with contemporary problems where writers adopt particular attitudes or
viewpoints. I can understand contemporary literary prose.
C 1: I can understand long and complex factual and literary
texts, appreciating style distinctions. I understand specialised
articles and longer technical instructions, even when they do
not relate to my field.
C 2: I can read with ease virtually all forms of the written
language, including abstract, structurally or linguistically complex texts like manuals, specialised articles and literary works.
Speaking
Spoken interaction
A 1: I can interact in a simple way provided the other person is
prepared to repeat/rephrase things at a slower rate of speech
and help me formulate what I'm trying to say. I can ask and
answer simple questions in areas of immediate need or on very
familiar topics.

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A 2: I can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring

a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar topics
and activities. I can handle very short social exchanges, even
though I cannot usually understand enough to keep the conversation going myself.
B 1: I can deal with most situations likely to arise when travelling in an area where the language is spoken. I can enter
unprepared into conversation on topics that are familiar, of
personal interest or pertinent to everyday life (family, hobbies,
work, travel and current events).
B 2: I interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that
makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible.
I can take an active part in discussion in familiar contexts,
accounting for and sustaining my views.
C 1: I can express myself fluently and spontaneously without
much obvious searching for expressions. I can use language
flexibly and effectively for social and professional purposes. I
can formulate ideas and opinions with precision and relate my
contribution skilfully to those of other speakers.
C 2: I take part effortlessly in any conversation or discussion
and have a good familiarity with idiomatic expressions and
colloquialisms. I can express myself fluently and convey finer
shades of meaning precisely. If I do have a problem I can
backtrack and restructure around the difficulty so smoothly
that other people are hardly aware of it.
Spoken production
A 1: I can use simple phrases and sentences to describe where
I live and people I know.
A 2: I can use a series of phrases and sentences to describe, in
simple terms, my family and other people, living conditions,
my educational background, my present or most recent job.
B 1: I can connect phrases in a simple way in order to describe
experiences and events, my dreams, hopes and ambitions. I
can briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and
plans. I can narrate a story or relate the plot of a book or film
and describe my reactions.
B 2: I present clear, detailed descriptions on a wide range of
subjects related to my field of interest. I can explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.

171

C 1: I can present clear, detailed descriptions of complex

subjects integrating sub-themes, developing particular points
and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.
C 2: I can present a clear, smoothly-flowing description or
argument in a style appropriate to the context and with an
effective logical structure which helps the recipient to notice
and remember significant points.
Writing
A 1: I can write a short, simple postcard, for example sending
holiday greetings. I can fill in forms with personal details, for
example entering my name, nationality and address on a hotel
registration form.
A 2: I can write short, simple notes and messages. I can write
a very simple personal letter, for example thanking someone
for something.
B 1: I write simple connected text on topics which are familiar
or of personal interest. I can write personal letters describing
experiences and impressions.
B 2: I can write clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects
related to my interests. I can write an essay or report, passing
on information or giving reasons in support of or against a particular point of view. I write letters highlighting the personal
significance of events and experiences.
C 1: I express myself in clear, well-structured text, expressing
points of view at some length. I can write about complex
subjects in a letter, an essay or a report, underlining what I
consider to be the salient issues. I can select a style appropriate to the reader in mind.
C 2: I can write clear, smoothly-flowing text in an appropriate
style. I write complex letters, reports or articles which present
a case with an effective logical structure which helps the recipient to notice and remember significant points. I can write
summaries and reviews of professional or literary works.
The self-assessment grid can be consulted on the website of
the Council of Europe (www.coe.int/portfolio). Instructions for
using the Europass CV (http://europass.cedefop.eu.int)

172

COVER LETTERS

The cover letter accompanies the CV and is part of your

application materials. Its targets are as follows:
State the job and position you envisage
Present you as a candidate
Highlight relevant skills for the job
Ask for the opportunity of an interview
Use of verb tenses in the cover letter:
Present Continuous: I am writing to inquire about the
(job opportunity) I am seeking;
Past Tense Simple: where&when you saw the ad;
Present Perfect to speak about your accomplishments.
Sample cover letter format guidelines:

Your Street Address

City, State Zip Code
Telephone Number
E-mail Address
Month, Day, Year
Mr./Ms./Dr. FirstName LastName
Title
Name of Organization
Street or P. O. Box Address
City, State Zip Code

173

Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. LastName:

Opening paragraph:

State why you are writing;

how you learned of the organization or position,

basic information about yourself.

Second paragraph:

Say why you are interested in the employer or type of

work the employer does (Simply stating that you are interested does not specify why, and may sound like a
form letter).

Demonstrate that you know enough about the employer

or position to relate your background to it. Mention specific qualifications which make you a good fit for the
employers needs. (Focus on what you can do for the employer, not what the employer can do for you.)

This is an opportunity to explain in more detail relevant

items in your resume.

Refer to the fact that your resume is enclosed.

Mention other enclosures if such are required to apply

for a position.
Third paragraph:

Indicate that you would like the opportunity to interview

for a position or to talk with the employer to learn more
about their opportunities or hiring plans.

State what you will do to follow up, such as telephone

the employer within two weeks. Indicate when you coul
be in the employers location and could schedule a visit.

State that you would be glad to provide the employer

with any additional information needed.

Thank the employer for her/his consideration.

Sincerely,
(Your handwritten signature)

Your name typed

(In case of e-mail, your full contact info appears below your printed name, instead of
at the top, as for hard copy, and of course there is no handwritten signature)
Enclosure(s) (refers to resume, etc.)

174

Cover letters generally fall into one of two categories:

Letter of application: applying for a specific, advertised
opening.
Letter of inquiry: expressing interest in an organization,
but you are not certain if there are current openings.
The body of such letters includes the following paragraphs:
education & qualifications,
previous experience.
personal qualities,
suitability

THE LANGUAGE OF JOB APPLICATIONS

175

176

177

178

A formal letter of application is also written when applying for a place on an educational course. A job application
usually includes educational/professional qualifications, details of previous experience as well as the applicant's qualities
and skills. Previous experience should be presented in a clear
order using linking words such as: currently, before this, subsequently, prior to this, following, whereupon, etc.
To begin letters:
I am writing to apply for the post/position of ... advertised in
yesterdays...
I am writing in connection with/with regard to the vacancy in
your Sales Department, as advertised in The Times on (date)
Experience/Qualifications:
I am currently/At present I am employed/working as
I was employed as (position) by (company) from (date) to (date) ...
During this time, I held the position of .../was responsible
for .../my duties included...
I have received training in .../completed an apprenticeship
My qualifications include...
I am presently studying/attending a course
I am due to take my final examinations in June...

179

I have/hold/obtained/was awarded a degree/diploma/certificate in..

I have successfully/recently completed a course in (subject) at
(place).
To end letters:
I enclose/Please find enclosed my CV/references from ...
I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience/as soon
as possible.
I would be available for an interview at any lime/until the end
of June/etc.
I would be pleased/happy to supply you with any further
information / details...
Please contact me should you have any further questions.
Useful Language: Applying for a course
Opening remarks:
I am writing to apply for admission to
I would like to be considered for a place on the course in ...
Closing remarks:
I enclose further details of my education/qualifications to date.
Please find enclosed a copy of my degree/diploma/etc.
I hope that you will consider me for entry/admission to...
POINTS TO NOTE
The general type of job.
Exactly the job that is being advertised
What kind of applicant (age, experience) the employer is looking for, and whether it is a job you should apply for.
What the advertisement shows about the most important
aspects of the job.
To whom the letter should be addressed.
Whether a general letter, with or without a CV, is asked for,
or whether the letter should be to ask for an application form
(and if so, whether personal details should be included).
General points, such as where the job is, what the working
conditions are, what the salary is; and anything else referred
to in the advertisement.
What the advertisement says about the specific attributes
needed by a successful applicant for the job.

180

SAMPLE COVER LETTER VIA E-MAIL

Dear Mr. Adamson,
I am submitting an application for the editorial position you
advertised on SuperJobs on September 10.
I have spent the last year and a half working full-time as a
writer and editor for a publishing company that specializes in
educational content. During that time, I have logged many
hours doing everything related to the editorial process,
including copy editing, proofreading, content entry, and quality
assurance. I currently manage a team of over 40 freelance
writers who work on a variety of different subjects, and I
ensure that the quality of every submission meets our high
editorial standards. I am also very familiar with English
grammar and usage and I can adapt to various style guides.
What I like most about my current job is that it gives me the
opportunity to learn and be creative, and it it seems that this
position would do the same. I feel that I could be a valuable
asset to your team, and I bring all the skills that you require in
an editor.
I look forward to discussing my qualifications further and can
be reached by email at . or by phone at . .
Thank you for your time.
Best, (name)
SAMPLE COVER LETTER
FOR UNADVERTISED EMPLOYMENT
Date
Recipients Name
Company
Address

Senders Name
Address
Phone:
Email:

Dear Ms. Jenkins,

I am writing to inquire about possible openings at ABC
Company for a research assistant. I am interested in a senior
level position offering the opportunity for travel and advanced
research assignments.

