Numpy

NumPy Reference
Release 1.8.1
Written by the NumPy community
March 26, 2014
CONTENTS
Array objects
1.1 The N-dimensional array (ndarray)
1.2 Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Data type objects (dtype) . . . . . .
1.4 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Iterating Over Arrays . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Standard array subclasses . . . . . .
1.7 Masked arrays . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 The Array Interface . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Datetimes and Timedeltas . . . . . .
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3
3
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418
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Universal functions (ufunc)

2.1 Broadcasting . . . . . . .
2.2 Output type determination
2.3 Use of internal buffers . .
2.4 Error handling . . . . . .
2.5 Casting Rules . . . . . . .
2.6 ufunc . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Available ufuncs . . . . .
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431
431
432
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432
435
437
446
Routines
3.1 Array creation routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Array manipulation routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Binary operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 String operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 C-Types Foreign Function Interface (numpy.ctypeslib) . . .
3.6 Datetime Support Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Data type routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Optionally Scipy-accelerated routines (numpy.dual) . . . . . .
3.9 Mathematical functions with automatic domain (numpy.emath)
3.10 Floating point error handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11 Discrete Fourier Transform (numpy.fft) . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 Financial functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13 Functional programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.14 Numpy-specific help functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.15 Indexing routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.16 Input and output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17 Linear algebra (numpy.linalg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.18 Logic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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451
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703
736
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3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
3.28
3.29
3.30
3.31
3.32
3.33
Masked array operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mathematical functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Matrix library (numpy.matlib) . . . . . . . . . .
Numarray compatibility (numpy.numarray) . . .
Old Numeric compatibility (numpy.oldnumeric)
Miscellaneous routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Padding Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Random sampling (numpy.random) . . . . . . .
Set routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sorting, searching, and counting . . . . . . . . . . .
Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test Support (numpy.testing) . . . . . . . . . .
Asserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Window functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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754
875
939
945
945
945
946
950
1131
1234
1239
1255
1283
1284
1296
Packaging (numpy.distutils)
1305
4.1 Modules in numpy.distutils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305
4.2 Building Installable C libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316
4.3 Conversion of .src files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1317
Numpy C-API
5.1 Python Types and C-Structures . .
5.2 System configuration . . . . . . . .
5.3 Data Type API . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Array API . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Array Iterator API . . . . . . . . .
5.6 UFunc API . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Generalized Universal Function API
5.8 Numpy core libraries . . . . . . . .
5.9 C API Deprecations . . . . . . . .
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1319
1319
1333
1335
1340
1379
1395
1401
1404
1408
Numpy internals
1411
6.1 Numpy C Code Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1411
6.2 Internal organization of numpy arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
6.3 Multidimensional Array Indexing Order Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
Numpy and SWIG

1421
7.1 Numpy.i: a SWIG Interface File for NumPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1421
7.2 Testing the numpy.i Typemaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1436
Acknowledgements
1439
Bibliography
1441
Index
1449
ii
NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1
Release
1.8
Date
March 26, 2014
This reference manual details functions, modules, and objects included in Numpy, describing what they are and what
they do. For learning how to use NumPy, see also user.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ONE
ARRAY OBJECTS
NumPy provides an N-dimensional array type, the ndarray, which describes a collection of items of the same type.
The items can be indexed using for example N integers.
All ndarrays are homogenous: every item takes up the same size block of memory, and all blocks are interpreted in
exactly the same way. How each item in the array is to be interpreted is specified by a separate data-type object, one
of which is associated with every array. In addition to basic types (integers, floats, etc.), the data type objects can also
represent data structures.
An item extracted from an array, e.g., by indexing, is represented by a Python object whose type is one of the array
scalar types built in Numpy. The array scalars allow easy manipulation of also more complicated arrangements of
data.
Figure 1.1: Figure Conceptual diagram showing the relationship between the three fundamental objects used to describe the data in an array: 1) the ndarray itself, 2) the data-type object that describes the layout of a single fixed-size
element of the array, 3) the array-scalar Python object that is returned when a single element of the array is accessed.
1.1 The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

An ndarray is a (usually fixed-size) multidimensional container of items of the same type and size. The number
of dimensions and items in an array is defined by its shape, which is a tuple of N positive integers that specify
the sizes of each dimension. The type of items in the array is specified by a separate data-type object (dtype), one of
which is associated with each ndarray.
As with other container objects in Python, the contents of an ndarray can be accessed and modified by indexing or
slicing the array (using, for example, N integers), and via the methods and attributes of the ndarray.
3
Different ndarrays can share the same data, so that changes made in one ndarray may be visible in another. That
is, an ndarray can be a view to another ndarray, and the data it is referring to is taken care of by the base ndarray.
ndarrays can also be views to memory owned by Python strings or objects implementing the buffer or array
interfaces.
Example
A 2-dimensional array of size 2 x 3, composed of 4-byte integer elements:
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], np.int32)
>>> type(x)
<type numpy.ndarray>
>>> x.shape
(2, 3)
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
The array can be indexed using Python container-like syntax:

>>> x[1,2] # i.e., the element of x in the *second* row, *third*
column, namely, 6.
For example slicing can produce views of the array:

>>> y = x[:,1]
>>> y
array([2, 5])
>>> y[0] = 9 # this also changes the corresponding element in x
>>> y
array([9, 5])
>>> x
array([[1, 9, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
1.1.1 Constructing arrays

New arrays can be constructed using the routines detailed in Array creation routines, and also by using the low-level
ndarray constructor:
ndarray
An array object represents a multidimensional, homogeneous array of fixed-size items.
class numpy.ndarray
An array object represents a multidimensional, homogeneous array of fixed-size items. An associated data-type
object describes the format of each element in the array (its byte-order, how many bytes it occupies in memory,
whether it is an integer, a floating point number, or something else, etc.)
Arrays should be constructed using array, zeros or empty (refer to the See Also section below). The
parameters given here refer to a low-level method (ndarray(...)) for instantiating an array.
For more information, refer to the numpy module and examine the the methods and attributes of an array.
Parameters
(for the __new__ method; see Notes below)
shape : tuple of ints
Shape of created array.
4
Chapter 1. Array objects
dtype : data-type, optional

Any object that can be interpreted as a numpy data type.
buffer : object exposing buffer interface, optional
Used to fill the array with data.
offset : int, optional
Offset of array data in buffer.
strides : tuple of ints, optional
Strides of data in memory.
order : {C, F}, optional
Row-major or column-major order.
See Also:
array
Construct an array.
zeros
Create an array, each element of which is zero.
empty
Create an array, but leave its allocated memory unchanged (i.e., it contains garbage).
dtype
Create a data-type.
Notes
There are two modes of creating an array using __new__:
1.If buffer is None, then only shape, dtype, and order are used.
2.If buffer is an object exposing the buffer interface, then all keywords are interpreted.
No __init__ method is needed because the array is fully initialized after the __new__ method.
Examples
These examples illustrate the low-level ndarray constructor. Refer to the See Also section above for easier
ways of constructing an ndarray.
First mode, buffer is None:
>>> np.ndarray(shape=(2,2), dtype=float, order=F)
array([[ -1.13698227e+002,
4.25087011e-303],
[ 2.88528414e-306,
3.27025015e-309]])
#random
Second mode:
>>> np.ndarray((2,), buffer=np.array([1,2,3]),
...
offset=np.int_().itemsize,
...
dtype=int) # offset = 1*itemsize, i.e. skip first element
array([2, 3])
Attributes
1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)
T
data
dtype
flags
flat
imag
real
size
itemsize
nbytes
ndim
shape
strides
ctypes
base
Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if self.ndim < 2.

Python buffer object pointing to the start of the arrays data.
Data-type of the arrays elements.
Information about the memory layout of the array.
A 1-D iterator over the array.
The imaginary part of the array.
The real part of the array.
Number of elements in the array.
Length of one array element in bytes.
Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
Number of array dimensions.
Tuple of array dimensions.
Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when traversing an array.
An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the ctypes module.
Base object if memory is from some other object.
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
>>> x.T
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
ndarray.data
ndarray.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
d : numpy dtype object
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
ndarray.flags
Notes
The flags object can be accessed dictionary-like (as in a.flags[WRITEABLE]), or by using lowercased attribute names (as in a.flags.writeable). Short flag names are only supported in dictionary
access.
Only the UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED flags can be changed by the user, via direct
assignment to the attribute or dictionary entry, or by calling ndarray.setflags.
The array flags cannot be set arbitrarily:
UPDATEIFCOPY can only be set False.
ALIGNED can only be set True if the data is truly aligned.
WRITEABLE can only be set True if the array owns its own memory or the ultimate owner of the
memory exposes a writeable buffer interface or is a string.
Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional
arrays, but can also be true for higher dimensional arrays.
Even for contiguous arrays a stride for a given dimension arr.strides[dim] may be arbitrary if arr.shape[dim] == 1 or the array has no elements. It does not generally hold that
self.strides[-1] == self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0]
== self.itemsize for Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
The data is in a single, C-style contiguous segment.
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
The data is in a single, Fortran-style contiguous segment.
(F)
OWNThe array owns the memory it uses or borrows it from another object.
DATA
(O)
WRITEThe data area can be written to. Setting this to False locks the data, making it read-only.
ABLE
A view (slice, etc.) inherits WRITEABLE from its base array at creation time, but a
(W)
view of a writeable array may be subsequently locked while the base array remains
writeable. (The opposite is not true, in that a view of a locked array may not be made
writeable. However, currently, locking a base object does not lock any views that
already reference it, so under that circumstance it is possible to alter the contents of a
locked array via a previously created writeable view onto it.) Attempting to change a
non-writeable array raises a RuntimeError exception.
ALIGNED
The data and all elements are aligned appropriately for the hardware.
(A)
UPThis array is a copy of some other array. When this array is deallocated, the base array
DATEIFwill be updated with the contents of this array.
COPY
(U)
FNC
F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
FORC
F_CONTIGUOUS or C_CONTIGUOUS (one-segment test).
BEHAVED ALIGNED and WRITEABLE.
(B)
CARRAY
BEHAVED and C_CONTIGUOUS.
(CA)
FARRAY
BEHAVED and F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
(FA)
ndarray.flat
This is a numpy.flatiter instance, which acts similarly to, but is not a subclass of, Pythons built-in
iterator object.
See Also:
flatten
Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
flatiter
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(1, 7).reshape(2, 3)
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
<type numpy.flatiter>
An assignment example:
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
ndarray.imag
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.imag
array([ 0.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype(float64)
ndarray.real
See Also:
numpy.real
equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.real
array([ 1.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype(float64)
ndarray.size
Equivalent to np.prod(a.shape), i.e., the product of the arrays dimensions.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3, 5, 2), dtype=np.complex128)
>>> x.size
30
>>> np.prod(x.shape)
30
ndarray.itemsize
Examples
>>>
>>>
8
>>>
>>>
16
x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)
x.itemsize
x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.complex128)
x.itemsize
ndarray.nbytes
Notes
Does not include memory consumed by non-element attributes of the array object.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3,5,2), dtype=np.complex128)
>>> x.nbytes
480
>>> np.prod(x.shape) * x.itemsize
480
ndarray.ndim
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
3
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
x.ndim
y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
y.ndim
ndarray.shape
Notes
May be used to reshape the array, as long as this would not require a change in the total number of
elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
Traceback (most recent call last):
10
0.,
0.,
0.,
0.],
0.],
0.]])
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>

ValueError: total size of new array must be unchanged
ndarray.strides
The byte offset of element (i[0], i[1], ..., i[n]) in an array a is:
offset = sum(np.array(i) * a.strides)
A more detailed explanation of strides can be found in the ndarray.rst file in the NumPy reference guide.
See Also:
numpy.lib.stride_tricks.as_strided
Notes
Imagine an array of 32-bit integers (each 4 bytes):
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
This array is stored in memory as 40 bytes, one after the other (known as a contiguous block of memory).
The strides of an array tell us how many bytes we have to skip in memory to move to the next position
along a certain axis. For example, we have to skip 4 bytes (1 value) to move to the next column, but 20
bytes (5 values) to get to the same position in the next row. As such, the strides for the array x will be
(20, 4).
Examples
>>> y = np.reshape(np.arange(2*3*4), (2,3,4))
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
>>> offset=sum(y.strides * np.array((1,1,1)))
>>> offset/y.itemsize
17
>>> x = np.reshape(np.arange(5*6*7*8), (5,6,7,8)).transpose(2,3,1,0)
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> offset = sum(i * x.strides)
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
>>> offset / x.itemsize
813
ndarray.ctypes
11
This attribute creates an object that makes it easier to use arrays when calling shared libraries with the
ctypes module. The returned object has, among others, data, shape, and strides attributes (see Notes
below) which themselves return ctypes objects that can be used as arguments to a shared library.
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
Possessing attributes data, shape, strides, etc.
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
Below are the public attributes of this object which were documented in Guide to NumPy (we have
omitted undocumented public attributes, as well as documented private attributes):
data: A pointer to the memory area of the array as a Python integer. This memory area may contain
data that is not aligned, or not in correct byte-order. The memory area may not even be writeable.
The array flags and data-type of this array should be respected when passing this attribute to arbitrary
C-code to avoid trouble that can include Python crashing. User Beware! The value of this attribute is
exactly the same as self._array_interface_[data][0].
shape (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the C-integer
corresponding to dtype(p) on this platform. This base-type could be c_int, c_long, or c_longlong
depending on the platform. The c_intp type is defined accordingly in numpy.ctypeslib. The ctypes
array contains the shape of the underlying array.
strides (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the same as for
the shape attribute. This ctypes array contains the strides information from the underlying array.
This strides information is important for showing how many bytes must be jumped to get to the next
element in the array.
data_as(obj): Return the data pointer cast to a particular c-types object. For example, calling
self._as_parameter_ is equivalent to self.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p). Perhaps you want to use the data
as a pointer to a ctypes array of floating-point data: self.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_double)).
shape_as(obj): Return the shape tuple as an array of some other c-types type.
self.shape_as(ctypes.c_short).
For example:
strides_as(obj): Return the strides tuple as an array of some other c-types type. For example:
self.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong).
Be careful using the ctypes attribute - especially on temporary arrays or arrays constructed on the fly. For
example, calling (a+b).ctypes.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p) returns a pointer to memory that
is invalid because the array created as (a+b) is deallocated before the next Python statement. You can avoid
this problem using either c=a+b or ct=(a+b).ctypes. In the latter case, ct will hold a reference to
the array until ct is deleted or re-assigned.
If the ctypes module is not available, then the ctypes attribute of array objects still returns something useful,
but ctypes objects are not returned and errors may be raised instead. In particular, the object will still have
the as parameter attribute which will return an integer equal to the data attribute.
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
12
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long))
<ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x01F01300>
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long)).contents
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_longlong)).contents
c_longlong(4294967296L)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
<numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FFD580>
>>> x.ctypes.shape_as(ctypes.c_long)
<numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FCE620>
>>> x.ctypes.strides
>>> x.ctypes.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong)
<numpy.core._internal.c_longlong_Array_2 object at 0x01F01300>
ndarray.base
Examples
The base of an array that owns its memory is None:
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True
Slicing creates a view, whose memory is shared with x:

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
Methods
all([axis, out])
any([axis, out])
argmax([axis, out])
argmin([axis, out])
argpartition(kth[, axis, kind, order])
argsort([axis, kind, order])
astype(dtype[, order, casting, subok, copy])
byteswap(inplace)
choose(choices[, out, mode])
clip(a_min, a_max[, out])
compress(condition[, axis, out])
conj()
conjugate()
copy([order])
cumprod([axis, dtype, out])
cumsum([axis, dtype, out])
diagonal([offset, axis1, axis2])
Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.

Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
Return indices of the maximum values along the given axis.
Return indices of the minimum values along the given axis of a.
Returns the indices that would partition this array.
Returns the indices that would sort this array.
Copy of the array, cast to a specified type.
Swap the bytes of the array elements
Use an index array to construct a new array from a set of choices.
Return an array whose values are limited to [a_min, a_max].
Return selected slices of this array along given axis.
Complex-conjugate all elements.
Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
Return a copy of the array.
Return the cumulative product of the elements along the given axis.
Return the cumulative sum of the elements along the given axis.
Return specified diagonals.
13
dot(b[, out])
dump(file)
dumps()
fill(value)
flatten([order])
getfield(dtype[, offset])
item(*args)
itemset(*args)
max([axis, out])
mean([axis, dtype, out])
min([axis, out])
newbyteorder([new_order])
nonzero()
partition(kth[, axis, kind, order])
prod([axis, dtype, out])
ptp([axis, out])
put(indices, values[, mode])
ravel([order])
repeat(repeats[, axis])
reshape(shape[, order])
resize(new_shape[, refcheck])
round([decimals, out])
searchsorted(v[, side, sorter])
setfield(val, dtype[, offset])
setflags([write, align, uic])
sort([axis, kind, order])
squeeze([axis])
std([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
sum([axis, dtype, out])
swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
take(indices[, axis, out, mode])
tofile(fid[, sep, format])
tolist()
tostring([order])
trace([offset, axis1, axis2, dtype, out])
transpose(*axes)
var([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
view([dtype, type])
Table 1.3 continued from previous page

Dot product of two arrays.
Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file.
Returns the pickle of the array as a string.
Fill the array with a scalar value.
Returns a field of the given array as a certain type.
Copy an element of an array to a standard Python scalar and return it.
Insert scalar into an array (scalar is cast to arrays dtype, if possible)
Return the maximum along a given axis.
Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
Return the minimum along a given axis.
Return the array with the same data viewed with a different byte order.
Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that value of the element in kth po
Return the product of the array elements over the given axis
Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a given axis.
Set a.flat[n] = values[n] for all n in indices.
Return a flattened array.
Repeat elements of an array.
Returns an array containing the same data with a new shape.
Change shape and size of array in-place.
Return a with each element rounded to the given number of decimals.
Find indices where elements of v should be inserted in a to maintain order.
Put a value into a specified place in a field defined by a data-type.
Set array flags WRITEABLE, ALIGNED, and UPDATEIFCOPY, respectively.
Sort an array, in-place.
Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of a.
Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along given axis.
Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 interchanged.
Return an array formed from the elements of a at the given indices.
Write array to a file as text or binary (default).
Return the array as a (possibly nested) list.
Construct a Python string containing the raw data bytes in the array.
Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
Returns the variance of the array elements, along given axis.
New view of array with the same data.
ndarray.all(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.all for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.all
equivalent function
ndarray.any(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.any for full documentation.
14
See Also:
numpy.any
equivalent function
ndarray.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.argmax for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.argmax
equivalent function
ndarray.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.argmin for detailed documentation.
See Also:
numpy.argmin
equivalent function
ndarray.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)
Refer to numpy.argpartition for full documentation. New in version 1.8.0.
See Also:
numpy.argpartition
equivalent function
ndarray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)
Refer to numpy.argsort for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.argsort
equivalent function
ndarray.astype(dtype, order=K, casting=unsafe, subok=True, copy=True)
Parameters
dtype : str or dtype
Typecode or data-type to which the array is cast.
order : {C, F, A, K}, optional
Controls the memory layout order of the result. C means C order, F means Fortran
order, A means F order if all the arrays are Fortran contiguous, C order otherwise,
and K means as close to the order the array elements appear in memory as possible.
Default is K.
15
casting : {no, equiv, safe, same_kind, unsafe}, optional

Controls what kind of data casting may occur. Defaults to unsafe for backwards compatibility.
no means the data types should not be cast at all.
equiv means only byte-order changes are allowed.
safe means only casts which can preserve values are allowed.
same_kind means only safe casts or casts within a kind, like float64 to float32, are
allowed.
unsafe means any data conversions may be done.
subok : bool, optional
If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through (default), otherwise the returned array
will be forced to be a base-class array.
copy : bool, optional
By default, astype always returns a newly allocated array. If this is set to false, and the
dtype, order, and subok requirements are satisfied, the input array is returned instead
of a copy.
Returns
arr_t : ndarray
Unless copy is False and the other conditions for returning the input array are satisfied
(see description for copy input paramter), arr_t is a new array of the same shape as the
input array, with dtype, order given by dtype, order.
Raises
ComplexWarning
When casting from complex to float or int.
a.real.astype(t).
To avoid this, one should use
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
ndarray.byteswap(inplace)
Toggle between low-endian and big-endian data representation by returning a byteswapped array, optionally swapped in-place.
Parameters
inplace : bool, optional
If True, swap bytes in-place, default is False.
Returns
out : ndarray
The byteswapped array. If inplace is True, this is a view to self.
16
Examples
>>> A = np.array([1, 256, 8755], dtype=np.int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x1, 0x100, 0x2233]
>>> A.byteswap(True)
array([ 256,
1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x100, 0x1, 0x3322]
Arrays of strings are not swapped

>>> A = np.array([ceg, fac])
>>> A.byteswap()
array([ceg, fac],
dtype=|S3)
ndarray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=raise)

Refer to numpy.choose for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.choose
equivalent function
ndarray.clip(a_min, a_max, out=None)
Refer to numpy.clip for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
ndarray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.compress for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.compress
equivalent function
ndarray.conj()
Refer to numpy.conjugate for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
ndarray.conjugate()
17

See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
ndarray.copy(order=C)
Parameters
Controls the memory layout of the copy. C means C-order, F means F-order, A
means F if a is Fortran contiguous, C otherwise. K means match the layout of a as
closely as possible. (Note that this function and :func:numpy.copy are very similar, but
have different default values for their order= arguments.)
See Also:
numpy.copy, numpy.copyto
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> y.flags[C_CONTIGUOUS]
True
ndarray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Refer to numpy.cumprod for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.cumprod
equivalent function
ndarray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.cumsum for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.cumsum
equivalent function
18
ndarray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

Refer to numpy.diagonal for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.diagonal
equivalent function
ndarray.dot(b, out=None)
Refer to numpy.dot for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.dot
equivalent function
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2)
>>> b = np.ones((2, 2)) * 2
>>> a.dot(b)
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])
This array method can be conveniently chained:

>>> a.dot(b).dot(b)
array([[ 8., 8.],
[ 8., 8.]])
ndarray.dump(file)
Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file. The array can be read back with pickle.load or numpy.load.
Parameters
file : str
A string naming the dump file.
ndarray.dumps()
Returns the pickle of the array as a string. pickle.loads or numpy.loads will convert the string back to an
array.
Parameters
None
ndarray.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
All elements of a will be assigned this value.
Examples
19
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
ndarray.flatten(order=C)
Parameters
order : {C, F, A}, optional
Whether to flatten in C (row-major), Fortran (column-major) order, or preserve the
C/Fortran ordering from a. The default is C.
Returns
y : ndarray
A copy of the input array, flattened to one dimension.
See Also:
ravel
flat
A 1-D flat iterator over the array.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
ndarray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
A field is a view of the array data with a given data-type. The values in the view are determined by the
given type and the offset into the current array in bytes. The offset needs to be such that the view dtype fits
in the array dtype; for example an array of dtype complex128 has 16-byte elements. If taking a view with
a 32-bit integer (4 bytes), the offset needs to be between 0 and 12 bytes.
Parameters
The data type of the view. The dtype size of the view can not be larger than that of the
array itself.
offset : int
Number of bytes to skip before beginning the element view.
Examples
20
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
>>> x.getfield(np.float64)
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
By choosing an offset of 8 bytes we can select the complex part of the array for our view:
>>> x.getfield(np.float64, offset=8)
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
ndarray.item(*args)
Parameters
*args : Arguments (variable number and type)
none: in this case, the method only works for arrays with one element (a.size == 1), which
element is copied into a standard Python scalar object and returned.
int_type: this argument is interpreted as a flat index into the array, specifying which element to copy and return.
tuple of int_types: functions as does a single int_type argument, except that the argument
is interpreted as an nd-index into the array.
Returns
z : Standard Python scalar object
A copy of the specified element of the array as a suitable Python scalar
Notes
When the data type of a is longdouble or clongdouble, item() returns a scalar array object because there is
no available Python scalar that would not lose information. Void arrays return a buffer object for item(),
unless fields are defined, in which case a tuple is returned.
item is very similar to a[args], except, instead of an array scalar, a standard Python scalar is returned.
This can be useful for speeding up access to elements of the array and doing arithmetic on elements of the
array using Pythons optimized math.
Examples
>>> x = np.random.randint(9, size=(3, 3))
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
21
ndarray.itemset(*args)
There must be at least 1 argument, and define the last argument as item. Then, a.itemset(*args) is
equivalent to but faster than a[args] = item. The item should be a scalar value and args must select
a single item in the array a.
Parameters
*args : Arguments
If one argument: a scalar, only used in case a is of size 1. If two arguments: the last
argument is the value to be set and must be a scalar, the first argument specifies a single
array element location. It is either an int or a tuple.
Notes
Compared to indexing syntax, itemset provides some speed increase for placing a scalar into a particular
location in an ndarray, if you must do this. However, generally this is discouraged: among other
problems, it complicates the appearance of the code. Also, when using itemset (and item) inside a
loop, be sure to assign the methods to a local variable to avoid the attribute look-up at each loop iteration.
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
ndarray.max(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.amax for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.amax
equivalent function
ndarray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.mean for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.mean
equivalent function
ndarray.min(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.amin for full documentation.
See Also:
22
numpy.amin
equivalent function
ndarray.newbyteorder(new_order=S)
Equivalent to:
arr.view(arr.dtype.newbytorder(new_order))
Changes are also made in all fields and sub-arrays of the array data type.
Parameters
new_order : string, optional
Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications above. new_order codes
can be any of:
*
*
*
*
*
S {<,
{>,
{=,
{|,
swap
L}
B}
N}
I}
dtype from current to opposite endian

- little endian
- big endian
- native order
- ignore (no change to byte order)
The default value (S) results in swapping the current byte order. The code does a
case-insensitive check on the first letter of new_order for the alternatives above. For
example, any of B or b or biggish are valid to specify big-endian.
Returns
new_arr : array
New array object with the dtype reflecting given change to the byte order.
ndarray.nonzero()
Refer to numpy.nonzero for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
equivalent function
ndarray.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)
Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that value of the element in kth position is in the
position it would be in a sorted array. All elements smaller than the kth element are moved before this
element and all equal or greater are moved behind it. The ordering of the elements in the two partitions is
undefined. New in version 1.8.0.
Parameters
kth : int or sequence of ints
Element index to partition by. The kth element value will be in its final sorted position
and all smaller elements will be moved before it and all equal or greater elements behind
it. The order all elements in the partitions is undefined. If provided with a sequence of
kth it will partition all elements indexed by kth of them into their sorted position at once.
axis : int, optional
Axis along which to sort. Default is -1, which means sort along the last axis.
23
kind : {introselect}, optional

Selection algorithm. Default is introselect.
order : list, optional
When a is an array with fields defined, this argument specifies which fields to compare
first, second, etc. Not all fields need be specified.
See Also:
numpy.partition
Return a parititioned copy of an array.
argpartition
Indirect partition.
sort
Full sort.
Notes
See np.partition for notes on the different algorithms.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
>>> a.partition(a, 3)
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
>>> a.partition((1, 3))
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
ndarray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Refer to numpy.prod for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.prod
equivalent function
ndarray.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.ptp for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.ptp
equivalent function
ndarray.put(indices, values, mode=raise)
Refer to numpy.put for full documentation.
See Also:
24
numpy.put
equivalent function
ndarray.ravel([order ])
Refer to numpy.ravel for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.ravel
equivalent function
ndarray.flat
a flat iterator on the array.
ndarray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
Refer to numpy.repeat for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
ndarray.reshape(shape, order=C)
Refer to numpy.reshape for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.reshape
equivalent function
ndarray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Parameters
new_shape : tuple of ints, or n ints
Shape of resized array.
refcheck : bool, optional
If False, reference count will not be checked. Default is True.
Returns
None
Raises
ValueError
If a does not own its own data or references or views to it exist, and the data memory
must be changed.
SystemError
If the order keyword argument is specified. This behaviour is a bug in NumPy.
See Also:
25
resize
Return a new array with the specified shape.
Notes
This reallocates space for the data area if necessary.
Only contiguous arrays (data elements consecutive in memory) can be resized.
The purpose of the reference count check is to make sure you do not use this array as a buffer for another
Python object and then reallocate the memory. However, reference counts can increase in other ways so if
you are sure that you have not shared the memory for this array with another Python object, then you may
safely set refcheck to False.
Examples
Shrinking an array: array is flattened (in the order that the data are stored in memory), resized, and reshaped:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=C)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=F)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
Enlarging an array: as above, but missing entries are filled with zeros:
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b.resize(2, 3) # new_shape parameter doesnt have to be a tuple
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])
Referencing an array prevents resizing...

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...
ValueError: cannot resize an array that has been referenced ...
Unless refcheck is False:

>>> a.resize((1, 1), refcheck=False)
>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
ndarray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
Refer to numpy.around for full documentation.
See Also:
26
numpy.around
equivalent function
ndarray.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
For full documentation, see numpy.searchsorted
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
ndarray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)
Place val into as field defined by dtype and beginning offset bytes into the field.
Parameters
val : object
Value to be placed in field.
dtype : dtype object
Data-type of the field in which to place val.
The number of bytes into the field at which to place val.
Returns
None
See Also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
>>> x.setfield(3, np.int32)
>>> x.getfield(np.int32)
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000,
1.48219694e-323,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.00000000e+000,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.48219694e-323,
>>> x.setfield(np.eye(3), np.int32)
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
1.48219694e-323],
1.48219694e-323],
1.00000000e+000]])
ndarray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

27
These Boolean-valued flags affect how numpy interprets the memory area used by a (see Notes below).
The ALIGNED flag can only be set to True if the data is actually aligned according to the type. The
UPDATEIFCOPY flag can never be set to True. The flag WRITEABLE can only be set to True if the array
owns its own memory, or the ultimate owner of the memory exposes a writeable buffer interface, or is a
string. (The exception for string is made so that unpickling can be done without copying memory.)
Parameters
write : bool, optional
Describes whether or not a can be written to.
align : bool, optional
Describes whether or not a is aligned properly for its type.
uic : bool, optional
Describes whether or not a is a copy of another base array.
Notes
Array flags provide information about how the memory area used for the array is to be interpreted. There
are 6 Boolean flags in use, only three of which can be changed by the user: UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED.
WRITEABLE (W) the data area can be written to;
ALIGNED (A) the data and strides are aligned appropriately for the hardware (as determined by the compiler);
UPDATEIFCOPY (U) this array is a copy of some other array (referenced by .base). When this array is
deallocated, the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
All flags can be accessed using their first (upper case) letter as well as the full name.
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
F_CONTIGUOUS : False
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
UPDATEIFCOPY : False
>>> y.setflags(write=0, align=0)
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
>>> y.setflags(uic=1)
ValueError: cannot set UPDATEIFCOPY flag to True
28
ndarray.sort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Parameters
kind : {quicksort, mergesort, heapsort}, optional
Sorting algorithm. Default is quicksort.
See Also:
numpy.sort
Return a sorted copy of an array.
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
Indirect stable sort on multiple keys.
searchsorted
Find elements in sorted array.
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
See sort for notes on the different sorting algorithms.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
Use the order keyword to specify a field to use when sorting a structured array:
>>> a = np.array([(a, 2), (c, 1)], dtype=[(x, S1), (y, int)])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
ndarray.squeeze(axis=None)
Refer to numpy.squeeze for full documentation.
29
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
ndarray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)
Refer to numpy.std for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.std
equivalent function
ndarray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.sum for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.sum
equivalent function
ndarray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
Refer to numpy.swapaxes for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
ndarray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)
Refer to numpy.take for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.take
equivalent function
ndarray.tofile(fid, sep=, format=%s)
Data is always written in C order, independent of the order of a. The data produced by this method can
be recovered using the function fromfile().
Parameters
fid : file or str
An open file object, or a string containing a filename.
sep : str
Separator between array items for text output. If (empty), a binary file is written,
equivalent to file.write(a.tostring()).
30
format : str
Format string for text file output. Each entry in the array is formatted to text by first
converting it to the closest Python type, and then using format % item.
Notes
This is a convenience function for quick storage of array data. Information on endianness and precision
is lost, so this method is not a good choice for files intended to archive data or transport data between
machines with different endianness. Some of these problems can be overcome by outputting the data as
text files, at the expense of speed and file size.
ndarray.tolist()
Return a copy of the array data as a (nested) Python list. Data items are converted to the nearest compatible
Python type.
Parameters
none
Returns
y : list
The possibly nested list of array elements.
Notes
The array may be recreated, a = np.array(a.tolist()).
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
ndarray.tostring(order=C)
Constructs a Python string showing a copy of the raw contents of data memory. The string can be produced
in either C or Fortran, or Any order (the default is C-order). Any order means C-order unless the
F_CONTIGUOUS flag in the array is set, in which case it means Fortran order.
Parameters
order : {C, F, None}, optional
Order of the data for multidimensional arrays: C, Fortran, or the same as for the original
array.
Returns
s : str
A Python string exhibiting a copy of as raw data.
31
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> x.tostring()
\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x00\x00
>>> x.tostring(C) == x.tostring()
True
>>> x.tostring(F)
ndarray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

Refer to numpy.trace for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
ndarray.transpose(*axes)
For a 1-D array, this has no effect. (To change between column and row vectors, first cast the 1-D array into a matrix object.) For a 2-D array, this is the usual matrix transpose. For an n-D array, if axes
are given, their order indicates how the axes are permuted (see Examples). If axes are not provided
and a.shape = (i[0], i[1], ... i[n-2], i[n-1]), then a.transpose().shape
= (i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
Parameters
axes : None, tuple of ints, or n ints
None or no argument: reverses the order of the axes.
tuple of ints: i in the j-th place in the tuple means as i-th axis becomes a.transpose()s
j-th axis.
n ints: same as an n-tuple of the same ints (this form is intended simply as a convenience
alternative to the tuple form)
Returns
out : ndarray
View of a, with axes suitably permuted.
See Also:
ndarray.T
Array property returning the array transposed.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
>>> a.transpose((1, 0))
array([[1, 3],
32
[2, 4]])
>>> a.transpose(1, 0)
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
ndarray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)

Refer to numpy.var for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.var
equivalent function
ndarray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
Parameters
dtype : data-type or ndarray sub-class, optional
Data-type descriptor of the returned view, e.g., float32 or int16. The default, None,
results in the view having the same data-type as a. This argument can also be specified
as an ndarray sub-class, which then specifies the type of the returned object (this is
equivalent to setting the type parameter).
type : Python type, optional
Type of the returned view, e.g., ndarray or matrix. Again, the default None results in
type preservation.
Notes
a.view() is used two different ways:
a.view(some_dtype) or a.view(dtype=some_dtype) constructs a view of the arrays memory
with a different data-type. This can cause a reinterpretation of the bytes of memory.
a.view(ndarray_subclass) or a.view(type=ndarray_subclass) just returns an instance
of ndarray_subclass that looks at the same array (same shape, dtype, etc.) This does not cause a reinterpretation of the memory.
For a.view(some_dtype), if some_dtype has a different number of bytes per entry than the previous dtype (for example, converting a regular array to a structured array), then the behavior of the view
cannot be predicted just from the superficial appearance of a (shown by print(a)). It also depends on
exactly how a is stored in memory. Therefore if a is C-ordered versus fortran-ordered, versus defined as a
slice or transpose, etc., the view may give different results.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([(1, 2)], dtype=[(a, np.int8), (b, np.int8)])
Viewing array data using a different type and dtype:

>>> y = x.view(dtype=np.int16, type=np.matrix)
>>> y
matrix([[513]], dtype=int16)
>>> print type(y)
<class numpy.matrixlib.defmatrix.matrix>
33
Creating a view on a structured array so it can be used in calculations

>>> x = np.array([(1, 2),(3,4)], dtype=[(a, np.int8), (b, np.int8)])
>>> xv = x.view(dtype=np.int8).reshape(-1,2)
>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]], dtype=int8)
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
Making changes to the view changes the underlying array

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print x
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
Using a view to convert an array to a record array:

>>> z = x.view(np.recarray)
>>> z.a
array([1], dtype=int8)
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
Views that change the dtype size (bytes per entry) should normally be avoided on arrays defined by slices,
transposes, fortran-ordering, etc.:
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], dtype=np.int16)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> y.view(dtype=[(width, np.int16), (length, np.int16)])
ValueError: new type not compatible with array.
>>> z = y.copy()
>>> z.view(dtype=[(width, np.int16), (length, np.int16)])
array([[(1, 2)],
[(4, 5)]], dtype=[(width, <i2), (length, <i2)])
1.1.2 Indexing arrays

Arrays can be indexed using an extended Python slicing syntax, array[selection]. Similar syntax is also used
for accessing fields in a record array.
See Also:
Array Indexing.
1.1.3 Internal memory layout of an ndarray

An instance of class ndarray consists of a contiguous one-dimensional segment of computer memory (owned by the
array, or by some other object), combined with an indexing scheme that maps N integers into the location of an item
34
in the block. The ranges in which the indices can vary is specified by the shape of the array. How many bytes each
item takes and how the bytes are interpreted is defined by the data-type object associated with the array.
A segment of memory is inherently 1-dimensional, and there are many different schemes for arranging the items of
an N-dimensional array in a 1-dimensional block. Numpy is flexible, and ndarray objects can accommodate any
strided indexing scheme. In a strided scheme, the N-dimensional index (n0 , n1 , ..., nN 1 ) corresponds to the offset
(in bytes):
noffset =
N
1
X
sk nk
k=0
from the beginning of the memory block associated with the array. Here, sk are integers which specify the strides
of the array. The column-major order (used, for example, in the Fortran language and in Matlab) and row-major order
(used in C) schemes are just specific kinds of strided scheme, and correspond to memory that can be addressed by the
strides:
scolumn
=
k
k1
Y
j=0
dj ,
srow
=
k
N
1
Y
dj .
j=k+1
where dj = self.itemsize * self.shape[j].