181

As a professional administrative assistant with excellent research skills, I am eager to contribute my abilities and experience to ABC Company. Given my extensive training and
background, I believe I can help ABC Company meet its goal of
providing only the most accurate and timely information to its
clients.
Please find enclosed my CV and a list of my references. Feel
free to call me at (phone number), to arrange a time to meet.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely, (Name)
Enclosures
TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL COVER LETTERS
Mention the job you are applying for and where you
found the job listing.
The paragraphs where you discuss your qualifications
should be specifically tailored to requirements posted in
the job listing.
You might consider including why this specific company
interested you in the first place
Discuss the next steps. If you are going to follow up in
one to two weeks, mention a specific date. If you prefer
to wait for their decision, say that you look forward to
discussing your qualifications further.
Do not forget to thank them for their time.
The greeting you choose will depend on how much
information you have about the company. Make sure to
address the manager formally using their proper title
(Mr., Ms., Dr., etc.). If you do not know the name of the
hiring manager, consider addressing your letter "Dear
Hiring Manager," "Dear Recruiting Team," or "Dear
[insert company name] Team." As a last resort, address
the letter "To whom it may concern," though we
recommend avoiding this salutation, as it could come
across as a template letter.
Do not overwhelm the hiring manager or use up his/her
time. Try to answer the following questions:
Why am I a qualified candidate for this position?
182

What work experience do I have that fits the job

requirements in the company's listing?
Why do I want to work for this company?
In the final paragraph include the following:
One sentence reiteration of why you feel you are
a perfect fit for the position.
Discuss what to do next. If you plan on following
up with the hiring manager in a week or two,
include a specific date. Otherwise, just say that
you look forward to interviewing for the position
and discussing your qualifications further.
Provide your contact information. Include your email address and your phone number so that the
hiring manager can get in touch with you.
Mention that your CV or references are attached.
Thank the person for their time.
End your cover letter with a respectful closing
statement and type your full name.
Add a letterhead at the top of the letter. Your letterhead
should include your full name, address, telephone number, and email address. Guidelines to follow:
Your name must be in bold 14- or 16-point font.
Your address and other contact data must be in
normal 12-point font.
The font does not need to be Arial or Times New
Roman, like the rest of your letter, but it should
be professional looking and easy to read. Insert
up-to-date information to make it easy for the
employer to contact you.
You may want to include an extra line under
the letterhead to create visual appeal and separate the letterhead from the rest of the letter.
Write the recipients name and address and the
date below the letterhead. You can insert the
date first or last; include blank lines between
them, so as it looks professional.
From here on use 12-point Arial/Times New
Roman in the entire letter, set your margins to
one inch, and use single spacing. Be sure your
font is black, and print your letter on standardsized paper (8 1/2 by 11).

183

Do not overdo the style elements. Choose a font

that is simple but elegant.
Outline your qualifications in the middle paragraph(s), matching them to the requirements of
the position. If you are writing to inquire about
open positions, tell the employer how you can
contribute to their bottom line, not what you
want to get: use what you have researched on
the employer's background and history:
What is the employer's mission? What do they promote
as the thing that sets them apart from their competitors?
What kind of customer base does the employer have?
Who is their target audience?
What is the company's history? Who founded it? How
has the business evolved? What are the main highlights
of the company's performance over the past few years?
Include a positive statement or question in the
final paragraph that will motivate the employer
to contact you. Write a closing paragraph of 2-4
sentences. Direct the employer to your enclosed
CV and say that you are available for an interview. End by thanking recruiters for their time
and consideration, and welcome them to get in
touch with you to continue the conversation.
Spell-check and proofread. Some programs, like
Microsoft Word, also include a grammar check
that you should use. Proofread your letter yourself. Some things to avoid are:
Common misspellings.
Writing in the passive voice. Own your
accomplishments. Make yourself the
active subject of every success (e.g.,
"In this role, I developed/reinforced/
learnt"). You do not want to sound like
everything happened to you or that it
was done by some other entity.
Colloquial (informal) writing. You want
to sound professional and educated.
Avoid slang, unnecessary abbreviations, and phone texting language.
Incorrect punctuation.

184

Be precise about the type of job or position level

you seek: entry-level, management, senior level.
Mention skills you possess that are not enough
used in your current role. Specify opportunities
they offer that are absent in your current role.
Answering such questions will explain the interest in leaving your current position. For example, you may be looking for: room for advancement, opportunities to learn new skills, chances to prove your customer service professional
specialisation, an outstanding background in
scientific research, or a solid history of dependability in the industry.
Highlight the assets you can offer the company
"extensive experience with start-ups"
"demonstrated ability to solve problems"
"refined ability to manage teams"
Be concise. Never use two words when one will
do. Always strike the word "very" and eliminate
"that" as much as you can. Alternatively, if you
are applying speculatively you can start with
the salutation 'Dear Sirs,' and finish with
'Yours faithfully' rather than 'Sincerely'
Avoid generic, empty language ("I will bring a
depth of experience," or "I believe my qualifycations and experience suit the demands of the
position"). Be specific and concrete about what
you can bring to the position.
Make sure your cover letter is visually appealing and coordinated with your CV. A cohesive
package is a very attractive selling point.
A well-written cover letter entices the employer
to read your CV. Even so, you should still be
aware that your resume/CV is the main player,
whereas the cover letter plays a supporting role.
It is not an autobiography. Keep it under a page.
Learn to see rejection as a chance to improve
your approach as a candidate.

185

186

VOLUNTARY WORK
AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN JOB APPLICATIONS

In my voluntary work I am not paid for what I do, but my

decent basic expenses are covered. The work itself is not
remunerated, however the conditions for doing it are ensured:
accommodation, use of conference/classrooms, travel costs,
phone bills, (text)books or others.
History
One of the earliest manifestations of public voluntary
work that many British people know today is the ritualised
charitable visit to poor families such as you can read about in
Jane Austen novels - the heroines often take food and
medicines to the poor in their towns and villages.
But public voluntary work existed before that too, mainly
among religious orders. As is usual in history, the private
charitable acts of the uneducated and poor are unrecorded
before modern times - they existed below the "threshold of
historical description" and they have left little trace.
The very wealthy and aristocratic were concerned with
charity but less with charity work: they distributed money and
goods, providing largesse. For the nobility largesse was a way
of gaining a large number of clients - people who were indebted

187

to them and on whom they could rely when they needed to. For
the religious it was a way of getting into heaven.
Middleclass charity, which became prominent in the late
eighteenth century, imitated to some extent both the aristocratic and the religious models.
It was an aristocratic behaviour and hence carried some
of the aristocrat's status with it, and many varieties of Protestantism stressed the necessity for "good works" in order to be
sure of going to heaven. But it was also very different from
these earlier models.
Middle-class women played a very active part in charity
work. To be able to have the money to do charitable works was
a sign first of moral virtue in society - this came from the religious tradition of charity - and in many people's lives religion
was a major motivation. But "good works" were also a sign that
such women were from families that had the money to spare charity was a sign of family affluence and status in society.
In this symbolic sense one's charity to the poor was
directed not only "downwards" to the poor themselves but also
horizontally to one's social equals. To do good works was a sign
that you were in a position of financial excess.
But more than that, it was also a field in which women
could actively do something and gain status for it. Barred from
politics and direct engagement in business, the middle-class
woman in the late eighteenth century found power in organising charitable projects.
This kind of activity expanded enormously in the
nineteenth century - there are several such women in Dickens
(Mrs Jelleby in Bleak House is the best known example) and
one of the icons of the Victorian age is of course Florence
Nightingale.
In the nineteenth century middle-class men also sought
public prominence through voluntary work. Like their wives
and daughters, many of them were not able to become as
politically or socially powerful as they wished (contrary to what
is often written in history books, political power in Britain
remained in the hands of the aristocracy throughout the
nineteenth century).
Charity work provided an alternative route to status and
power, as well as providing the rewards of a good conscience,
and a means of meeting men of similar status who might prove

188

useful to them in their business. Because men were, according

to law, in change of the money for most of the nineteenth
century, they were able to set up large public organisations to
lobby government for changes in those laws which concerned
social issues like those that regulated when people could work
(married women could not do this as all their property became
their husband's on marriage).
Furthermore, unlike the small-scale and rural charity
work of the middle-class lady, men began to study and work in
the new and ever-growing urban environments of the Industrial revolution. Only later did women actively participate in
the large organisations concerned with urban and political
philanthropy. Because men were able to travel with far greater
freedom they were able to do ethnographic work.
Society - and above all urban society - began to be
divided by these volunteer gentleman researchers into social
groups that were different from previous social hierarchies. We
have already mentioned how the concept of "class" arose at
this time, but there were also much more elaborate divisions
based on the new idea of practical sociological research.
Because these models of society were so complex, they didn't
become so popular, but they did give the men who thought of
them a great deal of intellectual status amongst the same
social group as themselves.
Information for this very brief account comes from a large variety of sources,
among them the classics F. Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England, Clarendon Press 1980; M. Vicinus, Independent
Women, Virago, 1985; Leonore Davidoff & Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes:
Men and Women of the English Middle Class, Routledge, 1987. See Crossing
Cultures, p. 76.

SAMPLE INTEREST LETTER FOR VOLUNTEERING

Dear Ms. Olson,
While visiting the City Hall, I saw the flyer posted by the
Anchorage Public Library. I feel it is very important to support
institutions of culture and learning, and I am interested in the
Circulation Volunteer position. If there is no current need for
volunteers in this position, I would be willing to donate my
time in another needed capacity.
189

I take great pride in our library and think it is the duty of every
citizen to support it. I already have experience with library
shelving and the Dewey Decimal System from my years
volunteering at the Abbott Loop Elementary School Library
when my children attended there. Having been a Blood Drive
Volunteer with the American Red Cross since 1998, I am also
organized and good at working with the general public.
Please let me know what I can do to help. I can be reached by
phone at (907) 555-8888 or by email at kjonhson@email.com. I
am excited to do my share in helping such a crucial part of our
community.
Thank you for your time and all you do for our library. I look
forward to talking to you.
Best,
(name)

190

PART 5

Business writing in general

Paragraph writing
Formal and informal
Modals
Letter of inquiry
E-mails
Letter of application
Accepting a job offer
Declining a job offer
Accepting another job offer
Withdrawing from job search
Rejection letter
Reference letter
Critical letter to coworker
Memorandum
Marketing business plan
Frequent business abbreviations

191

192

BUSINESS WRITING
OUTLINE AND BASIC CLUES
PARAGRAPH WRITING
Present each point in a separate paragraph.
A well-developed paragraph contains a clear topic sentence, which summarises the contents of the paragraph, as
well as a clear justification, explanation or example in support
of the point presented.
Before you begin writing, you should always make a list
of the points you will present.
Use appropriate connectors to show the links between
paragraphs, as well as to link sentences within paragraphs.
ADMINISTRATIVE WRITING
formal, impersonal style
topic sentences introduce the subject of each paragraph
convincing, clear and well-developed paragraphs, giving
reasons and examples
use generalisations
implement sequencing and text markers
make reference to other sources
use statistics and quotations, either word-for-word or in
paraphrase, being careful to identify the source
193

passive voice, impersonal constructions

a range of advanced vocabulary (
complex sentences with a variety of dependent clauses
inversion, especially in conditionals

AVOID:

short forms, informal/colloquial language

very emotional language

strong personal opinions; instead, use milder expressions

over-generalisation

to refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to

their source

clichs

personal examples

short forms except when these are part of a quotation

colloquial expressions, phrasal verbs, idioms

simplistic vocabulary

a series of short sentences

simplistic text markers

IMPLEMENT A WIDE RANGE

OF MODAL VERBS AND THEIR SYNONYMS

POSSIBILITY
can / could
may / might
there is the possibility
there are chances for sth to happen
there is some hope for / of ...
all conditions are set / prepared / ready for. ..

CERTAINTY
must
to be sure / certain / positive (adjectives)
certainly /obviously / surely / clearly / undoubtedly (adv)
to be bound to do sth

IMPOSSIBILITY
She cannot be home now.
It is impossible for her to be home now.

194

 It is definitely impossible that she should be home now.

( impossible = beyond limits/belief= out of the question)
It is highly improbable that it should happen.
That is hardly possible.

CAPABILITY
can / could
to be able to do sth
to manage to do sth
to be capable of doing sth
to succeed in doing sth
to have the capability
possess ability
demonstrate skill
show aptitude
prove capacity, capability, strength to do sth / of doing sth

PERMISSION
may / might
can / could
to be allowed / permitted to do sth
to have the permission to do sth / of doing sth
Would you mind my opening the door? (+possessive)

WISH
to want
to wish
to dream of ...
to fancy (I fancy an icecream.)
would like to ...
would rather / sooner
to feel like ...

PREFERENCE
to like (I like this dress better/more than the other one.)
to choose (I choose this over that.)
to select
would rather / sooner
to prefer

195

INTENTIONS
to intend
to plan
to mean (I did not mean to hurt you.)
Tom will come tomorrow. (Future)
Tom comes tomorrow. (Present Simple, schedule)
He is coming tomorrow. (Present Continuous, individual plan)
To be going to do sth: I am going to help you.
Will (spontaneous decision):
I will buy this book no matter the price.
ORDER
Imperative
Subjunctive: The general ordered that the soldiers should
continue to fight.
to be to (Future): The boss says that Tom is to work more.
Must
Passive Voice: He was made to leave the room.
forced
be forced/obliged/compelled/required/requested/ expected/
supposed to do sth
Shall: New students shall report to the Admissions Officer as
soon as possible.

REQUEST
Subjunctive: I request that all students should learn more.
Question tag: Help me, will you?
Please (in the middle of the sentence or at the end)
Will / Would you help me, please?
Would you be so kind as to help me, please?
Would you mind doing that for me, please?
Could you do that for me, please?
Would it bother you ...

ADVICE (advice = noun, to advise = verb)

Should
Ought to
Had better: You had better learn more.
To be bound to do sth
To advise + Subjunctive / Infinitive
To recommend + Subjunctive / Infinitive

196

 To suggest + Subjunctive: I suggest that you should watch

this documentary. I suggest to you to watch this documentary.
INVITATION
Help yourself to some sandwiches.
Will
Would
To ask
To invite
Question tag: Come in, will you?
Emphatic Do: Do sit down! (I insist that you should sit down!)
Do me the favour of joining my party!
honour
pleasure
Bear with me!
Indulge me!
Humour me

LACK OF OBLIGATION
You do not have to do it.
You needn't do it.

FREQUENT VERBS
USED IN BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to

apologize
appreciate
arrange
ask (if)
assist
clarify
complain
confirm
contact

to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to

197

enquire
follow up
inform
postpone
receive
regret
reply
send
update

198

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

The style of the letter varies depending on who it is

addressed to. Aletter to someone you do not know requires a
formal style, a letter to someone you know but are not intimate
with requires a semi-formal style, while a letter to a friend
requires an informal style.
Formal letters contain:
formal greetings and endings; .
formal language
complex sentences
non-colloquial English
frequent use of the passive
advanced vocabulary
no abbreviated forms.
Informal letters contain:
informal greetings and endings;
informal language and style
idioms and phrasal verbs
colloquial English
omission of pronouns
abbreviated forms.

199

Semi-formal letters contain:

formal greetings
informal endings
a respectful tone, depending on the relationship with the
recipient of the letter.
pronouns should not be omitted
idioms should be carefully used.
Complete the table of informal expressions and their formal equivalents. Use the words regret, require, obtain, request,
further, consider, enquire, opportunity.
Informal or conversational
I'm sorry I couldn't take your
call.
I'd like to ask about ...
I'm calling to ask for a copy of
...
We need more background
information on ...
She'll get back to you as soon
as she can.
I hope you'll think about our
offer.
Let us know how you want to
proceed.
I'll try to arrange a meeting
for next week.
It may be difficult to get
permission from ...

Formal written
I apologise for not being able
to take your call.
I
would
like
to
1
..about ...
I am writing to 2 a
copy of ...
We 3more background
information on ...
She will respond / reply as
soon as possible.
I hope you will 4 .. our
offer.
Let us know how you wish
to proceed.
I will attempt to arrange a
meeting for next week.
It may be difficult to 5
permission from...

We're looking forward to

working with you on ...
I'm afraid I haven't been able
to ...
The attachment appears to be
missing.
I hope we will have an 7.. to .
Has there been any
8
progress on ...?

We are looking forward to

co-operating with you on.
I 6 that I have not
been able to ...
The attachment seems to be
missing.
I hope we'll have a chance to
Has there been any more
progress on ...?

200

Make this e-mail to Johann Wetz more informal.

Change the words and phrases in italics.
Dear Mr. Wetz,
I would like to apologise for the delay in responding to you. I
have been very busy and I regret that. I have not yet had an
opportunity to look properly at the figures you sent me. However, my boss here, Birgit Schultz, has seen them and has requested more background information. She says that she requires this information in order to prepare her report to the
board. If you wish to discuss this further, please call me.
Yours sincerely
Sylvia
Signposts are phrases that guide the listener during a
presentation. They let the listener know what has happened
so far, and what is going to happen next. Below is a guide for
using signposts during a presentation. The first column
contains signposts for a formal presentation, and the second
column contains signposts for an informal presentation.
Signposts for the Introduction of a Presentation

Introducing
yourself:

Introducing
the topic:

FORMAL
Good
morning/afternoon/evening.
On behalf of (company,
department, etc.), Id like to
welcome you.
My name is (name) and I am
(position).

Im going to give you an

overview of...
The focus of todays
presentation is.

201

INFORMAL
Hi everyone,
Im (name and
title). Thanks for
coming.
Im going to
talk to you
about
Im going to be
talking a little
bit about
Im here today
to talk to you
about

FORMAL

INFORMAL
Im going to
talk about three
The presentation today is
things today. Ill
Outlining
divided into three parts. First, start with
your
Ill Following that Ill...
Then Ill talk a
presentation:
Finally, Ill
little bit
about . Ill
finish with.
If you have any
Please do not hesitate to
questions during
Inviting
interrupt me if you have any
the
questions:
questions.
presentation,
please ask.
Signposts for the Middle of a Presentation
FORMAL

INFORMAL

Introducing the
first section of Id like to
your
start/begin by.
presentation:
Finishing a
section and
starting a new
one:

Expanding or
elaborating:

Talking about
earlier or later
points in your
presentation:

Well, weve looked

at... Now, Id like to
discuss
Having
discussed Id like
to move on to.
Id like to expand
more on
Id like to elaborate
a little
Lets consider this
is more detail.
later:
I will elaborate on
this later in the
presentation.

202

Lets start/begin by
looking at
Well, Ive told you
about. Now Ill move on
to
Well, weve looked at.
Now, lets talk about.
So, that was.Now,
lets
Let me tell you a little
more about
Let me give you some
more
details/information.
later:
More on this later.
Im going to talk more
about this later.

Recognizing
your listeners'
prior
knowledge:

Focusing
audience's
attention on
visuals:

FORMAL
INFORMAL
Ill provide you
earlier:
with a more detailed Do you remember I
explanation later in said..?
the presentation.
As I said earlier.
earlier:
To repeat what I
said earlier
As I mentioned
earlier.
You might already know
As you may be
that
aware of
Im sure a lot of you
As you may
know that
know
Im sure a lot of you
I know many of
know about
you are familiar
Im sure a lot of you
with.
have heard.
May I focus your
attention on the. Take a look at this
You will notice
slide/chart/graphic etc.
that..
You can see that.
Please direct your Okay, here we can see
attention to the
that
slide/chart/etc.

Signposts for the Conclusion of a Presentation

FORMAL

INFORMAL
Lets summarize/recap
what we looked at
Finally, lets
Summarizing
today.
summarize some of the
and
Finally, lets look back
main points..
concluding the
at what we covered
To conclude, Id like
presentation:
today.
to summarize.
So, to remind you of
what we looked at
Inviting final Does anyone have
Does anyone have any
questions:
any questions or
final questions?

203

FORMAL
comments before we
conclude today?
If youd like me to
elaborate or clarify
anything we covered
today, please ask.
a question you do not
have the answer to:
I want to answer your
question completely,
but I do not have all
the information with
me right now. Could
you give me your email
after the presentation
Responding to so I can send you a
tough
complete response?
questions:
a question you didnt
understand:
Could you repeat
that, please?
Could you rephrase
that, please?
Let me make sure I
understand you
completely. Do you
mean that?
If there are no further
questions, Id like to
thank you very much
Finishing and
for your attention. If
saying
you think of any
goodbye:
additional questions,
please feel free to
contact me.

204

INFORMAL
Okay, does anyone
have any questions or
comments?

a question you dont

have the answer to:
I dont have that
information with me.
Can you give me your
email and Ill send you
an answer later today?
a question you didnt
understand:
Could/Can you repeat
that, please?
I didnt catch that.
Can you repeat it?
Are you saying
that.?

Well, I think thats

about it. Thanks for
listening. Please
contact me later if you
have any additional
questions or want more
information.

Use this table to see the aspects to avoid in formal documents.