Both the C and Fortran orders are contiguous, i.e., single-segment, memory layouts, in which every part of the memory
block can be accessed by some combination of the indices.
While a C-style and Fortran-style contiguous array, which has the corresponding flags set, can be addressed with the
above strides, the actual strides may be different. This can happen in two cases:
1. If self.shape[k] == 1 then for any legal index index[k] == 0. This means that in the formula for
the offset nk = 0 and thus sk nk = 0 and the value of sk = self.strides[k] is arbitrary.
2. If an array has no elements (self.size == 0) there is no legal index and the strides are never used. Any
array with no elements may be considered C-style and Fortran-style contiguous.
Point 1. means that selfand self.squeeze() always have the same contiguity and aligned flags value.
This also means that even a high dimensional array could be C-style and Fortran-style contiguous at the same time.
An array is considered aligned if the memory offsets for all elements and the base offset itself is a multiple of
self.itemsize.
Note: Points (1) and (2) are not yet applied by default. Beginning with Numpy 1.8.0, they are applied consistently
only if the environment variable NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING=1 was defined when NumPy was built.
Eventually this will become the default.
You can check whether this option was enabled when your NumPy was built by looking at the value of
np.ones((10,1), order=C).flags.f_contiguous. If this is True, then your NumPy has relaxed
strides checking enabled.
Warning: It does not generally hold that self.strides[-1] == self.itemsize for C-style contiguous
arrays or self.strides[0] == self.itemsize for Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.
Data in new ndarrays is in the row-major (C) order, unless otherwise specified, but, for example, basic array slicing
often produces views in a different scheme.
Note: Several algorithms in NumPy work on arbitrarily strided arrays. However, some algorithms require singlesegment arrays. When an irregularly strided array is passed in to such algorithms, a copy is automatically made.
35
1.1.4 Array attributes

Array attributes reflect information that is intrinsic to the array itself. Generally, accessing an array through its attributes allows you to get and sometimes set intrinsic properties of the array without creating a new array. The exposed
attributes are the core parts of an array and only some of them can be reset meaningfully without creating a new array.
Information on each attribute is given below.
Memory layout
The following attributes contain information about the memory layout of the array:
ndarray.flags
ndarray.shape
ndarray.strides
ndarray.ndim
ndarray.data
ndarray.size
ndarray.itemsize
ndarray.nbytes
ndarray.base

ndarray.flags
Notes
The flags object can be accessed dictionary-like (as in a.flags[WRITEABLE]), or by using lowercased
attribute names (as in a.flags.writeable). Short flag names are only supported in dictionary access.
Only the UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED flags can be changed by the user, via direct assignment to the attribute or dictionary entry, or by calling ndarray.setflags.
WRITEABLE can only be set True if the array owns its own memory or the ultimate owner of the memory
exposes a writeable buffer interface or is a string.
Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional arrays,
but can also be true for higher dimensional arrays.
self.strides[-1] == self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0] ==
self.itemsize for Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.
36
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
(F)
OWNDATA The array owns the memory it uses or borrows it from another object.
(O)
WRITEThe data area can be written to. Setting this to False locks the data, making it read-only. A
ABLE
view (slice, etc.) inherits WRITEABLE from its base array at creation time, but a view of a
(W)
writeable array may be subsequently locked while the base array remains writeable. (The
opposite is not true, in that a view of a locked array may not be made writeable. However,
currently, locking a base object does not lock any views that already reference it, so under
that circumstance it is possible to alter the contents of a locked array via a previously
created writeable view onto it.) Attempting to change a non-writeable array raises a
RuntimeError exception.
ALIGNED
(A)
UPDATEIF- This array is a copy of some other array. When this array is deallocated, the base array will
COPY
be updated with the contents of this array.
(U)
FNC
FORC
BEHAVED
ALIGNED and WRITEABLE.
(B)
CARRAY
(CA)
FARRAY
(FA)
ndarray.shape
Notes
May be used to reshape the array, as long as this would not require a change in the total number of elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
ValueError: total size of new array must be
0.],
0.],
0.]])
unchanged
ndarray.strides
37
See Also:
Notes
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
This array is stored in memory as 40 bytes, one after the other (known as a contiguous block of memory). The
strides of an array tell us how many bytes we have to skip in memory to move to the next position along a certain
axis. For example, we have to skip 4 bytes (1 value) to move to the next column, but 20 bytes (5 values) to get
to the same position in the next row. As such, the strides for the array x will be (20, 4).
Examples
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
17
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
813
ndarray.ndim
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
3
38
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
x.ndim
y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
y.ndim
ndarray.data
ndarray.size
Examples
>>> x.size
30
30
ndarray.itemsize
Examples
>>>
>>>
8
>>>
>>>
16
x.itemsize
x.itemsize
ndarray.nbytes
Notes
Examples
>>> x.nbytes
480
480
ndarray.base
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
39
Data type
See Also:
Data type objects
The data type object associated with the array can be found in the dtype attribute:
ndarray.dtype
ndarray.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
Other attributes
ndarray.T
ndarray.real
ndarray.imag
ndarray.flat
ndarray.ctypes
__array_priority__

ndarray.T
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
40
array([ 1.,
>>> x.T
array([ 1.,
2.,
3.,
4.])
2.,
3.,
4.])
ndarray.real
See Also:
numpy.real
equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.real
array([ 1.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype(float64)
ndarray.imag
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.imag
array([ 0.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype(float64)
ndarray.flat
This is a numpy.flatiter instance, which acts similarly to, but is not a subclass of, Pythons built-in iterator
object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
41
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
ndarray.ctypes
This attribute creates an object that makes it easier to use arrays when calling shared libraries with the ctypes
module. The returned object has, among others, data, shape, and strides attributes (see Notes below) which
themselves return ctypes objects that can be used as arguments to a shared library.
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
Below are the public attributes of this object which were documented in Guide to NumPy (we have omitted
undocumented public attributes, as well as documented private attributes):
data: A pointer to the memory area of the array as a Python integer. This memory area may contain data
that is not aligned, or not in correct byte-order. The memory area may not even be writeable. The array
flags and data-type of this array should be respected when passing this attribute to arbitrary C-code to avoid
trouble that can include Python crashing. User Beware! The value of this attribute is exactly the same as
self._array_interface_[data][0].
shape (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the C-integer corresponding to dtype(p) on this platform. This base-type could be c_int, c_long, or c_longlong depending
on the platform. The c_intp type is defined accordingly in numpy.ctypeslib. The ctypes array contains the
shape of the underlying array.
strides (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the same as for the
shape attribute. This ctypes array contains the strides information from the underlying array. This strides
information is important for showing how many bytes must be jumped to get to the next element in the
array.
self._as_parameter_ is equivalent to self.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p). Perhaps you want to use the data as
a pointer to a ctypes array of floating-point data: self.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_double)).
42
For example:
strides_as(obj): Return the strides tuple as an array of some other c-types type.
For example:
example, calling (a+b).ctypes.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p) returns a pointer to memory that is
invalid because the array created as (a+b) is deallocated before the next Python statement. You can avoid this
problem using either c=a+b or ct=(a+b).ctypes. In the latter case, ct will hold a reference to the array
until ct is deleted or re-assigned.
If the ctypes module is not available, then the ctypes attribute of array objects still returns something useful, but
ctypes objects are not returned and errors may be raised instead. In particular, the object will still have the as
parameter attribute which will return an integer equal to the data attribute.
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
Array interface
See Also:
The Array Interface.
__array_interface__
__array_struct__
Python-side of the array interface

C-side of the array interface
ctypes foreign function interface

ndarray.ctypes
ndarray.ctypes
Parameters
None
43
Returns
c : Python object
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
array.
For example:
For example:
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
44
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
1.1.5 Array methods

An ndarray object has many methods which operate on or with the array in some fashion, typically returning an
array result. These methods are briefly explained below. (Each methods docstring has a more complete description.)
For the following methods there are also corresponding functions in numpy: all, any, argmax, argmin,
argpartition, argsort, choose, clip, compress, copy, cumprod, cumsum, diagonal, imag,
max, mean, min, nonzero, partition, prod, ptp, put, ravel, real, repeat, reshape, round,
searchsorted, sort, squeeze, std, sum, swapaxes, take, trace, transpose, var.
Array conversion
ndarray.item(*args)
ndarray.tolist()
ndarray.setasflat
ndarray.tostring([order])
ndarray.tofile(fid[, sep, format])
ndarray.dump(file)
ndarray.dumps()
ndarray.astype(dtype[, order, casting, ...])
ndarray.copy([order])
ndarray.view([dtype, type])
ndarray.getfield(dtype[, offset])
ndarray.setflags([write, align, uic])
ndarray.fill(value)

ndarray.item(*args)
Parameters
int_type: this argument is interpreted as a flat index into the array, specifying which element
to copy and return.
tuple of int_types: functions as does a single int_type argument, except that the argument is
45
interpreted as an nd-index into the array.

Returns
Notes
When the data type of a is longdouble or clongdouble, item() returns a scalar array object because there is no
available Python scalar that would not lose information. Void arrays return a buffer object for item(), unless
fields are defined, in which case a tuple is returned.
item is very similar to a[args], except, instead of an array scalar, a standard Python scalar is returned. This can
be useful for speeding up access to elements of the array and doing arithmetic on elements of the array using
Pythons optimized math.
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
ndarray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters
none
Returns
y : list
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
46
equivalent to but faster than a[args] = item. The item should be a scalar value and args must select a
single item in the array a.
Parameters
*args : Arguments
Notes
location in an ndarray, if you must do this. However, generally this is discouraged: among other problems,
it complicates the appearance of the code. Also, when using itemset (and item) inside a loop, be sure to
assign the methods to a local variable to avoid the attribute look-up at each loop iteration.
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
ndarray.tostring(order=C)
Parameters
array.
Returns
s : str
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> x.tostring()
True
47
>>> x.tostring(F)

Data is always written in C order, independent of the order of a. The data produced by this method can be
recovered using the function fromfile().
Parameters
fid : file or str
sep : str
format : str
Notes
This is a convenience function for quick storage of array data. Information on endianness and precision is lost,
so this method is not a good choice for files intended to archive data or transport data between machines with
different endianness. Some of these problems can be overcome by outputting the data as text files, at the expense
of speed and file size.
ndarray.dump(file)
Parameters
file : str
ndarray.dumps()
Returns the pickle of the array as a string. pickle.loads or numpy.loads will convert the string back to an array.
Parameters
None
ndarray.astype(dtype, order=K, casting=unsafe, subok=True, copy=True)
Parameters
Default is K.
48

allowed.
of a copy.
Returns
arr_t : ndarray
Raises
ComplexWarning
a.real.astype(t).
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
Toggle between low-endian and big-endian data representation by returning a byteswapped array, optionally
swapped in-place.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples
49

>>> map(hex, A)
[0x1, 0x100, 0x2233]
array([ 256,
1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x100, 0x1, 0x3322]

>>> A.byteswap()
array([ceg, fac],
dtype=|S3)
ndarray.copy(order=C)
Parameters
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
ndarray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
Parameters
50
type preservation.
Notes
a.view(some_dtype) or a.view(dtype=some_dtype) constructs a view of the arrays memory with
a different data-type. This can cause a reinterpretation of the bytes of memory.
a.view(ndarray_subclass) or a.view(type=ndarray_subclass) just returns an instance of
ndarray_subclass that looks at the same array (same shape, dtype, etc.) This does not cause a reinterpretation
of the memory.
For a.view(some_dtype), if some_dtype has a different number of bytes per entry than the previous
dtype (for example, converting a regular array to a structured array), then the behavior of the view cannot be
predicted just from the superficial appearance of a (shown by print(a)). It also depends on exactly how a
is stored in memory. Therefore if a is C-ordered versus fortran-ordered, versus defined as a slice or transpose,
etc., the view may give different results.
Examples

>>> y
>>> print type(y)

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print x
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]

>>> z.a
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
51
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
ndarray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
A field is a view of the array data with a given data-type. The values in the view are determined by the given
type and the offset into the current array in bytes. The offset needs to be such that the view dtype fits in the array
dtype; for example an array of dtype complex128 has 16-byte elements. If taking a view with a 32-bit integer (4
bytes), the offset needs to be between 0 and 12 bytes.
Parameters
array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
ndarray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

These Boolean-valued flags affect how numpy interprets the memory area used by a (see Notes below). The
ALIGNED flag can only be set to True if the data is actually aligned according to the type. The UPDATEIFCOPY flag can never be set to True. The flag WRITEABLE can only be set to True if the array owns its own
memory, or the ultimate owner of the memory exposes a writeable buffer interface, or is a string. (The exception
for string is made so that unpickling can be done without copying memory.)
52
Parameters
Notes
Array flags provide information about how the memory area used for the array is to be interpreted. There are
6 Boolean flags in use, only three of which can be changed by the user: UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and
ALIGNED.
UPDATEIFCOPY (U) this array is a copy of some other array (referenced by .base). When this array is deallocated, the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
ndarray.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
53
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
Shape manipulation
For reshape, resize, and transpose, the single tuple argument may be replaced with n integers which will be interpreted
as an n-tuple.
ndarray.reshape(shape[, order])
ndarray.resize(new_shape[, refcheck])
ndarray.flatten([order])
ndarray.ravel([order])
ndarray.squeeze([axis])

ndarray.reshape(shape, order=C)
See Also:
numpy.reshape
equivalent function
ndarray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Parameters
Returns
None
Raises
ValueError
must be changed.
SystemError
54
See Also:
resize
Notes
The purpose of the reference count check is to make sure you do not use this array as a buffer for another Python
object and then reallocate the memory. However, reference counts can increase in other ways so if you are sure
that you have not shared the memory for this array with another Python object, then you may safely set refcheck
to False.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=C)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=F)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
For a 1-D array, this has no effect. (To change between column and row vectors, first cast the 1-D array into a matrix object.) For a 2-D array, this is the usual matrix transpose. For an n-D array, if axes are given, their order in1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)
55
dicates how the axes are permuted (see Examples). If axes are not provided and a.shape = (i[0], i[1],
... i[n-2], i[n-1]), then a.transpose().shape = (i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1],
i[0]).
Parameters
tuple of ints: i in the j-th place in the tuple means as i-th axis becomes a.transpose()s j-th
axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
56

See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
ndarray.ravel([order ])
See Also:
numpy.ravel
equivalent function
ndarray.flat
ndarray.squeeze(axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
Item selection and manipulation
For array methods that take an axis keyword, it defaults to None. If axis is None, then the array is treated as a 1-D
array. Any other value for axis represents the dimension along which the operation should proceed.
ndarray.take(indices[, axis, out, mode])
ndarray.put(indices, values[, mode])
ndarray.repeat(repeats[, axis])
ndarray.choose(choices[, out, mode])
ndarray.sort([axis, kind, order])
ndarray.argsort([axis, kind, order])
ndarray.partition(kth[, axis, kind, order])
ndarray.argpartition(kth[, axis, kind, order])
ndarray.searchsorted(v[, side, sorter])
ndarray.nonzero()

Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that value of the element i
57
ndarray.compress(condition[, axis, out])

ndarray.diagonal([offset, axis1, axis2])

ndarray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)

See Also:
numpy.take
equivalent function
ndarray.put(indices, values, mode=raise)
See Also:
numpy.put
equivalent function
ndarray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
ndarray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=raise)
See Also:
numpy.choose
equivalent function
Parameters
58
See Also:
numpy.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
ndarray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

See Also:
numpy.argsort
equivalent function
ndarray.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)
Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that value of the element in kth position is in the position
it would be in a sorted array. All elements smaller than the kth element are moved before this element and all
equal or greater are moved behind it. The ordering of the elements in the two partitions is undefined. New in
version 1.8.0.
Parameters
59
See Also:
numpy.partition
argpartition
Indirect partition.
sort
Full sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
ndarray.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)

See Also:
numpy.argpartition
equivalent function
ndarray.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
60
ndarray.nonzero()
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
equivalent function
ndarray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.compress
equivalent function
ndarray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)
See Also:
numpy.diagonal
equivalent function
Calculation
Many of these methods take an argument named axis. In such cases,
If axis is None (the default), the array is treated as a 1-D array and the operation is performed over the entire
array. This behavior is also the default if self is a 0-dimensional array or array scalar. (An array scalar is
an instance of the types/classes float32, float64, etc., whereas a 0-dimensional array is an ndarray instance
containing precisely one array scalar.)
If axis is an integer, then the operation is done over the given axis (for each 1-D subarray that can be created
along the given axis).
Example of the axis argument
A 3-dimensional array of size 3 x 3 x 3, summed over each of its three axes
>>> x
array([[[ 0, 1, 2],
[ 3, 4, 5],
[ 6, 7, 8]],
[[ 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14],
[15, 16, 17]],
[[18, 19, 20],
[21, 22, 23],
[24, 25, 26]]])
>>> x.sum(axis=0)
array([[27, 30, 33],
[36, 39, 42],
61
[45, 48, 51]])

>>> # for sum, axis is the first keyword, so we may omit it,
>>> # specifying only its value
>>> x.sum(0), x.sum(1), x.sum(2)
(array([[27, 30, 33],
[36, 39, 42],
[45, 48, 51]]),
array([[ 9, 12, 15],
[36, 39, 42],
[63, 66, 69]]),
array([[ 3, 12, 21],
[30, 39, 48],
[57, 66, 75]]))
The parameter dtype specifies the data type over which a reduction operation (like summing) should take place. The
default reduce data type is the same as the data type of self. To avoid overflow, it can be useful to perform the reduction
using a larger data type.
For several methods, an optional out argument can also be provided and the result will be placed into the output array
given. The out argument must be an ndarray and have the same number of elements. It can have a different data
type in which case casting will be performed.
ndarray.argmax([axis, out])
ndarray.min([axis, out])
ndarray.argmin([axis, out])
ndarray.ptp([axis, out])
ndarray.clip(a_min, a_max[, out])
ndarray.conj()
ndarray.round([decimals, out])
ndarray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, dtype, out])
ndarray.sum([axis, dtype, out])
ndarray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out])
ndarray.mean([axis, dtype, out])
ndarray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ndarray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ndarray.prod([axis, dtype, out])
ndarray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out])
ndarray.all([axis, out])
ndarray.any([axis, out])

ndarray.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.argmax
equivalent function
ndarray.min(axis=None, out=None)
62
See Also:
numpy.amin
equivalent function
ndarray.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.argmin
equivalent function
ndarray.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.ptp
equivalent function
ndarray.clip(a_min, a_max, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
ndarray.conj()
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
ndarray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.around
equivalent function
ndarray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)
63
See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
ndarray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.sum
equivalent function
ndarray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.cumsum
equivalent function
ndarray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.mean
equivalent function
ndarray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)
See Also:
numpy.var
equivalent function
ndarray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)
See Also:
numpy.std
equivalent function
ndarray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
64
See Also:
numpy.prod
equivalent function
ndarray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.cumprod
equivalent function
ndarray.all(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.all
equivalent function
ndarray.any(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.any
equivalent function
1.1.6 Arithmetic and comparison operations

Arithmetic and comparison operations on ndarrays are defined as element-wise operations, and generally yield
ndarray objects as results.
Each of the arithmetic operations (+, -, *, /, //, %, divmod(), ** or pow(), <<, >>, &, ^, |, ~) and the
comparisons (==, <, >, <=, >=, !=) is equivalent to the corresponding universal function (or ufunc for short) in
Numpy. For more information, see the section on Universal Functions.
Comparison operators:
ndarray.__lt__
ndarray.__le__
ndarray.__gt__
ndarray.__ge__
ndarray.__eq__
ndarray.__ne__
x.__lt__(y) <==> x<y

x.__le__(y) <==> x<=y
x.__gt__(y) <==> x>y
x.__ge__(y) <==> x>=y
x.__eq__(y) <==> x==y
x.__ne__(y) <==> x!=y
ndarray.__lt__
x.__lt__(y) <==> x<y
ndarray.__le__
65
x.__le__(y) <==> x<=y

ndarray.__gt__
x.__gt__(y) <==> x>y
ndarray.__ge__
x.__ge__(y) <==> x>=y
ndarray.__eq__
x.__eq__(y) <==> x==y
ndarray.__ne__
x.__ne__(y) <==> x!=y
Truth value of an array (bool):
ndarray.__nonzero__
x.__nonzero__() <==> x != 0
ndarray.__nonzero__
x.__nonzero__() <==> x != 0
Note: Truth-value testing of an array invokes ndarray.__nonzero__, which raises an error if the number of
elements in the the array is larger than 1, because the truth value of such arrays is ambiguous. Use .any() and
.all() instead to be clear about what is meant in such cases. (If the number of elements is 0, the array evaluates to
False.)
Unary operations:
ndarray.__neg__
ndarray.__pos__
ndarray.__abs__() <==> abs(x)
ndarray.__invert__
x.__neg__() <==> -x
x.__pos__() <==> +x
x.__invert__() <==> ~x
ndarray.__neg__
x.__neg__() <==> -x
ndarray.__pos__
x.__pos__() <==> +x
ndarray.__abs__() <==> abs(x)
ndarray.__invert__
x.__invert__() <==> ~x
Arithmetic:
ndarray.__add__
ndarray.__sub__
ndarray.__mul__
ndarray.__div__
ndarray.__truediv__
ndarray.__floordiv__
ndarray.__mod__
ndarray.__divmod__(y) <==> divmod(x, y)
x.__add__(y) <==> x+y

x.__sub__(y) <==> x-y
x.__mul__(y) <==> x*y
x.__div__(y) <==> x/y
x.__truediv__(y) <==> x/y
x.__floordiv__(y) <==> x//y
x.__mod__(y) <==> x%y
Continued on next page
66

ndarray.__pow__(y[, z]) <==> pow(x, y[, z])
ndarray.__lshift__
x.__lshift__(y) <==> x<<y
ndarray.__rshift__
x.__rshift__(y) <==> x>>y
ndarray.__and__
x.__and__(y) <==> x&y
ndarray.__or__
x.__or__(y) <==> x|y
ndarray.__xor__
x.__xor__(y) <==> x^y
ndarray.__add__
x.__add__(y) <==> x+y
ndarray.__sub__
x.__sub__(y) <==> x-y
ndarray.__mul__
x.__mul__(y) <==> x*y
ndarray.__div__
x.__div__(y) <==> x/y
ndarray.__truediv__
x.__truediv__(y) <==> x/y
ndarray.__floordiv__
x.__floordiv__(y) <==> x//y
ndarray.__mod__
x.__mod__(y) <==> x%y
ndarray.__divmod__(y) <==> divmod(x, y)
ndarray.__pow__(y[, z]) <==> pow(x, y[, z])
ndarray.__lshift__
ndarray.__rshift__
ndarray.__and__
x.__and__(y) <==> x&y
ndarray.__or__
x.__or__(y) <==> x|y
ndarray.__xor__
x.__xor__(y) <==> x^y
Note:
Any third argument to pow is silently ignored, as the underlying ufunc takes only two arguments.
The three division operators are all defined; div is active by default, truediv is active when __future__
division is in effect.
Because ndarray is a built-in type (written in C), the __r{op}__ special methods are not directly defined.
The functions called to implement many arithmetic special methods for arrays can be modified using
set_numeric_ops.
67
Arithmetic, in-place:
ndarray.__iadd__
ndarray.__isub__
ndarray.__imul__
ndarray.__idiv__
ndarray.__itruediv__
ndarray.__ifloordiv__
ndarray.__imod__
ndarray.__ipow__
ndarray.__ilshift__
ndarray.__irshift__
ndarray.__iand__
ndarray.__ior__
ndarray.__ixor__
x.__iadd__(y) <==> x+=y

x.__isub__(y) <==> x-=y
x.__imul__(y) <==> x*=y
x.__idiv__(y) <==> x/=y
x.__itruediv__(y) <==> x/y
x.__ifloordiv__(y) <==> x//y
x.__imod__(y) <==> x%=y
x.__ipow__(y) <==> x**=y
x.__ilshift__(y) <==> x<<=y
x.__irshift__(y) <==> x>>=y
x.__iand__(y) <==> x&=y
x.__ior__(y) <==> x|=y
x.__ixor__(y) <==> x^=y
ndarray.__iadd__
x.__iadd__(y) <==> x+=y
ndarray.__isub__
x.__isub__(y) <==> x-=y
ndarray.__imul__
x.__imul__(y) <==> x*=y
ndarray.__idiv__
x.__idiv__(y) <==> x/=y
ndarray.__itruediv__
x.__itruediv__(y) <==> x/y
ndarray.__ifloordiv__
x.__ifloordiv__(y) <==> x//y
ndarray.__imod__
x.__imod__(y) <==> x%=y
ndarray.__ipow__
x.__ipow__(y) <==> x**=y
ndarray.__ilshift__
ndarray.__irshift__
ndarray.__iand__
x.__iand__(y) <==> x&=y
ndarray.__ior__
x.__ior__(y) <==> x|=y
ndarray.__ixor__
x.__ixor__(y) <==> x^=y
68
Warning: In place operations will perform the calculation using the precision decided by the data type of the
two operands, but will silently downcast the result (if necessary) so it can fit back into the array. Therefore,
for mixed precision calculations, A {op}= B can be different than A = A {op} B. For example, suppose a =
ones((3,3)). Then, a += 3j is different than a = a + 3j: while they both perform the same computation,
a += 3 casts the result to fit back in a, whereas a = a + 3j re-binds the name a to the result.
1.1.7 Special methods

For standard library functions:
ndarray.__copy__([order])
ndarray.__deepcopy__(() -> Deep copy of array.)
ndarray.__reduce__()
ndarray.__setstate__(version, shape, dtype, ...)

Used if copy.deepcopy is called on an array.
For pickling.
For unpickling.
ndarray.__copy__([order ])
Parameters
If order is C (False) then the result is contiguous (default). If order is Fortran (True)
then the result has fortran order. If order is Any (None) then the result has fortran
order only if the array already is in fortran order.
ndarray.__deepcopy__() Deep copy of array.
Used if copy.deepcopy is called on an array.
ndarray.__reduce__()
For pickling.
ndarray.__setstate__(version, shape, dtype, isfortran, rawdata)
For unpickling.
Parameters
version : int
optional pickle version. If omitted defaults to 0.
shape : tuple
dtype : data-type
isFortran : bool
rawdata : string or list
a binary string with the data (or a list if a is an object array)
Basic customization:
ndarray.__new__((S, ...)
ndarray.__array__(...)
ndarray.__array_wrap__(...)
Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new array
static ndarray.__new__(S, ...) a new object with type S, a subtype of T
69
ndarray.__array__(|dtype) reference if type unchanged, copy otherwise.

Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new array of provided data type if dtype is
different from the current dtype of the array.
ndarray.__array_wrap__(obj) Object of same type as ndarray object a.
Container customization: (see Indexing)
ndarray.__len__() <==> len(x)
ndarray.__getitem__
ndarray.__setitem__
ndarray.__getslice__
ndarray.__setslice__
ndarray.__contains__
x.__getitem__(y) <==> x[y]

x.__setitem__(i, y) <==> x[i]=y
x.__getslice__(i, j) <==> x[i:j]
x.__setslice__(i, j, y) <==> x[i:j]=y
x.__contains__(y) <==> y in x
ndarray.__len__() <==> len(x)

ndarray.__getitem__
ndarray.__setitem__
ndarray.__getslice__
Use of negative indices is not supported.
ndarray.__setslice__
x.__setslice__(i, j, y) <==> x[i:j]=y
Use of negative indices is not supported.
ndarray.__contains__
Conversion; the operations complex, int, long, float, oct, and hex. They work only on arrays that have one
element in them and return the appropriate scalar.
ndarray.__int__() <==> int(x)
ndarray.__long__() <==> long(x)
ndarray.__float__() <==> float(x)
ndarray.__oct__() <==> oct(x)
ndarray.__hex__() <==> hex(x)
ndarray.__int__() <==> int(x)

ndarray.__long__() <==> long(x)
ndarray.__float__() <==> float(x)
ndarray.__oct__() <==> oct(x)
70
ndarray.__hex__() <==> hex(x)

String representations:
ndarray.__str__() <==> str(x)
ndarray.__repr__() <==> repr(x)
ndarray.__str__() <==> str(x)

ndarray.__repr__() <==> repr(x)
1.2 Scalars
Python defines only one type of a particular data class (there is only one integer type, one floating-point type, etc.).
This can be convenient in applications that dont need to be concerned with all the ways data can be represented in a
computer. For scientific computing, however, more control is often needed.
In NumPy, there are 24 new fundamental Python types to describe different types of scalars. These type descriptors
are mostly based on the types available in the C language that CPython is written in, with several additional types
compatible with Pythons types.
Array scalars have the same attributes and methods as ndarrays. 1 This allows one to treat items of an array partly
on the same footing as arrays, smoothing out rough edges that result when mixing scalar and array operations.
Array scalars live in a hierarchy (see the Figure below) of data types. They can be detected using the hierarchy:
For example, isinstance(val, np.generic) will return True if val is an array scalar object. Alternatively,
what kind of array scalar is present can be determined using other members of the data type hierarchy. Thus, for
example isinstance(val, np.complexfloating) will return True if val is a complex valued type, while
isinstance(val, np.flexible) will return true if val is one of the flexible itemsize array types (string,
unicode, void).
1.2.1 Built-in scalar types

The built-in scalar types are shown below. Along with their (mostly) C-derived names, the integer, float, and complex
data-types are also available using a bit-width convention so that an array of the right size can always be ensured (e.g.
int8, float64, complex128). Two aliases (intp and uintp) pointing to the integer type that is sufficiently
large to hold a C pointer are also provided. The C-like names are associated with character codes, which are shown in
the table. Use of the character codes, however, is discouraged.
Some of the scalar types are essentially equivalent to fundamental Python types and therefore inherit from them as
well as from the generic array scalar type:
Array scalar type
int_
float_
complex_
str_
unicode_
1
Related Python type

IntType (Python 2 only)
FloatType
ComplexType
StringType
UnicodeType
However, array scalars are immutable, so none of the array scalar attributes are settable.
1.2. Scalars
71
Figure 1.2: Figure: Hierarchy of type objects representing the array data types. Not shown are the two integer types
intp and uintp which just point to the integer type that holds a pointer for the platform. All the number types can
be obtained using bit-width names as well.
72
The bool_ data type is very similar to the Python BooleanType but does not inherit from it because Pythons
BooleanType does not allow itself to be inherited from, and on the C-level the size of the actual bool data is not the
same as a Python Boolean scalar.
Warning: The bool_ type is not a subclass of the int_ type (the bool_ is not even a number type). This is
different than Pythons default implementation of bool as a sub-class of int.
Warning: The int_ type does not inherit from the int built-in under Python 3, because type int is no longer
a fixed-width integer type.
Tip: The default data type in Numpy is float_.

In the tables below, platform? means that the type may not be available on all platforms. Compatibility with
different C or Python types is indicated: two types are compatible if their data is of the same size and interpreted in
the same way.
Booleans:
Type
bool_
bool8
Remarks
compatible: Python bool
8 bits
Character code
?
Integers:
byte
short
intc
int_
longlong
intp
int8
int16
int32
int64
compatible: C char
compatible: C short
compatible: C int
compatible: Python int
compatible: C long long
large enough to fit a pointer
8 bits
16 bits
32 bits
64 bits
b
h
i
l
q
p
Unsigned integers:
ubyte
ushort
uintc
uint
ulonglong
uintp
uint8
uint16
uint32
uint64
compatible: C unsigned char

compatible: C unsigned short
compatible: C unsigned int
compatible: Python int
compatible: C long long
large enough to fit a pointer
8 bits
16 bits
32 bits
64 bits
B
H
I
L
Q
P
Floating-point numbers:
1.2. Scalars
73
half
single
double
float_
longfloat
float16
float32
float64
float96
float128
compatible: C float
compatible: C double
compatible: Python float
compatible: C long float
16 bits
32 bits
64 bits
96 bits, platform?
128 bits, platform?
e
f
d
g
Complex floating-point numbers:

csingle
complex_
clongfloat
complex64
complex128
complex192
complex256
compatible: Python complex
F
D
G
two 32-bit floats

two 64-bit floats
two 96-bit floats, platform?
two 128-bit floats, platform?
Any Python object:

any Python object
object_
Note: The data actually stored in object arrays (i.e., arrays having dtype object_) are references to Python objects,
not the objects themselves. Hence, object arrays behave more like usual Python lists, in the sense that their contents
need not be of the same Python type.
The object type is also special because an array containing object_ items does not return an object_ object on
item access, but instead returns the actual object that the array item refers to.
The following data types are flexible. They have no predefined size: the data they describe can be of different length
in different arrays. (In the character codes # is an integer denoting how many elements the data type consists of.)
str_
unicode_
void
compatible: Python str

compatible: Python unicode
S#
U#
V#
Warning: Numeric Compatibility: If you used old typecode characters in your Numeric code (which was never
recommended), you will need to change some of them to the new characters. In particular, the needed changes
are c -> S1, b -> B, 1 -> b, s -> h, w -> H, and u -> I. These changes make the type character
convention more consistent with other Python modules such as the struct module.
1.2.2 Attributes
The array scalar objects have an array priority of NPY_SCALAR_PRIORITY (-1,000,000.0). They also do
not (yet) have a ctypes attribute. Otherwise, they share the same attributes as arrays:
generic.flags
generic.shape
generic.strides
generic.ndim
74
integer value of flags

tuple of array dimensions
tuple of bytes steps in each dimension
number of array dimensions

generic.data
pointer to start of data
generic.size
number of elements in the gentype
generic.itemsize
length of one element in bytes
generic.base
base object
generic.dtype
get array data-descriptor
generic.real
real part of scalar
generic.imag
imaginary part of scalar
generic.flat
a 1-d view of scalar
generic.T
transpose
generic.__array_interface__ Array protocol: Python side
generic.__array_struct__
Array protocol: struct
generic.__array_priority__
Array priority.
generic.__array_wrap__
sc.__array_wrap__(obj) return scalar from array
generic.flags
generic.shape
generic.strides
generic.ndim
generic.data
generic.size
generic.itemsize
generic.base
base object
generic.dtype
generic.real
real part of scalar
generic.imag
generic.flat
generic.T
transpose
generic.__array_interface__
Array protocol: Python side
generic.__array_struct__
Array protocol: struct
1.2. Scalars
75
generic.__array_priority__
Array priority.
generic.__array_wrap__()
1.2.3 Indexing
See Also:
Indexing, Data type objects (dtype)
Array scalars can be indexed like 0-dimensional arrays: if x is an array scalar,
x[()] returns a 0-dimensional ndarray
x[field-name] returns the array scalar in the field field-name. (x can have fields, for example, when it
corresponds to a record data type.)
1.2.4 Methods
Array scalars have exactly the same methods as arrays. The default behavior of these methods is to internally convert
the scalar to an equivalent 0-dimensional array and to call the corresponding array method. In addition, math operations
on array scalars are defined so that the same hardware flags are set and used to interpret the results as for ufunc, so that
the error state used for ufuncs also carries over to the math on array scalars.
The exceptions to the above rules are given below:
generic
generic.__array__
generic.__array_wrap__
generic.squeeze
generic.byteswap
generic.__reduce__
generic.__setstate__
generic.setflags
Base class for numpy scalar types.

sc.__array__(|type) return 0-dim array
Not implemented (virtual attribute)
class numpy.generic
Base class for numpy scalar types.
Class from which most (all?) numpy scalar types are derived. For consistency, exposes the same API as
ndarray, despite many consequent attributes being either get-only, or completely irrelevant. This is the
class from which it is strongly suggested users should derive custom scalar types.
Attributes
T
base
data
dtype
flags
flat
imag
76
transpose
base object

itemsize length of one element in bytes
nbytes
length of item in bytes
ndim
real
real part of scalar
shape
size
strides
generic.T
transpose
generic.base
base object
generic.data
generic.dtype
generic.flags
generic.flat
generic.imag
generic.itemsize
generic.nbytes
generic.ndim
generic.real
real part of scalar
generic.shape
generic.size
generic.strides
Methods
all
any
argmax
argmin
argsort
1.2. Scalars

77

astype
byteswap
choose
clip
compress
conj
conjugate
copy
cumprod
cumsum
diagonal
dump
dumps
fill
flatten
getfield
item
itemset
max
mean
min
newbyteorder([new_order]) Return a new dtype with a different byte order.
nonzero
prod
ptp
put
ravel
repeat
reshape
resize
round
searchsorted
setfield
setflags
sort
squeeze
std
sum
swapaxes
take
tofile
tolist
tostring
trace
transpose
var
view
generic.all()
78
Class generic exists solely to derive numpy scalars from, and possesses, albeit unimplemented, all the
attributes of the ndarray class so as to provide a uniform API.
See Also:
The
generic.any()
See Also:
The
generic.argmax()
See Also:
The
generic.argmin()
See Also:
The
generic.argsort()
See Also:
The
generic.astype()
See Also:
The
generic.byteswap()
See Also:
The
1.2. Scalars
79
generic.choose()
See Also:
The
generic.clip()
See Also:
The
generic.compress()
See Also:
The
generic.conj()
generic.conjugate()
See Also:
The
generic.copy()
See Also:
The
generic.cumprod()
See Also:
The
generic.cumsum()
80
See Also:
The
generic.diagonal()
See Also:
The
generic.dump()
See Also:
The
generic.dumps()
See Also:
The
generic.fill()
See Also:
The
generic.flatten()
See Also:
The
generic.getfield()
See Also:
The
1.2. Scalars
81
generic.item()
See Also:
The
generic.itemset()
See Also:
The
generic.max()
See Also:
The
generic.mean()
See Also:
The
generic.min()
See Also:
The
generic.newbyteorder(new_order=S)
Return a new dtype with a different byte order.
Changes are also made in all fields and sub-arrays of the data type.
The new_order code can be any from the following:
{<, L} - little endian
{>, B} - big endian
{=, N} - native order
S - swap dtype from current to opposite endian
{|, I} - ignore (no change to byte order)
82
Parameters
new_order : str, optional
Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications above. The default value
(S) results in swapping the current byte order. The code does a case-insensitive check
on the first letter of new_order for the alternatives above. For example, any of B or b
or biggish are valid to specify big-endian.
Returns
new_dtype : dtype
New dtype object with the given change to the byte order.
generic.nonzero()
See Also:
The
generic.prod()
See Also:
The
generic.ptp()
See Also:
The
generic.put()
See Also:
The
generic.ravel()
See Also:
The
generic.repeat()
1.2. Scalars
83
See Also:
The
generic.reshape()
See Also:
The
generic.resize()
See Also:
The
generic.round()
See Also:
The
generic.searchsorted()
See Also:
The
generic.setfield()
See Also:
The
generic.setflags()
See Also:
The
84
generic.sort()
See Also:
The
generic.squeeze()
See Also:
The
generic.std()
See Also:
The
generic.sum()
See Also:
The
generic.swapaxes()
See Also:
The
generic.take()
See Also:
The
generic.tofile()
See Also:
1.2. Scalars
85
The
generic.tolist()
See Also:
The
generic.tostring()
See Also:
The
generic.trace()
See Also:
The
generic.transpose()
See Also:
The
generic.var()
See Also:
The
generic.view()
See Also:
The
generic.__array__()
sc.__array__(|type) return 0-dim array
generic.__array_wrap__()
86
generic.squeeze()
Class generic exists solely to derive numpy scalars from, and possesses, albeit unimplemented, all the attributes
of the ndarray class so as to provide a uniform API.
See Also:
The
generic.byteswap()
See Also:
The
generic.__reduce__()
generic.__setstate__()
generic.setflags()
See Also:
The
1.2.5 Defining new types

There are two ways to effectively define a new array scalar type (apart from composing record dtypes from the built-in
scalar types): One way is to simply subclass the ndarray and overwrite the methods of interest. This will work to a
degree, but internally certain behaviors are fixed by the data type of the array. To fully customize the data type of an
array you need to define a new data-type, and register it with NumPy. Such new types can only be defined in C, using
the Numpy C-API.
1.3 Data type objects (dtype)

A data type object (an instance of numpy.dtype class) describes how the bytes in the fixed-size block of memory
corresponding to an array item should be interpreted. It describes the following aspects of the data:
1. Type of the data (integer, float, Python object, etc.)
2. Size of the data (how many bytes is in e.g. the integer)
3. Byte order of the data (little-endian or big-endian)
4. If the data type is a record, an aggregate of other data types, (e.g., describing an array item consisting of an
integer and a float),
(a) what are the names of the fields of the record, by which they can be accessed,
(b) what is the data-type of each field, and
1.3. Data type objects (dtype)
87
(c) which part of the memory block each field takes.