Avoid
The ampersand symbol: &
Yeah
Slang words and
colloquialisms, such as cool
Contractions,
cant, dont, wont.
Personal pronouns: You
should sleep eight hours each
night; I think Professor James
is correct.
Starting a sentence with
coordinating conjunctions
(and, so, but, or)
Clichs or overused phrases
(as pretty as a picture )
Starting a letter or document
by giving commands or telling
what the paper will discuss
(This paper is going to talk
about global warming.)
Vague words, such as a few,
enough, or a little
Anybody
Because
Big
Fellow
For sure
Get
Got
Introduce
Kind of/sort of
Let
Maam
Most
On the other hand
So

Replace with
The word and
Yes
More formal language
The full forms:
cannot, do not, will not
Impersonal pronouns: One
should sleep eight hours each
night; Professor James is
correct.
Text markers such as
additionally,therefore,
alternatively, and nevertheless
Literal descriptions
An intro to your topic: Global
warming can now be described
as a 21st century problem.
More specific descriptions.
Anyone
As
Large or great
Person
With certainty
Receive; understand
Have
Present
Type of
Allow, permit
Madam
Almost
Conversely, by contrast
Because, very

205

SAMPLE MODIFIED COLLOQUIAL INTO FORMAL

Formal and informal English differ in word choice, word
usage, and grammatical structures. Informal writing may
sound more like conversation while formal writing is more
polished. An informal style could make listeners feel more
comfortable when you are speaking, but a formal writing style
can make a good impression.
Colloquial:
If youre not sure where the future is headed for us, then youre not alone,
experts in fields ranging from technology to the environment offer a million
different predictions as to what the future has in store for us. Some predict
warfare and social collapse, but others say well all thrive and prosper.
Whatevers going on, I think our world is rapidly changing from the world
our ancestors knew; the future is totally going to be a different place.

Formal:
Humans have tried to predict the future for as far back
as history shows, and the only thing that has changed about
this practice is the methods we use to make these predictions.
Experts in fields ranging from technology to environmental
science simultaneously offer predictions of warfare and social
collapse with predictions of peace and prosperity. Regardless of
these forecasts, the world is rapidly changing from the one our
ancestors knew, hurdling us into a future that is increasingly
difficult to imagine.
Informal letter
John, Im looking for a job, and Ive heard through the grapevine that you
need a workhorse for your shop. Well, Im the man of the hour, as Ive got a
lot to offer. Im pretty hard-working, and Im really good about being on
time. Im also used to working by myself. Anyway, tell me whether you want
to get together for an interview, okay? -Informal Joe

Formal, professional letter

Dear John,
I understand that you are looking for a strong worker to assist
you in your shop. I would appreciate consideration because I
am diligent, punctual, and accustomed to working with minimal supervision. Please contact me if you are interested in
arranging an interview. I thank you for your time.
Respectfully, Professional Joe

206

TIPS FOR FORMAL BUSINESS WRITING

Avoid common colloquial words and expressions such
as cute (use adorable), yeah, and movie (use film).
This includes slang such as cool. Two good phrases to
delete are you know and think about it. The adverb
pretty, meaning relatively/fairly/quite, is unacceptable in all formal writing and is often unnecessary.
Avoid the first and second person. Formal writing tries
to be objective, and the pronouns I and you tend to
imply subjectivity. Phrases such as I think that can be
deleted from a sentence when it is obvious that this is
the authors opinion. Using the pronoun I is almost
always acceptable in personal writing, and the pronoun
you is always acceptable in letters and how-tos. In the
most formal writing, the pronoun I is replaced by the
pronoun we; it is known as the royal we or the
editorial we. Formal writing avoids the pronoun you
when it refers to people in general.
You should sleep eight hours each night.
(informal)
One should sleep eight hours each night.
(formal)
Most people should sleep at least eight
hours each night. (formal usage allowing for
exceptions)
Never start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction.
In the written language, do not use coordinating conjunctions (and, but, so, or) to start a sentence. Coordinating conjunctions are meant to join words, phrases,
and clauses; they have no role to play at the beginning
of a sentence. Consider attaching the sentence that
starts with a coordinating conjunction to the previous
sentence, substituting the period for a comma to produce a compound sentence. You can also use
additionally (or moreover), nevertheless (or however),
therefore (or thus), and alternatively (or instead or
otherwise). Though can be used at the end of a
sentence, changing the meaning. Starting a sentence
with also is useful in casual writing but should be
avoided in formal English unless the word also is
modifying a verb (usually in the imperative mood or an

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inverted sentence structure): "Also read Chapters Two

and Three;"
A paragraph that starts many sentences with coordinating conjunctions lacks smooth transitions.
Avoid clichs to be formal. Formal writing tries to use
literal language that will not be misunderstood by any
of the readers. Clichs can make your writing unoriginal, but they can sometimes be fun in casual writing,
especially as an original play-on-words.
Avoid stage directions. Do not begin a letter by telling
the recipient what you plan to do in the letter.
Avoid vague words. Vague words are less formal and
are open to interpretation; they do not express your
ideas as well as more precise words would. A few or
enough can be replaced by something more precise.
Split infinitives are common in legal writing, an important type of formal English. Split infinitives are used in
very formal writing that avoids the active voice. Infinitives, and gerunds, contribute to an active writing style
and show action but are not in the active voice.
Always include the relative pronoun. In formal English,
be sure to always include whom or which. Avoid
using 'that' as a relative pronoun and replace it with
'which', 'whom' or 'who'.
Develop short sentences into longer, graceful ones. Formal writing generally uses longer sentences which add
variety to your writing and can be particularly effective
when paired with short ones; the contrast focuses the
readers' attention. You can use a semicolon to join two
simple sentences, if they are related to each other.
Elevated vocabulary enhances the formality of your
writing, but be sure that you use them correctly and
appropriately.
Perfectly formal writing may be needed in some situations but ineffective in others. Formal writing that avoids the
active voice may bore your audience if it does not focus on
people's actions, and teachers have both positive and negative
opinions of the passive voice. Make sure that your writing is
appropriate for your audience.

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USEFUL LANGUAGE FOR BUSINESS E-MAILS

When you do not know the hame:

Dear Sir or Madam
To whom it may concern
When you know the name:
Dear Mr, Mrs, Ms.
Dear John
Hello Pat
Hi Mary
Hey John
Mira
When writing to a group:
Dear all
Hi everyone
Enquiring about something_
I am interested in receiving/finding out ...
I would like to receive
We would be grateful if...
Could/Can you please send me ... ?
Please send me ...
Would you be able to (help) ?
Can you help?
I'd appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience
Please answer asap.

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Could I ask you to send me ... ?

This is to ask if you could
I'd like to enquire about
Can you let me know the price of ... ?
Replying to an email:
Thanks (very much) for your e-mail
This is to say thanks for your e-mail
Sating purpose:
I am writing to clarify the terms of the agreement.
I just wanted to follow up on the payment of that
invoice.
This is to let you know that we ...
FYI: This is to inform you that .../
inform you of a problem ...
I'm just writing to
Just a (quick) note to
Just a short e-mail to ... clarify ...
confirm...
inform you ...
follow up on
let you know ...
reply to ...
request
tell you
thank you
update you
Sending attached documents:
I'm sending you/attaching ...
I've attached ...
Please find attached ...
I'm sending you the price list/document
as an attachment.
We send you the document as an attachment.
When things go wrong:
I'm afraid you forgot to attach the file/ ...
Im afraid I cannot open the file/document.
Can/Could you send it again in ... format, please?
Replying to an enquiry:
Thank you for your interest.
I'm pleased to send you ...
I'm sending you ... (in an attachment)

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Please find the requested information attached.

We hope you find this satisfactory.
We hope you are happy/satisfied with this.
Thanks for choosing ...
I am writing to reply to your enquiry about ...
I'm writing to let you know ...
When there will be a delay:
Your request is being processed.
We are working on your request.
Giving information:
We've just received the invoice ...
I'd like to inform you of ...
Just a few comments about your last mail:
I'm writing to tell you about/let you know ...
Just a note to say ...
Here's the low-down on ...
Just to update you on ...
FYI: This is to let you know ...
Hope this helps.
Let me/us know if you need anything else.
Checking on delayed work:
We would appreciate a reply
I would appreciate it if you could send me ...
Have you ... yet?
Can you send ... to me by Friday, please?
I need those figures before tomorrow's meeting.
I need ... by Thursday.
Pleease get/keep in touch.
Keep me posted.
Making arrangements:
Thanks for your email confirming flight details...
In reply to your email, here are ...
Re your e-mail, I ...
You'll find the info(rmation) attached.
I'll get back to you asap ...
Ill follow up the points mentioned in your email ...
Just a quick note to arrange a time to meet.
I'm writing to set up/arrange ...
How/What about Tuesday?
Is ... OK?
Where should we meet?

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I am writing to arrange a meeting

I would like to confirm booking the conference
room for our next meeting.
Should I pick you up at/from ... ?
Could you collect me at ... ?
I'd like to confirm
Just writing to confirm ...
Tuesday is good for me.
Please send me confirmation for this ...
Looking forward to seeing/meeting ....
Changing arrangements:
I'm sorry but I can't do/make Thursday.
This is to let you now that I've had to put
off/postpone ...
I'm writing to call off/cancel ...
I'm afraid I can't make/manage Friday.
How about ... instead?
I'm afraid we've had to postpone the conference.
Sorry, but we are going to have to put off the
meeting till next week.
Giving good news:
I am/We are pleased to inform you ...
I'm happy to tell you ...
You'll be happy/delighted to hear that ...
Giving bad news:
We regret to tell/inform you .,.
I'm sorry, but ...
I am afraid that
Unfortunately,
Complaining:
I'm writing to complain (about ...).
We're not happy with ...
I was disappointed to find/hear
I'm afraid that
Unfortunately,
I'm afraid I must complain about ...
Apologising for a delay in answering:
I do apologize for the delay in replying.
Sorry for the delay in getting back to you.
Sorry this is so late.