5. If the data type is a sub-array, what is its shape and data type.
To describe the type of scalar data, there are several built-in scalar types in Numpy for various precision of integers,
floating-point numbers, etc. An item extracted from an array, e.g., by indexing, will be a Python object whose type is
the scalar type associated with the data type of the array.
Note that the scalar types are not dtype objects, even though they can be used in place of one whenever a data type
specification is needed in Numpy.
Struct data types are formed by creating a data type whose fields contain other data types. Each field has a name by
which it can be accessed. The parent data type should be of sufficient size to contain all its fields; the parent is nearly
always based on the void type which allows an arbitrary item size. Struct data types may also contain nested struct
sub-array data types in their fields.
Finally, a data type can describe items that are themselves arrays of items of another data type. These sub-arrays must,
however, be of a fixed size.
If an array is created using a data-type describing a sub-array, the dimensions of the sub-array are appended to the
shape of the array when the array is created. Sub-arrays in a field of a record behave differently, see Record Access.
Sub-arrays always have a C-contiguous memory layout.
Example
A simple data type containing a 32-bit big-endian integer: (see Specifying and constructing data types for details on
construction)
>>> dt = np.dtype(>i4)
>>> dt.byteorder
>
>>> dt.itemsize
4
>>> dt.name
int32
>>> dt.type is np.int32
True
The corresponding array scalar type is int32.
Example
A record data type containing a 16-character string (in field name) and a sub-array of two 64-bit floating-point
number (in field grades):
>>> dt = np.dtype([(name, np.str_, 16), (grades, np.float64, (2,))])
>>> dt[name]
dtype(|S16)
>>> dt[grades]
dtype((float64,(2,)))
Items of an array of this data type are wrapped in an array scalar type that also has two fields:
>>> x = np.array([(Sarah, (8.0, 7.0)), (John, (6.0, 7.0))], dtype=dt)
>>> x[1]
(John, [6.0, 7.0])
>>> x[1][grades]
array([ 6., 7.])
>>> type(x[1])
88
<type numpy.void>
>>> type(x[1][grades])
1.3.1 Specifying and constructing data types

Whenever a data-type is required in a NumPy function or method, either a dtype object or something that can be
converted to one can be supplied. Such conversions are done by the dtype constructor:
dtype
Create a data type object.
class numpy.dtype
A numpy array is homogeneous, and contains elements described by a dtype object. A dtype object can be
constructed from different combinations of fundamental numeric types.
Parameters
obj
Object to be converted to a data type object.
Add padding to the fields to match what a C compiler would output for a similar Cstruct. Can be True only if obj is a dictionary or a comma-separated string. If a struct
dtype is being created, this also sets a sticky alignment flag isalignedstruct.
Make a new copy of the data-type object. If False, the result may just be a reference
to a built-in data-type object.
See Also:
result_type
Examples
Using array-scalar type:
>>> np.dtype(np.int16)
dtype(int16)
Record, one field name f1, containing int16:

>>> np.dtype([(f1, np.int16)])
dtype([(f1, <i2)])
Record, one field named f1, in itself containing a record with one field:
>>> np.dtype([(f1, [(f1, np.int16)])])
dtype([(f1, [(f1, <i2)])])
Record, two fields: the first field contains an unsigned int, the second an int32:
>>> np.dtype([(f1, np.uint), (f2, np.int32)])
dtype([(f1, <u4), (f2, <i4)])
89
Using array-protocol type strings:

>>> np.dtype([(a,f8),(b,S10)])
dtype([(a, <f8), (b, |S10)])
Using comma-separated field formats. The shape is (2,3):

>>> np.dtype("i4, (2,3)f8")
dtype([(f0, <i4), (f1, <f8, (2, 3))])
Using tuples. int is a fixed type, 3 the fields shape. void is a flexible type, here of size 10:
>>> np.dtype([(hello,(np.int,3)),(world,np.void,10)])
dtype([(hello, <i4, 3), (world, |V10)])
Subdivide int16 into 2 int8s, called x and y. 0 and 1 are the offsets in bytes:
>>> np.dtype((np.int16, {x:(np.int8,0), y:(np.int8,1)}))
dtype((<i2, [(x, |i1), (y, |i1)]))
Using dictionaries. Two fields named gender and age:

>>> np.dtype({names:[gender,age], formats:[S1,np.uint8]})
dtype([(gender, |S1), (age, |u1)])
Offsets in bytes, here 0 and 25:

>>> np.dtype({surname:(S25,0),age:(np.uint8,25)})
dtype([(surname, |S25), (age, |u1)])
Attributes
base
descr
fields
hasobject
isalignedstruct
isbuiltin
isnative
metadata
name
names
shape
str
subdtype
Array-interface compliant full description of the data-type.

Dictionary of named fields defined for this data type, or None.
Boolean indicating whether this dtype contains any reference-counted objects in any fields or sub-dtypes.
Boolean indicating whether the dtype is a struct which maintains field alignment.
Integer indicating how this dtype relates to the built-in dtypes.
Boolean indicating whether the byte order of this dtype is native
A bit-width name for this data-type.
Ordered list of field names, or None if there are no fields.
Shape tuple of the sub-array if this data type describes a sub-array,
The array-protocol typestring of this data-type object.
Tuple (item_dtype, shape) if this dtype describes a sub-array, and
dtype.base
dtype.descr
The format is that required by the descr key in the __array_interface__ attribute.
dtype.fields
The dictionary is indexed by keys that are the names of the fields. Each entry in the dictionary is a tuple
90
fully describing the field:

(dtype, offset[, title])
If present, the optional title can be any object (if it is a string or unicode then it will also be a key in
the fields dictionary, otherwise its meta-data). Notice also that the first two elements of the tuple can be
passed directly as arguments to the ndarray.getfield and ndarray.setfield methods.
See Also:
ndarray.getfield, ndarray.setfield
Examples
>>> print dt.fields
{grades: (dtype((float64,(2,))), 16), name: (dtype(|S16), 0)}
dtype.hasobject
Recall that what is actually in the ndarray memory representing the Python object is the memory address
of that object (a pointer). Special handling may be required, and this attribute is useful for distinguishing
data types that may contain arbitrary Python objects and data-types that wont.
dtype.isalignedstruct
Boolean indicating whether the dtype is a struct which maintains field alignment. This flag is sticky, so
when combining multiple structs together, it is preserved and produces new dtypes which are also aligned.
dtype.isbuiltin
Read-only.
0
1
2
if this is a structured array type, with fields

if this is a dtype compiled into numpy (such as ints, floats etc)
if the dtype is for a user-defined numpy type A user-defined type uses the numpy C-API
machinery to extend numpy to handle a new array type. See user.user-defined-data-types in the
Numpy manual.
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
0
dt = np.dtype(i2)
dt.isbuiltin
dt = np.dtype(f8)
dt.isbuiltin
dt = np.dtype([(field1, f8)])
dt.isbuiltin
dtype.isnative
Boolean indicating whether the byte order of this dtype is native to the platform.
dtype.metadata
dtype.name
Un-sized flexible data-type objects do not have this attribute.
91
dtype.names
The names are ordered according to increasing byte offset. This can be used, for example, to walk through
all of the named fields in offset order.
Examples
>>> dt.names
(name, grades)
dtype.shape
Shape tuple of the sub-array if this data type describes a sub-array, and () otherwise.
dtype.str
dtype.subdtype
Tuple (item_dtype, shape) if this dtype describes a sub-array, and None otherwise.
The shape is the fixed shape of the sub-array described by this data type, and item_dtype the data type of
the array.
If a field whose dtype object has this attribute is retrieved, then the extra dimensions implied by shape are
tacked on to the end of the retrieved array.
Methods
dtype.newbyteorder(new_order=S)
Parameters
Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications below. The default value
(S) results in swapping the current byte order. new_order codes can be any of:
*
*
*
*
*
S {<,
{>,
{=,
{|,
swap
L}
B}
N}
I}

- little endian
- big endian
- native order
The code does a case-insensitive check on the first letter of new_order for these alternatives. For example, any of > or B or b or brian are valid to specify big-endian.
Returns
new_dtype : dtype
Notes
92
Examples
>>> import sys
>>> sys_is_le = sys.byteorder == little
>>> native_code = sys_is_le and < or >
>>> swapped_code = sys_is_le and > or <
>>> native_dt = np.dtype(native_code+i2)
>>> swapped_dt = np.dtype(swapped_code+i2)
>>> native_dt.newbyteorder(S) == swapped_dt
True
>>> native_dt.newbyteorder() == swapped_dt
True
>>> native_dt == swapped_dt.newbyteorder(S)
True
>>> native_dt == swapped_dt.newbyteorder(=)
True
>>> native_dt == swapped_dt.newbyteorder(N)
True
>>> native_dt == native_dt.newbyteorder(|)
True
>>> np.dtype(<i2) == native_dt.newbyteorder(<)
True
>>> np.dtype(<i2) == native_dt.newbyteorder(L)
True
>>> np.dtype(>i2) == native_dt.newbyteorder(>)
True
>>> np.dtype(>i2) == native_dt.newbyteorder(B)
True
What can be converted to a data-type object is described below:

dtype object
Used as-is.
None
The default data type: float_.
Array-scalar types
The 24 built-in array scalar type objects all convert to an associated data-type object. This is true for their
sub-classes as well.
Note that not all data-type information can be supplied with a type-object: for example, flexible data-types
have a default itemsize of 0, and require an explicitly given size to be useful.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype(np.int32)
# 32-bit integer
>>> dt = np.dtype(np.complex128) # 128-bit complex floating-point number
Generic types
The generic hierarchical type objects convert to corresponding type objects according to the associations:
93
number, inexact, floating

complexfloating
integer, signedinteger
unsignedinteger
character
generic, flexible
float
cfloat
int_
uint
string
void
Built-in Python types

Several python types are equivalent to a corresponding array scalar when used to generate a dtype object:
int
bool
float
complex
str
unicode
buffer
(all others)
int_
bool_
float_
cfloat
string
unicode_
void
object_
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype(float)
>>> dt = np.dtype(int)
>>> dt = np.dtype(object)
# Python-compatible floating-point number

# Python-compatible integer
# Python object
Types with .dtype

Any type object with a dtype attribute: The attribute will be accessed and used directly. The attribute
must return something that is convertible into a dtype object.
Several kinds of strings can be converted. Recognized strings can be prepended with > (big-endian), < (littleendian), or = (hardware-native, the default), to specify the byte order.
One-character strings
Each built-in data-type has a character code (the updated Numeric typecodes), that uniquely identifies it.
Example
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
dt
dt
dt
dt
=
=
=
=
np.dtype(b)
np.dtype(>H)
np.dtype(<f)
np.dtype(d)
#
#
#
#
byte, native byte order

big-endian unsigned short
little-endian single-precision float
double-precision floating-point number
Array-protocol type strings (see The Array Interface)

The first character specifies the kind of data and the remaining characters specify how many bytes of data.
The supported kinds are
b
i
u
f
c
S, a
U
V
94
Boolean
(signed) integer
unsigned integer
floating-point
complex-floating point
string
unicode
raw data (void)
Example
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
dt
dt
dt
dt
=
=
=
=
np.dtype(i4)
np.dtype(f8)
np.dtype(c16)
np.dtype(a25)
#
#
#
#
32-bit signed integer

64-bit floating-point number
128-bit complex floating-point number
25-character string
String with comma-separated fields

Numarray introduced a short-hand notation for specifying the format of a record as a comma-separated
string of basic formats.
A basic format in this context is an optional shape specifier followed by an array-protocol type string.
Parenthesis are required on the shape if it has more than one dimension. NumPy allows a modification
on the format in that any string that can uniquely identify the type can be used to specify the data-type
in a field. The generated data-type fields are named f0, f1, ..., f<N-1> where N (>1) is the
number of comma-separated basic formats in the string. If the optional shape specifier is provided, then
the data-type for the corresponding field describes a sub-array.
Example
field named f0 containing a 32-bit integer
field named f1 containing a 2 x 3 sub-array of 64-bit floating-point numbers
field named f2 containing a 32-bit floating-point number
>>> dt = np.dtype("i4, (2,3)f8, f4")
field named f0 containing a 3-character string

field named f1 containing a sub-array of shape (3,) containing 64-bit unsigned integers
field named f2 containing a 3 x 4 sub-array containing 10-character strings
>>> dt = np.dtype("a3, 3u8, (3,4)a10")
Type strings
Any string in numpy.sctypeDict.keys():
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype(uint32)
>>> dt = np.dtype(Float64)
# 32-bit unsigned integer

# 64-bit floating-point number
(flexible_dtype, itemsize)
The first argument must be an object that is converted to a zero-sized flexible data-type object, the second
argument is an integer providing the desired itemsize.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype((void, 10))
>>> dt = np.dtype((str, 35))
>>> dt = np.dtype((U, 10))
# 10-byte wide data block

# 35-character string
# 10-character unicode string
95
(fixed_dtype, shape)
The first argument is any object that can be converted into a fixed-size data-type object. The second
argument is the desired shape of this type. If the shape parameter is 1, then the data-type object is
equivalent to fixed dtype. If shape is a tuple, then the new dtype defines a sub-array of the given shape.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.int32, (2,2)))
# 2 x 2 integer sub-array
>>> dt = np.dtype((S10, 1))
# 10-character string
>>> dt = np.dtype((i4, (2,3)f8, f4, (2,3))) # 2 x 3 record sub-array
[(field_name, field_dtype, field_shape), ...]

obj should be a list of fields where each field is described by a tuple of length 2 or 3. (Equivalent to the
descr item in the __array_interface__ attribute.)
The first element, field_name, is the field name (if this is then a standard field name, f#, is assigned).
The field name may also be a 2-tuple of strings where the first string is either a title (which may be any
string or unicode string) or meta-data for the field which can be any object, and the second string is the
name which must be a valid Python identifier.
The second element, field_dtype, can be anything that can be interpreted as a data-type.
The optional third element field_shape contains the shape if this field represents an array of the data-type
in the second element. Note that a 3-tuple with a third argument equal to 1 is equivalent to a 2-tuple.
This style does not accept align in the dtype constructor as it is assumed that all of the memory is
accounted for by the array interface description.
Example
Data-type with fields big (big-endian 32-bit integer) and little (little-endian 32-bit integer):
>>> dt = np.dtype([(big, >i4), (little, <i4)])
Data-type with fields R, G, B, A, each being an unsigned 8-bit integer:

>>> dt = np.dtype([(R,u1), (G,u1), (B,u1), (A,u1)])
{names:
...}
..., formats:
..., offsets:
..., titles:
..., itemsize:
This style has two required and three optional keys. The names and formats keys are required. Their
respective values are equal-length lists with the field names and the field formats. The field names must
be strings and the field formats can be any object accepted by dtype constructor.
When the optional keys offsets and titles are provided, their values must each be lists of the same length
as the names and formats lists. The offsets value is a list of byte offsets (integers) for each field, while the
titles value is a list of titles for each field (None can be used if no title is desired for that field). The titles
can be any string or unicode object and will add another entry to the fields dictionary keyed by the
title and referencing the same field tuple which will contain the title as an additional tuple member.
The itemsize key allows the total size of the dtype to be set, and must be an integer large enough so all the
fields are within the dtype. If the dtype being constructed is aligned, the itemsize must also be divisible
by the struct alignment.
Example
96
Data type with fields r, g, b, a, each being a 8-bit unsigned integer:

>>> dt = np.dtype({names: [r,g,b,a],
...
formats: [uint8, uint8, uint8, uint8]})
Data type with fields r and b (with the given titles), both being 8-bit unsigned integers, the first at byte
position 0 from the start of the field and the second at position 2:
>>> dt = np.dtype({names: [r,b], formats: [u1, u1],
...
offsets: [0, 2],
...
titles: [Red pixel, Blue pixel]})
{field1:
..., field2:
..., ...}
This usage is discouraged, because it is ambiguous with the other dict-based construction method. If you
have a field called names and a field called formats there will be a conflict.
This style allows passing in the fields attribute of a data-type object.
obj should contain string or unicode keys that refer to (data-type, offset) or (data-type,
offset, title) tuples.
Example
Data type containing field col1 (10-character string at byte position 0), col2 (32-bit float at byte position 10), and col3 (integers at byte position 14):
>>> dt = np.dtype({col1: (S10, 0), col2: (float32, 10),
col3: (int, 14)})
(base_dtype, new_dtype)
This usage is discouraged. In NumPy 1.7 and later, it is possible to specify struct dtypes with overlapping
fields, functioning like the union type in C. The union mechanism is preferred.
Both arguments must be convertible to data-type objects in this case. The base_dtype is the data-type
object that the new data-type builds on. This is how you could assign named fields to any built-in datatype object.
Example
32-bit integer, whose first two bytes are interpreted as an integer via field real, and the following two
bytes via field imag.
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.int32,{real:(np.int16, 0),imag:(np.int16, 2)})
32-bit integer, which is interpreted as consisting of a sub-array of shape (4,) containing 8-bit integers:
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.int32, (np.int8, 4)))
32-bit integer, containing fields r, g, b, a that interpret the 4 bytes in the integer as four unsigned integers:
>>> dt = np.dtype((i4, [(r,u1),(g,u1),(b,u1),(a,u1)]))
1.3.2 dtype
Numpy data type descriptions are instances of the dtype class.
97
Attributes
The type of the data is described by the following dtype attributes:
dtype.type
dtype.kind
dtype.char
dtype.num
dtype.str
The type object used to instantiate a scalar of this data-type.

A character code (one of biufcSUV) identifying the general kind of data.
A unique character code for each of the 21 different built-in types.
A unique number for each of the 21 different built-in types.
dtype.type
The type object used to instantiate a scalar of this data-type.
dtype.kind
A character code (one of biufcSUV) identifying the general kind of data.
dtype.char
A unique character code for each of the 21 different built-in types.
dtype.num
A unique number for each of the 21 different built-in types.
These are roughly ordered from least-to-most precision.
dtype.str
Size of the data is in turn described by:
dtype.name
dtype.itemsize

The element size of this data-type object.
dtype.name
dtype.itemsize
The element size of this data-type object.
For 18 of the 21 types this number is fixed by the data-type. For the flexible data-types, this number can be
anything.
Endianness of this data:
dtype.byteorder
A character indicating the byte-order of this data-type object.
dtype.byteorder
A character indicating the byte-order of this data-type object.
One of:
=
<
>
|
native
little-endian
big-endian
not applicable
All built-in data-type objects have byteorder either = or |.
98
Examples
>>> dt = np.dtype(i2)
>>> dt.byteorder
=
>>> # endian is not relevant for 8 bit numbers
>>> np.dtype(i1).byteorder
|
>>> # or ASCII strings
>>> np.dtype(S2).byteorder
|
>>> # Even if specific code is given, and it is native
>>> # = is the byteorder
>>> import sys
>>> dt = np.dtype(native_code + i2)
>>> dt.byteorder
=
>>> # Swapped code shows up as itself
>>> dt = np.dtype(swapped_code + i2)
>>> dt.byteorder == swapped_code
True
Information about sub-data-types in a record:

dtype.fields
dtype.names

dtype.fields
The dictionary is indexed by keys that are the names of the fields. Each entry in the dictionary is a tuple fully
describing the field:
If present, the optional title can be any object (if it is a string or unicode then it will also be a key in the fields
dictionary, otherwise its meta-data). Notice also that the first two elements of the tuple can be passed directly
as arguments to the ndarray.getfield and ndarray.setfield methods.
See Also:
Examples
>>> print dt.fields
dtype.names
The names are ordered according to increasing byte offset. This can be used, for example, to walk through all
of the named fields in offset order.
99
Examples
>>> dt.names
(name, grades)
For data types that describe sub-arrays:

dtype.subdtype
dtype.shape

dtype.subdtype
The shape is the fixed shape of the sub-array described by this data type, and item_dtype the data type of the
array.
If a field whose dtype object has this attribute is retrieved, then the extra dimensions implied by shape are tacked
on to the end of the retrieved array.
dtype.shape
Attributes providing additional information:
dtype.hasobject
dtype.flags
dtype.isbuiltin
dtype.isnative
dtype.descr
dtype.alignment
Bit-flags describing how this data type is to be interpreted.
The required alignment (bytes) of this data-type according to the compiler.
dtype.hasobject
Recall that what is actually in the ndarray memory representing the Python object is the memory address of that
object (a pointer). Special handling may be required, and this attribute is useful for distinguishing data types
that may contain arbitrary Python objects and data-types that wont.
dtype.flags
Bit-flags describing how this data type is to be interpreted.
Bit-masks are in numpy.core.multiarray as the constants ITEM_HASOBJECT, LIST_PICKLE,
ITEM_IS_POINTER, NEEDS_INIT, NEEDS_PYAPI, USE_GETITEM, USE_SETITEM. A full explanation of
these flags is in C-API documentation; they are largely useful for user-defined data-types.
dtype.isbuiltin
Read-only.
0
1
2
100

if the dtype is for a user-defined numpy type A user-defined type uses the numpy C-API machinery to
extend numpy to handle a new array type. See user.user-defined-data-types in the Numpy manual.
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
0
dt = np.dtype(i2)
dt.isbuiltin
dt = np.dtype(f8)
dt.isbuiltin
dt.isbuiltin
dtype.isnative
dtype.descr
dtype.alignment
The required alignment (bytes) of this data-type according to the compiler.
More information is available in the C-API section of the manual.
Methods
Data types have the following method for changing the byte order:
dtype.newbyteorder([new_order])
Parameters
*
*
*
*
*
S {<,
{>,
{=,
{|,
swap
L}
B}
N}
I}

- little endian
- big endian
- native order
Returns
new_dtype : dtype
Notes
101
Examples
>>> import sys
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
The following methods implement the pickle protocol:

dtype.__reduce__
dtype.__setstate__
dtype.__reduce__()
dtype.__setstate__()
1.4 Indexing
ndarrays can be indexed using the standard Python x[obj] syntax, where x is the array and obj the selection.
There are three kinds of indexing available: record access, basic slicing, advanced indexing. Which one occurs
depends on obj.
Note: In Python, x[(exp1, exp2, ..., expN)] is equivalent to x[exp1, exp2, ..., expN]; the
latter is just syntactic sugar for the former.
1.4.1 Basic Slicing

Basic slicing extends Pythons basic concept of slicing to N dimensions. Basic slicing occurs when obj is a slice
object (constructed by start:stop:step notation inside of brackets), an integer, or a tuple of slice objects and
102
integers. Ellipsis and newaxis objects can be interspersed with these as well. In order to remain backward
compatible with a common usage in Numeric, basic slicing is also initiated if the selection object is any sequence
(such as a list) containing slice objects, the Ellipsis object, or the newaxis object, but no integer arrays or
other embedded sequences.
The simplest case of indexing with N integers returns an array scalar representing the corresponding item. As in
Python, all indices are zero-based: for the i-th index ni , the valid range is 0 ni < di where di is the i-th element
of the shape of the array. Negative indices are interpreted as counting from the end of the array (i.e., if i < 0, it means
ni + i).
All arrays generated by basic slicing are always views of the original array.
The standard rules of sequence slicing apply to basic slicing on a per-dimension basis (including using a step index).
Some useful concepts to remember include:
The basic slice syntax is i:j:k where i is the starting index, j is the stopping index, and k is the step (k 6= 0).
This selects the m elements (in the corresponding dimension) with index values i, i + k, ..., i + (m - 1) k where
m = q + (r 6= 0) and q and r are the quotient and remainder obtained by dividing j - i by k: j - i = q k + r, so
that i + (m - 1) k < j.
Example
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> x[1:7:2]
array([1, 3, 5])
Negative i and j are interpreted as n + i and n + j where n is the number of elements in the corresponding
dimension. Negative k makes stepping go towards smaller indices.
Example
>>> x[-2:10]
array([8, 9])
>>> x[-3:3:-1]
array([7, 6, 5, 4])
Assume n is the number of elements in the dimension being sliced. Then, if i is not given it defaults to 0 for k >
0 and n for k < 0 . If j is not given it defaults to n for k > 0 and -1 for k < 0 . If k is not given it defaults to 1.
Note that :: is the same as : and means select all indices along this axis.
Example
>>> x[5:]
array([5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
If the number of objects in the selection tuple is less than N , then : is assumed for any subsequent dimensions.
Example
>>> x = np.array([[[1],[2],[3]], [[4],[5],[6]]])
>>> x.shape
(2, 3, 1)
>>> x[1:2]
array([[[4],
1.4. Indexing
103
[5],
[6]]])
Ellipsis expand to the number of : objects needed to make a selection tuple of the same length as x.ndim.
Only the first ellipsis is expanded, any others are interpreted as :.
Example
>>> x[...,0]
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
Each newaxis object in the selection tuple serves to expand the dimensions of the resulting selection by one
unit-length dimension. The added dimension is the position of the newaxis object in the selection tuple.
Example
>>> x[:,np.newaxis,:,:].shape
(2, 1, 3, 1)
An integer, i, returns the same values as i:i+1 except the dimensionality of the returned object is reduced by 1.
In particular, a selection tuple with the p-th element an integer (and all other entries :) returns the corresponding
sub-array with dimension N - 1. If N = 1 then the returned object is an array scalar. These objects are explained
in Scalars.
If the selection tuple has all entries : except the p-th entry which is a slice object i:j:k, then the returned
array has dimension N formed by concatenating the sub-arrays returned by integer indexing of elements i, i+k,
..., i + (m - 1) k < j,
Basic slicing with more than one non-: entry in the slicing tuple, acts like repeated application of slicing using
a single non-: entry, where the non-: entries are successively taken (with all other non-: entries replaced by
:). Thus, x[ind1,...,ind2,:] acts like x[ind1][...,ind2,:] under basic slicing.
Warning: The above is not true for advanced slicing.
You may use slicing to set values in the array, but (unlike lists) you can never grow the array. The size of the
value to be set in x[obj] = value must be (broadcastable) to the same shape as x[obj].
Note: Remember that a slicing tuple can always be constructed as obj and used in the x[obj] notation. Slice objects
can be used in the construction in place of the [start:stop:step] notation. For example, x[1:10:5,::-1]
can also be implemented as obj = (slice(1,10,5), slice(None,None,-1)); x[obj] . This can be
useful for constructing generic code that works on arrays of arbitrary dimension.
numpy.newaxis
The newaxis object can be used in all slicing operations as discussed above. None can also be used instead
of newaxis.
1.4.2 Advanced indexing

Advanced indexing is triggered when the selection object, obj, is a non-tuple sequence object, an ndarray (of data
type integer or bool), or a tuple with at least one sequence object or ndarray (of data type integer or bool). There are
two types of advanced indexing: integer and Boolean.
104
Advanced indexing always returns a copy of the data (contrast with basic slicing that returns a view).
Integer
Integer indexing allows selection of arbitrary items in the array based on their N-dimensional index. This kind of
selection occurs when advanced indexing is triggered and the selection object is not an array of data type bool. For the
discussion below, when the selection object is not a tuple, it will be referred to as if it had been promoted to a 1-tuple,
which will be called the selection tuple. The rules of advanced integer-style indexing are:
If the length of the selection tuple is larger than N an error is raised.
All sequences and scalars in the selection tuple are converted to intp indexing arrays.
All selection tuple objects must be convertible to intp arrays, slice objects, or the Ellipsis object.
The first Ellipsis object will be expanded, and any other Ellipsis objects will be treated as full slice (:)
objects. The expanded Ellipsis object is replaced with as many full slice (:) objects as needed to make the
length of the selection tuple N .
If the selection tuple is smaller than N, then as many : objects as needed are added to the end of the selection
tuple so that the modified selection tuple has length N.
All the integer indexing arrays must be broadcastable to the same shape.
The shape of the output (or the needed shape of the object to be used for setting) is the broadcasted shape.
After expanding any ellipses and filling out any missing : objects in the selection tuple, then let Nt be the
number of indexing arrays, and let Ns = N Nt be the number of slice objects. Note that Nt > 0 (or we
wouldnt be doing advanced integer indexing).
If Ns = 0 then the M-dimensional result is constructed by varying the index tuple (i_1, ..., i_M) over
the range of the result shape and for each value of the index tuple (ind_1, ..., ind_M):
result[i_1, ..., i_M] == x[ind_1[i_1, ..., i_M], ind_2[i_1, ..., i_M],
..., ind_N[i_1, ..., i_M]]
Example
Suppose the shape of the broadcasted indexing arrays is 3-dimensional and N is 2. Then the result is found by
letting i, j, k run over the shape found by broadcasting ind_1 and ind_2, and each i, j, k yields:
result[i,j,k] = x[ind_1[i,j,k], ind_2[i,j,k]]
If Ns > 0, then partial indexing is done. This can be somewhat mind-boggling to understand, but if you think
in terms of the shapes of the arrays involved, it can be easier to grasp what happens. In simple cases (i.e.
one indexing array and N - 1 slice objects) it does exactly what you would expect (concatenation of repeated
application of basic slicing). The rule for partial indexing is that the shape of the result (or the interpreted shape
of the object to be used in setting) is the shape of x with the indexed subspace replaced with the broadcasted
indexing subspace. If the index subspaces are right next to each other, then the broadcasted indexing space
directly replaces all of the indexed subspaces in x. If the indexing subspaces are separated (by slice objects),
then the broadcasted indexing space is first, followed by the sliced subspace of x.
Example
Suppose x.shape is (10,20,30) and ind is a (2,3,4)-shaped indexing intp array, then result =
x[...,ind,:] has shape (10,2,3,4,30) because the (20,)-shaped subspace has been replaced with a
(2,3,4)-shaped broadcasted indexing subspace. If we let i, j, k loop over the (2,3,4)-shaped subspace then
1.4. Indexing
105
result[...,i,j,k,:] = x[...,ind[i,j,k],:].
x.take(ind, axis=-2).
This example produces the same result as
Example
Now let x.shape be (10,20,30,40,50) and suppose ind_1 and ind_2 are broadcastable to the shape (2,3,4).
Then x[:,ind_1,ind_2] has shape (10,2,3,4,40,50) because the (20,30)-shaped subspace from X has
been replaced with the (2,3,4) subspace from the indices. However, x[:,ind_1,:,ind_2] has shape
(2,3,4,10,30,50) because there is no unambiguous place to drop in the indexing subspace, thus it is tackedon to the beginning. It is always possible to use .transpose() to move the subspace anywhere desired.
(Note that this example cannot be replicated using take.)
Boolean
This advanced indexing occurs when obj is an array object of Boolean type (such as may be returned from comparison operators). It is always equivalent to (but faster than) x[obj.nonzero()] where, as described above,
obj.nonzero() returns a tuple (of length obj.ndim) of integer index arrays showing the True elements of obj.
The special case when obj.ndim == x.ndim is worth mentioning. In this case x[obj] returns a 1-dimensional
array filled with the elements of x corresponding to the True values of obj. The search order will be C-style (last
index varies the fastest). If obj has True values at entries that are outside of the bounds of x, then an index error will
be raised.
You can also use Boolean arrays as element of the selection tuple. In such instances, they will always be interpreted
as nonzero(obj) and the equivalent integer indexing will be done.
Warning: The definition of advanced indexing means that x[(1,2,3),] is fundamentally different than
x[(1,2,3)]. The latter is equivalent to x[1,2,3] which will trigger basic selection while the former will
trigger advanced indexing. Be sure to understand why this is occurs.
Also recognize that x[[1,2,3]] will trigger advanced indexing, whereas x[[1,2,slice(None)]] will
trigger basic slicing.
1.4.3 Record Access

See Also:
Data type objects (dtype), Scalars
If the ndarray object is a record array, i.e. its data type is a record data type, the fields of the array can be accessed
by indexing the array with strings, dictionary-like.
Indexing x[field-name] returns a new view to the array, which is of the same shape as x (except when the field
is a sub-array) but of data type x.dtype[field-name] and contains only the part of the data in the specified
field. Also record array scalars can be indexed this way.
Indexing into a record array can also be done with a list of field names,
e.g.
x[[field-name1,field-name2]]. Currently this returns a new array containing a copy of the
values in the fields specified in the list. As of NumPy 1.7, returning a copy is being deprecated in favor of
returning a view. A copy will continue to be returned for now, but a FutureWarning will be issued when writing
to the copy. If you depend on the current behavior, then we suggest copying the returned array explicitly, i.e. use
x[[field-name1,field-name2]].copy(). This will work with both past and future versions of NumPy.
If the accessed field is a sub-array, the dimensions of the sub-array are appended to the shape of the result.
106
Example
>>> x = np.zeros((2,2), dtype=[(a, np.int32), (b, np.float64, (3,3))])
>>> x[a].shape
(2, 2)
>>> x[a].dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> x[b].shape
(2, 2, 3, 3)
>>> x[b].dtype
dtype(float64)
1.4.4 Flat Iterator indexing

x.flat returns an iterator that will iterate over the entire array (in C-contiguous style with the last index varying
the fastest). This iterator object can also be indexed using basic slicing or advanced indexing as long as the selection
object is not a tuple. This should be clear from the fact that x.flat is a 1-dimensional view. It can be used for integer
indexing with 1-dimensional C-style-flat indices. The shape of any returned array is therefore the shape of the integer
indexing object.
1.5 Iterating Over Arrays

The iterator object nditer, introduced in NumPy 1.6, provides many flexible ways to visit all the elements of one
or more arrays in a systematic fashion. This page introduces some basic ways to use the object for computations on
arrays in Python, then concludes with how one can accelerate the inner loop in Cython. Since the Python exposure of
nditer is a relatively straightforward mapping of the C array iterator API, these ideas will also provide help working
with array iteration from C or C++.
1.5.1 Single Array Iteration