212

Apologising for not being able to help:

Sorry, I do not know.
I'm afraid I cannot help you.
Apologising for something more serious:
We must apologize for
We deeply regret ...
My sincere apologies (close)
We apologize for any inconvenience caused.
I'd like to apologize for any inconvenience caused.
Please accept our apologies.
I'm so sorry ...
When you are waiting for a reply:
I look forward/Looking forward to hearing from
you/to your reply.
Hope to hear from you soon
I'd appreciate a reply asap.
Offering more help:
Do not hesitate to contact us if you need any
assistance.
Feel free to get in touch if you have any other
questions/ if you need more help
If I can assist with any questions
Let me know if you need anything else/if I can help
you further.
Please let us know if we can assist you in any way.
General closing:
Thanks for your help/cooperation.
Hope all is well with you.
Have a nice day/weekend! :-)
Yours sincerely
Kind/Best regards
Regards
Best wishes
All the best
Best
See you (soon)
Take care
Bye (for now)
[just the name or initials]

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An informal letter or e-mail can sound like spoken English.

Beginning the letter
It was lovely to hear from you.
I was pleased to hear that ...
Thank you for your letter. I was sorry to hear that ...
I'm sorry I haven't written before, but ...
This is just a note to say ...
Giving general news
I'm having a lovely time in ...
I've been very busy recently.
Last week I and next week I'm going to .
Ending the letter
I'm looking forward to seeing you /to hearing from you ...
('I'm looking' is informal; 'I look' is formal)
Give my regards to your mother.
Write to me soon.
I hope to hear from you soon.
Write and tell me when you ... / where you ...
There are several ways of ending an informal letter:
With love, /Best wishes, /Regards,
There are contractions in an informal letter:
I' d/ I'm/ He's/ She's/We've/Ill, etc.
Written It is with regret .
Spoken We are sorry .
Written we now give you formal notice ...
Spoken we have to tell you ...
How you address someone depends on your relationship to
them. Write the correct endings for the e-mail greetings. Use
these words: best, sincerely, wishes, faithfully, regards.
1 Dear Sir / Madam,
Yours ..
2 Dear John,
Kind.
3 Hello / Hi John
All the
4 Dear Ms Smith,
Yours
5 John,
Best .

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TYPES OF LETTERS

FOLLOW-UP LETTER
TO INFORMATION SEEKING MEETING
Dear Mr. (name),
Thank you for taking time from your busy schedule to meet me
on Tuesday. It was very helpful for me to learn so much about
the current projects of Delon Hampton & Associates and the
career paths of several of your staff. I appreciate your reviewing
my portfolio and encouraging my career plans. I also enjoyed
meeting Beth Ormond, and am glad to have her suggestions on
how I can make the most productive use of my last semester
prior to graduation.
Based on what I learned from my visit to your firm and other
research I have done, I am very interested in being considered
for employment with DHA in the future. I will be available to
begin work after I graduate in May 20ZY. As you saw from my
portfolio, I have developed strong skills in the area of historical
documentation and this is a good match for the types of
projects in which your firm specializes. I have enclosed a copy

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of my resume to serve as a reminder of my background, some

of which I discussed with you when we met.
During the next few months I will stay in contact with you in
the hope that there may be an opportunity to join your firm.
Thank you again for your generous help.
Sincerely,
(name)
THANK YOU LETTER FOR INITIAL INTERVIEW
Dear Human Resources Manager
Thank you for your time and the privilege of having an interview with you yesterday, October 25, during your recruiting
visit to our university. The management trainee program you
outlined sounds both challenging and rewarding and I look
forward to your decision concerning an on-site visit.
As mentioned during the interview, I will be graduating in
December with a B.S. in Fashion Merchandising. Through my
education and experience I have gained many skills, as well as
an understanding of retailing concepts and dealing with the
general public. I have worked seven years in the retail industry
in various positions from sales associate to assistant department manager. I think my education and work experience
would complement the management trainee program.
I have enclosed a copy of my college transcript and a list of
references that you requested.
Thank you again for the opportunity to be considered by
Fashion Department Store. The interview served to reinforce
my strong interest in becoming a part of your management
team. I can be reached at (phone number) or at (e-mail),should
you need additional information.
Sincerely, (name)
Enclosures

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Accepting a job offer ethically obligates you to:

Keep your word.
Cease job search efforts.
Promptly notify other employers who have communicated to
you that you are under consideration that you must withdraw your name from their consideration.
First means of notice: a courteous phone call. Make every effort to speak to your contact in person rather than leaving a
voice mail message for this purpose.
Failing to notify employers that you are withdrawing from the
job search is discourteous, and potentially dishonest.
ACCEPTANCE OF A JOB OFFER
Dear Mr. Johnson:
Thank you for your offer of employment as a horticultural
associate at your Fruitville, Florida, site. As we discussed on
the phone this morning, I am delighted to accept your offer and
look forward to beginning work with Summers Fruit Company.
You indicated that I will be receiving a salary of $__ per year,
and will have initial duties reporting to Andrea Caruso. As
your offer stated, I will begin work on August 1st. In mid-July,
after relocating to the area, I will call you to see what information or materials I may need before August 1st. In the
meantime, please let me know if I can provide any other data.
Again, thank you for offering me this exciting opportunity. I am
enthusiastic about beginning my career with you after graduation.
Sincerely,
(your signature)
John Brownn

217

WITHDRAWING FROM JOB SEARCH

AFTER ACCEPTING ANOTHER JOB OFFER
Dear Ms. Clark:
I want to express my sincerest appreciation to you for including me in the interview process as you seek candidates for your
magazines editorial assistant position. I have enjoyed meeting
with the members of your staff and know you have an outstanding operation.
As I explained when we spoke this morning, I respectfully withdraw from consideration for your position. I have decided to
accept another employment offer which I believe very closely
matches my current skills and career goals.
My best wishes to you and the staff of Green Magazine. I hope
we will have the chance to visit at the upcoming Magazine
Writers Conference. Thank you again for the opportunity to
explore career possibilities with your office and the courtesies
extended to me by so many of your staff.
Sincerely,
(your signature)
Jane Collins
If you choose to decline a job offer, do so courteously, in
writing, after making a phone call. Never say anything negative
in writing about the employer, even if you had a negative
experience.
A decision to decline an offer is usually based on the fact
that another offer is a better fit for your interests and goals. It
is fine to state this, without giving details about why the
declined offer is not a fit. It is not necessary to state whose
offer you accepted, but you may do so if you wish.
Remember that this employer may be a contact for you
in the future. Maintain the relationship with professional,
courteous interactions.

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DECLINING A JOB OFFER

Dear Dr. Jones
Thank you very much for your telephone call and letter offering
me the position of Project Coordinator in your company.
While I believe firmly in the mission of your organization and
appreciate the challenging opportunity you offer, I have had
another offer which I believe more closely aligns with my
current career goals and interests.
Therefore, although it was a difficult decision, as I explained
when we spoke on the phone today, I must decline your offer.
I do appreciate all the courtesy and hospitality extended to me
by your office, and I wish you the best in your endeavours.
In the position I have accepted with Public Policy Watch, I will
occasionally be on Capitol Hill to attend hearings and monitor
legislation, so I hope we can get together again and talk about
common interests.
Best regards,
(signature)
Chris Thompson
CRITICAL LETTER TO COWORKER
Dear Mr. Williams,
I am writing to discuss your exchange of comments with Ms.
Payton in the break room yesterday.
As my desk is near the break room, I overheard Ms. Payton
express her disappointment at not having received a promotion
last month. I then clearly heard you state in response, Well,
maybe you need to be tougher. I know its hard; women arent
exactly aggressive people.
While I assume that you were trying to give Ms. Payton some
advice on the matter and had the best intentions, this sort of

219

comment is completely inappropriate, not only in the workplace, but also in police society.
Denying a promotion purely based on that persons gender
violates anti-discrimination laws. Also, making that sort of
generalization about an entire group of people is very hurtful.
While Ms. Payton filed no official complaint, this kind of talk
needs to be discouraged in all facets of life. A more appropriate
comment may have been People who get promotions in this
office tend to be very aggressive and ask for the promotion
directly. Maybe you should try that.
It is my expectation that you will be more conscious of the
implications of such statements and avoid them in the future
at all costs. Knowing your character, I do not believe you
meant any harm. It was simply carelessness in an isolated
incident.
Sincerely,
Jim Jones
CANDIDATE REJECTION LETTER
Dear Mr. Watson,
Thank you for your interest in our company.
We appreciate the opportunity to consider you for a position on
our team. We have reviewed your background and experience
and have decided to proceed with other candidates who meet
our needs more closely at this time. We appreciate you taking
the time to submit an application and come to meet our team.
This was an extremely competitive process, and we received
hundreds of applications. This was definitely a tough decision
for us, as you were a solid candidate.
We wish you the best in your future endeavours! /We wish you
the best of luck in your job search and thank you for your
continued interest in our company.
Thanks again,
Gabrielle Duncan
Human Resources Manager

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PROFESSIONAL INTEREST LETTER

Dear Ms. Smith,
I am a passionate graphic designer and wish to inquire about
openings in the art department at Goldwood Media. I read
about your company in the feature article published by Design
Weekly, and I was impressed by your unique development
process and successful mass marketing campaigns. I am
interested in pursuing a career in graphic design, and I would
like to learn more about opportunities at your company.
I graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a
Master of Fine Arts degree in Graphic Design. During my
studies, I completed an internship in the design department of
Tangential Productions. Since then, I have gained experience
working on the production of Leisure magazine.
At your earliest convenience, please let me know when we can
speak further. I would like to meet you for an interview to
discuss the details about openings at Goldwood as well as my
qualifications. I can be reached by phone at or email at .
Thank you for your time and I look forward to hearing from
you.
Sincerely,
Thomas Anderson
RE: RECOMMENDATION FOR SHARON WESTMAN
Dear Hiring Manager:
I was initially impressed with Sharon Westman's enthusiasm,
communication skills and professional demeanour when I
hired her four years ago as a customer service rep within JRW
Inc. call centre. During the two years Sharon reported to me (I
have since moved on to a different department), she consistently demonstrated all of these qualities and more, and I
heartily endorse her for any customer service position.
Sharon is reliable and dedicated. Her ability to calm frustrated
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customers is unparalleled, and it is because of her excellence

in this area that I repeatedly asked her to mentor new employees in the call centre. Sharon multitasks effectively and is
able to handle a high-volume workload. She consistently met
or surpassed all weekly call centre metrics (including customer
satisfaction, call volume and response time), and her daily
written reports were accurate and thorough.
Of particular value to me as a former call centre manager was
Sharon's team player mind-set, enthusiastic embrace of
change, ability to work with minimal supervision and her commitment to exceeding customer expectations. I often received
unsolicited praise from customers commending Sharon's outstanding level of service and professionalism.
Organized and diligent, Sharon quickly learned technology
systems and software that were unfamiliar to her when she
first started with JRW, and she also attended optional professional-development seminars offered by the company.
Sharon is a hardworking, top-performing customer service
professional. She has my highest recommendation, and I am
happy to provide additional details should you need more
information.
Sincerely,
Carla Petersen
Field Service Manager
JRW Inc. (555) 555-5555