The most basic task that can be done with the nditer is to visit every element of an array. Each element is provided
one by one using the standard Python iterator interface.
Example
>>> a =
>>> for
...
...
0 1 2 3
np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
x in np.nditer(a):
print x,
4 5
An important thing to be aware of for this iteration is that the order is chosen to match the memory layout of the array
instead of using a standard C or Fortran ordering. This is done for access efficiency, reflecting the idea that by default
one simply wants to visit each element without concern for a particular ordering. We can see this by iterating over the
transpose of our previous array, compared to taking a copy of that transpose in C order.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a.T):
1.5. Iterating Over Arrays
107
...
print x,
...
0 1 2 3 4 5
>>> for x in np.nditer(a.T.copy(order=C)):
...
print x,
...
0 3 1 4 2 5
The elements of both a and a.T get traversed in the same order, namely the order they are stored in memory, whereas
the elements of a.T.copy(order=C) get visited in a different order because they have been put into a different memory
layout.
Controlling Iteration Order
There are times when it is important to visit the elements of an array in a specific order, irrespective of the layout of the
elements in memory. The nditer object provides an order parameter to control this aspect of iteration. The default,
having the behavior described above, is order=K to keep the existing order. This can be overridden with order=C
for C order and order=F for Fortran order.
Example
>>>
>>>
...
...
0 3
>>>
...
...
0 3
a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
for x in np.nditer(a, order=F):
print x,
1 4 2 5
for x in np.nditer(a.T, order=C):
print x,
1 4 2 5
Modifying Array Values

By default, the nditer treats the input array as a read-only object. To modify the array elements, you must specify
either read-write or write-only mode. This is controlled with per-operand flags.
Regular assignment in Python simply changes a reference in the local or global variable dictionary instead of modifying
an existing variable in place. This means that simply assigning to x will not place the value into the element of the
array, but rather switch x from being an array element reference to being a reference to the value you assigned. To
actually modify the element of the array, x should be indexed with the ellipsis.
Example
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, op_flags=[readwrite]):
...
x[...] = 2 * x
...
>>> a
108
array([[ 0,
[ 6,
2, 4],
8, 10]])
Using an External Loop

In all the examples so far, the elements of a are provided by the iterator one at a time, because all the looping logic is
internal to the iterator. While this is simple and convenient, it is not very efficient. A better approach is to move the
one-dimensional innermost loop into your code, external to the iterator. This way, NumPys vectorized operations can
be used on larger chunks of the elements being visited.
The nditer will try to provide chunks that are as large as possible to the inner loop. By forcing C and F order,
we get different external loop sizes. This mode is enabled by specifying an iterator flag.
Observe that with the default of keeping native memory order, the iterator is able to provide a single one-dimensional
chunk, whereas when forcing Fortran order, it has to provide three chunks of two elements each.
Example
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[external_loop]):
...
print x,
...
[0 1 2 3 4 5]
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[external_loop], order=F):
...
print x,
...
[0 3] [1 4] [2 5]
Tracking an Index or Multi-Index

During iteration, you may want to use the index of the current element in a computation. For example, you may want
to visit the elements of an array in memory order, but use a C-order, Fortran-order, or multidimensional index to look
up values in a different array.
The Python iterator protocol doesnt have a natural way to query these additional values from the iterator, so we
introduce an alternate syntax for iterating with an nditer. This syntax explicitly works with the iterator object itself,
so its properties are readily accessible during iteration. With this looping construct, the current value is accessible by
indexing into the iterator, and the index being tracked is the property index or multi_index depending on what was
requested.
The Python interactive interpreter unfortunately prints out the values of expressions inside the while loop during each
iteration of the loop. We have modified the output in the examples using this looping construct in order to be more
readable.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=[f_index])
>>> while not it.finished:
...
print "%d <%d>" % (it[0], it.index),
...
it.iternext()
109
...
0 <0> 1 <2> 2 <4> 3 <1> 4 <3> 5 <5>
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=[multi_index])
...
print "%d <%s>" % (it[0], it.multi_index),
...
it.iternext()
...
0 <(0, 0)> 1 <(0, 1)> 2 <(0, 2)> 3 <(1, 0)> 4 <(1, 1)> 5 <(1, 2)>
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=[multi_index], op_flags=[writeonly])
...
it[0] = it.multi_index[1] - it.multi_index[0]
...
it.iternext()
...
>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2],
[-1, 0, 1]])
Tracking an index or multi-index is incompatible with using an external loop, because it requires a different index
value per element. If you try to combine these flags, the nditer object will raise an exception
Example
>>> a = np.zeros((2,3))
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=[c_index, external_loop])
ValueError: Iterator flag EXTERNAL_LOOP cannot be used if an index or multi-index is being tracked
Buffering the Array Elements

When forcing an iteration order, we observed that the external loop option may provide the elements in smaller chunks
because the elements cant be visited in the appropriate order with a constant stride. When writing C code, this is
generally fine, however in pure Python code this can cause a significant reduction in performance.
By enabling buffering mode, the chunks provided by the iterator to the inner loop can be made larger, significantly
reducing the overhead of the Python interpreter. In the example forcing Fortran iteration order, the inner loop gets to
see all the elements in one go when buffering is enabled.
Example
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[external_loop], order=F):
...
print x,
...
[0 3] [1 4] [2 5]
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[external_loop,buffered], order=F):
...
print x,
...
[0 3 1 4 2 5]
110
Iterating as a Specific Data Type

There are times when it is necessary to treat an array as a different data type than it is stored as. For instance, one
may want to do all computations on 64-bit floats, even if the arrays being manipulated are 32-bit floats. Except when
writing low-level C code, its generally better to let the iterator handle the copying or buffering instead of casting the
data type yourself in the inner loop.
There are two mechanisms which allow this to be done, temporary copies and buffering mode. With temporary copies,
a copy of the entire array is made with the new data type, then iteration is done in the copy. Write access is permitted
through a mode which updates the original array after all the iteration is complete. The major drawback of temporary
copies is that the temporary copy may consume a large amount of memory, particularly if the iteration data type has a
larger itemsize than the original one.
Buffering mode mitigates the memory usage issue and is more cache-friendly than making temporary copies. Except
for special cases, where the whole array is needed at once outside the iterator, buffering is recommended over temporary copying. Within NumPy, buffering is used by the ufuncs and other functions to support flexible inputs with
minimal memory overhead.
In our examples, we will treat the input array with a complex data type, so that we can take square roots of negative
numbers. Without enabling copies or buffering mode, the iterator will raise an exception if the data type doesnt match
precisely.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3) - 3
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, op_dtypes=[complex128]):
...
print np.sqrt(x),
...
TypeError: Iterator operand required copying or buffering, but neither copying nor buffering was enab
In copying mode, copy is specified as a per-operand flag. This is done to provide control in a per-operand fashion.
Buffering mode is specified as an iterator flag.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3) - 3
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, op_flags=[readonly,copy],
...
op_dtypes=[complex128]):
...
print np.sqrt(x),
...
1.73205080757j 1.41421356237j 1j 0j (1+0j) (1.41421356237+0j)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[buffered], op_dtypes=[complex128]):
...
print np.sqrt(x),
...
1.73205080757j 1.41421356237j 1j 0j (1+0j) (1.41421356237+0j)
The iterator uses NumPys casting rules to determine whether a specific conversion is permitted. By default, it enforces
safe casting. This means, for example, that it will raise an exception if you try to treat a 64-bit float array as a 32-bit
float array. In many cases, the rule same_kind is the most reasonable rule to use, since it will allow conversion from
64 to 32-bit float, but not from float to int or from complex to float.
Example
111
>>> a = np.arange(6.)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[buffered], op_dtypes=[float32]):
...
print x,
...
TypeError: Iterator operand 0 dtype could not be cast from dtype(float64) to dtype(float32) accor
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[buffered], op_dtypes=[float32],
...
casting=same_kind):
...
print x,
...
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[buffered], op_dtypes=[int32], casting=same_kind):

...
print x,
...
TypeError: Iterator operand 0 dtype could not be cast from dtype(float64) to dtype(int32) accordi
One thing to watch out for is conversions back to the original data type when using a read-write or write-only operand.
A common case is to implement the inner loop in terms of 64-bit floats, and use same_kind casting to allow the other
floating-point types to be processed as well. While in read-only mode, an integer array could be provided, read-write
mode will raise an exception because conversion back to the array would violate the casting rule.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=[buffered], op_flags=[readwrite],
...
op_dtypes=[float64], casting=same_kind):
...
x[...] = x / 2.0
...
TypeError: Iterator requested dtype could not be cast from dtype(float64) to dtype(int64), the op
1.5.2 Broadcasting Array Iteration

NumPy has a set of rules for dealing with arrays that have differing shapes which are applied whenever functions take
multiple operands which combine element-wise. This is called broadcasting. The nditer object can apply these
rules for you when you need to write such a function.
As an example, we print out the result of broadcasting a one and a two dimensional array together.
Example
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
0:0
112
a = np.arange(3)
b = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
for x, y in np.nditer([a,b]):
print "%d:%d" % (x,y),
1:1 2:2 0:3 1:4 2:5
When a broadcasting error occurs, the iterator raises an exception which includes the input shapes to help diagnose
the problem.
Example
>>> b = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> for x, y in np.nditer([a,b]):
...
print "%d:%d" % (x,y),
...
ValueError: operands could not be broadcast together with shapes (2) (2,3)
Iterator-Allocated Output Arrays

A common case in NumPy functions is to have outputs allocated based on the broadcasting of the input, and additionally have an optional parameter called out where the result will be placed when it is provided. The nditer object
provides a convenient idiom that makes it very easy to support this mechanism.
Well show how this works by creating a function square which squares its input. Lets start with a minimal function
definition excluding out parameter support.
Example
>>> def square(a):
...
it = np.nditer([a, None])
...
for x, y in it:
...
y[...] = x*x
...
return it.operands[1]
...
>>> square([1,2,3])
array([1, 4, 9])
By default, the nditer uses the flags allocate and writeonly for operands that are passed in as None. This means
we were able to provide just the two operands to the iterator, and it handled the rest.
When adding the out parameter, we have to explicitly provide those flags, because if someone passes in an array as
out, the iterator will default to readonly, and our inner loop would fail. The reason readonly is the default for input
arrays is to prevent confusion about unintentionally triggering a reduction operation. If the default were readwrite,
any broadcasting operation would also trigger a reduction, a topic which is covered later in this document.
While were at it, lets also introduce the no_broadcast flag, which will prevent the output from being broadcast.
This is important, because we only want one input value for each output. Aggregating more than one input value
is a reduction operation which requires special handling. It would already raise an error because reductions must
be explicitly enabled in an iterator flag, but the error message that results from disabling broadcasting is much more
understandable for end-users. To see how to generalize the square function to a reduction, look at the sum of squares
function in the section about Cython.
For completeness, well also add the external_loop and buffered flags, as these are what you will typically want for
performance reasons.
Example
113
>>> def square(a, out=None):

...
it = np.nditer([a, out],
...
flags = [external_loop, buffered],
...
op_flags = [[readonly],
...
[writeonly, allocate, no_broadcast]])
...
for x, y in it:
...
y[...] = x*x
...
...
>>> square([1,2,3])
array([1, 4, 9])
>>> b = np.zeros((3,))
>>> square([1,2,3], out=b)
array([ 1., 4., 9.])
>>> b
array([ 1., 4., 9.])
>>> square(np.arange(6).reshape(2,3), out=b)
File "<stdin>", line 4, in square
ValueError: non-broadcastable output operand with shape (3) doesnt match the broadcast shape (2,3)
Outer Product Iteration

Any binary operation can be extended to an array operation in an outer product fashion like in outer, and the nditer
object provides a way to accomplish this by explicitly mapping the axes of the operands. It is also possible to do this
with newaxis indexing, but we will show you how to directly use the nditer op_axes parameter to accomplish this
with no intermediate views.
Well do a simple outer product, placing the dimensions of the first operand before the dimensions of the second
operand. The op_axes parameter needs one list of axes for each operand, and provides a mapping from the iterators
axes to the axes of the operand.
Suppose the first operand is one dimensional and the second operand is two dimensional. The iterator will have three
dimensions, so op_axes will have two 3-element lists. The first list picks out the one axis of the first operand, and is
-1 for the rest of the iterator axes, with a final result of [0, -1, -1]. The second list picks out the two axes of the second
operand, but shouldnt overlap with the axes picked out in the first operand. Its list is [-1, 0, 1]. The output operand
maps onto the iterator axes in the standard manner, so we can provide None instead of constructing another list.
The operation in the inner loop is a straightforward multiplication. Everything to do with the outer product is handled
by the iterator setup.
Example
>>> b = np.arange(8).reshape(2,4)
>>> it = np.nditer([a, b, None], flags=[external_loop],
...
op_axes=[[0, -1, -1], [-1, 0, 1], None])
>>> for x, y, z in it:
...
z[...] = x*y
...
>>> it.operands[2]
array([[[ 0, 0, 0, 0],
114
[
[[
[
[[
[
0, 0, 0, 0]],
0, 1, 2, 3],
4, 5, 6, 7]],
0, 2, 4, 6],
8, 10, 12, 14]]])
Reduction Iteration
Whenever a writeable operand has fewer elements than the full iteration space, that operand is undergoing a reduction.
The nditer object requires that any reduction operand be flagged as read-write, and only allows reductions when
reduce_ok is provided as an iterator flag.
For a simple example, consider taking the sum of all elements in an array.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(24).reshape(2,3,4)
>>> b = np.array(0)
>>> for x, y in np.nditer([a, b], flags=[reduce_ok, external_loop],
...
op_flags=[[readonly], [readwrite]]):
...
y[...] += x
...
>>> b
array(276)
>>> np.sum(a)
276
Things are a little bit more tricky when combining reduction and allocated operands. Before iteration is started, any
reduction operand must be initialized to its starting values. Heres how we can do this, taking sums along the last axis
of a.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer([a, None], flags=[reduce_ok, external_loop],
...
op_flags=[[readonly], [readwrite, allocate]],
...
op_axes=[None, [0,1,-1]])
>>> it.operands[1][...] = 0
>>> for x, y in it:
...
y[...] += x
...
>>> it.operands[1]
array([[ 6, 22, 38],
[54, 70, 86]])
>>> np.sum(a, axis=2)
array([[ 6, 22, 38],
[54, 70, 86]])
To do buffered reduction requires yet another adjustment during the setup. Normally the iterator construction involves
copying the first buffer of data from the readable arrays into the buffer. Any reduction operand is readable, so it may
be read into a buffer. Unfortunately, initialization of the operand after this buffering operation is complete will not be
reflected in the buffer that the iteration starts with, and garbage results will be produced.
115
The iterator flag delay_bufalloc is there to allow iterator-allocated reduction operands to exist together with buffering. When this flag is set, the iterator will leave its buffers uninitialized until it receives a reset, after which it will be
ready for regular iteration. Heres how the previous example looks if we also enable buffering.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer([a, None], flags=[reduce_ok, external_loop,
...
buffered, delay_bufalloc],
...
...
op_axes=[None, [0,1,-1]])
>>> it.operands[1][...] = 0
>>> it.reset()
>>> for x, y in it:
...
y[...] += x
...
>>> it.operands[1]
array([[ 6, 22, 38],
[54, 70, 86]])
1.5.3 Putting the Inner Loop in Cython

Those who want really good performance out of their low level operations should strongly consider directly using the
iteration API provided in C, but for those who are not comfortable with C or C++, Cython is a good middle ground with
reasonable performance tradeoffs. For the nditer object, this means letting the iterator take care of broadcasting,
dtype conversion, and buffering, while giving the inner loop to Cython.
For our example, well create a sum of squares function. To start, lets implement this function in straightforward
Python. We want to support an axis parameter similar to the numpy sum function, so we will need to construct a list
for the op_axes parameter. Heres how this looks.
Example
>>> def axis_to_axeslist(axis, ndim):
...
if axis is None:
...
return [-1] * ndim
...
else:
...
if type(axis) is not tuple:
...
axis = (axis,)
...
axeslist = [1] * ndim
...
for i in axis:
...
axeslist[i] = -1
...
ax = 0
...
for i in range(ndim):
...
if axeslist[i] != -1:
...
axeslist[i] = ax
...
ax += 1
...
return axeslist
...
>>> def sum_squares_py(arr, axis=None, out=None):
...
axeslist = axis_to_axeslist(axis, arr.ndim)
...
it = np.nditer([arr, out], flags=[reduce_ok, external_loop,
...
...
...
op_axes=[None, axeslist],
116
...
op_dtypes=[float64, float64])
...
it.operands[1][...] = 0
...
it.reset()
...
for x, y in it:
...
y[...] += x*x
...
...
>>> sum_squares_py(a)
array(55.0)
>>> sum_squares_py(a, axis=-1)
array([ 5., 50.])
To Cython-ize this function, we replace the inner loop (y[...] += x*x) with Cython code thats specialized for the float64
dtype. With the external_loop flag enabled, the arrays provided to the inner loop will always be one-dimensional, so
very little checking needs to be done.
Heres the listing of sum_squares.pyx:
import numpy as np
cimport numpy as np
cimport cython
def axis_to_axeslist(axis, ndim):
if axis is None:
return [-1] * ndim
else:
if type(axis) is not tuple:
axis = (axis,)
axeslist = [1] * ndim
for i in axis:
axeslist[i] = -1
ax = 0
for i in range(ndim):
if axeslist[i] != -1:
axeslist[i] = ax
ax += 1
return axeslist
@cython.boundscheck(False)
def sum_squares_cy(arr, axis=None, out=None):
cdef np.ndarray[double] x
cdef np.ndarray[double] y
cdef int size
cdef double value
axeslist = axis_to_axeslist(axis, arr.ndim)
it = np.nditer([arr, out], flags=[reduce_ok, external_loop,
op_axes=[None, axeslist],
op_dtypes=[float64, float64])
it.operands[1][...] = 0
it.reset()
for xarr, yarr in it:
x = xarr
y = yarr
size = x.shape[0]
117
for i in range(size):
value = x[i]
y[i] = y[i] + value * value
On this machine, building the .pyx file into a module looked like the following, but you may have to find some Cython
tutorials to tell you the specifics for your system configuration.:
$ cython sum_squares.pyx
$ gcc -shared -pthread -fPIC -fwrapv -O2 -Wall -I/usr/include/python2.7 -fno-strict-aliasing -o sum_s
Running this from the Python interpreter produces the same answers as our native Python/NumPy code did.
Example
>>> from sum_squares import sum_squares_cy
>>> sum_squares_cy(a)
array(55.0)
>>> sum_squares_cy(a, axis=-1)
array([ 5., 50.])
Doing a little timing in IPython shows that the reduced overhead and memory allocation of the Cython inner loop is
providing a very nice speedup over both the straightforward Python code and an expression using NumPys built-in
sum function.:
>>> a = np.random.rand(1000,1000)
>>> timeit sum_squares_py(a, axis=-1)
10 loops, best of 3: 37.1 ms per loop
>>> timeit np.sum(a*a, axis=-1)
>>> timeit sum_squares_cy(a, axis=-1)
>>> np.all(sum_squares_cy(a, axis=-1) == np.sum(a*a, axis=-1))
True
>>> np.all(sum_squares_py(a, axis=-1) == np.sum(a*a, axis=-1))
True
1.6 Standard array subclasses

The ndarray in NumPy is a new-style Python built-in-type. Therefore, it can be inherited from (in Python or in
C) if desired. Therefore, it can form a foundation for many useful classes. Often whether to sub-class the array object
or to simply use the core array component as an internal part of a new class is a difficult decision, and can be simply a
matter of choice. NumPy has several tools for simplifying how your new object interacts with other array objects, and
so the choice may not be significant in the end. One way to simplify the question is by asking yourself if the object
you are interested in can be replaced as a single array or does it really require two or more arrays at its core.
Note that asarray always returns the base-class ndarray. If you are confident that your use of the array object can
handle any subclass of an ndarray, then asanyarray can be used to allow subclasses to propagate more cleanly
through your subroutine. In principal a subclass could redefine any aspect of the array and therefore, under strict
118
guidelines, asanyarray would rarely be useful. However, most subclasses of the arrayobject will not redefine
certain aspects of the array object such as the buffer interface, or the attributes of the array. One important example,
however, of why your subroutine may not be able to handle an arbitrary subclass of an array is that matrices redefine
the * operator to be matrix-multiplication, rather than element-by-element multiplication.
1.6.1 Special attributes and methods

See Also:
Subclassing ndarray
Numpy provides several hooks that subclasses of ndarray can customize:
numpy.__array_finalize__(self )
This method is called whenever the system internally allocates a new array from obj, where obj is a subclass
(subtype) of the ndarray. It can be used to change attributes of self after construction (so as to ensure
a 2-d matrix for example), or to update meta-information from the parent. Subclasses inherit a default
implementation of this method that does nothing.
numpy.__array_prepare__(array, context=None)
At the beginning of every ufunc, this method is called on the input object with the highest array priority, or the
output object if one was specified. The output array is passed in and whatever is returned is passed to the ufunc.
Subclasses inherit a default implementation of this method which simply returns the output array unmodified.
Subclasses may opt to use this method to transform the output array into an instance of the subclass and update
metadata before returning the array to the ufunc for computation.
numpy.__array_wrap__(array, context=None)
At the end of every ufunc, this method is called on the input object with the highest array priority, or the output
object if one was specified. The ufunc-computed array is passed in and whatever is returned is passed to the
user. Subclasses inherit a default implementation of this method, which transforms the array into a new instance
of the objects class. Subclasses may opt to use this method to transform the output array into an instance of the
subclass and update metadata before returning the array to the user.
numpy.__array_priority__
The value of this attribute is used to determine what type of object to return in situations where there is more
than one possibility for the Python type of the returned object. Subclasses inherit a default value of 1.0 for this
attribute.
numpy.__array__([dtype ])
If a class having the __array__ method is used as the output object of an ufunc, results will be written to the
object returned by __array__.
1.6.2 Matrix objects

matrix objects inherit from the ndarray and therefore, they have the same attributes and methods of ndarrays. There
are six important differences of matrix objects, however, that may lead to unexpected results when you use matrices
but expect them to act like arrays:
1. Matrix objects can be created using a string notation to allow Matlab-style syntax where spaces separate columns
and semicolons (;) separate rows.
2. Matrix objects are always two-dimensional. This has far-reaching implications, in that m.ravel() is still twodimensional (with a 1 in the first dimension) and item selection returns two-dimensional objects so that sequence
behavior is fundamentally different than arrays.
1.6. Standard array subclasses
119
3. Matrix objects over-ride multiplication to be matrix-multiplication. Make sure you understand this for functions that you may want to receive matrices. Especially in light of the fact that asanyarray(m) returns a
matrix when m is a matrix.
4. Matrix objects over-ride power to be matrix raised to a power. The same warning about using power inside a
function that uses asanyarray(...) to get an array object holds for this fact.
5. The default __array_priority__ of matrix objects is 10.0, and therefore mixed operations with ndarrays always
produce matrices.
6. Matrices have special attributes which make calculations easier. These are
matrix.T
matrix.H
matrix.I
matrix.A
transpose
hermitian (conjugate) transpose
inverse
base array
matrix.T
transpose
matrix.H
matrix.I
inverse
matrix.A
base array
Warning: Matrix objects over-ride multiplication, *, and power, **, to be matrix-multiplication and matrix
power, respectively. If your subroutine can accept sub-classes and you do not convert to base- class arrays, then
you must use the ufuncs multiply and power to be sure that you are performing the correct operation for all inputs.
The matrix class is a Python subclass of the ndarray and can be used as a reference for how to construct your own
subclass of the ndarray. Matrices can be created from other matrices, strings, and anything else that can be converted
to an ndarray . The name mat is an alias for matrix in NumPy.
matrix
asmatrix(data[, dtype])
bmat(obj[, ldict, gdict])
Returns a matrix from an array-like object, or from a string of data.

Interpret the input as a matrix.
Build a matrix object from a string, nested sequence, or array.
class numpy.matrix
Returns a matrix from an array-like object, or from a string of data. A matrix is a specialized 2-D array that
retains its 2-D nature through operations. It has certain special operators, such as * (matrix multiplication) and
** (matrix power).
Parameters
data : array_like or string
If data is a string, it is interpreted as a matrix with commas or spaces separating
columns, and semicolons separating rows.
dtype : data-type
Data-type of the output matrix.
copy : bool
120
If data is already an ndarray, then this flag determines whether the data is copied
(the default), or whether a view is constructed.
See Also:
array
Examples
>>>
>>>
[[1
[3
a = np.matrix(1 2; 3 4)
print a
2]
4]]
>>> np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Attributes
A
A1
H
I
T
base
ctypes
data
dtype
flags
flat
imag
itemsize
nbytes
ndim
real
shape
size
strides
base array
1-d base array
inverse
transpose
matrix.A
base array
matrix.A1
1-d base array
matrix.H
matrix.I
inverse
matrix.T
transpose
matrix.base
121
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
matrix.ctypes
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
For example:
122
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
matrix.data
matrix.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
matrix.flags
123
Notes
access.
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
(F)
DATA
(O)
ABLE
(W)
ALIGNED
(A)
COPY
(U)
FNC
FORC
(B)
CARRAY
(CA)
FARRAY
(FA)
124
matrix.flat
iterator object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
matrix.imag
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.imag
array([ 0.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype(float64)
matrix.itemsize
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)
>>> x.itemsize
8
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.complex128)
125
>>> x.itemsize
16
matrix.nbytes
Notes
Examples
>>> x.nbytes
480
480
matrix.ndim
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
3
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
x.ndim
y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
y.ndim
matrix.real
See Also:
numpy.real
equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.real
array([ 1.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype(float64)
matrix.shape
Notes
elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
126
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
0.],
0.],
0.]])
unchanged
matrix.size
Examples
>>> x.size
30
30
matrix.strides
See Also:
Notes
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
(20, 4).
Examples
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
127
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
17
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
813
Methods
all([axis, out])
any([axis, out])
argmax([axis, out])
argmin([axis, out])
byteswap(inplace)
conj()
conjugate()
copy([order])
dot(b[, out])
dump(file)
dumps()
fill(value)
flatten([order])
getA()
getA1()
getH()
getI()
getT()
item(*args)
itemset(*args)
max([axis, out])
min([axis, out])
128
Test whether all matrix elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Test whether any array element along a given axis evaluates to True.
Indices of the maximum values along an axis.
Return the indices of the minimum values along an axis.
Return self as an ndarray object.
Return self as a flattened ndarray.
Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.
Returns the transpose of the matrix.
Return the maximum value along an axis.
Returns the average of the matrix elements along the given axis.
Return the minimum value along an axis.
nonzero()
ptp([axis, out])
ravel([order])
squeeze([axis])
tolist()
tostring([order])
transpose(*axes)
view([dtype, type])

Return the product of the array elements over the given axis.
Peak-to-peak (maximum - minimum) value along the given axis.
Return the standard deviation of the array elements along the given axis.
Returns the sum of the matrix elements, along the given axis.
Return the matrix as a (possibly nested) list.
Returns the variance of the matrix elements, along the given axis.
matrix.all(axis=None, out=None)
Test whether all matrix elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Parameters
See numpy.all for complete descriptions
See Also:
numpy.all
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.all, but it returns a matrix object.
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4))); x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> y = x[0]; y
matrix([[0, 1, 2, 3]])
>>> (x == y)
matrix([[ True, True, True, True],
[False, False, False, False],
[False, False, False, False]], dtype=bool)
>>> (x == y).all()
129
False
>>> (x == y).all(0)
matrix([[False, False, False, False]], dtype=bool)
>>> (x == y).all(1)
matrix([[ True],
[False],
[False]], dtype=bool)
matrix.any(axis=None, out=None)
Parameters
Axis along which logical OR is performed
out : ndarray, optional
Output to existing array instead of creating new one, must have same shape as expected
output
Returns
any : bool, ndarray
Returns a single bool if axis is None; otherwise, returns ndarray
matrix.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
Parameters
See numpy.argmax for complete descriptions
See Also:
numpy.argmax
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.argmax, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.argmax would
return an ndarray.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.argmax()
11
>>> x.argmax(0)
matrix([[2, 2, 2, 2]])
>>> x.argmax(1)
matrix([[3],
[3],
[3]])
matrix.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
Parameters
See numpy.argmin for complete descriptions.
130
See Also:
numpy.argmin
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.argmin, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.argmin would
return an ndarray.
Examples
>>> x = -np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4))); x
matrix([[ 0, -1, -2, -3],
[ -4, -5, -6, -7],
[ -8, -9, -10, -11]])
>>> x.argmin()
11
>>> x.argmin(0)
matrix([[2, 2, 2, 2]])
>>> x.argmin(1)
matrix([[3],
[3],
[3]])
matrix.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)

See Also:
numpy.argpartition
equivalent function
matrix.argsort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)
See Also:
numpy.argsort
equivalent function
matrix.astype(dtype, order=K, casting=unsafe, subok=True, copy=True)
Parameters
Default is K.
131
allowed.
of a copy.
Returns
arr_t : ndarray
Raises
ComplexWarning
a.real.astype(t).
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
matrix.byteswap(inplace)
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
132
Examples
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x1, 0x100, 0x2233]
array([ 256,
1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x100, 0x1, 0x3322]

>>> A.byteswap()
array([ceg, fac],
dtype=|S3)
matrix.choose(choices, out=None, mode=raise)

See Also:
numpy.choose
equivalent function
matrix.clip(a_min, a_max, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
matrix.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.compress
equivalent function
matrix.conj()
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
matrix.conjugate()
133

See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
matrix.copy(order=C)
Parameters
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
matrix.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

See Also:
numpy.cumprod
equivalent function
matrix.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.cumsum
equivalent function
134
matrix.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

See Also:
numpy.diagonal
equivalent function
matrix.dot(b, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.dot
equivalent function
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2)
>>> b = np.ones((2, 2)) * 2
>>> a.dot(b)
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])

>>> a.dot(b).dot(b)
array([[ 8., 8.],
[ 8., 8.]])
matrix.dump(file)
Parameters
file : str
matrix.dumps()
array.
Parameters
None
matrix.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
Examples
135
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
matrix.flatten(order=C)
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
matrix.getA()
Return self as an ndarray object.
Equivalent to np.asarray(self).
Parameters
None
Returns
ret : ndarray
self as an ndarray
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.getA()
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
136
[ 4,
[ 8,
5, 6, 7],
9, 10, 11]])
matrix.getA1()
Return self as a flattened ndarray.
Equivalent to np.asarray(x).ravel()
Parameters
None
Returns
ret : ndarray
self, 1-D, as an ndarray
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.getA1()
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11])
matrix.getH()
Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
Equivalent to np.transpose(self) if self is real-valued.
Parameters
None
Returns
ret : matrix object
complex conjugate transpose of self
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4)))
>>> z = x - 1j*x; z
matrix([[ 0. +0.j,
1. -1.j,
2. -2.j,
3. -3.j],
[ 4. -4.j,
5. -5.j,
6. -6.j,
7. -7.j],
[ 8. -8.j,
9. -9.j, 10.-10.j, 11.-11.j]])
>>> z.getH()
matrix([[ 0. +0.j,
4. +4.j,
8. +8.j],
[ 1. +1.j,
5. +5.j,
9. +9.j],
[ 2. +2.j,
6. +6.j, 10.+10.j],
[ 3. +3.j,
7. +7.j, 11.+11.j]])
matrix.getI()
Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.
Parameters
None
Returns
ret : matrix object
If self is non-singular, ret is such that ret * self == self * ret ==
np.matrix(np.eye(self[0,:].size) all return True.
137
Raises
numpy.linalg.LinAlgError: Singular matrix
If self is singular.
See Also:
linalg.inv
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix([1, 2; 3, 4]); m
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> m.getI()
matrix([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
>>> m.getI() * m
matrix([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
matrix.getT()
Returns the transpose of the matrix.
Does not conjugate! For the complex conjugate transpose, use getH.
Parameters
None
Returns
ret : matrix object
The (non-conjugated) transpose of the matrix.
See Also:
transpose, getH
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix([1, 2; 3, 4])
>>> m
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> m.getT()
matrix([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
matrix.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
array itself.
offset : int
138

Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
matrix.item(*args)
Parameters
Returns
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
139
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
matrix.itemset(*args)
Parameters
*args : Arguments
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
matrix.max(axis=None, out=None)
Return the maximum value along an axis.
Parameters
See amax for complete descriptions
See Also:
amax, ndarray.max
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.max, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.max would return an
ndarray.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.max()
140
11
>>> x.max(0)
matrix([[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.max(1)
matrix([[ 3],
[ 7],
[11]])
matrix.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Returns the average of the matrix elements along the given axis.
See Also:
numpy.mean
Notes
Same as ndarray.mean except that, where that returns an ndarray, this returns a matrix object.
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3, 4)))
>>> x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.mean()
5.5
>>> x.mean(0)
matrix([[ 4., 5., 6., 7.]])
>>> x.mean(1)
matrix([[ 1.5],
[ 5.5],
[ 9.5]])
matrix.min(axis=None, out=None)
Return the minimum value along an axis.
Parameters
See amin for complete descriptions.
See Also:
amin, ndarray.min
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.min, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.min would return an
ndarray.
Examples
>>> x = -np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4))); x
matrix([[ 0, -1, -2, -3],
[ -4, -5, -6, -7],
[ -8, -9, -10, -11]])
>>> x.min()
-11
>>> x.min(0)
141
matrix([[ -8, -9, -10, -11]])

>>> x.min(1)
matrix([[ -3],
[ -7],
[-11]])
matrix.newbyteorder(new_order=S)
Equivalent to:
Parameters
can be any of:
*
*
*
*
*
S {<,
{>,
{=,
{|,
swap
L}
B}
N}
I}

- little endian
- big endian
- native order
Returns
new_arr : array
matrix.nonzero()
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
equivalent function
matrix.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)
Parameters
142
See Also:
numpy.partition
argpartition
Indirect partition.
sort
Full sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
matrix.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Refer to prod for full documentation.
See Also:
prod, ndarray.prod
Notes
Same as ndarray.prod, except, where that returns an ndarray, this returns a matrix object instead.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.prod()
0
>>> x.prod(0)
matrix([[ 0, 45, 120, 231]])
>>> x.prod(1)
matrix([[
0],
[ 840],
[7920]])
143
matrix.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
Peak-to-peak (maximum - minimum) value along the given axis.
See Also:
numpy.ptp
Notes
Same as ndarray.ptp, except, where that would return an ndarray object, this returns a matrix
object.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.ptp()
11
>>> x.ptp(0)
matrix([[8, 8, 8, 8]])
>>> x.ptp(1)
matrix([[3],
[3],
[3]])
matrix.put(indices, values, mode=raise)

See Also:
numpy.put
equivalent function
matrix.ravel([order ])
See Also:
numpy.ravel
equivalent function
ndarray.flat
matrix.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See Also:
144
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
matrix.reshape(shape, order=C)
See Also:
numpy.reshape
equivalent function
matrix.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Parameters
Returns
None
Raises
ValueError
must be changed.
SystemError
See Also:
resize
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=C)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
145
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=F)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
matrix.round(decimals=0, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.around
equivalent function
matrix.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
matrix.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
val : object
146

Returns
None
See Also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000,
1.48219694e-323,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.00000000e+000,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.48219694e-323,
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
1.48219694e-323],
1.48219694e-323],
1.00000000e+000]])
matrix.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Parameters
147
Notes
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
matrix.sort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Parameters
See Also:
numpy.sort
148
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
matrix.squeeze(axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
matrix.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)
Return the standard deviation of the array elements along the given axis.
See Also:
numpy.std
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.std, except that where an ndarray would be returned, a matrix object
is returned instead.
149
Examples
>>> x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.std()
3.4520525295346629
>>> x.std(0)
matrix([[ 3.26598632, 3.26598632, 3.26598632, 3.26598632]])
>>> x.std(1)
matrix([[ 1.11803399],
[ 1.11803399],
[ 1.11803399]])
matrix.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Returns the sum of the matrix elements, along the given axis.
See Also:
numpy.sum
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.sum, except that where an ndarray would be returned, a matrix object
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix([[1, 2], [4, 3]])
>>> x.sum()
10
>>> x.sum(axis=1)
matrix([[3],
[7]])
>>> x.sum(axis=1, dtype=float)
matrix([[ 3.],
[ 7.]])
>>> out = np.zeros((1, 2), dtype=float)
>>> x.sum(axis=1, dtype=float, out=out)
matrix([[ 3.],
[ 7.]])
matrix.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
matrix.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)
See Also:
150
numpy.take
equivalent function
matrix.tofile(fid, sep=, format=%s)
Parameters
fid : file or str
sep : str
format : str
Notes
matrix.tolist()
Return the matrix as a (possibly nested) list.
See ndarray.tolist for full documentation.
See Also:
ndarray.tolist
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.tolist()
[[0, 1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6, 7], [8, 9, 10, 11]]
matrix.tostring(order=C)
Parameters
array.
151
Returns
s : str
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> x.tostring()
True
>>> x.tostring(F)
matrix.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
matrix.transpose(*axes)
= (i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
Parameters
j-th axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
152
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
matrix.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)

Returns the variance of the matrix elements, along the given axis.
See Also:
numpy.var
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.var, except that where an ndarray would be returned, a matrix object
Examples
>>> x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.var()
11.916666666666666
>>> x.var(0)
matrix([[ 10.66666667, 10.66666667, 10.66666667,
>>> x.var(1)
matrix([[ 1.25],
[ 1.25],
[ 1.25]])
10.66666667]])
matrix.view(dtype=None, type=None)
Parameters
type preservation.
Notes
153

Examples

>>> y
>>> print type(y)

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print x
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]

>>> z.a
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
154

>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
numpy.asmatrix(data, dtype=None)
Unlike matrix, asmatrix does not make a copy if the input is already a matrix or an ndarray. Equivalent to
matrix(data, copy=False).
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
Returns
mat : matrix
data interpreted as a matrix.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> m = np.asmatrix(x)
>>> x[0,0] = 5
>>> m
matrix([[5, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.bmat(obj, ldict=None, gdict=None)

Parameters
obj : str or array_like
Input data. Names of variables in the current scope may be referenced, even if obj is a
string.
Returns
out : matrix
Returns a matrix object, which is a specialized 2-D array.
See Also:
matrix
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
A
B
C
D
=
=
=
=
np.mat(1
np.mat(2
np.mat(3
np.mat(7
1;
2;
4;
8;
1
2
5
9
1)
2)
6)
0)
155
All the following expressions construct the same block matrix:

>>> np.bmat([[A, B], [C, D]])
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
>>> np.bmat(np.r_[np.c_[A, B], np.c_[C, D]])
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
>>> np.bmat(A,B; C,D)
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
Example 1: Matrix creation from a string

>>> a=mat(1 2 3; 4 5 3)
>>> print (a*a.T).I
[[ 0.2924 -0.1345]
[-0.1345 0.0819]]
Example 2: Matrix creation from nested sequence

>>> mat([[1,5,10],[1.0,3,4j]])
matrix([[ 1.+0.j,
5.+0.j, 10.+0.j],
[ 1.+0.j,
3.+0.j,
0.+4.j]])
Example 3: Matrix creation from an array

>>> mat(random.rand(3,3)).T
matrix([[ 0.7699, 0.7922, 0.3294],
[ 0.2792, 0.0101, 0.9219],
[ 0.3398, 0.7571, 0.8197]])
1.6.3 Memory-mapped file arrays

Memory-mapped files are useful for reading and/or modifying small segments of a large file with regular layout,
without reading the entire file into memory. A simple subclass of the ndarray uses a memory-mapped file for the data
buffer of the array. For small files, the over-head of reading the entire file into memory is typically not significant,
however for large files using memory mapping can save considerable resources.
Memory-mapped-file arrays have one additional method (besides those they inherit from the ndarray): .flush()
which must be called manually by the user to ensure that any changes to the array actually get written to disk.
Note: Memory-mapped arrays use the the Python memory-map object which (prior to Python 2.5) does not allow
files to be larger than a certain size depending on the platform. This size is always < 2GB even on 64-bit systems.
memmap
memmap.flush()
Create a memory-map to an array stored in a binary file on disk.

Write any changes in the array to the file on disk.
class numpy.memmap
156
Memory-mapped files are used for accessing small segments of large files on disk, without reading the entire
file into memory. Numpys memmaps are array-like objects. This differs from Pythons mmap module, which
uses file-like objects.
This subclass of ndarray has some unpleasant interactions with some operations, because it doesnt quite fit
properly as a subclass. An alternative to using this subclass is to create the mmap object yourself, then create an
ndarray with ndarray.__new__ directly, passing the object created in its buffer= parameter.
This class may at some point be turned into a factory function which returns a view into an mmap buffer.
Parameters
filename : str or file-like object
The file name or file object to be used as the array data buffer.
The data-type used to interpret the file contents. Default is uint8.
mode : {r+, r, w+, c}, optional
The file is opened in this mode:
r
r+
w+
c
Open existing file for reading only.

Open existing file for reading and writing.
Create or overwrite existing file for reading and writing.
Copy-on-write: assignments affect data in memory, but changes are not saved
to disk. The file on disk is read-only.
Default is r+.
In the file, array data starts at this offset. Since offset is measured in bytes, it should
normally be a multiple of the byte-size of dtype. When mode != r, even positive offsets beyond end of file are valid; The file will be extended to accommodate the
additional data. The default offset is 0.
shape : tuple, optional
The desired shape of the array. If mode == r and the number of remaining bytes
after offset is not a multiple of the byte-size of dtype, you must specify shape. By
default, the returned array will be 1-D with the number of elements determined by file
size and data-type.
Specify the order of the ndarray memory layout: C (row-major) or Fortran (columnmajor). This only has an effect if the shape is greater than 1-D. The default order is
C.
Notes
The memmap object can be used anywhere an ndarray is accepted. Given a memmap fp, isinstance(fp,
numpy.ndarray) returns True.
Memory-mapped arrays use the Python memory-map object which (prior to Python 2.5) does not allow files to
be larger than a certain size depending on the platform. This size is always < 2GB even on 64-bit systems.
Examples
>>> data = np.arange(12, dtype=float32)
>>> data.resize((3,4))
157
This example uses a temporary file so that doctest doesnt write files to your directory. You would use a normal
filename.
>>> from tempfile import mkdtemp
>>> import os.path as path
>>> filename = path.join(mkdtemp(), newfile.dat)
Create a memmap with dtype and shape that matches our data:
>>> fp = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=w+, shape=(3,4))
>>> fp
memmap([[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
Write data to memmap array:

>>> fp[:] = data[:]
>>> fp
memmap([[ 0.,
1.,
[ 4.,
5.,
[ 8.,
9.,
2.,
6.,
10.,
3.],
7.],
11.]], dtype=float32)
>>> fp.filename == path.abspath(filename)

True
Deletion flushes memory changes to disk before removing the object:

>>> del fp
Load the memmap and verify data was stored:

>>> newfp = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=r, shape=(3,4))
>>> newfp
memmap([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
Read-only memmap:
>>> fpr = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=r, shape=(3,4))
>>> fpr.flags.writeable
False
Copy-on-write memmap:
>>> fpc = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=c, shape=(3,4))
>>> fpc.flags.writeable
True
Its possible to assign to copy-on-write array, but values are only written into the memory copy of the array, and
not written to disk:
>>> fpc
memmap([[ 0.,
1.,
[ 4.,
5.,
[ 8.,
9.,
>>> fpc[0,:] = 0
>>> fpc
memmap([[ 0.,
0.,
158
2.,
6.,
10.,
0.,
3.],
7.],
0.],
[
[
4.,
8.,
5.,
9.,
6.,
10.,
7.],
2.,
6.,
10.,
3.],
7.],
File on disk is unchanged:

>>> fpr
memmap([[
[
[
0.,
4.,
8.,
1.,
5.,
9.,
Offset into a memmap:

>>> fpo = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=r, offset=16)
>>> fpo
memmap([ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.,
8.,
9., 10., 11.], dtype=float32)
Attributes
filename
offset
mode
(str) Path to the mapped file.

(int) Offset position in the file.
(str) File mode.
Methods
flush()
memmap.flush()
For further information, see memmap.
Parameters
None
See Also:
memmap
close
Close the memmap file.
memmap.flush()
Parameters
None
See Also:
memmap
Example:
>>> a = memmap(newfile.dat, dtype=float, mode=w+, shape=1000)
>>> a[10] = 10.0
>>> a[30] = 30.0
>>> del a
>>> b = fromfile(newfile.dat, dtype=float)
>>> print b[10], b[30]
10.0 30.0
159
>>> a = memmap(newfile.dat, dtype=float)

>>> print a[10], a[30]
10.0 30.0
1.6.4 Character arrays (numpy.char)

See Also:
Creating character arrays (numpy.char)
Note: The chararray class exists for backwards compatibility with Numarray, it is not recommended for new
development. Starting from numpy 1.4, if one needs arrays of strings, it is recommended to use arrays of dtype
object_, string_ or unicode_, and use the free functions in the numpy.char module for fast vectorized
string operations.
These are enhanced arrays of either string_ type or unicode_ type. These arrays inherit from the ndarray,
but specially-define the operations +, *, and % on a (broadcasting) element-by-element basis. These operations are
not available on the standard ndarray of character type. In addition, the chararray has all of the standard
string (and unicode) methods, executing them on an element-by-element basis. Perhaps the easiest way to create
a chararray is to use self.view(chararray) where self is an ndarray of str or unicode data-type. However, a
chararray can also be created using the numpy.chararray constructor, or via the numpy.char.array function:
chararray
core.defchararray.array(obj[, itemsize, ...])
Provides a convenient view on arrays of string and unicode values.

Create a chararray.
class numpy.chararray
Note: The chararray class exists for backwards compatibility with Numarray, it is not recommended for
new development. Starting from numpy 1.4, if one needs arrays of strings, it is recommended to use arrays of
dtype object_, string_ or unicode_, and use the free functions in the numpy.char module for fast
vectorized string operations.
Versus a regular Numpy array of type str or unicode, this class adds the following functionality:
1.values automatically have whitespace removed from the end when indexed
2.comparison operators automatically remove whitespace from the end when comparing values
3.vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. endswith) and infix operators (e.g. "+",
"*", "%")
chararrays should be created using numpy.char.array or numpy.char.asarray, rather than this constructor directly.
This constructor creates the array, using buffer (with offset and strides) if it is not None. If buffer
is None, then constructs a new array with strides in C order, unless both len(shape) >= 2 and
order=Fortran, in which case strides is in Fortran order.
Parameters
shape : tuple
Shape of the array.
itemsize : int, optional
160
Length of each array element, in number of characters. Default is 1.

unicode : bool, optional
Are the array elements of type unicode (True) or string (False). Default is False.
buffer : int, optional
Memory address of the start of the array data. Default is None, in which case a new
array is created.
Fixed stride displacement from the beginning of an axis? Default is 0. Needs to be >=0.
strides : array_like of ints, optional
Strides for the array (see ndarray.strides for full description). Default is None.
The order in which the array data is stored in memory: C -> row major order (the
default), F -> column major (Fortran) order.
Examples
>>> charar = np.chararray((3, 3))
>>> charar[:] = a
>>> charar
chararray([[a, a, a],
[a, a, a],
[a, a, a]],
dtype=|S1)
>>> charar = np.chararray(charar.shape, itemsize=5)
>>> charar[:] = abc
>>> charar
chararray([[abc, abc, abc],
[abc, abc, abc],
[abc, abc, abc]],
dtype=|S5)
Attributes
T
base
ctypes
data
dtype
flags
flat
imag
itemsize
nbytes
ndim
real
shape
size
strides

161
chararray.T
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
>>> x.T
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
chararray.base
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
chararray.ctypes
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
162
For example:
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
chararray.data
163
chararray.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
chararray.flags
Notes
access.
164
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
(F)
DATA
(O)
ABLE
(W)
ALIGNED
(A)
COPY
(U)
FNC
FORC
(B)
CARRAY
(CA)
FARRAY
(FA)
chararray.flat
iterator object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
165
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
chararray.imag
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.imag
array([ 0.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype(float64)
chararray.itemsize
Examples
>>>
>>>
8
>>>
>>>
16
x.itemsize
x.itemsize
chararray.nbytes
Notes
Examples
>>> x.nbytes
480
480
chararray.ndim
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.ndim
1
166
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))

>>> y.ndim
3
chararray.real
See Also:
numpy.real
equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.real
array([ 1.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype(float64)
chararray.shape
Notes
elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
0.],
0.],
0.]])
unchanged
chararray.size
Examples
>>> x.size
30
30
167
chararray.strides
See Also:
Notes
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
(20, 4).
Examples
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
17
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
813
Methods
copy([order])
168

count(sub[, start, end])

decode([encoding, errors])
dump(file)
dumps()
encode([encoding, errors])
endswith(suffix[, start, end])
expandtabs([tabsize])
fill(value)
find(sub[, start, end])
flatten([order])
index(sub[, start, end])
isalnum()
isalpha()
isdecimal()
isdigit()
islower()
isnumeric()
isspace()
istitle()
isupper()
item(*args)
join(seq)
ljust(width[, fillchar])
lower()
lstrip([chars])
nonzero()
ravel([order])
replace(old, new[, count])
rfind(sub[, start, end])
rindex(sub[, start, end])
rjust(width[, fillchar])
rsplit([sep, maxsplit])
rstrip([chars])
split([sep, maxsplit])
splitlines([keepends])
squeeze([axis])
startswith(prefix[, start, end])
strip([chars])
swapcase()
Table 1.45 continued

Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in
Calls str.decode element-wise.
Calls str.encode element-wise.
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element
Return a copy of each string element where all tab characters are replaced by one or m
For each element, return the lowest index in the string where substring sub is found.
Like find, but raises ValueError when the substring is not found.
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is
For each element in self, return True if there are only
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at lea
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and th
Returns true for each element if there are only whitespace characters in the string and
Returns true for each element if the element is a titlecased string and there is at least o
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and th
Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in the sequence seq.
Return an array with the elements of self left-justified in a string of length width.
Return an array with the elements of self converted to lowercase.
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading characters removed.
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring o
For each element in self, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is f
Like rfind, but raises ValueError when the substring sub is
Return an array with the elements of self right-justified in a string of length width.
For each element in self, return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delim
For each element in self, return a copy with the trailing characters removed.
For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boun
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters remove
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with uppercase characters convert
169
title()
tolist()
tostring([order])
translate(table[, deletechars])
transpose(*axes)
upper()
view([dtype, type])
zfill(width)

For each element in self, return a titlecased version of the string: words start with upp
For each element in self, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in t
Return an array with the elements of self converted to uppercase.
Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros in a string of length width.
chararray.astype(dtype, order=K, casting=unsafe, subok=True, copy=True)

Parameters
Default is K.
allowed.
of a copy.
Returns
arr_t : ndarray
Raises
ComplexWarning
170

a.real.astype(t).
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
chararray.copy(order=C)
Parameters
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
chararray.count(sub, start=0, end=None)

Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in the range [start,
end].
See Also:
char.count
chararray.decode(encoding=None, errors=None)
See Also:
char.decode
171
chararray.dump(file)
Parameters
file : str
chararray.dumps()
array.
Parameters
None
chararray.encode(encoding=None, errors=None)
See Also:
char.encode
chararray.endswith(suffix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self ends with suffix, otherwise False.
See Also:
char.endswith
chararray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Return a copy of each string element where all tab characters are replaced by one or more spaces.
See Also:
char.expandtabs
chararray.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
chararray.find(sub, start=0, end=None)

See Also:
char.find
chararray.flatten(order=C)
172
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
chararray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
173
chararray.index(sub, start=0, end=None)

See Also:
char.index
chararray.isalnum()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one
character, false otherwise.
See Also:
char.isalnum
chararray.isalpha()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See Also:
char.isalpha
chararray.isdecimal()
For each element in self, return True if there are only decimal characters in the element.
See Also:
char.isdecimal
chararray.isdigit()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See Also:
char.isdigit
chararray.islower()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one
cased character, false otherwise.
See Also:
char.islower
chararray.isnumeric()
For each element in self, return True if there are only numeric characters in the element.
See Also:
char.isnumeric
chararray.isspace()
Returns true for each element if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is at least one
See Also:
char.isspace
chararray.istitle()
Returns true for each element if the element is a titlecased string and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
See Also:
174
char.istitle
chararray.isupper()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one
See Also:
char.isupper
chararray.item(*args)
Parameters
Returns
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
chararray.join(seq)
See Also:
char.join
175
chararray.ljust(width, fillchar= )
See Also:
char.ljust
chararray.lower()
See Also:
char.lower
chararray.lstrip(chars=None)
See Also:
char.lstrip
chararray.nonzero()
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
equivalent function
chararray.put(indices, values, mode=raise)
See Also:
numpy.put
equivalent function
chararray.ravel([order ])
See Also:
numpy.ravel
equivalent function
ndarray.flat
chararray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
176
chararray.replace(old, new, count=None)

For each element in self, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
See Also:
char.replace
chararray.reshape(shape, order=C)
See Also:
numpy.reshape
equivalent function
chararray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Parameters
Returns
None
Raises
ValueError
must be changed.
SystemError
See Also:
resize
Notes
Examples
177
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=C)

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=F)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
chararray.rfind(sub, start=0, end=None)

For each element in self, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub
is contained within [start, end].
See Also:
char.rfind
chararray.rindex(sub, start=0, end=None)
Like rfind, but raises ValueError when the substring sub is not found.
See Also:
char.rindex
chararray.rjust(width, fillchar= )
See Also:
char.rjust
chararray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
For each element in self, return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter string.
See Also:
178
char.rsplit
chararray.rstrip(chars=None)
See Also:
char.rstrip
chararray.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
chararray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
val : object
Returns
None
See Also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000,
1.48219694e-323,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.00000000e+000,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.48219694e-323,
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
1.48219694e-323],
1.48219694e-323],
1.00000000e+000]])
179
[ 0.,
[ 0.,
1.,
0.,
0.],
1.]])
chararray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Parameters
Notes
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
180
chararray.sort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Parameters
See Also:
numpy.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
181
chararray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
See Also:
char.split
chararray.splitlines(keepends=None)
For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
See Also:
char.splitlines
chararray.squeeze(axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
chararray.startswith(prefix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self starts with prefix, otherwise False.
See Also:
char.startswith
chararray.strip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
See Also:
char.strip
chararray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
chararray.swapcase()
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
vice versa.
See Also:
char.swapcase
chararray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)
See Also:
182
numpy.take
equivalent function
chararray.title()
For each element in self, return a titlecased version of the string: words start with uppercase characters, all
remaining cased characters are lowercase.
See Also:
char.title
chararray.tofile(fid, sep=, format=%s)
Parameters
fid : file or str
sep : str
format : str
Notes
chararray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters
none
Returns
y : list
Notes
Examples
>>>
>>>
[1,
>>>
a = np.array([1, 2])
a.tolist()
2]
a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
183
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
chararray.tostring(order=C)
Parameters
array.
Returns
s : str
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> x.tostring()
True
>>> x.tostring(F)
chararray.translate(table, deletechars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters have been mapped through the given translation
table.
See Also:
char.translate
chararray.transpose(*axes)
= (i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
Parameters
j-th axis.
184
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
chararray.upper()
See Also:
char.upper
chararray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
Parameters
type preservation.
Notes
185
Examples

>>> y
>>> print type(y)

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print x
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]

>>> z.a
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
186
chararray.zfill(width)
See Also:
char.zfill
argsort
numpy.core.defchararray.array(obj, itemsize=None, copy=True, unicode=None, order=None)
Create a chararray.
Note: This class is provided for numarray backward-compatibility. New code (not concerned with numarray
compatibility) should use arrays of type string_ or unicode_ and use the free functions in numpy.char
for fast vectorized string operations instead.
3.vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. str.endswith) and infix operators (e.g. +, *,
%)
Parameters
obj : array of str or unicode-like
itemsize is the number of characters per scalar in the resulting array. If itemsize is
None, and obj is an object array or a Python list, the itemsize will be automatically
determined. If itemsize is provided and obj is of type str or unicode, then the obj string
will be chunked into itemsize pieces.
If true (default), then the object is copied. Otherwise, a copy will only be made if
__array__ returns a copy, if obj is a nested sequence, or if a copy is needed to satisfy
any of the other requirements (itemsize, unicode, order, etc.).
When true, the resulting chararray can contain Unicode characters, when false only
8-bit characters. If unicode is None and obj is one of the following:
a chararray,
an ndarray of type str or unicode
a Python str or unicode object,
then the unicode setting of the output array will be automatically determined.
Specify the order of the array. If order is C (default), then the array will be in Ccontiguous order (last-index varies the fastest). If order is F, then the returned array
will be in Fortran-contiguous order (first-index varies the fastest). If order is A, then
the returned array may be in any order (either C-, Fortran-contiguous, or even discontiguous).
187
Another difference with the standard ndarray of str data-type is that the chararray inherits the feature introduced by
Numarray that white-space at the end of any element in the array will be ignored on item retrieval and comparison
operations.
1.6.5 Record arrays (numpy.rec)

See Also:
Creating record arrays (numpy.rec), Data type routines, Data type objects (dtype).
Numpy provides the recarray class which allows accessing the fields of a record/structured array as attributes, and
a corresponding scalar data type object record.
recarray
record
Construct an ndarray that allows field access using attributes.

A data-type scalar that allows field access as attribute lookup.
class numpy.recarray
Construct an ndarray that allows field access using attributes.
Arrays may have a data-types containing fields, analogous to columns in a spread sheet. An example is [(x,
int), (y, float)], where each entry in the array is a pair of (int, float). Normally, these attributes
are accessed using dictionary lookups such as arr[x] and arr[y]. Record arrays allow the fields to be
accessed as members of the array, using arr.x and arr.y.
Parameters
shape : tuple
Shape of output array.
The desired data-type. By default, the data-type is determined from formats, names,
titles, aligned and byteorder.
formats : list of data-types, optional
A list containing the data-types for the different columns, e.g. [i4, f8,
i4]. formats does not support the new convention of using types directly, i.e.
(int, float, int). Note that formats must be a list, not a tuple. Given that
formats is somewhat limited, we recommend specifying dtype instead.
names : tuple of str, optional
The name of each column, e.g. (x, y, z).
buf : buffer, optional
By default, a new array is created of the given shape and data-type. If buf is specified
and is an object exposing the buffer interface, the array will use the memory from the
existing buffer. In this case, the offset and strides keywords are available.
Returns
rec : recarray
Empty array of the given shape and type.
Other Parameters
titles : tuple of str, optional
188
Aliases for column names. For example, if names were (x, y, z) and
titles is (x_coordinate, y_coordinate, z_coordinate), then
arr[x] is equivalent to both arr.x and arr.x_coordinate.
byteorder : {<, >, =}, optional
Byte-order for all fields.
aligned : bool, optional
Align the fields in memory as the C-compiler would.
strides : tuple of ints, optional
Buffer (buf ) is interpreted according to these strides (strides define how many bytes
each array element, row, column, etc. occupy in memory).
Start reading buffer (buf ) from this offset onwards.
Row-major or column-major order.
See Also:
rec.fromrecords
Construct a record array from data.
record
fundamental data-type for recarray.
format_parser
determine a data-type from formats, names, titles.
Notes
This constructor can be compared to empty: it creates a new record array but does not fill it with data. To create
a record array from data, use one of the following methods:
1.Create a standard ndarray and convert it to a record array, using arr.view(np.recarray)
2.Use the buf keyword.
3.Use np.rec.fromrecords.
Examples
Create an array with two fields, x and y:
>>> x = np.array([(1.0, 2), (3.0, 4)], dtype=[(x, float), (y, int)])
>>> x
array([(1.0, 2), (3.0, 4)],
dtype=[(x, <f8), (y, <i4)])
>>> x[x]
array([ 1.,
3.])
View the array as a record array:

>>> x = x.view(np.recarray)
189
>>> x.x
array([ 1.,
3.])
>>> x.y
array([2, 4])
Create a new, empty record array:

>>> np.recarray((2,),
... dtype=[(x, int), (y, float), (z, int)])
rec.array([(-1073741821, 1.2249118382103472e-301, 24547520),
(3471280, 1.2134086255804012e-316, 0)],
dtype=[(x, <i4), (y, <f8), (z, <i4)])
Attributes
T
base
ctypes
data
dtype
flags
flat
imag
itemsize
nbytes
ndim
real
shape
size
strides

recarray.T
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
>>> x.T
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
recarray.base
Examples
190
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
recarray.ctypes
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
For example:
191
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
recarray.data
recarray.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
recarray.flags
192
Notes
access.
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
(F)
DATA
(O)
ABLE
(W)
ALIGNED
(A)
COPY
(U)
FNC
FORC
(B)
CARRAY
(CA)
FARRAY
(FA)
193
recarray.flat
iterator object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
recarray.imag
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.imag
array([ 0.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype(float64)
recarray.itemsize
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)
>>> x.itemsize
8
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.complex128)
194
>>> x.itemsize
16
recarray.nbytes
Notes
Examples
>>> x.nbytes
480
480
recarray.ndim
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
3
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
x.ndim
y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
y.ndim
recarray.real
See Also:
numpy.real
equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.real
array([ 1.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype(float64)
recarray.shape
Notes
elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
195
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
0.],
0.],
0.]])
unchanged
recarray.size
Examples
>>> x.size
30
30
recarray.strides
See Also:
Notes
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
(20, 4).
Examples
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
196
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
17
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
813
Methods
all([axis, out])
any([axis, out])
argmax([axis, out])
argmin([axis, out])
byteswap(inplace)
conj()
conjugate()
copy([order])
dot(b[, out])
dump(file)
dumps()
field(attr[, val])
fill(value)
flatten([order])
item(*args)
itemset(*args)
max([axis, out])
min([axis, out])
nonzero()


197
ptp([axis, out])
ravel([order])
squeeze([axis])
tolist()
tostring([order])
transpose(*axes)
view([dtype, type])

recarray.all(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.all
equivalent function
recarray.any(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.any
equivalent function
recarray.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.argmax
equivalent function
198
recarray.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.argmin
equivalent function
recarray.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)
See Also:
numpy.argpartition
equivalent function
recarray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)
See Also:
numpy.argsort
equivalent function
recarray.astype(dtype, order=K, casting=unsafe, subok=True, copy=True)
Parameters
Default is K.
allowed.
199
of a copy.
Returns
arr_t : ndarray
Raises
ComplexWarning
a.real.astype(t).
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
recarray.byteswap(inplace)
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x1, 0x100, 0x2233]
array([ 256,
1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x100, 0x1, 0x3322]

>>> A.byteswap()
200
array([ceg, fac],
dtype=|S3)
recarray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=raise)

See Also:
numpy.choose
equivalent function
recarray.clip(a_min, a_max, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
recarray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.compress
equivalent function
recarray.conj()
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
recarray.conjugate()
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
recarray.copy(order=C)
Parameters
201
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
recarray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

See Also:
numpy.cumprod
equivalent function
recarray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.cumsum
equivalent function
recarray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)
See Also:
numpy.diagonal
equivalent function
202
recarray.dot(b, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.dot
equivalent function
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2)
>>> b = np.ones((2, 2)) * 2
>>> a.dot(b)
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])

>>> a.dot(b).dot(b)
array([[ 8., 8.],
[ 8., 8.]])
recarray.dump(file)
Parameters
file : str
recarray.dumps()
array.
Parameters
None
recarray.field(attr, val=None)
recarray.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
203
recarray.flatten(order=C)
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
recarray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
204

array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
recarray.item(*args)
Parameters
Returns
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
recarray.itemset(*args)
Parameters
*args : Arguments
205
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
recarray.max(axis=None, out=None)
Refer to numpy.amax for full documentation.
See Also:
numpy.amax
equivalent function
recarray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.mean
equivalent function
recarray.min(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.amin
equivalent function
recarray.newbyteorder(new_order=S)
Equivalent to:
206
Parameters
can be any of:
*
*
*
*
*
S {<,
{>,
{=,
{|,
swap
L}
B}
N}
I}

- little endian
- big endian
- native order
Returns
new_arr : array
recarray.nonzero()
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
equivalent function
recarray.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)
Parameters
207
See Also:
numpy.partition
argpartition
Indirect partition.
sort
Full sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
recarray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

See Also:
numpy.prod
equivalent function
recarray.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.ptp
equivalent function
recarray.put(indices, values, mode=raise)
See Also:
numpy.put
equivalent function
recarray.ravel([order ])
See Also:
208
numpy.ravel
equivalent function
ndarray.flat
recarray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
recarray.reshape(shape, order=C)
See Also:
numpy.reshape
equivalent function
recarray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Parameters
Returns
None
Raises
ValueError
must be changed.
SystemError
See Also:
resize
Notes
209
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=C)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=F)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
recarray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.around
equivalent function
recarray.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
210
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
recarray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
val : object
Returns
None
See Also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000,
1.48219694e-323,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.00000000e+000,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.48219694e-323,
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
1.48219694e-323],
1.48219694e-323],
1.00000000e+000]])
recarray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

211
Parameters
Notes
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
recarray.sort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Parameters
212

See Also:
numpy.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
recarray.squeeze(axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
213
recarray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)

See Also:
numpy.std
equivalent function
recarray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.sum
equivalent function
recarray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
recarray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)
See Also:
numpy.take
equivalent function
recarray.tofile(fid, sep=, format=%s)
Parameters
fid : file or str
sep : str
format : str
214
Notes
recarray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters
none
Returns
y : list
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
recarray.tostring(order=C)
Parameters
array.
Returns
s : str
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> x.tostring()
True
215
>>> x.tostring(F)
recarray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
recarray.transpose(*axes)
= (i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
Parameters
j-th axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
216
recarray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)

See Also:
numpy.var
equivalent function
recarray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
class numpy.record
A data-type scalar that allows field access as attribute lookup.
Attributes
T
base
data
dtype
flags
flat
imag
itemsize
nbytes
ndim
real
shape
size
strides
transpose
base object
dtype object
real part of scalar
record.T
transpose
record.base
base object
record.data
record.dtype
dtype object
record.flags
record.flat
record.imag
record.itemsize
217
record.nbytes
record.ndim
record.real
real part of scalar
record.shape
record.size
record.strides
Methods
all
any
argmax
argmin
argsort
astype
byteswap
choose
clip
compress
conj
conjugate
copy
cumprod
cumsum
diagonal
dump
dumps
fill
flatten
getfield
item
itemset
max
mean
min
nonzero
pprint()
prod
ptp
put
ravel
repeat
218

Pretty-print all fields.
reshape
resize
round
searchsorted
setfield
setflags
sort
squeeze
std
sum
swapaxes
take
tofile
tolist
tostring
trace
transpose
var
view

record.all()
See Also:
The
record.any()
See Also:
The
record.argmax()
See Also:
The
record.argmin()
See Also:
The
219
record.argsort()
See Also:
The
record.astype()
See Also:
The
record.byteswap()
See Also:
The
record.choose()
See Also:
The
record.clip()
See Also:
The
record.compress()
See Also:
The
record.conj()
record.conjugate()
220
See Also:
The
record.copy()
See Also:
The
record.cumprod()
See Also:
The
record.cumsum()
See Also:
The
record.diagonal()
See Also:
The
record.dump()
See Also:
The
record.dumps()
See Also:
The
221
record.fill()
See Also:
The
record.flatten()
See Also:
The
record.getfield()
record.item()
See Also:
The
record.itemset()
See Also:
The
record.max()
See Also:
The
record.mean()
See Also:
The
record.min()
222
See Also:
The
record.newbyteorder(new_order=S)
The new_order code can be any from the following:
{<, L} - little endian
{>, B} - big endian
{=, N} - native order
S - swap dtype from current to opposite endian
{|, I} - ignore (no change to byte order)
Parameters
new_order : str, optional
Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications above. The default value
(S) results in swapping the current byte order. The code does a case-insensitive check
on the first letter of new_order for the alternatives above. For example, any of B or b
or biggish are valid to specify big-endian.
Returns
new_dtype : dtype
record.nonzero()
See Also:
The
record.pprint()
Pretty-print all fields.
record.prod()
See Also:
The
record.ptp()
223
See Also:
The
record.put()
See Also:
The
record.ravel()
See Also:
The
record.repeat()
See Also:
The
record.reshape()
See Also:
The
record.resize()
See Also:
The
record.round()
See Also:
The
record.searchsorted()
224
See Also:
The
record.setfield()
record.setflags()
See Also:
The
record.sort()
See Also:
The
record.squeeze()
See Also:
The
record.std()
See Also:
The
record.sum()
See Also:
The
record.swapaxes()
See Also:
225
The
record.take()
See Also:
The
record.tofile()
See Also:
The
record.tolist()
See Also:
The
record.tostring()
See Also:
The
record.trace()
See Also:
The
record.transpose()
See Also:
The
record.var()
226
See Also:
The
record.view()
See Also:
The
1.6.6 Masked arrays (numpy.ma)

See Also:
Masked arrays
1.6.7 Standard container class

For backward compatibility and as a standard container class, the UserArray from Numeric has been brought over to
NumPy and named numpy.lib.user_array.container The container class is a Python class whose self.array
attribute is an ndarray. Multiple inheritance is probably easier with numpy.lib.user_array.container than with the
ndarray itself and so it is included by default. It is not documented here beyond mentioning its existence because you
are encouraged to use the ndarray class directly if you can.
numpy.lib.user_array.container(data[, ...])
class numpy.lib.user_array.container(data, dtype=None, copy=True)
Methods
astype(typecode)
byteswap()
copy()
tostring()
container.astype(typecode)
container.byteswap()
container.copy()
container.tostring()
227
1.6.8 Array Iterators

Iterators are a powerful concept for array processing. Essentially, iterators implement a generalized for-loop. If myiter
is an iterator object, then the Python code:
for val in myiter:
...
some code involving val
...
calls val = myiter.next() repeatedly until StopIteration is raised by the iterator. There are several ways
to iterate over an array that may be useful: default iteration, flat iteration, and N -dimensional enumeration.
Default iteration
The default iterator of an ndarray object is the default Python iterator of a sequence type. Thus, when the array object
itself is used as an iterator. The default behavior is equivalent to:
for i in range(arr.shape[0]):
val = arr[i]
This default iterator selects a sub-array of dimension N 1 from the array. This can be a useful construct for defining
recursive algorithms. To loop over the entire array requires N for-loops.
>>> a = arange(24).reshape(3,2,4)+10
>>> for val in a:
...
print item:, val
item: [[10 11 12 13]
[14 15 16 17]]
item: [[18 19 20 21]
[22 23 24 25]]
item: [[26 27 28 29]
[30 31 32 33]]
Flat iteration
ndarray.flat
ndarray.flat
object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
228
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
As mentioned previously, the flat attribute of ndarray objects returns an iterator that will cycle over the entire array in
C-style contiguous order.
>>> for i, val in enumerate(a.flat):
...
if i%5 == 0: print i, val
0 10
5 15
10 20
15 25
20 30
Here, Ive used the built-in enumerate iterator to return the iterator index as well as the value.
N-dimensional enumeration
ndenumerate(arr)
Multidimensional index iterator.
class numpy.ndenumerate(arr)
Return an iterator yielding pairs of array coordinates and values.
Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array.
See Also:
ndindex, flatiter
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> for index, x in np.ndenumerate(a):
...
print index, x
229
(0,
(0,
(1,
(1,
0)
1)
0)
1)
1
2
3
4
Methods
next()
Standard iterator method, returns the index tuple and array value.
ndenumerate.next()
Returns
coords : tuple of ints
The indices of the current iteration.
val : scalar
The array element of the current iteration.
Sometimes it may be useful to get the N-dimensional index while iterating. The ndenumerate iterator can achieve this.
>>>
...
(0,
(1,
(2,
(2,
for i, val in ndenumerate(a):

if sum(i)%5 == 0: print i, val
0, 0) 10
1, 3) 25
0, 3) 29
1, 2) 32
Iterator for broadcasting

broadcast
Produce an object that mimics broadcasting.
class numpy.broadcast
Parameters
in1, in2, ... : array_like
Input parameters.
Returns
b : broadcast object
Broadcast the input parameters against one another, and return an object that encapsulates the result. Amongst others, it has shape and nd properties, and may be used as
an iterator.
Examples
Manually adding two vectors, using broadcasting:
>>> x = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
>>> b = np.broadcast(x, y)
230
>>> out = np.empty(b.shape)

>>> out.flat = [u+v for (u,v) in b]
>>> out
array([[ 5., 6., 7.],
[ 6., 7., 8.],
[ 7., 8., 9.]])
Compare against built-in broadcasting:

>>> x + y
array([[5, 6, 7],
[6, 7, 8],
[7, 8, 9]])
Attributes
index
iters
shape
size
current index in broadcasted result

tuple of iterators along selfs components.
Shape of broadcasted result.
Total size of broadcasted result.
broadcast.index
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
>>> b.index
0
>>> b.next(), b.next(), b.next()
((1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6))
>>> b.index
3
broadcast.iters
Returns a tuple of numpy.flatiter objects, one for each component of self.
See Also:
numpy.flatiter
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
(1,
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]])
b = np.broadcast(x, y)
row, col = b.iters
row.next(), col.next()
4)
broadcast.shape
231
Examples
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]])
b.shape
3)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
(3,
broadcast.size
Examples
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]])
b.size
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
9
Methods
next
reset()
x.next() -> the next value, or raise StopIteration

Reset the broadcasted results iterator(s).
broadcast.next
broadcast.reset()
Parameters
None
Returns
None
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]]
>>> b.index
0
((1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4))
>>> b.index
3
>>> b.reset()
>>> b.index
0
The general concept of broadcasting is also available from Python using the broadcast iterator. This object takes
N objects as inputs and returns an iterator that returns tuples providing each of the input sequence elements in the
broadcasted result.
>>> for val in broadcast([[1,0],[2,3]],[0,1]):
...
print val
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
232
(2, 0)
(3, 1)
1.7 Masked arrays

Masked arrays are arrays that may have missing or invalid entries. The numpy.ma module provides a nearly workalike replacement for numpy that supports data arrays with masks.
1.7.1 The numpy.ma module

Rationale
Masked arrays are arrays that may have missing or invalid entries. The numpy.ma module provides a nearly workalike replacement for numpy that supports data arrays with masks.
What is a masked array?
In many circumstances, datasets can be incomplete or tainted by the presence of invalid data. For example, a sensor
may have failed to record a data, or recorded an invalid value. The numpy.ma module provides a convenient way to
address this issue, by introducing masked arrays.
A masked array is the combination of a standard numpy.ndarray and a mask. A mask is either nomask, indicating
that no value of the associated array is invalid, or an array of booleans that determines for each element of the associated
array whether the value is valid or not. When an element of the mask is False, the corresponding element of the
associated array is valid and is said to be unmasked. When an element of the mask is True, the corresponding element
of the associated array is said to be masked (invalid).
The package ensures that masked entries are not used in computations.
As an illustration, lets consider the following dataset:
>>> import numpy as np
>>> import numpy.ma as ma
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, -1, 5])
We wish to mark the fourth entry as invalid. The easiest is to create a masked array:
>>> mx = ma.masked_array(x, mask=[0, 0, 0, 1, 0])
We can now compute the mean of the dataset, without taking the invalid data into account:
>>> mx.mean()
2.75
The numpy.ma module

The main feature of the numpy.ma module is the MaskedArray class, which is a subclass of numpy.ndarray.
The class, its attributes and methods are described in more details in the MaskedArray class section.
The numpy.ma module can be used as an addition to numpy:
1.7. Masked arrays
233
To create an array with the second element invalid, we would do:

>>> y = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask = [0, 1, 0])
To create a masked array where all values close to 1.e20 are invalid, we would do:
>>> z = masked_values([1.0, 1.e20, 3.0, 4.0], 1.e20)
For a complete discussion of creation methods for masked arrays please see section Constructing masked arrays.
1.7.2 Using numpy.ma

Constructing masked arrays
There are several ways to construct a masked array.
A first possibility is to directly invoke the MaskedArray class.
A second possibility is to use the two masked array constructors, array and masked_array.
array(data[, dtype, copy, order, mask, ...])
masked_array
An array class with possibly masked values.

numpy.ma.array(data, dtype=None, copy=False, order=False, mask=False, fill_value=None,

keep_mask=True, hard_mask=False, shrink=True, subok=True, ndmin=0)
Masked values of True exclude the corresponding element from any computation.
Construction:
x = MaskedArray(data, mask=nomask, dtype=None,
copy=False, subok=True, ndmin=0, fill_value=None,
keep_mask=True, hard_mask=None, shrink=True)
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
mask : sequence, optional
Mask. Must be convertible to an array of booleans with the same shape as data. True
indicates a masked (i.e. invalid) data.
dtype : dtype, optional
Data type of the output. If dtype is None, the type of the data argument (data.dtype)
is used. If dtype is not None and different from data.dtype, a copy is performed.
Whether to copy the input data (True), or to use a reference instead. Default is False.
Whether to return a subclass of MaskedArray if possible (True) or a plain
MaskedArray. Default is True.
ndmin : int, optional
234
Minimum number of dimensions. Default is 0.

fill_value : scalar, optional
Value used to fill in the masked values when necessary. If None, a default based on the
data-type is used.
keep_mask : bool, optional
Whether to combine mask with the mask of the input data, if any (True), or to use only
mask for the output (False). Default is True.
hard_mask : bool, optional
Whether to use a hard mask or not. With a hard mask, masked values cannot be unmasked. Default is False.
shrink : bool, optional
Whether to force compression of an empty mask. Default is True.
numpy.ma.masked_array
alias of MaskedArray
A third option is to take the view of an existing array. In that case, the mask of the view is set to nomask if the
array has no named fields, or an array of boolean with the same structure as the array otherwise.
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.view(ma.MaskedArray)
masked_array(data = [1 2 3],
mask = False,
fill_value = 999999)
>>> x = np.array([(1, 1.), (2, 2.)], dtype=[(a,int), (b, float)])
>>> x.view(ma.MaskedArray)
masked_array(data = [(1, 1.0) (2, 2.0)],
mask = [(False, False) (False, False)],
fill_value = (999999, 1e+20),
dtype = [(a, <i4), (b, <f8)])
Yet another possibility is to use any of the following functions:

asarray(a[, dtype, order])
asanyarray(a[, dtype])
fix_invalid(a[, mask, copy, fill_value])
masked_equal(x, value[, copy])
masked_greater(x, value[, copy])
masked_greater_equal(x, value[, copy])
masked_inside(x, v1, v2[, copy])
masked_invalid(a[, copy])
masked_less(x, value[, copy])
masked_less_equal(x, value[, copy])
masked_not_equal(x, value[, copy])
masked_object(x, value[, copy, shrink])
masked_outside(x, v1, v2[, copy])
masked_values(x, value[, rtol, atol, copy, ...])
masked_where(condition, a[, copy])
Convert the input to a masked array of the given data-type.