(former

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Call

Centre

Manager)

MEMORANDUM
A memorandum (abbreviated memo) comes from the
Latin verbal phrase memorandum est, meaning "to mention,
call to mind, recount, relate". It is therefore a note, document
or other communication that helps the memory by recording
events or observations on a topic, such as may be used in a
business office. The plural form is properly memoranda, but
the plural memorandums, abbreviated to memos, may be used.
A memorandum can have a certain number of formats; it
may have a format specific to an office or institution. In law
specifically, a memorandum is a record of the terms of a
transaction or contract, such as a policy memo, memorandum
of understanding, memorandum of agreement, or memorandum of association. Alternative formats include memos, briefing notes, reports, or letters. They could be one page long.
In business, a memo is typically used by firms for internal communication, as opposed to letters which are for external communication.
Dean Acheson famously noticed that "A memorandum is
not written to inform the reader but to protect the writer".
Charles Peters wrote that "bureaucrats write memoranda both
because they appear to be busy when they are writing and
because the memos, once written, immediately prove that they
were busy."

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Memos are useful in situations where e-mails or text

messages are not suitable. For example, if you are sending an
object, such as a book or a paper that needs to be signed, via
internal office mail, you can use a memo as a covering note to
explain what the receiver should do. A memo is:
a hard-copy document (sent on paper)
used for communicating inside an organization
usually short
sections: To, From, Date, Subject Headings, and Message
does not need to be signed, but sometimes has the sender's
name at the bottom to be more friendly, or the sender's full
name to be more formal. If in doubt, follow your company style.
Memos should have the following sections and content:
1. A 'To' section containing the name of the receiver. For
informal memos, the receiver's given name; e.g. 'To: Andy' is
enough. For more formal memos, use the receiver's full name.
If the receiver is in another department, use the full name and
the department name.
2. A 'From' section containing the name of the sender. For
more formal memos, use the sender's full name. If the receiver
is in another department, use the full name and the
department name.
3. A 'Date' section. To avoid confusion between the British and
American date systems, write the month as a word or an
abbreviation; e.g. 'January' or 'Jan'.
4. A Subject Heading.
5. The message. Unless the memo is a brief note, a wellorganised memo message should contain the following sections:
a. Situation - an Introduction or the purpose of the memo
b. Problem (optional) - for example: "Since the move to the new
office, staff members have difficulty in finding .
c. Solution (optional)
d. Action - this may be the same as the solution, or be the part
of the solution that the receiver needs to carry out;
e. Politeness - to avoid the receiver refusing to take the action
you want, it is important to end with a polite expression; e.g.
"Once again, thank you for your support
6. Signature. This is optional.

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MEMO FORMATS
1. MEMO FOR REMEDIAL MEASURES
To: Staff category
From: Name and position
Subject: Main idea, title
Date:
Context and dificulty
Measures to implement
Ensuring employees benevolence
to implement the above mentioned measures
Contact person
in case of complaints or unexpected problems.
Name and position
2. MEMO FOR DECISIONS
Registration number
Subject: The subject should not exceed two lines,
and the bottom line should be longer than the top line
Summary
The Summary condenses the key messages of the briefing
note, including the conclusion or recommendation.
Include a deadline for a decision, signature or action.
Keep the Summary to three or four bullets.
Issue
The rubric states what has happened, is happening, will
or might happen that requires managements attention.
It mentions existent strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
or threats, if appropriate.
It entices the manager to read on.
Background
provides history and other information required
should not be controversial or subject to dispute
sets the stage for considerations
may include current status.
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Considerations
Considerations provide the facts, arguments, opinions, options
analysis and/or discussion of transformation matters required
to show that the Conclusion or Recommendation is a sound
response to the Issue.
This section may address the following, as needed:
current status and relevance to strategic priorities
implications, consultations with horizontal management
communications implications and/or plans.
The following Diamond-E Framework may be helpful in writing
this section.

Close with a summary in briefing notes for information

Close with a recommendation in briefing notes for decision,
for action or for signature.
Keep the briefing note to two pages (plus annexes).
Use a clear and firm style with a neutral tone.
The Considerations section addresses PESTLE matters:
Political factors (public opinion, relevance);
Economic factors (budget considerations, financial impact on
stakeholders);
Social factors (impact on education, culture, families);
Technological factors (capabilities and constraints);
Legal factors (regulatory or contractual requirements);
Environmental factors (impact on habitat, greenhouse gases).
This section addresses risk and SWOT matters as needed:
Strengths (internal capabilities);
Weaknesses (internal vulnerabilities);
Opportunities (external circumstances that can be exploited);
Threats (external circumstances that present a danger).

226

Conclusion
helps the management see key issues in perspective
tells the boss what happens next and/or when s/he will be
briefed again.
Recommendation(s)
The Recommendation(s) tell management precisely what you
would like them to do. This section should include a deadline,
if needed (e.g., A decision from you by (date) would
enable the project to remain on schedule.). Do not introduce
or restate rationale in the Recommendation(s).
A BRIEFING NOTE
A briefing note is a powerful tool of access to leaders and
colleagues to influence their decisions, their actions and their
understanding of issues. In this regard, writers and their
managers bear a challenging responsibility: to deliver expert
insight and strategic ideas with professionalism, brevity, clarity
and within an organization structure, format, style and tone
that are acceptable to senior management.
General diagram for writing a Briefing Note:

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A frame of reference for a briefing note has six elements:

strategic perspective;
objective;
audience;
authority;
barriers; and
timelines
External sources that you might want to review include:
Laws, regulations, treaties and contracts;
Management Accountability Framework assessments;
Clerk duties on the Councils web site;
Auditor Generals reports;
Current political and economic trends; public opinion polls.
Budget cycle;
Internal documents you may use to get strategic perspective:
Mission, vision and values statements;
Report on Plans and Priorities;
Performance Measurement Framework;
Departmental Performance Report;
Departmental business plan/human resource plan;
Program alignment architecture;
Audit and evaluation reports;
Departmental risk profile;
Previous briefing notes.
You might contact:
Technical specialists (legal counsel, finance, human resources, scientific, etc.) both internal and external;
Counterparts in other departments, or other organizations;
Your director;
Your director generals staff;
Objective
In setting the objective, state it in terms of something you want
the briefing note to accomplish, as opposed to just going
through a process. What do you want to be the outcome of that
briefing? In setting your objective, you have an opportunity to
be strategic. You know if you have developed a sound objective
if it is Specific, Measureable, Achievable, Relevant and Timebound (SMART).

228

Audience
Without an audience, you cannot achieve your objective.
Choosing your audience is another opportunity to be strategic.
Bear in mind that the ultimate audience is only one of many
others your briefing note will encounter as it makes its way
through the bureaucracy. It is helpful to know that another
audience could be the general public. This should not deter
you from offering frank advice. It should, however, be an
incentive to ensure that everything in the briefing note will
stand up under intense public scrutiny.
Authority
You again have an opportunity to be strategic. If you or your
upper managers do not have the authority to address the
audience that is needed to achieve your objective, you will have
to rethink your endeavour to identify an alternative objective
and an audience that you indeed have the authority to address.
Another dimension of authority is approval by specialists, such
as legal counsel, communications, finance, human resources
etc. It will take time, and you will need to take account of this
when you write your time lines.
Barriers
Barriers stand between you and achieving your objective with
your chosen audience. Barriers could include:
The audience's existing position on the issue;
Competing views conveyed by other stakeholders;
The audiences lack of knowledge or understanding of a complex issue;
Time pressures that could prevent the audience from reading
or even seeing your briefing note;
PESTLE and SWOT factors.
Be strategic. Do the barriers present a challenge to overcome
in a single briefing note? You may have to consider your options and develop a communications strategy for overcoming
those barriers possibly developing a series of briefing notes,
each one designed to overcome one or more of the barriers.
Timelines
They have three components:
Deadline when must the briefing note be received by its
ultimate audience in order for it to achieve its objective;

229

 Schedule when will research and writing be done, when will

the briefing note be translated (if needed), when will
approvals be received from specialists and the formal line of
authority;
Personal time budget how many hours of your time will the
project require.

230

THE MARKETING BUSINESS PLAN

The marketing planning process involves undertaking a

number of key activities, leading to the setting of marketing
objectives and the creation of plans to achieve them.
This basic template has been devised to enable you to
construct a simple marketing plan and access the feasibility
and suitability of marketing opportunities.
There are a variety of styles and formats used for marketing plans, however essentially, the content of the plan is
more important than rigid adherence to a specific format.

231

1. Executive Summary
The Executive Summary highlights the main goals and
recommendations of the marketing plan. It must also briefly
address budget requirements and how success is measured. It
is a brief outline of the 'who, what, where, when and how with
respect to the marketing objectives & strategies. The executive
summary should actually be completed last after all the marketing plan analysis and details have been completed.
2. Business Overview
Sometimes referred to as a situation analysis, the business overview is an evaluation of a company's situation within
their market. The process involves reviewing the external and
internal situation, the market share, and an assessment of the
current product, pricing, distribution&promotional approach.
Consider describing your customer base, target markets,
services required by your customers, and wider external environmental factors that affect your operation such as political,
environmental, social and technological factors.
The business overview is sometimes referred to as a '5 C
analysis', which looks to examine and review the Company,
Customers, Competitors, Collaborators and Climate.
Within the 'Business Overview' section another good tool
is to use is a SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis is essentially a
tool for assessing a company and its environment.
The term SWOT is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats. Strengths and weaknesses are
internal factors. Opportunities and threats are external factors.
For example:
Strengths: (Internal)
What are we good at?
What partnerships do we have?
What bargaining power do we have?
What skills do our employees have?
What financial resource do we have?
Weaknesses: (Internal)
What are we not good at doing?
What alliances/partnerships should we have?