Convert the input to a masked array, conserving subclasses.
Return input with invalid data masked and replaced by a fill value.
Mask an array where equal to a given value.
Mask an array where greater than a given value.
Mask an array where greater than or equal to a given value.
Mask an array inside a given interval.
Mask an array where invalid values occur (NaNs or infs).
Mask an array where less than a given value.
Mask an array where less than or equal to a given value.
Mask an array where not equal to a given value.
Mask the array x where the data are exactly equal to value.
Mask an array outside a given interval.
Mask using floating point equality.
Mask an array where a condition is met.
numpy.ma.asarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

1.7. Masked arrays
235
No copy is performed if the input is already an ndarray. If a is a subclass of MaskedArray, a base class
MaskedArray is returned.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to a masked array. This includes lists, lists
of tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists, ndarrays and masked arrays.
By default, the data-type is inferred from the input data.
Whether to use row-major (C) or column-major (FORTRAN) memory representation. Default is C.
Returns
out : MaskedArray
Masked array interpretation of a.
See Also:
asanyarray
Similar to asarray, but conserves subclasses.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(10.).reshape(2, 5)
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
>>> np.ma.asarray(x)
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> type(np.ma.asarray(x))
<class numpy.ma.core.MaskedArray>
numpy.ma.asanyarray(a, dtype=None)
If a is a subclass of MaskedArray, its class is conserved. No copy is performed if the input is already
an ndarray.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array.
236
Returns
out : MaskedArray
MaskedArray interpretation of a.
See Also:
asarray
Similar to asanyarray, but does not conserve subclass.
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
>>> np.ma.asanyarray(x)
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> type(np.ma.asanyarray(x))
numpy.ma.fix_invalid(a, mask=False, copy=True, fill_value=None)

Invalid data means values of nan, inf, etc.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array, a (subclass of) ndarray.
Whether to use a copy of a (True) or to fix a in place (False). Default is True.
Value used for fixing invalid data. Default is None, in which case the a.fill_value
is used.
Returns
b : MaskedArray
The input array with invalid entries fixed.
Notes
A copy is performed by default.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1., -1, np.nan, np.inf], mask=[1] + [0]*3)
>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- -1.0 nan inf],
mask = [ True False False False],
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> np.ma.fix_invalid(x)
1.7. Masked arrays
237
masked_array(data = [-- -1.0 -- --],

mask = [ True False True
fill_value = 1e+20)
True],
>>> fixed = np.ma.fix_invalid(x)

>>> fixed.data
array([ 1.00000000e+00, -1.00000000e+00,
1.00000000e+20])
>>> x.data
array([ 1., -1., NaN, Inf])
1.00000000e+20,
numpy.ma.masked_equal(x, value, copy=True)

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x == value). For floating point arrays,
consider using masked_values(x, value).
See Also:
masked_where
Mask where a condition is met.
masked_values
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- 3],
mask = [False False True False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_greater(x, value, copy=True)

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x > value).
See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_greater(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 2 --],
mask = [False False False
fill_value=999999)
True],
numpy.ma.masked_greater_equal(x, value, copy=True)

238
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x >= value).

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_greater_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- --],
mask = [False False True True],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_inside(x, v1, v2, copy=True)

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x inside the interval [v1,v2] (v1 <= x <= v2).
The boundaries v1 and v2 can be given in either order.
See Also:
masked_where
Notes
The array x is prefilled with its filling value.
Examples
>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
>>> ma.masked_inside(x, -0.3, 0.3)
masked_array(data = [0.31 1.2 -- -- -0.4 -1.1],
mask = [False False True True False False],
fill_value=1e+20)
The order of v1 and v2 doesnt matter.

>>> ma.masked_inside(x, 0.3, -0.3)
fill_value=1e+20)
numpy.ma.masked_invalid(a, copy=True)
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = ~(np.isfinite(a)). Any pre-existing mask
is conserved. Only applies to arrays with a dtype where NaNs or infs make sense (i.e. floating point types),
but accepts any array_like object.
See Also:
masked_where
1.7. Masked arrays
239
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(5, dtype=np.float)
>>> a[2] = np.NaN
>>> a[3] = np.PINF
>>> a
array([ 0.,
1., NaN, Inf,
4.])
>>> ma.masked_invalid(a)
masked_array(data = [0.0 1.0 -- -- 4.0],
mask = [False False True True False],
fill_value=1e+20)
numpy.ma.masked_less(x, value, copy=True)

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x < value).
See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_less(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 2 3],
mask = [ True True False False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_less_equal(x, value, copy=True)

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x <= value).
See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_less_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [-- -- -- 3],
mask = [ True True True False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_not_equal(x, value, copy=True)

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x != value).
See Also:
240
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_not_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 2 --],
mask = [ True True False True],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_object(x, value, copy=True, shrink=True)

This function is similar to masked_values, but only suitable for object arrays: for floating point, use
masked_values instead.
Parameters
x : array_like
Array to mask
value : object
Comparison value
copy : {True, False}, optional
Whether to return a copy of x.
shrink : {True, False}, optional
Whether to collapse a mask full of False to nomask
Returns
result : MaskedArray
The result of masking x where equal to value.
See Also:
masked_where
masked_equal
Mask where equal to a given value (integers).
masked_values
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
[->>>
>>>
import numpy.ma as ma
food = np.array([green_eggs, ham], dtype=object)
# dont eat spoiled food
eat = ma.masked_object(food, green_eggs)
print eat
ham]
# plain ol ham is boring
fresh_food = np.array([cheese, ham, pineapple], dtype=object)
1.7. Masked arrays
241
>>> eat = ma.masked_object(fresh_food, green_eggs)

>>> print eat
[cheese ham pineapple]
Note that mask is set to nomask if possible.

>>> eat
masked_array(data = [cheese ham pineapple],
mask = False,
fill_value=?)
numpy.ma.masked_outside(x, v1, v2, copy=True)

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x outside the interval [v1,v2] (x < v1)|(x > v2).
The boundaries v1 and v2 can be given in either order.
See Also:
masked_where
Notes
Examples
>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
>>> ma.masked_outside(x, -0.3, 0.3)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.01 0.2 -- --],
mask = [ True True False False True
fill_value=1e+20)
True],

>>> ma.masked_outside(x, 0.3, -0.3)
fill_value=1e+20)
True],
numpy.ma.masked_values(x, value, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08, copy=True, shrink=True)

Return a MaskedArray, masked where the data in array x are approximately equal to value, i.e. where the
following condition is True
(abs(x - value) <= atol+rtol*abs(value))
The fill_value is set to value and the mask is set to nomask if possible. For integers, consider using
masked_equal.
Parameters
x : array_like
Array to mask.
value : float
Masking value.
242
rtol : float, optional

Tolerance parameter.
atol : float, optional
Tolerance parameter (1e-8).
Whether to collapse a mask full of False to nomask.
Returns
The result of masking x where approximately equal to value.
See Also:
masked_where
masked_equal
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 1.1, 2, 1.1, 3])
>>> ma.masked_values(x, 1.1)
masked_array(data = [1.0 -- 2.0 -- 3.0],
mask = [False True False True False],
fill_value=1.1)

masked_array(data = [ 1.
1.1
mask = False,
fill_value=1.5)
2.
1.1
3. ],
For integers, the fill value will be different in general to the result of masked_equal.
>>> x = np.arange(5)
>>> x
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> ma.masked_values(x, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- 3 4],
mask = [False False True False False],
fill_value=2)
>>> ma.masked_equal(x, 2)
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_where(condition, a, copy=True)
1.7. Masked arrays
243
Return a as an array masked where condition is True. Any masked values of a or condition are also masked
in the output.
Parameters
condition : array_like
Masking condition. When condition tests floating point values for equality, consider
using masked_values instead.
a : array_like
Array to mask.
copy : bool
If True (default) make a copy of a in the result. If False modify a in place and return a
view.
Returns
The result of masking a where condition is True.
See Also:
masked_values
masked_equal
Mask where equal to a given value.
masked_not_equal
Mask where not equal to a given value.
masked_less_equal
Mask where less than or equal to a given value.
masked_greater_equal
Mask where greater than or equal to a given value.
masked_less
Mask where less than a given value.
masked_greater
Mask where greater than a given value.
masked_inside
Mask inside a given interval.
masked_outside
Mask outside a given interval.
masked_invalid
Mask invalid values (NaNs or infs).
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_where(a <= 2, a)
244
mask = [ True True

fill_value=999999)
True False],
Mask array b conditional on a.

>>> b = [a, b, c, d]
>>> ma.masked_where(a == 2, b)
masked_array(data = [a b -- d],
fill_value=N/A)
Effect of the copy argument.

>>> c = ma.masked_where(a <= 2, a)
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
masked_array(data = [99 -- -- 3],
mask = [False True True False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> c = ma.masked_where(a <= 2, a, copy=False)
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([99, 1, 2, 3])
When condition or a contain masked values.

>>> a = ma.masked_where(a == 2, a)
>>> a
fill_value=999999)
>>> b = np.arange(4)
>>> b = ma.masked_where(b == 0, b)
>>> b
masked_array(data = [-- 1 2 3],
fill_value=999999)
masked_array(data = [-- 1 -- --],
mask = [ True False True True],
fill_value=999999)
Accessing the data

The underlying data of a masked array can be accessed in several ways:
1.7. Masked arrays
245
through the data attribute. The output is a view of the array as a numpy.ndarray or one of its subclasses,
depending on the type of the underlying data at the masked array creation.
through the __array__ method. The output is then a numpy.ndarray.
by directly taking a view of the masked array as a numpy.ndarray or one of its subclass (which is actually
what using the data attribute does).
by using the getdata function.
None of these methods is completely satisfactory if some entries have been marked as invalid. As a general rule,
where a representation of the array is required without any masked entries, it is recommended to fill the array with the
filled method.
Accessing the mask
The mask of a masked array is accessible through its mask attribute. We must keep in mind that a True entry in the
mask indicates an invalid data.
Another possibility is to use the getmask and getmaskarray functions. getmask(x) outputs the mask of x if
x is a masked array, and the special value nomask otherwise. getmaskarray(x) outputs the mask of x if x is a
masked array. If x has no invalid entry or is not a masked array, the function outputs a boolean array of False with
as many elements as x.
Accessing only the valid entries
To retrieve only the valid entries, we can use the inverse of the mask as an index. The inverse of the mask can be
calculated with the numpy.logical_not function or simply with the ~ operator:
>>> x = ma.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])
>>> x[~x.mask]
masked_array(data = [1 4],
mask = [False False],
Another way to retrieve the valid data is to use the compressed method, which returns a one-dimensional ndarray
(or one of its subclasses, depending on the value of the baseclass attribute):
>>> x.compressed()
array([1, 4])
Note that the output of compressed is always 1D.

Modifying the mask
Masking an entry
The recommended way to mark one or several specific entries of a masked array as invalid is to assign the special
value masked to them:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x[0] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- 2 3],
mask = [ True False False],
>>> y = ma.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
246
>>> y[(0, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0)] = ma.masked

>>> y
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 3]
[4 5 --]
[-- 8 9]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False False True]
[ True False False]],
>>> z = ma.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> z[:-2] = ma.masked
>>> z
A second possibility is to modify the mask directly, but this usage is discouraged.
Note: When creating a new masked array with a simple, non-structured datatype, the mask is initially set to the
special value nomask, that corresponds roughly to the boolean False. Trying to set an element of nomask will fail
with a TypeError exception, as a boolean does not support item assignment.
All the entries of an array can be masked at once by assigning True to the mask:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> x.mask = True
>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- -- --],
mask = [ True True True],
Finally, specific entries can be masked and/or unmasked by assigning to the mask a sequence of booleans:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.mask = [0, 1, 0]
>>> x
masked_array(data = [1 -- 3],
mask = [False True False],
Unmasking an entry
To unmask one or several specific entries, we can just assign one or several new valid values to them:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> x
masked_array(data = [1 2 --],
mask = [False False True],
>>> x[-1] = 5
>>> x
mask = [False False False],
1.7. Masked arrays
247
Note: Unmasking an entry by direct assignment will silently fail if the masked array has a hard mask, as shown by
the hardmask attribute. This feature was introduced to prevent overwriting the mask. To force the unmasking of an
entry where the array has a hard mask, the mask must first to be softened using the soften_mask method before the
allocation. It can be re-hardened with harden_mask:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1], hard_mask=True)
>>> x
>>> x[-1] = 5
>>> x
>>> x.soften_mask()
>>> x[-1] = 5
>>> x
>>> x.harden_mask()
To unmask all masked entries of a masked array (provided the mask isnt a hard mask), the simplest solution is to
assign the constant nomask to the mask:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> x
>>> x.mask = ma.nomask
>>> x
Indexing and slicing

As a MaskedArray is a subclass of numpy.ndarray, it inherits its mechanisms for indexing and slicing.
When accessing a single entry of a masked array with no named fields, the output is either a scalar (if the corresponding
entry of the mask is False) or the special value masked (if the corresponding entry of the mask is True):
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> x[0]
1
>>> x[-1]
masked_array(data = --,
mask = True,
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> x[-1] is ma.masked
True
If the masked array has named fields, accessing a single entry returns a numpy.void object if none of the fields are
masked, or a 0d masked array with the same dtype as the initial array if at least one of the fields is masked.
248
>>> y = ma.masked_array([(1,2), (3, 4)],

...
mask=[(0, 0), (0, 1)],
...
dtype=[(a, int), (b, int)])
>>> y[0]
(1, 2)
>>> y[-1]
masked_array(data = (3, --),
mask = (False, True),
fill_value = (999999, 999999),
dtype = [(a, <i4), (b, <i4)])
When accessing a slice, the output is a masked array whose data attribute is a view of the original data, and whose
mask is either nomask (if there was no invalid entries in the original array) or a copy of the corresponding slice of the
original mask. The copy is required to avoid propagation of any modification of the mask to the original.
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], mask=[0, 1, 0, 0, 1])
>>> mx = x[:3]
>>> mx
>>> mx[1] = -1
>>> mx
masked_array(data = [1 -1 3],
>>> x.mask
array([False, True, False, False, True], dtype=bool)
>>> x.data
array([ 1, -1, 3, 4, 5])
Accessing a field of a masked array with structured datatype returns a MaskedArray.

Operations on masked arrays
Arithmetic and comparison operations are supported by masked arrays. As much as possible, invalid entries of a
masked array are not processed, meaning that the corresponding data entries should be the same before and after the
operation.
Warning: We need to stress that this behavior may not be systematic, that masked data may be affected by the
operation in some cases and therefore users should not rely on this data remaining unchanged.
The numpy.ma module comes with a specific implementation of most ufuncs. Unary and binary functions that have a
validity domain (such as log or divide) return the masked constant whenever the input is masked or falls outside
the validity domain:
>>> ma.log([-1, 0, 1, 2])
masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.0 0.69314718056],
fill_value = 1e+20)
Masked arrays also support standard numpy ufuncs. The output is then a masked array. The result of a unary ufunc is
masked wherever the input is masked. The result of a binary ufunc is masked wherever any of the input is masked. If
the ufunc also returns the optional context output (a 3-element tuple containing the name of the ufunc, its arguments
and its domain), the context is processed and entries of the output masked array are masked wherever the corresponding
input fall outside the validity domain:
1.7. Masked arrays
249
>>> x = ma.array([-1, 1, 0, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 0, 0, 1])

>>> np.log(x)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.0 0.69314718056 --],
mask = [ True True False False True],
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.7.3 Examples
Data with a given value representing missing data
Lets consider a list of elements, x, where values of -9999. represent missing data. We wish to compute the average
value of the data and the vector of anomalies (deviations from the average):
>>> x = [0.,1.,-9999.,3.,4.]
>>> mx = ma.masked_values (x, -9999.)
>>> print mx.mean()
2.0
>>> print mx - mx.mean()
[-2.0 -1.0 -- 1.0 2.0]
>>> print mx.anom()
[-2.0 -1.0 -- 1.0 2.0]
Filling in the missing data

Suppose now that we wish to print that same data, but with the missing values replaced by the average value.
>>> print mx.filled(mx.mean())
[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
Numerical operations
Numerical operations can be easily performed without worrying about missing values, dividing by zero, square roots
of negative numbers, etc.:
>>> import numpy as np, numpy.ma as ma
>>> x = ma.array([1., -1., 3., 4., 5., 6.], mask=[0,0,0,0,1,0])
>>> y = ma.array([1., 2., 0., 4., 5., 6.], mask=[0,0,0,0,0,1])
>>> print np.sqrt(x/y)
[1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- --]
Four values of the output are invalid: the first one comes from taking the square root of a negative number, the second
from the division by zero, and the last two where the inputs were masked.
Ignoring extreme values
Lets consider an array d of random floats between 0 and 1. We wish to compute the average of the values of d while
ignoring any data outside the range [0.1, 0.9]:
>>> print ma.masked_outside(d, 0.1, 0.9).mean()
250
1.7.4 Constants of the numpy.ma module

In addition to the MaskedArray class, the numpy.ma module defines several constants.
numpy.ma.masked
The masked constant is a special case of MaskedArray, with a float datatype and a null shape. It is used to
test whether a specific entry of a masked array is masked, or to mask one or several entries of a masked array:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 1, 0])
>>> x[1] is ma.masked
True
>>> x[-1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data = [1 -- --],
mask = [False True True],
numpy.ma.nomask
Value indicating that a masked array has no invalid entry. nomask is used internally to speed up computations
when the mask is not needed.
numpy.ma.masked_print_options
String used in lieu of missing data when a masked array is printed. By default, this string is --.
1.7.5 The MaskedArray class

class numpy.ma.MaskedArray
A subclass of ndarray designed to manipulate numerical arrays with missing data.
An instance of MaskedArray can be thought as the combination of several elements:
The data, as a regular numpy.ndarray of any shape or datatype (the data).
A boolean mask with the same shape as the data, where a True value indicates that the corresponding element
of the data is invalid. The special value nomask is also acceptable for arrays without named fields, and indicates
that no data is invalid.
A fill_value, a value that may be used to replace the invalid entries in order to return a standard
numpy.ndarray.
Attributes and properties of masked arrays
See Also:
Array Attributes
MaskedArray.data
Returns the underlying data, as a view of the masked array.
numpy.ndarray, it is returned as such.
If the underlying data is a subclass of
>>> x = ma.array(np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])

>>> x.data
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
The type of the data can be accessed through the baseclass attribute.
1.7. Masked arrays
251
MaskedArray.mask
Returns the underlying mask, as an array with the same shape and structure as the data, but where all fields are
atomically booleans. A value of True indicates an invalid entry.
MaskedArray.recordmask
Returns the mask of the array if it has no named fields. For structured arrays, returns a ndarray of booleans
where entries are True if all the fields are masked, False otherwise:
>>> x = ma.array([(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)],
...
mask=[(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 0)],
...
dtype=[(a, int), (b, int)])
>>> x.recordmask
array([False, False, True, False, False], dtype=bool)
MaskedArray.fill_value
Returns the value used to fill the invalid entries of a masked array. The value is either a scalar (if the masked
array has no named fields), or a 0-D ndarray with the same dtype as the masked array if it has named fields.
The default filling value depends on the datatype of the array:
datatype
bool
int
float
complex
object
string
default
True
999999
1.e20
1.e20+0j
?
N/A
MaskedArray.baseclass
Returns the class of the underlying data.
>>> x = ma.array(np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 0], [1, 0]])
>>> x.baseclass
MaskedArray.sharedmask
Returns whether the mask of the array is shared between several masked arrays. If this is the case, any modification to the mask of one array will be propagated to the others.
MaskedArray.hardmask
Returns whether the mask is hard (True) or soft (False). When the mask is hard, masked entries cannot be
unmasked.
As MaskedArray is a subclass of ndarray, a masked array also inherits all the attributes and properties of a
ndarray instance.
MaskedArray.base
MaskedArray.ctypes
MaskedArray.dtype
MaskedArray.flags
MaskedArray.itemsize
MaskedArray.nbytes
MaskedArray.ndim
MaskedArray.shape
MaskedArray.size
MaskedArray.strides
MaskedArray.imag
252

Imaginary part.

MaskedArray.real
Real part
MaskedArray.flat
Flat version of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_priority__ int(x=0) -> int or long
MaskedArray.base
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
MaskedArray.ctypes
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
array.
1.7. Masked arrays
253
For example:
For example:
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
MaskedArray.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
254
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
MaskedArray.flags
Notes
The flags object can be accessed dictionary-like (as in a.flags[WRITEABLE]), or by using lowercased
attribute names (as in a.flags.writeable). Short flag names are only supported in dictionary access.
Only the UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED flags can be changed by the user, via direct assignment to the attribute or dictionary entry, or by calling ndarray.setflags.
WRITEABLE can only be set True if the array owns its own memory or the ultimate owner of the memory
exposes a writeable buffer interface or is a string.
Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional arrays,
self.strides[-1] == self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0] ==
self.itemsize for Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.
1.7. Masked arrays
255
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
(F)
OWNDATA The array owns the memory it uses or borrows it from another object.
(O)
WRITEThe data area can be written to. Setting this to False locks the data, making it read-only. A
ABLE
view (slice, etc.) inherits WRITEABLE from its base array at creation time, but a view of a
(W)
writeable array may be subsequently locked while the base array remains writeable. (The
opposite is not true, in that a view of a locked array may not be made writeable. However,
currently, locking a base object does not lock any views that already reference it, so under
that circumstance it is possible to alter the contents of a locked array via a previously
created writeable view onto it.) Attempting to change a non-writeable array raises a
RuntimeError exception.
ALIGNED
(A)
UPDATEIF- This array is a copy of some other array. When this array is deallocated, the base array will
COPY
be updated with the contents of this array.
(U)
FNC
FORC
BEHAVED
ALIGNED and WRITEABLE.
(B)
CARRAY
(CA)
FARRAY
(FA)
MaskedArray.itemsize
Examples
>>>
>>>
8
>>>
>>>
16
x.itemsize
x.itemsize
MaskedArray.nbytes
Notes
Examples
>>> x.nbytes
480
480
256
MaskedArray.ndim
Examples
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
3
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
x.ndim
y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
y.ndim
MaskedArray.shape
Notes
May be used to reshape the array, as long as this would not require a change in the total number of elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
0.],
0.],
0.]])
unchanged
MaskedArray.size
Examples
>>> x.size
30
30
MaskedArray.strides
See Also:
1.7. Masked arrays
257
Notes
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
This array is stored in memory as 40 bytes, one after the other (known as a contiguous block of memory). The
strides of an array tell us how many bytes we have to skip in memory to move to the next position along a certain
axis. For example, we have to skip 4 bytes (1 value) to move to the next column, but 20 bytes (5 values) to get
to the same position in the next row. As such, the strides for the array x will be (20, 4).
Examples
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
17
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
813
MaskedArray.imag
Imaginary part.
MaskedArray.real
Real part
MaskedArray.flat
Flat version of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_priority__ = 15
1.7.6 MaskedArray methods

See Also:
Array methods
258
Conversion
MaskedArray.__float__()
MaskedArray.__hex__() <==> hex(x)
MaskedArray.__int__()
MaskedArray.__long__() <==> long(x)
MaskedArray.__oct__() <==> oct(x)
MaskedArray.view([dtype, type])
MaskedArray.astype(newtype)
MaskedArray.byteswap(inplace)
MaskedArray.compressed()
MaskedArray.filled([fill_value])
MaskedArray.tofile(fid[, sep, format])
MaskedArray.toflex()
MaskedArray.tolist([fill_value])
MaskedArray.torecords()
MaskedArray.tostring([fill_value, order])
Convert to float.
Convert to int.

Returns a copy of the MaskedArray cast to given newtype.
Return all the non-masked data as a 1-D array.
Return a copy of self, with masked values filled with a given value.
Save a masked array to a file in binary format.
Transforms a masked array into a flexible-type array.
Return the data portion of the masked array as a hierarchical Python list.
Return the array data as a string containing the raw bytes in the array.
MaskedArray.__float__()
Convert to float.
MaskedArray.__hex__() <==> hex(x)
MaskedArray.__int__()
Convert to int.
MaskedArray.__long__() <==> long(x)
MaskedArray.__oct__() <==> oct(x)
MaskedArray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
Parameters
type preservation.
Notes
a.view(some_dtype) or a.view(dtype=some_dtype) constructs a view of the arrays memory with
a different data-type. This can cause a reinterpretation of the bytes of memory.
a.view(ndarray_subclass) or a.view(type=ndarray_subclass) just returns an instance of
ndarray_subclass that looks at the same array (same shape, dtype, etc.) This does not cause a reinterpretation
1.7. Masked arrays
259
of the memory.
For a.view(some_dtype), if some_dtype has a different number of bytes per entry than the previous
dtype (for example, converting a regular array to a structured array), then the behavior of the view cannot be
predicted just from the superficial appearance of a (shown by print(a)). It also depends on exactly how a
is stored in memory. Therefore if a is C-ordered versus fortran-ordered, versus defined as a slice or transpose,
etc., the view may give different results.
Examples

>>> y
>>> print type(y)

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print x
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]

>>> z.a
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
260

array([[(1, 2)],
MaskedArray.astype(newtype)
Returns a copy of the MaskedArray cast to given newtype.
Returns
output : MaskedArray
A copy of self cast to input newtype. The returned record shape matches self.shape.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3.1],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1.0 -- 3.1]
[-- 5.0 --]
[7.0 -- 9.0]]
>>> print x.astype(int32)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
MaskedArray.byteswap(inplace)
Toggle between low-endian and big-endian data representation by returning a byteswapped array, optionally
swapped in-place.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x1, 0x100, 0x2233]
array([ 256,
1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
[0x100, 0x1, 0x3322]

>>> A.byteswap()
array([ceg, fac],
dtype=|S3)
Returns
data : ndarray
1.7. Masked arrays
261
A new ndarray holding the non-masked data is returned.

Notes
The result is not a MaskedArray!
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(5), mask=[0]*2 + [1]*3)
>>> x.compressed()
array([0, 1])
>>> type(x.compressed())
MaskedArray.filled(fill_value=None)
Parameters
The value to use for invalid entries (None by default). If None, the fill_value
attribute of the array is used instead.
Returns
filled_array : ndarray
A copy of self with invalid entries replaced by fill_value (be it the function argument
or the attribute of self.
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1,2,3,4,5], mask=[0,0,1,0,1], fill_value=-999)
>>> x.filled()
array([1, 2, -999, 4, -999])
>>> type(x.filled())
Subclassing is preserved. This means that if the data part of the masked array is a matrix, filled returns a
matrix:
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])
>>> x.filled()
matrix([[
1, 999999],
[999999,
4]])
MaskedArray.tofile(fid, sep=, format=%s)

Warning: This function is not implemented yet.
Raises
NotImplementedError
When tofile is called.
MaskedArray.toflex()
262
The flexible type array that is returned will have two fields:
the _data field stores the _data part of the array.
the _mask field stores the _mask part of the array.
Parameters
None
Returns
record : ndarray
A new flexible-type ndarray with two fields: the first element containing a value, the
second element containing the corresponding mask boolean. The returned record shape
matches self.shape.
Notes
A side-effect of transforming a masked array into a flexible ndarray is that meta information (fill_value,
...) will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.toflex()
[[(1, False) (2, True) (3, False)]
[(4, True) (5, False) (6, True)]
[(7, False) (8, True) (9, False)]]
MaskedArray.tolist(fill_value=None)
Data items are converted to the nearest compatible Python type. Masked values are converted to fill_value.
If fill_value is None, the corresponding entries in the output list will be None.
Parameters
The value to use for invalid entries. Default is None.
Returns
result : list
The Python list representation of the masked array.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> x.tolist()
[[1, None, 3], [None, 5, None], [7, None, 9]]
>>> x.tolist(-999)
[[1, -999, 3], [-999, 5, -999], [7, -999, 9]]
1.7. Masked arrays
263

Parameters
None
Returns
record : ndarray
matches self.shape.
Notes
...) will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
MaskedArray.tostring(fill_value=None, order=C)
The array is filled with a fill value before the string conversion.
Parameters
Value used to fill in the masked values.
MaskedArray.fill_value is used.
Deafult is None, in which case
order : {C,F,A}, optional

Order of the data item in the copy. Default is C.
C C order (row major).
F Fortran order (column major).
A Any, current order of array.
None Same as A.
See Also:
ndarray.tostring, tolist, tofile
Notes
As for ndarray.tostring, information about the shape, dtype, etc., but also about fill_value, will be lost.
264
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])
>>> x.tostring()
\x01\x00\x00\x00?B\x0f\x00?B\x0f\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00
Shape manipulation
For reshape, resize, and transpose, the single tuple argument may be replaced with n integers which will be interpreted
as an n-tuple.
MaskedArray.flatten([order])
MaskedArray.ravel()
MaskedArray.reshape(*s, **kwargs)
MaskedArray.resize(newshape[, refcheck, order])
MaskedArray.squeeze([axis])
MaskedArray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
MaskedArray.transpose(*axes)
MaskedArray.T

Returns a 1D version of self, as a view.
Give a new shape to the array without changing its data.
MaskedArray.flatten(order=C)
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
MaskedArray.ravel()
Returns
MaskedArray
Output
view
is
of
shape
(np.ma.product(self.shape),)).
1.7. Masked arrays
(self.size,)
(or
265
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.ravel()
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
Returns a masked array containing the same data, but with a new shape. The result is a view on the original
array; if this is not possible, a ValueError is raised.
Parameters
shape : int or tuple of ints
The new shape should be compatible with the original shape. If an integer is supplied,
then the result will be a 1-D array of that length.
Determines whether the array data should be viewed as in C (row-major) or FORTRAN
(column-major) order.
Returns
reshaped_array : array
A new view on the array.
See Also:
reshape
Equivalent function in the masked array module.
numpy.ndarray.reshape
Equivalent method on ndarray object.
numpy.reshape
Equivalent function in the NumPy module.
Notes
The reshaping operation cannot guarantee that a copy will not be made, to modify the shape in place, use
a.shape = s
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2],[3,4]], mask=[1,0,0,1])
>>> print x
[[-- 2]
[3 --]]
>>> x = x.reshape((4,1))
>>> print x
[[--]
[2]
[3]
[--]]
266
MaskedArray.resize(newshape, refcheck=True, order=False)

Warning: This method does nothing, except raise a ValueError exception. A masked array does not own
its data and therefore cannot safely be resized in place. Use the numpy.ma.resize function instead.
This method is difficult to implement safely and may be deprecated in future releases of NumPy.
MaskedArray.squeeze(axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
For a 1-D array, this has no effect. (To change between column and row vectors, first cast the 1-D array into a matrix object.) For a 2-D array, this is the usual matrix transpose. For an n-D array, if axes are given, their order indicates how the axes are permuted (see Examples). If axes are not provided and a.shape = (i[0], i[1],
i[0]).
Parameters
axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
1.7. Masked arrays
267
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
MaskedArray.T

For array methods that take an axis keyword, it defaults to None. If axis is None, then the array is treated as a 1-D
array. Any other value for axis represents the dimension along which the operation should proceed.
MaskedArray.argmax([axis, fill_value, out])
MaskedArray.argmin([axis, fill_value, out])
MaskedArray.argsort([axis, kind, order, ...])
MaskedArray.choose(choices[, out, mode])
MaskedArray.compress(condition[, axis, out])
MaskedArray.diagonal([offset, axis1, axis2])
MaskedArray.fill(value)
MaskedArray.item(*args)
MaskedArray.nonzero()
MaskedArray.put(indices, values[, mode])
MaskedArray.repeat(repeats[, axis])
MaskedArray.searchsorted(v[, side, sorter])
MaskedArray.sort([axis, kind, order, ...])
MaskedArray.take(indices[, axis, out, mode])
Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the given axis.
Return array of indices to the minimum values along the given axis.
Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the specified axis.
Return a where condition is True.
Return the indices of unmasked elements that are not zero.
Set storage-indexed locations to corresponding values.
Sort the array, in-place
MaskedArray.argmax(axis=None, fill_value=None, out=None)

Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the given axis. Masked values are treated as if they had
the value fill_value.
Parameters
axis : {None, integer}
If None, the index is into the flattened array, otherwise along the specified axis
fill_value : {var}, optional
mum_fill_value(self._data) is used instead.
If None, the output of maxi-
out : {None, array}, optional

Array into which the result can be placed. Its type is preserved and it must be of the
right shape to hold the output.
268
Returns
index_array : {integer_array}
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])
MaskedArray.argmin(axis=None, fill_value=None, out=None)

Parameters
If None, the output of mini-

Returns
{ndarray, scalar}
If multi-dimension input, returns a new ndarray of indices to the minimum values along
the given axis. Otherwise, returns a scalar of index to the minimum values along the
given axis.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(arange(4), mask=[1,1,0,0])
>>> x.shape = (2,2)
>>> print x
[[-- --]
[2 3]]
>>> print x.argmin(axis=0, fill_value=-1)
[0 0]
>>> print x.argmin(axis=0, fill_value=9)
[1 1]
MaskedArray.argsort(axis=None, kind=quicksort, order=None, fill_value=None)

Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the specified axis. Masked values are filled beforehand to
fill_value.
Parameters
Axis along which to sort. The default is -1 (last axis). If None, the flattened array is
used.
fill_value : var, optional
1.7. Masked arrays
269
Value used to fill the array before sorting. The default is the fill_value attribute of
the input array.
Sorting algorithm.
Returns
index_array : ndarray, int
Array of indices that sort a along the specified axis.
a[index_array] yields a sorted a.
In other words,
See Also:
sort
Describes sorting algorithms used.
lexsort
Indirect stable sort with multiple keys.
ndarray.sort
Inplace sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([3,2,1], mask=[False, False, True])
>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])
MaskedArray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=raise)

See Also:
numpy.choose
equivalent function
MaskedArray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)
Return a where condition is True.
If condition is a MaskedArray, missing values are considered as False.
Parameters
condition : var
Boolean 1-d array selecting which entries to return. If len(condition) is less than the
size of a along the axis, then output is truncated to length of condition array.
270
axis : {None, int}, optional

Axis along which the operation must be performed.
out : {None, ndarray}, optional
Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape as the
expected output but the type will be cast if necessary.
Returns
A MaskedArray object.
Notes
Please note the difference with compressed !
compressed does not.
The output of compress has a mask, the output of
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> x.compress([1, 0, 1])
masked_array(data = [1 3],
mask = [False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> x.compress([1, 0, 1], axis=1)
masked_array(data =
[[1 3]
[-- --]
[7 9]],
mask =
[[False False]
[ True True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
MaskedArray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

See Also:
numpy.diagonal
equivalent function
MaskedArray.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
1.7. Masked arrays
271
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
MaskedArray.item(*args)
Parameters
int_type: this argument is interpreted as a flat index into the array, specifying which element
to copy and return.
tuple of int_types: functions as does a single int_type argument, except that the argument is
interpreted as an nd-index into the array.
Returns
Notes
When the data type of a is longdouble or clongdouble, item() returns a scalar array object because there is no
available Python scalar that would not lose information. Void arrays return a buffer object for item(), unless
fields are defined, in which case a tuple is returned.
item is very similar to a[args], except, instead of an array scalar, a standard Python scalar is returned. This can
be useful for speeding up access to elements of the array and doing arithmetic on elements of the array using
Pythons optimized math.
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
Returns a tuple of arrays, one for each dimension, containing the indices of the non-zero elements in that
dimension. The corresponding non-zero values can be obtained with:
272
a[a.nonzero()]
To group the indices by element, rather than dimension, use instead:

np.transpose(a.nonzero())
The result of this is always a 2d array, with a row for each non-zero element.
Parameters
None
Returns
tuple_of_arrays : tuple
Indices of elements that are non-zero.
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
Function operating on ndarrays.
flatnonzero
Return indices that are non-zero in the flattened version of the input array.
ndarray.nonzero
Equivalent ndarray method.
count_nonzero
Counts the number of non-zero elements in the input array.
Examples
>>> x = ma.array(np.eye(3))
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))
Masked elements are ignored.