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What skills do our workforce members lack?

Opportunities: (External)
What new markets might be suitable?
What new technology can we develop?
What changes in the environment can we utilise?
What weaknesses in our competition can we exploit?
Threats: (External)
How could our competition better us?
What social changes might endanger the business?
What new technology do not we have?

3. Marketing Objectives
Your marketing objectives should state 'what' is to be
achieved and 'when' results are to be accomplished and should
be linked to the business strategy. For example, if your
business objectives include increasing sales by 10 per cent
over the next year. Your marketing objectives might include
targeting a new market segment to help achieve this growth.
Examples could be:
Increase product awareness among the target audience by 30
percent in one year.
Inform target audience about features and benefits of our
product and its competitive advantage, leading to a 10 percent
increase in sales in one year.
Objectives should always be SMART:
Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound.

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Objective 1: .
Objective 2: ..
Objective 3: ..
4. Strategy
A strategy is a plan or method on how the marketing
objectives will be achieved and should decide the best way of
doing it. The strategy will establish a relevant target market
and should be constant with the objectives.
The focus of your strategy should be making sure that
your products and services meet customer needs and
developing long-term and profitable relationships with those
customers. To achieve this, you will need to create a flexible
strategy that can respond to changes in customer perceptions
and demand. It may also help you identify whole new markets
that you can successfully target.
Strategy Tips:
Describe the company's unique selling proposition (USP).
Define your target market.
Write down the benefits of your products or services.
Describe how you will position your products or services.
Define your marketing methods. Will you advertise, use
Internet marketing, direct marketing, or public relations?
Examples of marketing strategies could be:
Launch new products
Expand distribution (e.g. open more stores)
Increase selling prices
Reduce the amount spent on television advertising
Build customer awareness
Implement a public relations programme
5. Tactics
Once you have decided what your marketing objectives
are, and your strategy for meeting them, you need to plan how
you will make the strategy a reality. It should contain
descriptions and detailed steps to be carried out in order to
achieve the objectives. (This is often the longest section of the
plan representing up to 50% of the total page count).
A good place to start with tactics is within the marketing
mix or the four Ps:

234

 Product - what your product offers that your customers

value, and whether/how you should change your
product to meet customer needs.
Pricing - how you price the product. For example, you
might have to choose either to make relatively few high
margin sales, or sell more but with lower unit profits.
Place - how and where you sell. This may include using
different distribution channels. For example, you might
sell over the Internet or sell through retailers.
Promotion - how you reach your customers and
potential customers. For example, you might use
advertising, PR, direct mail and personal selling.

6. Budget
The financial plan should detail the expenditure carried
out in order to fulfil the marketing plan and lay out spending
requirements necessary for meeting the objectives. How much
will the activities defined above cost? Can you provide a
revenue forecast? Explain the assumptions on which the
forecast is based and consider various (best case, worst case)
scenarios. Several tables and graphs will be presented with
narratives explaining important budget issues.

235

For example:
Outline spending requirements for each tactical
marketing decision
Breakdown each tactical category e.g., types of
advertising, types of services offered, marketing research
expense, etc.
Show detailed spending timetable by: week and month
Show spending by: Product (if plan is for more than one),
Segment/Geographic zone, and Distribution Network

7. Monitoring & Control

What is your expected return from the activity? What are
the success criteria? How will you measure success of the plan?
By monitoring progress, you can judge the success of the marketing plan. If some of the strategies are not working out, try to
determine why. Is the strategy flawed? Is there a problem with
implementation or timing? How can you refocus and move on?

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ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations save time when writing. They are informal.

Abbreviations in international commerce

237

AEI
CELLAR

CoR
EDC
E-DOMEC
ESO
EUR-Lex
Eurovoc
HAEU
ID
PO

Archive of European Integration

Common access to EU information, to make
available at a single place all metadata and
digital content managed by the Publications
Office in a harmonised and standardised way
Committee of the Regions
European documentation centre
Electronic
archiving
and
document
management in the European Commission
European Sources Online
EUR-Lex provides free access to European
Union law and other documents considered to
be public
multilingual thesaurus of the European Union
Historical Archives of the European Union
identification number
Publications Office of the European Union

ARPU Average revenue per user

ASP Average selling price
ASAP "As soon As Possible"
agcy. Agency
agt. Agent
asst. Assistant
a/c.- Account

BAU Business As Usual

BRU Business Recovery Unit
B2B Business to Business
B2C Business to Consumer
BUSI - Business
bldg. Building
BD - Business Development

CAO Chief Accounting Officer

CAGR Compound annual growth rate
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
CAPM Capital asset pricing model
CDO Collateralized debt obligation
CDS Credit default swap
CEO Chief executive officer

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COA Chart of Account

CFA Chartered Financial Analyst
CFD Contract for difference
CFC Consumption of fixed capital
CFCT Cash Flow Cycle Time
CFM Certified Financial Manager
CFO PEX Capital Expenditures
CFO Chief financial officer
CFS Consolidated Financial Statement
CIA Certified Internal Auditor
CIF Cost Insurance With Freight
CIMA Chartered Institute of Management Accountants
CIO Chief Information Officer or Chief Investment Officer
CISA Certified Information Systems Auditor
CMA Certified Management Accountant
CMO Chief Marketing Officer
COB Close of Business
COGS Cost of Goods Sold
Corp. Corporation
COO Chief Operating Officer
CPA Certified Public Accountant
CPP Certified Payroll Professional
CPU - Cost per Unit
CSO Chief Security Officer
CRM Customer Relationship Management
CVP Cost Volume Profit
CTO Chief Technology Officer
C&F Cost With Freight

DDA Depletion Depreciation Amortization

DI Dispatch information
disc. Discount
dept. Department
DMA Direct market access

EAR Effective annual rate

EAY Effective Annual Yield
EBIT Earnings before interest and taxes
EBITDA Earnings before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation,
and Amortization
EDI Electronic Data Interchange

239

EFTPOS Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale

EPS Earnings per share
EXP Export
EOB End Of the Business
EOD End Of the Day

FDP Finance Department

FOB Freight On Board
FIFO First In, First Out
FL Financial leverage
FP&A Financial Planning & Analysis
FPO Follow on public offer
FIX Financial Information Exchange
FX Foreign exchange market
FYI- For Your Information

GAAP Generally Accepted Accounting Principles

GAAS Generally Accepted Audit Standards
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GFCF Gross fixed capital formation
GRN Goods Receipt Note
GP Gross Profit
GPO Group purchasing organization
GL General Ledger
GSV Gross Sales Value

HR Human Resources
HQ Headquarters
HRD Human Resource Development

IAS International Accounting Standards

ICB Industry Classification Benchmark
ICRM Innovative Customer Relationship Management
IE Interest expense
IFRS International Financial Reporting Standard
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMP Import
Inc. Incorporated
IPO Initial Public Offering
IR Interest Rate
ISM Institute of Supply Management

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J Journal
JIT - Just in time
JIS - Just in sequence

K Is used as an abbreviation for 1,000. For example

$225K would be understood to mean $225,000, and $3.6K
would be understood to mean $3,600.
KPI Key Performance Indicators refers to a type of performance measurement. Organizationa use KPIs to evaluate
success, or to evaluate the success of a particular activity in
which it is engaged.
KYC Know Your Customer refers to due diligence activities that financial institutions and other companies must
perform to ascertain relevant information.

LBO Leveraged Buyout

LC Letter of credit
LIBOR London Interbank Offered Rate
LIFO Last In, First Out
LLC Limited Liability Company
Ltd. Limited Company

MPC marginal propensity to consume

MTD Month-to-date
MOQ Minimum Order Quantity
MRO Maintenance, Repair, and Operations
MSOD Monthly Statement of Select Operational Data
MSRP - Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price
mfg. Manufacturing

NAV Net asset value

NCND Non-Circumvent and Non-Disclosure
NDA Non-Disclosure Agreement
NOA Net Operating Assets
NOPAT Net Operating Profit After Tax
NPV Net Present Value
NIM Net Interest Margin

OC Opportunity Cost
OCF Operating cash flow
OEM - Original Equipment Manufacturer

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OPEX Operational Expenditures

OTC Over-the-counter (finance)

PMAC Period Moving Average Cost

PO Profit Objective or Purchase Order
PP&E Property, plant, and equipment
P&L Profit and Loss
P/E Price-to-earnings ratio
PPP Purchasing power parity
PR Purchase Requisition
PBT Profit Before Tax
PAT Profit After Tax
PA - [Purchasing Agent]

QTD Quarter-to-date
QC Quality control

RE Retained Earnings
FP Request for Proposal
ROA Return on assets
ROCE Return On Capital Employed
ROI Return on Investment
ROIC Return on Invested Capital
RONA Return on net assets
ROS Return on Sales
RR Resource rent
R&D Research and Development

St Sales, during time period t.

S&OP - Sales and operations planning
SAAS Software-as-a-Service
SCM Supply Chain Management
SCBA Social Cost Benefit Analysis
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
SG&A Sales, General, and Administrative expenses
SIR Stores Issuance Requisition
SIOP Sales Inventory and Operations Plan
SIV Structured investment vehicle
SKU Stock keeping unit
SME - Small and Medium Enterprises
SOHO Small Office/Home Office

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SROI - Social return on investment

SOP - Standard Operating Procedure

TCO Total Cost of Ownership

TCV Total Contract Value
TSR Total Shareholder Return
TB Transaction Banking
TBD To Be Defined

USP Unique selling point

VAD Value-Added Distributor

VAT Value-Added Tax
VAR Value-Added Reseller

WACC Weighted average cost of capital

WC Working capital
WFH Work From Home
wk week
wrk work
wo work order
WLL - With Limited Liability
w.r.t - With Respect To

YTD Year-to-date
YTG Year-to-go
YOY Year-Over-Year

Common Business Abbreviations

This list covers the more general business abbreviations.
Cc means carbon copy, a reference to old-fashioned
carbon paper used to make copies hile writing on a typewriter.
If you do not want someone to know that you are copying a
third person in, then use bcc or blind carbon copy.
Titles
BKPR Bookkeeper
CAO - Chief Accounting Officer
CEO - Chief Executive Officer
CFO - Chief Financial Officer
CIO - Chief Information Officer

243

CMO - Chief Marketing Officer

COO - Chief Operating Officer
CPA - Certified Public Accountant
CTO - Chief Technology Officer

Financial
ACCT Account
ACR Accrual
ACV - Actual Cash Value
AGI - Adjusted Gross Income
AGR - Adjusted Gross Revenue
A/R - Accounts Receivable
BS - Balance Sheet
BGT Budget
COGS - Cost of Goods Sold
CPTAL Capital
EPS - Earnings Per Share
GL - General Ledger
GP - Gross Profit
LC - Letter of Credit
LIFO - Last In, First Out
NAV - Net Asset Value
OC - Opportunity Cost
PC Percent
Pd Paid
P/E - Price-to-earnings ratio
P&L - Profit and Loss
Re or RE - In reference to, Retained Earnings
ROA - Return on Assets
ROE - Return on Equity
ROI - Return on Investment
WC - Working Capital
Sales
AD Advertisement
B2B - Business to Business
B2C - Business to Consumer
BD - Business Development
BDC - Business Development Company/Council
COD - Cash on Delivery
Comp. - Item given for free

244

PO - Purchase Order
Sls Sales
SP - Strategic Plan
USP - Unique Selling Point
Val. - Value

Personnel & Organization

AGT Agent
HR - Human Resources
Slsmn Salesman
Secl Secretarial
PR - Public Relations
QC - Quality Control
R&D - Research and Development
Wrkr Worker
Wrhse - Warehouse
Legal
HQ Headquarters
Inc. Incorporated
IPO - Initial Public Offering
LBO - Limited Buyout
Ltd. - Limited Company
LLC - Limited Liability Corp.
General Terms
ADP - Automated Data Processing
Approx Approximately
Attn Attention
BAT - Business Action Theory
BCC - Blind Copied
BIMS - Business Information Management Suite
BPC - Business Planning Cycle
CC - Copy To
ETA - Estimated Time of Arrival
EXP Export
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GMP - Good Manufacturing Practices
Pls Please
Qty Quantity
Stsfctn Satisfaction

245

Svngs Savings
TBD - To Be Determined
Thx Thanks
Trd Trade
Trnsfr Transfer
Ttl - Total
Unltd Unlimited
Utlztn Utilization
W/O Without
Wst Waste
Whol. Wholesale
Wrkshp Workshop
Wrldwd Worldwide
YTD - Year To Date

Digital technology, including the internet, have led to the

creation of a huge number of abbreviations, especially as typed
or texted forms of real-time communication, such as online
chat, internet messaging (IM) and texting (SMS) have gained
popularity. Some of the more familiar acronyms from these
media include:
FYI = For Your Information. This is typically used when you
want to send someone an interesting link you have
found, but one which does not require a lengthy (long)
introduction.
IMHO In my humble opinion (used when you express a personal opinion that may be considered arrogant or controversial. It shows that you are aware of this implication.)
LOL Laugh out loud. This type of digital shorthand (steno) for
reactions and emotions has developed due to the often
colourless or anonymous nature of online chat.
BTW By the way; it indicates a change of subject or the introduction of an incidental fact.
Texting, also known as SMS (Short Message Service) requires the writer to compress a lot of information into as small
a space as possible. This has led to a modern form of highlycondensed writing, sometimes surprisingly imaginative:
B4 = before
L8r = later
CU = See you

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Business Acronyms
MD = Managing Director
PRO = Public Relations Officer
P&L = Profit & Loss account / statement (one of the financial
statements a company has to produce)
KM = Knowledge Management, a strategic approach to insights
undertaken by companies
RRP = Recommended Retail Price, the price customers should
pay suggested by the manufacturer
API Application Programming Interface (an interface created
on database or computer system to accept requests from
other computers and third parties)
ASP Application Service Provider (a company that offers services to its customers via a network)
B2B Business to Business (companies that sell to other companies, like Oracle)
B2C Business to Consumer (companies that sell to individuals, like GAP)
CAD Computer Aided Design (tools and software used by
engineers and architects to design)
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate (a cumulative interest
rate used by banks or within investment projects)
CEO Chief Executive Officer (the big boss)
CFO Chief Financial Officer (head of the finance)
CMO Chief Marketing Officer (head of marketing)
COO Chief Operating Officer (head of operations)
CTO Chief Technology Officer (responsible for the tech side)
CRM Customer Relationship Management (a system to get,
analyze and store customer information in order to
manage clients efficiently)
EBITDA Earning Before Interests, Taxes, Depreciation and
Amortization (indicator of financial performance)
EDI Electronic Data Interchange (a set of standards used to
exchange data between different companies and
organizations)
EPS Earnings Per Share (is the ration between the profits of a
company and the common shares)
ERP Enterprise Resources Planning (a system that integrates
all the data from an organization into a single location)

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FIFO First In, First Out (used both in computer programs

and accounting; it determines that what comes first is
handled first)
GAAP Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (a framework to carry out financial accounting in companies)
ICT Information and Communications Technology (term for
the fields related to IT and electronic communications)
ISV Independent Software Vendor (a group of developers or
company specialized in producing software for a niche)
IPO Initial Public Offering (when a company first introduces
its shares on the stock market)
LIFO Last In, First Out (in computer programs and accounting; it determines that what comes last is handled first)
LLC Limited Liability Company (a legal entity where the
owners are not liable personally)
MSRP Manufacturers Suggested Retail Price (a recommendation made by a company in order to standardize the
price of its products across different places)
NDA Non-Disclosure Agreement (a contract between two
parties to secure the confidentiality of information)
NPV Net Present Value (a method to valuate long term
investments or projects)
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer (a company that manufacturers equipment that will be rebranded and sold
by other companies; it refers to the reseller as well)
OTC Over-The-Counter (trade of stocks or other derivatives
directly between two persons)
P&L Profit and Loss (also called Income Statement, is an accounting report used to outline how revenues are transformed into profits)
POS Point of Sale (a checkout point in retail stores, or the
hardware behind it)
RFP Request For Proposal (an invitation for suppliers to bid
on a specific task or service)
ROI Return On Investment (ratio of money earned relative to
total money invested)
ROS Return On Sales (ratio of money earned relative to total
sales)
SAAS Software As A Service (software or applications that are
developed on the web and the users access it via the
Internet)

248

SOHO Small Office/Home Office (refers to small or home

office environments)
TCO Total Cost of Ownership (a method to estimate all the
costsdirect and indirectrelated to a project/purchase)
TQM Total Quality Management (a management strategy to
raise whole organizations awareness towards quality)
TSR Total Shareholder Return (a valuation method to take
into consideration both dividends and share price gains)
VC Venture Capital (a form of financing where the owners
give up part of the ownership)
This is a list of abbreviations which are less commonly used in
the subject of an English e-mail header:
AB, meaning Action By. Used with a time indicator to
inform the recipient that the sender needs a task to be completed within a certain deadline, (AB+2 = Action by 2 days).
AR, meaning Action Required. The recipient is informed
that she is being given a task.
FYA, meaning For Your Action. The recipient is informed
that she is being given a task. Can also mean For Your
Amusement, For Your Attention, For Your Approval, For Your
Assistance, For Your Awareness, For Your Authorization, or
For Your Acknowledgement.
FYI, for your information.
FYFG, meaning For Your Future Guidance. Also written as
Fyfg. Used at the beginning of the subject, typically in corporate emails in which management wants to inform personnel
about a new procedure they should follow.
FYG, meaning For Your Guidance. Also written as Fyg.
Used at the beginning of the subject, typically in corporate emails in which management wants to inform personnel about a
new procedure they should follow.
I, meaning Information. Used at the beginning of the subject. The recipient is informed that he does not have to reply to
this e-mail. May be more commonly used in Europe than in
North America, where FYI may be preferred.
LET, meaning Leaving Early Today. Used in corporate emails to indicate the sender will be leaving the office early.
NIM, meaning No Internal Message. Used when the entire
content of the email is contained in the subject and the body

249

remains empty. This saves the recipient's time because she

then does not have to open the email. Also written as NM,
meaning No Message. Also written as N/M, n/m, or *n/m*.
NMP, meaning Not My Problem. Used in a reply to indicate
that the previous email has been ignored.
NNTR, meaning No Need To Respond. The recipient is informed that he does not have to reply to this email. Synonyms
are NRN, meaning No Reply Necessary or No Reply Needed,
and NRR, meaning No Reply Requested or No Reply Required.
NT, meaning No Text. Also written as N/T or n/t. Used
when the entire content of the email is contained in the subject
and the body remains empty. This saves the recipient's time
because she then does not have to open the email.
NWR, meaning Not Work Related. Used in corporate emails
to indicate that the content is not related to business and
therefore that the recipient can ignore it if desired.
OoO, meaning Out of Office. Used in corporate emails to
indicate that the sender will not be at work.
PYR, meaning Per Your Request. The recipient is informed
that the sender is replying to a previous email in which she
was given a task.
QUE, meaning Question. The recipient is informed that the
sender wants an answer to this e-mail.
RB, meaning Reply By. Used with a time indicator to inform
the recipient that the sender needs a reply within a certain
deadline, e.g. RB+7 meaning Reply By one week (7 days).
RLB, meaning Read later Used when sending personal or
informational email to a business e-mail address. Immediate
response is not required.
RR, meaning Reply Requested or Reply Required. The
recipient is informed that he should reply to this email.
TBF, meaning (1) To be Forwarded. Used in some corporate
emails to request that the email receiver should forward the
mail to some one else. It also has the more common meaning
(2) To be Frank/Fair. Usually only used in the email body.
Y/N, meaning Yes/No. The recipient is informed that he
should reply to this email with a simple yes or no answer,
increasing the likelihood for the sender of getting a quick
response. cf. VSRE, meaning Very Short Reply Expected.

250

PART 6

REFERENCES AND
ONLINE LEARNING SOURCES

251

252

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