>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[[False False False]
[False True False]
[False False False]],
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))
1.7. Masked arrays
273
Indices can also be grouped by element.

>>> np.transpose(x.nonzero())
array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
A common use for nonzero is to find the indices of an array, where a condition is True. Given an array a, the
condition a > 3 is a boolean array and since False is interpreted as 0, ma.nonzero(a > 3) yields the indices of the
a where the condition is true.
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nonzero(a > 3)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
The nonzero method of the condition array can also be called.

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
MaskedArray.put(indices, values, mode=raise)

Set storage-indexed locations to corresponding values.
Sets self._data.flat[n] = values[n] for each n in indices. If values is shorter than indices then it will repeat. If
values has some masked values, the initial mask is updated in consequence, else the corresponding values are
unmasked.
Parameters
indices : 1-D array_like
Target indices, interpreted as integers.
values : array_like
Values to place in self._data copy at target indices.
mode : {raise, wrap, clip}, optional
Specifies how out-of-bounds indices will behave. raise : raise an error. wrap : wrap
around. clip : clip to the range.
Notes
values can be a scalar or length 1 array.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> x.put([0,4,8],[10,20,30])
>>> print x
[[10 -- 3]
274
[-- 20 --]
[7 -- 30]]
>>> x.put(4,999)
>>> print x
[[10 -- 3]
[-- 999 --]
[7 -- 30]]
MaskedArray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
MaskedArray.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
MaskedArray.sort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None, endwith=True, fill_value=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
Axis along which to sort. If None, the array is flattened before sorting. The default is
-1, which sorts along the last axis.
When a is a structured array, this argument specifies which fields to compare first, second, and so on. This list does not need to include all of the fields.
endwith : {True, False}, optional
Whether missing values (if any) should be forced in the upper indices (at the end of the
array) (True) or lower indices (at the beginning).
Value used internally for the masked values. If fill_value is not None, it supersedes
endwith.
Returns
sorted_array : ndarray
1.7. Masked arrays
275
Array of the same type and shape as a.

See Also:
ndarray.sort
Method to sort an array in-place.
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
Find elements in a sorted array.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])
>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print a
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
[--
a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

# Put missing values in the front
a.sort(endwith=False)
print a
-- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # fill_value takes over endwith
>>> a.sort(endwith=False, fill_value=3)
>>> print a
[1 -- -- 3 5]
MaskedArray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)
Pickling and copy

MaskedArray.copy([order])
MaskedArray.dump(file)
MaskedArray.dumps()

MaskedArray.copy(order=C)
Parameters
276
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
MaskedArray.dump(file)
Parameters
file : str
MaskedArray.dumps()
Returns the pickle of the array as a string. pickle.loads or numpy.loads will convert the string back to an array.
Parameters
None
Calculations
MaskedArray.all([axis, out])
MaskedArray.anom([axis, dtype])
MaskedArray.any([axis, out])
MaskedArray.clip(a_min, a_max[, out])
MaskedArray.conj()
MaskedArray.conjugate()
MaskedArray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out])
MaskedArray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out])
MaskedArray.max([axis, out, fill_value])
MaskedArray.mean([axis, dtype, out])
MaskedArray.min([axis, out, fill_value])
MaskedArray.prod([axis, dtype, out])
MaskedArray.product([axis, dtype, out])
MaskedArray.ptp([axis, out, fill_value])
1.7. Masked arrays
Check if all of the elements of a are true.

Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic mean) along the given ax
Check if any of the elements of a are true.
Returns the average of the array elements.
Return (maximum - minimum) along the the given dimension (i.e.
Continued on next pa
277

MaskedArray.round([decimals, out])
MaskedArray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis.
MaskedArray.sum([axis, dtype, out])
MaskedArray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, ...]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
MaskedArray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
Compute the variance along the specified axis.
MaskedArray.all(axis=None, out=None)
Performs a logical_and over the given axis and returns the result. Masked values are considered as True
during computation. For convenience, the output array is masked where ALL the values along the current axis
are masked: if the output would have been a scalar and that all the values are masked, then the output is masked.
Parameters
Axis to perform the operation over. If None, perform over flattened array.
See Also:
all
equivalent function
Examples
>>> np.ma.array([1,2,3]).all()
True
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3], mask=True)
>>> (a.all() is np.ma.masked)
True
MaskedArray.anom(axis=None, dtype=None)
Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic mean) along the given axis.
Returns an array of anomalies, with the same shape as the input and where the arithmetic mean is computed
along the given axis.
Parameters
Axis over which the anomalies are taken. The default is to use the mean of the flattened
array as reference.
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type
the default is float32; for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
See Also:
mean
Compute the mean of the array.
278
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
masked_array(data = [-1. 0.
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],
MaskedArray.any(axis=None, out=None)
Performs a logical_or over the given axis and returns the result. Masked values are considered as False during
computation.
Parameters
Axis to perform the operation over. If None, perform over flattened array and return a
scalar.
See Also:
any
equivalent function
MaskedArray.clip(a_min, a_max, out=None)
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
MaskedArray.conj()
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
MaskedArray.conjugate()
See Also:
numpy.conjugate
equivalent function
1.7. Masked arrays
279
MaskedArray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative product of the elements along the given axis. The cumulative product is taken over the
flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
Masked values are set to 1 internally during the computation. However, their position is saved, and the result
will be masked at the same locations.
Parameters
axis : {None, -1, int}, optional
Axis along which the product is computed. The default (axis = None) is to compute
over the flattened array.
dtype : {None, dtype}, optional
Determines the type of the returned array and of the accumulator where the elements
are multiplied. If dtype has the value None and the type of a is an integer type
of precision less than the default platform integer, then the default platform integer
precision is used. Otherwise, the dtype is the same as that of a.
Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape and
buffer length as the expected output but the type will be cast if necessary.
Returns
cumprod : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference to out is returned.
Notes
The mask is lost if out is not a valid MaskedArray !
Arithmetic is modular when using integer types, and no error is raised on overflow.
MaskedArray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
Return the cumulative sum of the elements along the given axis. The cumulative sum is calculated over the
Parameters
Axis along which the sum is computed. The default (axis = None) is to compute over
the flattened array. axis may be negative, in which case it counts from the last to the
first axis.
Type of the returned array and of the accumulator in which the elements are summed. If
dtype is not specified, it defaults to the dtype of a, unless a has an integer dtype with a
precision less than that of the default platform integer. In that case, the default platform
integer is used.
280
Returns
cumsum : ndarray.
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a
reference to out is returned.
Notes
Examples
>>> marr = np.ma.array(np.arange(10), mask=[0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,0])
>>> print marr.cumsum()
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]
MaskedArray.max(axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)

Parameters
Axis along which to operate. By default, axis is None and the flattened input is used.
out : array_like, optional
Alternative output array in which to place the result. Must be of the same shape and
buffer length as the expected output.
mum_fill_value().
If None, use the output of maxi-
Returns
amax : array_like
New array holding the result. If out was specified, out is returned.
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
Returns the maximum filling value for a given datatype.
MaskedArray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
Masked entries are ignored. The average is taken over the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified
axis. Refer to numpy.mean for the full documentation.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing numbers whose mean is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion is
attempted.
Axis along which the means are computed. The default is to compute the mean of the
flattened array.
1.7. Masked arrays
281
Type to use in computing the mean. For integer inputs, the default is float64; for floating
point, inputs it is the same as the input dtype.
Returns
mean : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
If out=None, returns a new array containing the mean values, otherwise a reference to
the output array is returned.
See Also:
numpy.ma.mean
Equivalent function.
numpy.mean
Equivalent function on non-masked arrays.
numpy.ma.average
Weighted average.
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5
MaskedArray.min(axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)

Parameters
minimum_fill_value.
If None, use the output of
Returns
amin : array_like
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
Returns the minimum filling value for a given datatype.
282
MaskedArray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the product of the array elements over the given axis. Masked elements are set to 1 internally for
computation.
Parameters
Axis over which the product is taken. If None is used, then the product is over all the
array elements.
Determines the type of the returned array and of the accumulator where the elements are
multiplied. If dtype has the value None and the type of a is an integer type of precision
less than the default platform integer, then the default platform integer precision is used.
Otherwise, the dtype is the same as that of a.
Returns
product_along_axis : {array, scalar}, see dtype parameter above.
Returns an array whose shape is the same as a with the specified axis removed. Returns
a 0d array when a is 1d or axis=None. Returns a reference to the specified output array
if specified.
See Also:
prod
equivalent function
Notes
Examples
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
>>> np.prod([1.,2.], dtype=np.int32)
2
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])
MaskedArray.product(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

computation.
Parameters
array elements.
1.7. Masked arrays
283
Returns
if specified.
See Also:
prod
equivalent function
Notes
Examples
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
2
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])
MaskedArray.ptp(axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)

Return (maximum - minimum) along the the given dimension (i.e. peak-to-peak value).
Parameters
Axis along which to find the peaks. If None (default) the flattened array is used.
out : {None, array_like}, optional
Returns
ptp : ndarray.
A new array holding the result, unless out was specified, in which case a reference to
out is returned.
MaskedArray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
284

See Also:
numpy.around
equivalent function
MaskedArray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)
Returns the standard deviation, a measure of the spread of a distribution, of the array elements. The standard
deviation is computed for the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Calculate the standard deviation of these values.
Axis along which the standard deviation is computed. The default is to compute the
standard deviation of the flattened array.
Type to use in computing the standard deviation. For arrays of integer type the default
is float64, for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
expected output but the type (of the calculated values) will be cast if necessary.
ddof : int, optional
Means Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof,
where N represents the number of elements. By default ddof is zero.
keepdims : bool, optional
If this is set to True, the axes which are reduced are left in the result as dimensions with
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original arr.
Returns
standard_deviation : ndarray, see dtype parameter above.
If out is None, return a new array containing the standard deviation, otherwise return a
reference to the output array.
See Also:
var, mean, nanmean, nanstd, nanvar
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Section Output arguments
Notes
The standard deviation is the square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean, i.e., std =
sqrt(mean(abs(x - x.mean())**2)).
The average squared deviation is normally calculated as x.sum() / N, where N = len(x). If, however,
ddof is specified, the divisor N - ddof is used instead. In standard statistical practice, ddof=1 provides an
unbiased estimator of the variance of the infinite population. ddof=0 provides a maximum likelihood estimate
1.7. Masked arrays
285
of the variance for normally distributed variables. The standard deviation computed in this function is the
square root of the estimated variance, so even with ddof=1, it will not be an unbiased estimate of the standard
deviation per se.
Note that, for complex numbers, std takes the absolute value before squaring, so that the result is always real
and nonnegative.
For floating-point input, the std is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on the input
data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying a higheraccuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
>>> np.std(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.5, 0.5])
In single precision, std() can be inaccurate:

>>> a = np.zeros((2,512*512), dtype=np.float32)
>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45172946707416706
Computing the standard deviation in float64 is more accurate:

>>> np.std(a, dtype=np.float64)
0.44999999925552653
MaskedArray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis. Masked elements are set to 0 internally.
Parameters
the flattened array.
are summed. If dtype has the value None and the type of a is an integer type of precision
Returns
sum_along_axis : MaskedArray or scalar
An array with the same shape as self, with the specified axis removed. If self is a 0-d
array, or if axis is None, a scalar is returned. If an output array is specified, a reference
to out is returned.
286
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.sum()
25
>>> print x.sum(axis=1)
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
>>> print type(x.sum(axis=0, dtype=np.int64)[0])
<type numpy.int64>
MaskedArray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
MaskedArray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)
Returns the variance of the array elements, a measure of the spread of a distribution. The variance is computed
for the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing numbers whose variance is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion
is attempted.
Axis along which the variance is computed. The default is to compute the variance of
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type the default is float32;
for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
Alternate output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape as the
expected output, but the type is cast if necessary.
Delta Degrees of Freedom: the divisor used in the calculation is N - ddof, where
N represents the number of elements. By default ddof is zero.
1.7. Masked arrays
287
Returns
variance : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
If out=None, returns a new array containing the variance; otherwise, a reference to
See Also:
std, mean, nanmean, nanstd, nanvar
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
The variance is the average of the squared deviations from the mean, i.e., var = mean(abs(x x.mean())**2).
The mean is normally calculated as x.sum() / N, where N = len(x). If, however, ddof is specified, the
divisor N - ddof is used instead. In standard statistical practice, ddof=1 provides an unbiased estimator
of the variance of a hypothetical infinite population. ddof=0 provides a maximum likelihood estimate of the
variance for normally distributed variables.
Note that for complex numbers, the absolute value is taken before squaring, so that the result is always real and
nonnegative.
For floating-point input, the variance is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on the
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying a
higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.var(a)
1.25
>>> np.var(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])
In single precision, var() can be inaccurate:

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20405951142311096
Computing the variance in float64 is more accurate:

>>> np.var(a, dtype=np.float64)
0.20249999932997387
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.20250000000000001
Arithmetic and comparison operations

Comparison operators:
288
MaskedArray.__lt__
MaskedArray.__le__
MaskedArray.__gt__
MaskedArray.__ge__
MaskedArray.__eq__(other)
MaskedArray.__ne__(other)
x.__lt__(y) <==> x<y

x.__le__(y) <==> x<=y
x.__gt__(y) <==> x>y
x.__ge__(y) <==> x>=y
Check whether other equals self elementwise
Check whether other doesnt equal self elementwise
MaskedArray.__lt__
x.__lt__(y) <==> x<y
MaskedArray.__le__
x.__le__(y) <==> x<=y
MaskedArray.__gt__
x.__gt__(y) <==> x>y
MaskedArray.__ge__
x.__ge__(y) <==> x>=y
MaskedArray.__eq__(other)
Check whether other equals self elementwise
MaskedArray.__ne__(other)
Check whether other doesnt equal self elementwise
Truth value of an array (bool):
MaskedArray.__nonzero__
x.__nonzero__() <==> x != 0
MaskedArray.__nonzero__
x.__nonzero__() <==> x != 0
Arithmetic:
MaskedArray.__abs__() <==> abs(x)
MaskedArray.__add__(other)
MaskedArray.__radd__(other)
MaskedArray.__sub__(other)
MaskedArray.__rsub__(other)
MaskedArray.__mul__(other)
MaskedArray.__rmul__(other)
MaskedArray.__div__(other)
MaskedArray.__rdiv__
MaskedArray.__truediv__(other)
MaskedArray.__rtruediv__(other)
MaskedArray.__floordiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__rfloordiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__mod__
MaskedArray.__rmod__
MaskedArray.__divmod__(y) <==> divmod(x, y)
MaskedArray.__rdivmod__(y) <==> divmod(y, x)
MaskedArray.__pow__(other)
1.7. Masked arrays
Add other to self, and return a new masked array.

Subtract other to self, and return a new masked array.
Multiply other by self, and return a new masked array.
Divide other into self, and return a new masked array.
x.__rdiv__(y) <==> y/x
x.__mod__(y) <==> x%y
x.__rmod__(y) <==> y%x
Raise self to the power other, masking the potential NaNs/Infs

289
MaskedArray.__rpow__(other)
MaskedArray.__lshift__
MaskedArray.__rlshift__
MaskedArray.__rshift__
MaskedArray.__rrshift__
MaskedArray.__and__
MaskedArray.__rand__
MaskedArray.__or__
MaskedArray.__ror__
MaskedArray.__xor__
MaskedArray.__rxor__

x.__rlshift__(y) <==> y<<x
x.__rrshift__(y) <==> y>>x
x.__and__(y) <==> x&y
x.__rand__(y) <==> y&x
x.__or__(y) <==> x|y
x.__ror__(y) <==> y|x
x.__xor__(y) <==> x^y
x.__rxor__(y) <==> y^x
MaskedArray.__abs__() <==> abs(x)

MaskedArray.__add__(other)
MaskedArray.__radd__(other)
MaskedArray.__sub__(other)
MaskedArray.__rsub__(other)
MaskedArray.__mul__(other)
MaskedArray.__rmul__(other)
MaskedArray.__div__(other)
MaskedArray.__rdiv__
x.__rdiv__(y) <==> y/x
MaskedArray.__truediv__(other)
MaskedArray.__rtruediv__(other)
MaskedArray.__floordiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__rfloordiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__mod__
x.__mod__(y) <==> x%y
MaskedArray.__rmod__
x.__rmod__(y) <==> y%x
MaskedArray.__divmod__(y) <==> divmod(x, y)
290
MaskedArray.__rdivmod__(y) <==> divmod(y, x)

MaskedArray.__pow__(other)
MaskedArray.__rpow__(other)
MaskedArray.__lshift__
MaskedArray.__rlshift__
x.__rlshift__(y) <==> y<<x
MaskedArray.__rshift__
MaskedArray.__rrshift__
x.__rrshift__(y) <==> y>>x
MaskedArray.__and__
x.__and__(y) <==> x&y
MaskedArray.__rand__
x.__rand__(y) <==> y&x
MaskedArray.__or__
x.__or__(y) <==> x|y
MaskedArray.__ror__
x.__ror__(y) <==> y|x
MaskedArray.__xor__
x.__xor__(y) <==> x^y
MaskedArray.__rxor__
x.__rxor__(y) <==> y^x
Arithmetic, in-place:
MaskedArray.__iadd__(other)
MaskedArray.__isub__(other)
MaskedArray.__imul__(other)
MaskedArray.__idiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__itruediv__(other)
MaskedArray.__ifloordiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__imod__
MaskedArray.__ipow__(other)
MaskedArray.__ilshift__
MaskedArray.__irshift__
MaskedArray.__iand__
MaskedArray.__ior__
MaskedArray.__ixor__
Add other to self in-place.

Subtract other from self in-place.
Multiply self by other in-place.
Divide self by other in-place.
True divide self by other in-place.
Floor divide self by other in-place.
x.__imod__(y) <==> x%=y
Raise self to the power other, in place.
x.__iand__(y) <==> x&=y
x.__ior__(y) <==> x|=y
x.__ixor__(y) <==> x^=y
MaskedArray.__iadd__(other)
Add other to self in-place.
MaskedArray.__isub__(other)
1.7. Masked arrays
291
Subtract other from self in-place.

MaskedArray.__imul__(other)
Multiply self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__idiv__(other)
Divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__itruediv__(other)
True divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__ifloordiv__(other)
Floor divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__imod__
x.__imod__(y) <==> x%=y
MaskedArray.__ipow__(other)
Raise self to the power other, in place.
MaskedArray.__ilshift__
MaskedArray.__irshift__
MaskedArray.__iand__
x.__iand__(y) <==> x&=y
MaskedArray.__ior__
x.__ior__(y) <==> x|=y
MaskedArray.__ixor__
x.__ixor__(y) <==> x^=y
Representation
MaskedArray.__repr__()
MaskedArray.__str__()
MaskedArray.ids()
MaskedArray.iscontiguous()
Literal string representation.

String representation.
Return the addresses of the data and mask areas.
Return a boolean indicating whether the data is contiguous.
MaskedArray.__repr__()
Literal string representation.
MaskedArray.__str__()
String representation.
MaskedArray.ids()
Return the addresses of the data and mask areas.
Parameters
None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 1, 1])
>>> x.ids()
(166670640, 166659832)
292
If the array has no mask, the address of nomask is returned. This address is typically not close to the data in
memory:
>>> x = np.ma.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.ids()
(166691080, 3083169284L)
MaskedArray.iscontiguous()
Return a boolean indicating whether the data is contiguous.
Parameters
None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.iscontiguous()
True
iscontiguous returns one of the flags of the masked array:

>>> x.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
F_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : False
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
Special methods
For standard library functions:
MaskedArray.__copy__([order])
MaskedArray.__deepcopy__([memo])
MaskedArray.__getstate__()
MaskedArray.__reduce__()
MaskedArray.__setstate__(state)

Return the internal state of the masked array, for pickling
Return a 3-tuple for pickling a MaskedArray.
Restore the internal state of the masked array, for pickling purposes.
MaskedArray.__copy__([order ])
Parameters
If order is C (False) then the result is contiguous (default). If order is Fortran (True)
then the result has fortran order. If order is Any (None) then the result has fortran
order only if the array already is in fortran order.
MaskedArray.__deepcopy__(memo=None)
MaskedArray.__getstate__()
Return the internal state of the masked array, for pickling purposes.
MaskedArray.__reduce__()
Return a 3-tuple for pickling a MaskedArray.
1.7. Masked arrays
293
MaskedArray.__setstate__(state)
Restore the internal state of the masked array, for pickling purposes. state is typically the output of the
__getstate__ output, and is a 5-tuple:
class name
a tuple giving the shape of the data
a typecode for the data
a binary string for the data
a binary string for the mask.
Basic customization:
MaskedArray.__new__([data, mask, dtype, ...])
MaskedArray.__array__(...)
MaskedArray.__array_wrap__(obj[, context])
Create a new masked array from scratch.

Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new array
Special hook for ufuncs.
static MaskedArray.__new__(data=None, mask=False, dtype=None, copy=False, subok=True,

ndmin=0,
fill_value=None,
keep_mask=True,
hard_mask=None,
shrink=True, **options)
Create a new masked array from scratch.
Notes
A masked array can also be created by taking a .view(MaskedArray).
MaskedArray.__array__(|dtype) reference if type unchanged, copy otherwise.
Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new array of provided data type if dtype is
different from the current dtype of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_wrap__(obj, context=None)
Special hook for ufuncs. Wraps the numpy array and sets the mask according to context.
Container customization: (see Indexing)
MaskedArray.__len__() <==> len(x)
MaskedArray.__getitem__(indx)
MaskedArray.__setitem__(indx, value)
MaskedArray.__delitem__
MaskedArray.__getslice__(i, j)
MaskedArray.__setslice__(i, j, value)
MaskedArray.__contains__

x.__delitem__(y) <==> del x[y]
x.__setslice__(i, j, value) <==> x[i:j]=value
MaskedArray.__len__() <==> len(x)

MaskedArray.__getitem__(indx)
Return the item described by i, as a masked array.
MaskedArray.__setitem__(indx, value)
Set item described by index. If value is masked, masks those locations.
MaskedArray.__delitem__
294
x.__delitem__(y) <==> del x[y]

MaskedArray.__getslice__(i, j)
Return the slice described by (i, j). The use of negative indices is not supported.
MaskedArray.__setslice__(i, j, value)
x.__setslice__(i, j, value) <==> x[i:j]=value
Set the slice (i,j) of a to value. If value is masked, mask those locations.
MaskedArray.__contains__
Specific methods
Handling the mask
The following methods can be used to access information about the mask or to manipulate the mask.
MaskedArray.__setmask__(mask[, copy])
MaskedArray.harden_mask()
MaskedArray.soften_mask()
MaskedArray.unshare_mask()
MaskedArray.shrink_mask()
Set the mask.

Force the mask to hard.
Force the mask to soft.
Copy the mask and set the sharedmask flag to False.
Reduce a mask to nomask when possible.
MaskedArray.__setmask__(mask, copy=False)
Set the mask.
Whether the mask of a masked array is hard or soft is determined by its hardmask property. harden_mask
sets hardmask to True.
See Also:
hardmask
Whether the mask of a masked array is hard or soft is determined by its hardmask property. soften_mask
sets hardmask to False.
See Also:
hardmask
Whether the mask is shared between masked arrays can be seen from the sharedmask property.
unshare_mask ensures the mask is not shared. A copy of the mask is only made if it was shared.
See Also:
sharedmask
1.7. Masked arrays
295
Parameters
None
Returns
None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2 ], [3, 4]], mask=[0]*4)
>>> x.mask
array([[False, False],
[False, False]], dtype=bool)
>>> x.shrink_mask()
>>> x.mask
False
Handling the fill_value

MaskedArray.get_fill_value()
MaskedArray.set_fill_value([value])
Return the filling value of the masked array.

Set the filling value of the masked array.
Returns
fill_value : scalar
The filling value.
Examples
>>> for dt in [np.int32, np.int64, np.float64, np.complex128]:
...
np.ma.array([0, 1], dtype=dt).get_fill_value()
...
999999
999999
1e+20
(1e+20+0j)
>>> x = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=-np.inf)
>>> x.get_fill_value()
-inf
MaskedArray.set_fill_value(value=None)
Parameters
value : scalar, optional
The new filling value. Default is None, in which case a default based on the data type
is used.
See Also:
ma.set_fill_value
296
Examples
>>> x.fill_value
-inf
>>> x.set_fill_value(np.pi)
>>> x.fill_value
3.1415926535897931
Reset to default:
>>> x.set_fill_value()
>>> x.fill_value
1e+20
Counting the missing elements

MaskedArray.count([axis])
Count the non-masked elements of the array along the given axis.
MaskedArray.count(axis=None)
Parameters
Axis along which to count the non-masked elements. If axis is None, all non-masked
elements are counted.
Returns
result : int or ndarray
If axis is None, an integer count is returned. When axis is not None, an array with shape
determined by the lengths of the remaining axes, is returned.
See Also:
count_masked
Count masked elements in array or along a given axis.
Examples
>>> a = ma.arange(6).reshape((2, 3))
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3
When the axis keyword is specified an array of appropriate size is returned.

>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
1.7. Masked arrays
297
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
1.7.7 Masked array operations

Constants
ma.MaskType
Numpys Boolean type. Character code: ?. Alias: bool8
numpy.ma.MaskType
alias of bool_
Creation
From existing data
ma.masked_array
ma.array(data[, dtype, copy, order, mask, ...])
ma.copy
ma.frombuffer(buffer[, dtype, count, offset])
ma.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs)
ma.MaskedArray.copy([order])

copy
Interpret a buffer as a 1-dimensional array.
Construct an array by executing a function over each coordinate.
Construction:
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
298
data-type is used.
numpy.ma.copy = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820290>
copy a.copy(order=C)
Parameters
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
1.7. Masked arrays
299
numpy.ma.frombuffer(buffer, dtype=float, count=-1, offset=0) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at 0x2820dd0>

Parameters
buffer : buffer_like
An object that exposes the buffer interface.
Data-type of the returned array; default: float.
count : int, optional
Number of items to read. -1 means all data in the buffer.
Start reading the buffer from this offset; default: 0.
Notes
If the buffer has data that is not in machine byte-order, this should be specified as part of the data-type, e.g.:
>>> dt = dt.newbyteorder(>)
>>> np.frombuffer(buf, dtype=dt)
The data of the resulting array will not be byteswapped, but will be interpreted correctly.
Examples
>>> s = hello world
>>> np.frombuffer(s, dtype=S1, count=5, offset=6)
array([w, o, r, l, d],
dtype=|S1)
numpy.ma.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820e18>
The resulting array therefore has a value fn(x, y, z) at coordinate (x, y, z).
Parameters
function : callable
The function is called with N parameters, where N is the rank of shape. Each parameter represents the coordinates of the array varying along a specific axis. For example,
if shape were (2, 2), then the parameters in turn be (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1).
shape : (N,) tuple of ints
Shape of the output array, which also determines the shape of the coordinate arrays
passed to function.
Data-type of the coordinate arrays passed to function. By default, dtype is float.
Returns
fromfunction : any
300
The result of the call to function is passed back directly. Therefore the shape of
fromfunction is completely determined by function. If function returns a scalar
value, the shape of fromfunction would match the shape parameter.
See Also:
indices, meshgrid
Notes
Keywords other than dtype are passed to function.
Examples
>>> np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i == j, (3, 3), dtype=int)
array([[ True, False, False],
[False, True, False],
[False, False, True]], dtype=bool)
>>> np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i + j, (3, 3), dtype=int)
array([[0, 1, 2],
[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
Parameters
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
Ones and zeros
1.7. Masked arrays
301
ma.empty(shape[, dtype, order])

ma.empty_like(a[, dtype, order, subok])
ma.masked_all(shape[, dtype])
ma.masked_all_like(arr)
ma.ones(shape[, dtype, order])
ma.zeros(shape[, dtype, order])
Return a new array of given shape and type, without initializing entries.
Return a new array with the same shape and type as a given array.
Empty masked array with all elements masked.
Empty masked array with the properties of an existing array.
Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones.
Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
numpy.ma.empty(shape, dtype=float, order=C) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820cf8>
Parameters
shape : int or tuple of int
Shape of the empty array
Desired output data-type.
Whether to store multi-dimensional data in C (row-major) or Fortran (column-major)
order in memory.
See Also:
empty_like, zeros, ones
Notes
empty, unlike zeros, does not set the array values to zero, and may therefore be marginally faster. On the
other hand, it requires the user to manually set all the values in the array, and should be used with caution.
Examples
>>> np.empty([2, 2])
array([[ -9.74499359e+001,
[ 2.13182611e-314,
6.69583040e-309],
3.06959433e-309]])
>>> np.empty([2, 2], dtype=int)

array([[-1073741821, -1067949133],
[ 496041986,
19249760]])
#random
#random
numpy.ma.empty_like(a, dtype=None, order=K, subok=True) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at 0x2820d88>

Parameters
a : array_like
The shape and data-type of a define these same attributes of the returned array.
New in version 1.6.0. Overrides the data type of the result.
order : {C, F, A, or K}, optional
New in version 1.6.0. Overrides the memory layout of the result. C means C-order,
F means F-order, A means F if a is Fortran contiguous, C otherwise. K means
match the layout of a as closely as possible.
302
subok : bool, optional.

If True, then the newly created array will use the sub-class type of a, otherwise it will
be a base-class array. Defaults to True.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of uninitialized (arbitrary) data with the same shape and type as a.
See Also:
ones_like
Return an array of ones with shape and type of input.
zeros_like
Return an array of zeros with shape and type of input.
empty
Return a new uninitialized array.
ones
Return a new array setting values to one.
zeros
Return a new array setting values to zero.
Notes
This function does not initialize the returned array; to do that use zeros_like or ones_like instead. It may be
marginally faster than the functions that do set the array values.
Examples
>>> a = ([1,2,3], [4,5,6])
# a is array-like
>>> np.empty_like(a)
array([[-1073741821, -1073741821,
3],
#random
[
0,
0, -1073741821]])
>>> a = np.array([[1., 2., 3.],[4.,5.,6.]])
array([[ -2.00000715e+000,
1.48219694e-323, -2.00000572e+000],#random
[ 4.38791518e-305, -2.00000715e+000,
4.17269252e-309]])
numpy.ma.masked_all(shape, dtype=<type float>)

Return an empty masked array of the given shape and dtype, where all the data are masked.
Parameters
shape : tuple
Shape of the required MaskedArray.
Data type of the output.
Returns
a : MaskedArray
A masked array with all data masked.
See Also:
1.7. Masked arrays
303
masked_all_like
Empty masked array modelled on an existing array.
Examples
>>> ma.masked_all((3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[[ True True True]
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
fill_value=1e+20)
The dtype parameter defines the underlying data type.

>>> a = ma.masked_all((3, 3))
>>> a.dtype
dtype(float64)
>>> a = ma.masked_all((3, 3), dtype=np.int32)
>>> a.dtype
dtype(int32)
numpy.ma.masked_all_like(arr)
Return an empty masked array of the same shape and dtype as the array arr, where all the data are masked.
Parameters
arr : ndarray
An array describing the shape and dtype of the required MaskedArray.
Returns
a : MaskedArray
Raises
AttributeError
If arr doesnt have a shape attribute (i.e. not an ndarray)
See Also:
masked_all
Examples
>>> arr = np.zeros((2, 3), dtype=np.float32)
>>> arr
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
>>> ma.masked_all_like(arr)
masked_array(data =
[[-- -- --]
304
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
fill_value=1e+20)
The dtype of the masked array matches the dtype of arr.

>>> arr.dtype
dtype(float32)
>>> ma.masked_all_like(arr).dtype
dtype(float32)
numpy.ma.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=C) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820ef0>
Parameters
shape : int or sequence of ints
Shape of the new array, e.g., (2, 3) or 2.
The desired data-type for the array, e.g., numpy.int8. Default is numpy.float64.
Whether to store multidimensional data in C- or Fortran-contiguous (row- or columnwise) order in memory.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of ones with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See Also:
zeros, ones_like
Examples
>>> np.ones(5)
array([ 1., 1.,
1.,
1.,
1.])
>>> np.ones((5,), dtype=np.int)

array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.ones((2, 1))
array([[ 1.],
[ 1.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.ones(s)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.ma.zeros(shape, dtype=float, order=C) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820f80>
Parameters
1.7. Masked arrays
305

Returns
out : ndarray
Array of zeros with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See Also:
zeros_like
ones_like
empty_like
Return an empty array with shape and type of input.
ones
empty
Examples
>>> np.zeros(5)
array([ 0., 0.,
0.,
0.,
0.])
>>> np.zeros((5,), dtype=numpy.int)

array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
>>> np.zeros((2, 1))
array([[ 0.],
[ 0.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.zeros(s)
array([[ 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0.]])
>>> np.zeros((2,), dtype=[(x, i4), (y, i4)]) # custom dtype
array([(0, 0), (0, 0)],
dtype=[(x, <i4), (y, <i4)])
Inspecting the array

ma.all(self[, axis, out])

306

ma.any(self[, axis, out])
ma.count(a[, axis])
ma.count_masked(arr[, axis])
Count the number of masked elements along the given axis.
ma.getmask(a)
Return the mask of a masked array, or nomask.
ma.getmaskarray(arr)
Return the mask of a masked array, or full boolean array of False.
ma.getdata(a[, subok])
Return the data of a masked array as an ndarray.
ma.nonzero(self)
ma.shape(obj)
Return the shape of an array.
ma.size(obj[, axis])
Return the number of elements along a given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.data
Return the current data, as a view of the original
ma.MaskedArray.mask
Mask
ma.MaskedArray.recordmask
Return the mask of the records.
ma.MaskedArray.all([axis, out]) Check if all of the elements of a are true.
ma.MaskedArray.any([axis, out]) Check if any of the elements of a are true.
ma.MaskedArray.count([axis])
ma.MaskedArray.nonzero()
ma.shape(obj)
numpy.ma.all(self, axis=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2819e18>

Parameters
See Also:
all
equivalent function
Examples
True
True
numpy.ma.any(self, axis=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2819fc8>

computation.
Parameters
1.7. Masked arrays
307
scalar.
See Also:
any
equivalent function
numpy.ma.count(a, axis=None)
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
count_masked
Examples
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3

>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
numpy.ma.count_masked(arr, axis=None)
Parameters
arr : array_like
308
An array with (possibly) masked elements.

Axis along which to count. If None (default), a flattened version of the array is used.
Returns
count : int, ndarray
The total number of masked elements (axis=None) or the number of masked elements
along each slice of the given axis.
See Also:
MaskedArray.count
Count non-masked elements.
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(9).reshape((3,3))
>>> a = ma.array(a)
>>> a[1, 0] = ma.masked
>>> a[1, 2] = ma.masked
>>> a[2, 1] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- 4 --]
[6 -- 8]],
mask =
[ True False True]
[False True False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.count_masked(a)
3
When the axis keyword is used an array is returned.

>>> ma.count_masked(a, axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
array([0, 2, 1])
numpy.ma.getmask(a)
Return the mask of a as an ndarray if a is a MaskedArray and the mask is not nomask, else return nomask.
To guarantee a full array of booleans of the same shape as a, use getmaskarray.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input MaskedArray for which the mask is required.
See Also:
getdata
1.7. Masked arrays
309
getmaskarray
Return the mask of a masked array, or full array of False.
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmask(a)
array([[False, True],
Equivalently use the MaskedArray mask attribute.

>>> a.mask
Result when mask == nomask

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nomask
False
>>> ma.getmask(b) == ma.nomask
True
>>> b.mask == ma.nomask
True
numpy.ma.getmaskarray(arr)
Return the mask of arr as an ndarray if arr is a MaskedArray and the mask is not nomask, else return a full
boolean array of False of the same shape as arr.
Parameters
arr : array_like
See Also:
getmask
getdata
310
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmaskarray(a)

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> >ma.getmaskarray(b)
numpy.ma.getdata(a, subok=True)
Return the data of a (if any) as an ndarray if a is a MaskedArray, else return a as a ndarray or subclass
(depending on subok) if not.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input MaskedArray, alternatively a ndarray or a subclass thereof.
subok : bool
Whether to force the output to be a pure ndarray (False) or to return a subclass of ndarray
if appropriate (True, default).
See Also:
getmask
getmaskarray
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
1.7. Masked arrays
311
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getdata(a)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Equivalently use the MaskedArray data attribute.

>>> a.data
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.nonzero(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x28204d0>

a[a.nonzero()]

Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
flatnonzero
ndarray.nonzero
count_nonzero
Examples
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
312
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))

>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))

array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.ma.shape(obj)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
The elements of the shape tuple give the lengths of the corresponding array dimensions.
1.7. Masked arrays
313
See Also:
alen
ndarray.shape
Equivalent array method.
Examples
>>> np.shape(np.eye(3))
(3, 3)
>>> np.shape([[1, 2]])
(1, 2)
>>> np.shape([0])
(1,)
>>> np.shape(0)
()
>>> a = np.array([(1, 2), (3, 4)], dtype=[(x, i4), (y, i4)])
>>> np.shape(a)
(2,)
>>> a.shape
(2,)
numpy.ma.size(obj, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Axis along which the elements are counted. By default, give the total number of elements.
Returns
element_count : int
Number of elements along the specified axis.
See Also:
shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.size
number of elements in array
Examples
>>>
>>>
6
>>>
3
>>>
2
314
a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])
np.size(a)
np.size(a,1)
np.size(a,0)
MaskedArray.data
Return the current data, as a view of the original underlying data.
MaskedArray.mask
Mask
Return the mask of the records. A record is masked when all the fields are masked.
Parameters
See Also:
all
equivalent function
Examples
True
True
computation.
Parameters
scalar.
See Also:
any
equivalent function
1.7. Masked arrays
315
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
count_masked
Examples
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3

>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
a[a.nonzero()]

Parameters
None
Returns
316

See Also:
numpy.nonzero
flatnonzero
ndarray.nonzero
count_nonzero
Examples
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))

>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))

array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
1.7. Masked arrays
317

[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.ma.shape(obj)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
See Also:
alen
ndarray.shape
Examples
(3, 3)
>>> np.shape([[1, 2]])
(1, 2)
>>> np.shape([0])
(1,)
>>> np.shape(0)
()
>>> np.shape(a)
(2,)
>>> a.shape
(2,)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
318
Returns
element_count : int
See Also:
shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.size
Examples
>>>
>>>
6
>>>
3
>>>
2
a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])
np.size(a)
np.size(a,1)
np.size(a,0)
Manipulating a MaskedArray
Changing the shape
ma.ravel(self)
ma.reshape(a, new_shape[, order])
ma.resize(x, new_shape)
ma.MaskedArray.flatten([order])
ma.MaskedArray.ravel()
ma.MaskedArray.reshape(*s, **kwargs)
ma.MaskedArray.resize(newshape[, refcheck, ...])

Return a new masked array with the specified size and shape.
numpy.ma.ravel(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820680>

Returns
MaskedArray
Output
view
is
of
shape
(self.size,)
(or
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
1.7. Masked arrays
319
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.ravel()
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
numpy.ma.reshape(a, new_shape, order=C)

Refer to MaskedArray.reshape for full documentation.
See Also:
MaskedArray.reshape
equivalent function
numpy.ma.resize(x, new_shape)
This is the masked equivalent of the numpy.resize function. The new array is filled with repeated copies of
x (in the order that the data are stored in memory). If x is masked, the new array will be masked, and the new
mask will be a repetition of the old one.
See Also:
numpy.resize
Equivalent function in the top level NumPy module.
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([[1, 2] ,[3, 4]])
>>> a[0, 1] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
>>> np.resize(a, (3, 3))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 1]])
>>> ma.resize(a, (3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 3]
[4 1 --]
[3 4 1]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False False True]
A MaskedArray is always returned, regardless of the input type.

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2] ,[3, 4]])
>>> ma.resize(a, (3, 3))
320
masked_array(data =
[[1 2 3]
[4 1 2]
[3 4 1]],
mask =
False,
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
MaskedArray.ravel()
Returns
MaskedArray
Output
view
is
of
shape
(self.size,)
(or
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.ravel()
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
1.7. Masked arrays
321
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
reshape
numpy.reshape
Notes
a.shape = s
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2],[3,4]], mask=[1,0,0,1])
>>> print x
[[-- 2]
[3 --]]
>>> x = x.reshape((4,1))
>>> print x
[[--]
[2]
[3]
[--]]

Modifying axes
ma.swapaxes
ma.transpose(a[, axes])
swapaxes
Permute the dimensions of an array.
322

ma.MaskedArray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 interchanged.
ma.MaskedArray.transpose(*axes)
numpy.ma.swapaxes = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820998>

swapaxes a.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
numpy.ma.transpose(a, axes=None)
This function is exactly equivalent to numpy.transpose.
See Also:
numpy.transpose
Equivalent function in top-level NumPy module.
Examples
>>> x = ma.arange(4).reshape((2,2))
>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[0 1]
[2 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
>>> ma.transpose(x)
masked_array(data =
[[0 2]
[1 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
1.7. Masked arrays
323
i[0]).
Parameters
axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
Changing the number of dimensions

ma.atleast_1d(*arys)
ma.expand_dims(x, axis)
ma.squeeze(a[, axis])
ma.MaskedArray.squeeze([axis])
ma.column_stack(tup)
ma.concatenate(arrays[, axis])
ma.dstack(tup)
ma.hstack(tup)
324
Convert inputs to arrays with at least one dimension.

View inputs as arrays with at least two dimensions.
View inputs as arrays with at least three dimensions.
Expand the shape of an array.
Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of an array.
Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.
Concatenate a sequence of arrays along the given axis.
Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).

ma.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column-wise).
ma.mr_
Translate slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
ma.row_stack(tup)
Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
ma.vstack(tup)
numpy.ma.atleast_1d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x28216c8>

Scalar inputs are converted to 1-dimensional arrays, whilst higher-dimensional inputs are preserved.
Parameters
arys1, arys2, ... : array_like
One or more input arrays.
Returns
ret : ndarray
An array, or sequence of arrays, each with a.ndim >= 1. Copies are made only if
necessary.
Notes
The function is applied to both the _data and the _mask, if any.
Examples
>>> np.atleast_1d(1.0)
array([ 1.])
>>> x = np.arange(9.0).reshape(3,3)
>>> np.atleast_1d(x)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7., 8.]])
>>> np.atleast_1d(x) is x
True
>>> np.atleast_1d(1, [3, 4])
[array([1]), array([3, 4])]
numpy.ma.atleast_2d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x28217e8>

Parameters
One or more array-like sequences. Non-array inputs are converted to arrays. Arrays
that already have two or more dimensions are preserved.
Returns
res, res2, ... : ndarray
An array, or tuple of arrays, each with a.ndim >= 2. Copies are avoided where
possible, and views with two or more dimensions are returned.
1.7. Masked arrays
325
Notes
Examples
array([[ 3.]])
>>> x = np.arange(3.0)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> np.atleast_2d(x).base is x
True
>>> np.atleast_2d(1, [1, 2], [[1, 2]])
[array([[1]]), array([[1, 2]]), array([[1, 2]])]
numpy.ma.atleast_3d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821878>

Parameters
that already have three or more dimensions are preserved.
Returns
res1, res2, ... : ndarray
possible, and views with three or more dimensions are returned. For example, a 1-D
array of shape (N,) becomes a view of shape (1, N, 1), and a 2-D array of shape
(M, N) becomes a view of shape (M, N, 1).
Notes
Examples
array([[[ 3.]]])
>>> np.atleast_3d(x).shape
(1, 3, 1)
(4, 3, 1)
True
>>> for arr in np.atleast_3d([1, 2], [[1, 2]], [[[1, 2]]]):
...
print arr, arr.shape
...
[[[1]
326
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1 2]]] (1, 1, 2)
numpy.ma.expand_dims(x, axis)
Expands the shape of the array by including a new axis before the one specified by the axis parameter. This
function behaves the same as numpy.expand_dims but preserves masked elements.
See Also:
numpy.expand_dims
Examples
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 4])
>>> x
>>> np.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
array([[1, 2, 4]])
>>> ma.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 4]],
mask =
[[False True False]],
The same result can be achieved using slicing syntax with np.newaxis.
>>> x[np.newaxis, :]
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 4]],
mask =
numpy.ma.squeeze(a, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
axis : None or int or tuple of ints, optional
New in version 1.7.0. Selects a subset of the single-dimensional entries in the shape. If
an axis is selected with shape entry greater than one, an error is raised.
Returns
squeezed : ndarray
The input array, but with with all or a subset of the dimensions of length 1 removed.
This is always a itself or a view into a.
1.7. Masked arrays
327
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[[0], [1], [2]]])
>>> x.shape
(1, 3, 1)
>>> np.squeeze(x).shape
(3,)
>>> np.squeeze(x, axis=(2,)).shape
(1, 3)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
numpy.ma.column_stack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821a28>
Take a sequence of 1-D arrays and stack them as columns to make a single 2-D array. 2-D arrays are
stacked as-is, just like with hstack. 1-D arrays are turned into 2-D columns first.
Parameters
tup : sequence of 1-D or 2-D arrays.
Arrays to stack. All of them must have the same first dimension.
Returns
stacked : 2-D array
The array formed by stacking the given arrays.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.column_stack((a,b))
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.concatenate(arrays, axis=0)
Parameters
arrays : sequence of array_like
The arrays must have the same shape, except in the dimension corresponding to axis
(the first, by default).
328
The axis along which the arrays will be joined. Default is 0.

Returns
The concatenated array with any masked entries preserved.
See Also:
numpy.concatenate
Equivalent function in the top-level NumPy module.
Examples
>>> a = ma.arange(3)
>>> a[1] = ma.masked
>>> b = ma.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b
mask = False,
>>> ma.concatenate([a, b])
masked_array(data = [0 -- 2 2 3 4],
mask = [False True False False False False],
numpy.ma.dstack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821ab8>

Takes a sequence of arrays and stack them along the third axis to make a single array. Rebuilds
arrays divided by dsplit. This is a simple way to stack 2D arrays (images) into a single 3D array for
processing.
Parameters
tup : sequence of arrays
Arrays to stack. All of them must have the same shape along all but the third axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
Stack along first axis.
hstack
Stack along second axis.
concatenate
Join arrays.
1.7. Masked arrays
329
dsplit
Split array along third axis.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.dstack((a,b))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])
numpy.ma.hstack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821998>

Take a sequence of arrays and stack them horizontally to make a single array. Rebuild arrays divided
by hsplit.
Parameters
tup : sequence of ndarrays
All arrays must have the same shape along all but the second axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
dstack
concatenate
Join a sequence of arrays together.
hsplit
Split array along second axis.
Notes
330
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.hstack((a,b))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at

0x2821b00>
Please refer to the split documentation. hsplit is equivalent to split with axis=1, the array is
always split along the second axis regardless of the array dimension.
See Also:
split
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays of equal size.
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(16.0).reshape(4, 4)
>>> x
array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0.,
1.],
[ 4.,
5.],
[ 8.,
9.],
[ 12., 13.]]),
array([[ 2.,
3.],
[ 6.,
7.],
[ 10., 11.],
[ 14., 15.]])]
>>> np.hsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.],
[ 8.,
9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]),
array([[ 3.],
[ 7.],
[ 11.],
[ 15.]]),
array([], dtype=float64)]
With a higher dimensional array the split is still along the second axis.
1.7. Masked arrays
331
>>> x = np.arange(8.0).reshape(2, 2, 2)
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.]],
[[ 4., 5.]]]),
array([[[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 6., 7.]]])]
numpy.ma.mr_ = <numpy.ma.extras.mr_class object at 0x281edd0>

This is the masked array version of lib.index_tricks.RClass.
See Also:
lib.index_tricks.RClass
Examples
>>> np.ma.mr_[np.ma.array([1,2,3]), 0, 0, np.ma.array([4,5,6])]
array([1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6])
numpy.ma.row_stack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821908>

Take a sequence of arrays and stack them vertically to make a single array. Rebuild arrays divided
by vsplit.
Parameters
Tuple containing arrays to be stacked. The arrays must have the same shape along all
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third dimension).
concatenate
vsplit
Split array into a list of multiple sub-arrays vertically.
332
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
>>> np.vstack((a,b))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
numpy.ma.vstack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821908>

by vsplit.
Parameters
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
concatenate
vsplit
Notes
1.7. Masked arrays
333
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
Joining arrays
ma.dstack(tup)
ma.hstack(tup)
ma.vstack(tup)


Parameters
Returns
stacked : 2-D array
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
334
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
numpy.concatenate
Examples
>>> b = ma.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b
mask = False,

processing.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
1.7. Masked arrays
335
vstack
hstack
concatenate
Join arrays.
dsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])

by hsplit.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
dstack
concatenate
336
hsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])

by vsplit.
Parameters
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
concatenate
vsplit
Notes
Examples
1.7. Masked arrays
337
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
Operations on masks
Creating a mask
ma.make_mask(m[, copy, shrink, dtype])
ma.make_mask_none(newshape[, dtype])
ma.mask_or(m1, m2[, copy, shrink])
ma.make_mask_descr(ndtype)
Create a boolean mask from an array.

Return a boolean mask of the given shape, filled with False.
Combine two masks with the logical_or operator.
Construct a dtype description list from a given dtype.
numpy.ma.make_mask(m, copy=False, shrink=True, dtype=<type numpy.bool_>)

Return m as a boolean mask, creating a copy if necessary or requested. The function can accept any sequence
that is convertible to integers, or nomask. Does not require that contents must be 0s and 1s, values of 0 are
interepreted as False, everything else as True.
Parameters
m : array_like
Potential mask.
Whether to return a copy of m (True) or m itself (False).
Whether to shrink m to nomask if all its values are False.
Data-type of the output mask. By default, the output mask has a dtype of MaskType
(bool). If the dtype is flexible, each field has a boolean dtype.
Returns
result : ndarray
A boolean mask derived from m.
338
Examples
>>> m = [True, False, True, True]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
array([ True, False, True, True], dtype=bool)
>>> m = [1, 0, 1, 1]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
>>> m = [1, 0, 2, -3]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
Effect of the shrink parameter.

>>> m = np.zeros(4)
>>> m
array([ 0., 0., 0., 0.])
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
False
>>> ma.make_mask(m, shrink=False)
array([False, False, False, False], dtype=bool)
Using a flexible dtype.

>>> m = [1, 0, 1, 1]
>>> n = [0, 1, 0, 0]
>>> arr = []
>>> for man, mouse in zip(m, n):
...
arr.append((man, mouse))
>>> arr
[(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 0)]
>>> dtype = np.dtype({names:[man, mouse],
formats:[np.int, np.int]})
>>> arr = np.array(arr, dtype=dtype)
>>> arr
array([(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 0)],
dtype=[(man, <i4), (mouse, <i4)])
>>> ma.make_mask(arr, dtype=dtype)
array([(True, False), (False, True), (True, False), (True, False)],
dtype=[(man, |b1), (mouse, |b1)])
numpy.ma.make_mask_none(newshape, dtype=None)
This function returns a boolean ndarray with all entries False, that can be used in common mask manipulations.
If a complex dtype is specified, the type of each field is converted to a boolean type.
Parameters
newshape : tuple
A tuple indicating the shape of the mask.
If None, use a MaskType instance. Otherwise, use a new datatype with the same fields
as dtype, converted to boolean types.
Returns
result : ndarray
An ndarray of appropriate shape and dtype, filled with False.
1.7. Masked arrays
339
See Also:
make_mask
make_mask_descr
Examples
>>> ma.make_mask_none((3,))
array([False, False, False], dtype=bool)
Defining a more complex dtype.

>>> dtype = np.dtype({names:[foo, bar],
formats:[np.float32, np.int]})
>>> dtype
dtype([(foo, <f4), (bar, <i4)])
>>> ma.make_mask_none((3,), dtype=dtype)
array([(False, False), (False, False), (False, False)],
dtype=[(foo, |b1), (bar, |b1)])
numpy.ma.mask_or(m1, m2, copy=False, shrink=True)

The result may be a view on m1 or m2 if the other is nomask (i.e. False).
Parameters
m1, m2 : array_like
Input masks.
If copy is False and one of the inputs is nomask, return a view of the other input mask.
Defaults to False.
Whether to shrink the output to nomask if all its values are False. Defaults to True.
Returns
mask : output mask
The result masks values that are masked in either m1 or m2.
Raises
ValueError
If m1 and m2 have different flexible dtypes.
Examples
>>> m1 = np.ma.make_mask([0, 1, 1, 0])
>>> m2 = np.ma.make_mask([1, 0, 0, 0])
>>> np.ma.mask_or(m1, m2)
array([ True, True, True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.ma.make_mask_descr(ndtype)
340
Returns a new dtype object, with the type of all fields in ndtype to a boolean type. Field names are not altered.
Parameters
ndtype : dtype
The dtype to convert.
Returns
result : dtype
A dtype that looks like ndtype, the type of all fields is boolean.
Examples
>>> dtype
>>> ma.make_mask_descr(dtype)
dtype([(foo, |b1), (bar, |b1)])
>>> ma.make_mask_descr(np.float32)
<type numpy.bool_>
Accessing a mask
ma.getmask(a)
ma.masked_array.mask

Mask
numpy.ma.getmask(a)
Parameters
a : array_like
See Also:
getdata
getmaskarray
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
1.7. Masked arrays
341
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmask(a)

>>> a.mask

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nomask
False
True
True
Parameters
arr : array_like
See Also:
getmask
getdata
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
342

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
masked_array.mask
Mask
Finding masked data
ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
ma.notmasked_contiguous(a[, axis])
ma.notmasked_edges(a[, axis])
Find contiguous unmasked data in a masked array along the given axis.
Find the indices of the first and last unmasked values.
Find the indices of the first and last unmasked values along an axis.
numpy.ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
Parameters
a : narray
The input array.
Returns
slice_list : list
A sorted sequence of slices (start index, end index).
See Also:
flatnotmasked_edges,
clump_unmasked
notmasked_contiguous,
notmasked_edges,
clump_masked,
Notes
Only accepts 2-D arrays at most.
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.arange(10)
>>> np.ma.extras.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
slice(0, 10, None)
>>> mask = (a < 3) | (a > 8) | (a == 5)
>>> a[mask] = np.ma.masked
1.7. Masked arrays
343
>>> np.array(a[~a.mask])
array([3, 4, 6, 7, 8])
[slice(3, 5, None), slice(6, 9, None)]
>>> a[:] = np.ma.masked
>>> print np.ma.extras.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
None
numpy.ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
Expects a 1-D MaskedArray, returns None if all values are masked.
Parameters
arr : array_like
Input 1-D MaskedArray
Returns
edges : ndarray or None
The indices of first and last non-masked value in the array. Returns None if all values
are masked.
See Also:
flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked
Notes
Only accepts 1-D arrays.
Examples
>>> flatnotmasked_edges(a)
[0,-1]
>>> mask = (a < 3) | (a > 8) | (a == 5)
array([3, 4, 6, 7, 8])
array([3, 8])
>>> print flatnotmasked_edges(ma)
None
numpy.ma.notmasked_contiguous(a, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
344
Axis along which to perform the operation. If None (default), applies to a flattened
version of the array.
Returns
endpoints : list
A list of slices (start and end indexes) of unmasked indexes in the array.
See Also:
flatnotmasked_edges, flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(9).reshape((3, 3))
>>> mask = np.zeros_like(a)
>>> mask[1:, 1:] = 1
>>> ma = np.ma.array(a, mask=mask)
>>> np.array(ma[~ma.mask])
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 6])
>>> np.ma.extras.notmasked_contiguous(ma)
numpy.ma.notmasked_edges(a, axis=None)
If all values are masked, return None. Otherwise, return a list of two tuples, corresponding to the indices of the
first and last unmasked values respectively.
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
Returns
edges : ndarray or list
An array of start and end indexes if there are any masked data in the array. If there are
no masked data in the array, edges is a list of the first and last index.
See Also:
flatnotmasked_contiguous,
clump_masked, clump_unmasked
Examples
>>> m = np.zeros_like(a)
>>> m[1:, 1:] = 1
1.7. Masked arrays
345
>>> am = np.ma.array(a, mask=m)

>>> np.array(am[~am.mask])
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 6])
>>> np.ma.extras.notmasked_edges(ma)
array([0, 6])
Modifying a mask
ma.mask_cols(a[, axis])
ma.mask_rowcols(a[, axis])
ma.mask_rows(a[, axis])
ma.harden_mask(self)
ma.soften_mask(self)
ma.MaskedArray.harden_mask()
ma.MaskedArray.soften_mask()
ma.MaskedArray.shrink_mask()
ma.MaskedArray.unshare_mask()
Mask columns of a 2D array that contain masked values.

Mask rows and/or columns of a 2D array that contain masked values.
Mask rows of a 2D array that contain masked values.
numpy.ma.mask_cols(a, axis=None)
This function is a shortcut to mask_rowcols with axis equal to 1.
See Also:
mask_rowcols
Mask rows and/or columns of a 2D array.
masked_where
Examples
>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=np.int)
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a = ma.masked_equal(a, 1)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_cols(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 -- 0]
346
[0 -- 0]
[0 -- 0]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)

Parameters
m1, m2 : array_like
Input masks.
Defaults to False.
Returns
mask : output mask
Raises
ValueError
Examples
>>> m1 = np.ma.make_mask([0, 1, 1, 0])
>>> m2 = np.ma.make_mask([1, 0, 0, 0])
numpy.ma.mask_rowcols(a, axis=None)
Mask whole rows and/or columns of a 2D array that contain masked values. The masking behavior is selected
using the axis parameter.
If axis is None, rows and columns are masked.
If axis is 0, only rows are masked.
If axis is 1 or -1, only columns are masked.
Parameters
a : array_like, MaskedArray
The array to mask. If not a MaskedArray instance (or if no array elements are masked).
The result is a MaskedArray with mask set to nomask (False). Must be a 2D array.
1.7. Masked arrays
347
Axis along which to perform the operation. If None, applies to a flattened version of the
array.
Returns
a : MaskedArray
A modified version of the input array, masked depending on the value of the axis parameter.
Raises
NotImplementedError
If input array a is not 2D.
See Also:
mask_rows
mask_cols
Mask cols of a 2D array that contain masked values.
masked_where
Notes
The input arrays mask is modified by this function.
Examples
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_rowcols(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 -- 0]
[-- -- --]
[0 -- 0]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[ True True True]
fill_value=999999)
348
numpy.ma.mask_rows(a, axis=None)
See Also:
mask_rowcols
masked_where
Examples
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_rows(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[-- -- --]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[ True True True]
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.harden_mask(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820368>

See Also:
hardmask
numpy.ma.soften_mask(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x28207a0>
See Also:
1.7. Masked arrays
349
hardmask
See Also:
hardmask
See Also:
hardmask
Parameters
None
Returns
None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2 ], [3, 4]], mask=[0]*4)
>>> x.mask
>>> x.shrink_mask()
>>> x.mask
False
See Also:
sharedmask
Conversion operations
> to a masked array
ma.asarray(a[, dtype, order])
ma.asanyarray(a[, dtype])
ma.fix_invalid(a[, mask, copy, fill_value])
350


ma.masked_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_greater(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_greater_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where greater than or equal to a given value.
ma.masked_inside(x, v1, v2[, copy])
ma.masked_invalid(a[, copy])
ma.masked_less(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_less_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_not_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_object(x, value[, copy, shrink])
ma.masked_outside(x, v1, v2[, copy])
ma.masked_values(x, value[, rtol, atol, ...])
ma.masked_where(condition, a[, copy])

Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : MaskedArray
See Also:
asanyarray
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.7. Masked arrays
351
If a is a subclass of MaskedArray, its class is conserved. No copy is performed if the input is already an
ndarray.
Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : MaskedArray
See Also:
asarray
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)

Parameters
a : array_like
352

is used.
Returns
b : MaskedArray
Notes
Examples
>>> x
fill_value = 1e+20)
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> fixed.data
array([ 1.00000000e+00, -1.00000000e+00,
1.00000000e+20])
>>> x.data
1.00000000e+20,

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x == value). For floating point arrays, consider
using masked_values(x, value).
See Also:
masked_where
masked_values
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

1.7. Masked arrays
353

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)
True],

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x inside the interval [v1,v2] (v1 <= x <= v2). The
boundaries v1 and v2 can be given in either order.
See Also:
masked_where
Notes
Examples
>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
354
mask = [False False

fill_value=1e+20)
True
True False False],

fill_value=1e+20)
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = ~(np.isfinite(a)). Any pre-existing mask is
conserved. Only applies to arrays with a dtype where NaNs or infs make sense (i.e. floating point types), but
accepts any array_like object.
See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a[2] = np.NaN
>>> a[3] = np.PINF
>>> a
array([ 0.,
1., NaN, Inf,
4.])
fill_value=1e+20)

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

1.7. Masked arrays
355
See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

Parameters
x : array_like
Array to mask
value : object
Comparison value
Returns
356

See Also:
masked_where
masked_equal
masked_values
Examples
>>> food = np.array([green_eggs, ham], dtype=object)
>>> # dont eat spoiled food
>>> eat = ma.masked_object(food, green_eggs)
>>> print eat
[-- ham]
>>> # plain ol ham is boring
>>> fresh_food = np.array([cheese, ham, pineapple], dtype=object)
>>> print eat

>>> eat
mask = False,
fill_value=?)

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x outside the interval [v1,v2] (x < v1)|(x > v2). The
See Also:
masked_where
Notes
Examples
>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
fill_value=1e+20)
True],
1.7. Masked arrays
357

fill_value=1e+20)
True],

masked_equal.
Parameters
x : array_like
Array to mask.
value : float
Masking value.
Returns
See Also:
masked_where
masked_equal
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 1.1, 2, 1.1, 3])
fill_value=1.1)
358

1.1
mask = False,
fill_value=1.5)
2.
1.1
3. ],
>>> x
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
fill_value=2)
fill_value=999999)
Return a as an array masked where condition is True. Any masked values of a or condition are also masked in
the output.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to mask.
copy : bool
view.
Returns
See Also:
masked_values
masked_equal
masked_not_equal
masked_less_equal
1.7. Masked arrays
359
masked_less
masked_greater
masked_inside
masked_outside
masked_invalid
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

>>> b = [a, b, c, d]
fill_value=N/A)

>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([99, 1, 2, 3])
360
>>> a
fill_value=999999)
>>> b
fill_value=999999)
fill_value=999999)
> to a ndarray
ma.compress_cols(a)
ma.compress_rowcols(x[, axis])
ma.compress_rows(a)
ma.compressed(x)
ma.filled(a[, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.compressed()
ma.MaskedArray.filled([fill_value])
Suppress whole columns of a 2-D array that contain masked values.

Suppress the rows and/or columns of a 2-D array that contain
Suppress whole rows of a 2-D array that contain masked values.
Return input as an array with masked data replaced by a fill value.
numpy.ma.compress_cols(a)
This
is
equivalent
to
np.ma.extras.compress_rowcols(a, 1),
extras.compress_rowcols for details.
see
See Also:
extras.compress_rowcols
numpy.ma.compress_rowcols(x, axis=None)
Suppress the rows and/or columns of a 2-D array that contain masked values.
The suppression behavior is selected with the axis parameter.
If axis is None, both rows and columns are suppressed.
If axis is 0, only rows are suppressed.
If axis is 1 or -1, only columns are suppressed.
Parameters
Axis along which to perform the operation. Default is None.
Returns
compressed_array : ndarray
The compressed array.
1.7. Masked arrays
361
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(9).reshape(3, 3), mask=[[1, 0, 0],
...
[1, 0, 0],
...
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[-- 1 2]
[-- 4 5]
[6 7 8]],
mask =
[[ True False False]
[ True False False]
>>> np.ma.extras.compress_rowcols(x)
array([[7, 8]])
>>> np.ma.extras.compress_rowcols(x, 0)
array([[6, 7, 8]])
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5],
[7, 8]])
numpy.ma.compress_rows(a)
This
is
equivalent
to
see
See Also:
numpy.ma.compressed(x)
This function is equivalent to calling the compressed method of a MaskedArray,
MaskedArray.compressed for details.
see
See Also:
MaskedArray.compressed
Equivalent method.
numpy.ma.filled(a, fill_value=None)
If a is not a MaskedArray, a itself is returned. If a is a MaskedArray and fill_value is None, fill_value is
set to a.fill_value.
Parameters
a : MaskedArray or array_like
An input object.
Filling value. Default is None.
362
Returns
a : ndarray
The filled array.
See Also:
compressed
Examples
...
[1, 0, 0],
...
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> x.filled()
array([[999999,
1,
2],
[999999,
4,
5],
[
6,
7,
8]])
Returns
data : ndarray
Notes
Examples
>>> x.compressed()
array([0, 1])
Parameters
Returns
Notes
Examples
1.7. Masked arrays
363

>>> x.filled()
array([1, 2, -999, 4, -999])
matrix:
>>> x.filled()
matrix([[
1, 999999],
[999999,
4]])
> to another object

ma.MaskedArray.tofile(fid[, sep, format])
ma.MaskedArray.tolist([fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.torecords()
ma.MaskedArray.tostring([fill_value, order])


Raises
NotImplementedError
Parameters
Returns
result : list
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> x.tolist()
>>> x.tolist(-999)
[[1, -999, 3], [-999, 5, -999], [7, -999, 9]]
364

Parameters
None
Returns
record : ndarray
matches self.shape.
Notes
...) will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
Parameters

None Same as A.
See Also:
Notes
1.7. Masked arrays
365
Examples
>>> x.tostring()
Pickling and unpickling

ma.dump(a, F)
ma.dumps(a)
ma.load(F)
ma.loads(strg)
Pickle a masked array to a file.

Return a string corresponding to the pickling of a masked array.
Wrapper around cPickle.load which accepts either a file-like object
Load a pickle from the current string.
numpy.ma.dump(a, F)
This is a wrapper around cPickle.dump.
Parameters
a : MaskedArray
The array to be pickled.
F : str or file-like object
The file to pickle a to. If a string, the full path to the file.
numpy.ma.dumps(a)
This is a wrapper around cPickle.dumps.
Parameters
a : MaskedArray
The array for which the string representation of the pickle is returned.
numpy.ma.load(F)
Wrapper around cPickle.load which accepts either a file-like object or a filename.
Parameters
F : str or file
The file or file name to load.
See Also:
dump
Pickle an array
Notes
This is different from numpy.load, which does not use cPickle but loads the NumPy binary .npy format.
numpy.ma.loads(strg)
The result of cPickle.loads(strg) is returned.
Parameters
strg : str
366
The string to load.

See Also:
dumps
Filling a masked array
ma.common_fill_value(a, b)
ma.default_fill_value(obj)
ma.maximum_fill_value(obj)
ma.set_fill_value(a, fill_value)
ma.MaskedArray.get_fill_value()
ma.MaskedArray.set_fill_value([value])
ma.MaskedArray.fill_value
Return the common filling value of two masked arrays, if any.

Return the default fill value for the argument object.
Return the minimum value that can be represented by the dtype of an object.
Set the filling value of a, if a is a masked array.
Filling value.
numpy.ma.common_fill_value(a, b)
If a.fill_value == b.fill_value, return the fill value, otherwise return None.
Parameters
a, b : MaskedArray
The masked arrays for which to compare fill values.
Returns
fill_value : scalar or None
The common fill value, or None.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=3)
>>> y = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=3)
>>> np.ma.common_fill_value(x, y)
3.0
numpy.ma.default_fill_value(obj)
The default filling value depends on the datatype of the input array or the type of the input scalar:
datatype
bool
int
float
complex
object
string
default
True
999999
1.e20
1.e20+0j
?
N/A
Parameters
obj : ndarray, dtype or scalar
The array data-type or scalar for which the default fill value is returned.
1.7. Masked arrays
367
Returns
fill_value : scalar
The default fill value.
Examples
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(1)
999999
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(np.array([1.1, 2., np.pi]))
1e+20
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(np.dtype(complex))
(1e+20+0j)
numpy.ma.maximum_fill_value(obj)
This function is useful for calculating a fill value suitable for taking the maximum of an array with a given dtype.
Parameters
obj : {ndarray, dtype}
An object that can be queried for its numeric type.
Returns
val : scalar
The minimum representable value.
Raises
TypeError
If obj isnt a suitable numeric type.
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
The inverse function.
set_fill_value
Set the filling value of a masked array.
Return current fill value.
Examples
>>> a = np.int8()
>>> ma.maximum_fill_value(a)
-128
>>> a = np.int32()
-2147483648
An array of numeric data can also be passed.

>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
-128
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.float32)
368
-inf
Parameters
Returns
val : scalar
Raises
TypeError
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
set_fill_value
Examples
>>> a = np.int8()
-128
>>> a = np.int32()
-2147483648

-128
-inf
numpy.ma.set_fill_value(a, fill_value)
This function changes the fill value of the masked array a in place. If a is not a masked array, the function
returns silently, without doing anything.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
1.7. Masked arrays
369
fill_value : dtype
Filling value. A consistency test is performed to make sure the value is compatible with
the dtype of a.
Returns
None
Nothing returned by this function.
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
Return the default fill value for a dtype.
MaskedArray.set_fill_value
Equivalent method.
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = ma.masked_where(a < 3, a)
>>> a
masked_array(data = [-- -- -- 3 4],
mask = [ True True True False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.set_fill_value(a, -999)
>>> a
fill_value=-999)
Nothing happens if a is not a masked array.

>>> a = range(5)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> ma.set_fill_value(a, 100)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
Returns
fill_value : scalar
The filling value.
370
Examples
...
...
999999
999999
1e+20
(1e+20+0j)
-inf
Parameters
is used.
See Also:
ma.set_fill_value
Examples
>>> x.fill_value
-inf
>>> x.fill_value
3.1415926535897931
Reset to default:
>>> x.fill_value
1e+20
Filling value.
Masked arrays arithmetics

Arithmetics
ma.anom(self[, axis, dtype])
ma.anomalies(self[, axis, dtype])
ma.average(a[, axis, weights, returned])
ma.conjugate(x[, out])
ma.corrcoef(x[, y, rowvar, bias, ...])
1.7. Masked arrays
Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic mean) along the given a
Return the weighted average of array over the given axis.
Return correlation coefficients of the input array.
Continued on next p
371

ma.cov(x[, y, rowvar, bias, allow_masked, ddof])
Estimate the covariance matrix.
ma.cumsum(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.cumprod(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.mean(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.median(a[, axis, out, overwrite_input])
Compute the median along the specified axis.
ma.power(a, b[, third])
Returns element-wise base array raised to power from second array.
ma.prod(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.std(self[, axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ma.sum(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.var(self[, axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ma.MaskedArray.anom([axis, dtype])
ma.MaskedArray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of the elements along the given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.mean([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.prod([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof]) Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis.
ma.MaskedArray.sum([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof]) Compute the variance along the specified axis.
numpy.ma.anom(self, axis=None, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at

0x2819f38>
Parameters
array as reference.
See Also:
mean
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],
numpy.ma.anomalies(self, axis=None, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at

0x2819f38>
372
Parameters
array as reference.
See Also:
mean
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],
numpy.ma.average(a, axis=None, weights=None, returned=False)

Parameters
a : array_like
Data to be averaged. Masked entries are not taken into account in the computation.
weights : array_like, optional
The importance that each element has in the computation of the average. The weights
array can either be 1-D (in which case its length must be the size of a along the given
axis) or of the same shape as a. If weights=None, then all data in a are assumed to
have a weight equal to one. If weights is complex, the imaginary parts are ignored.
returned : bool, optional
Flag indicating whether a tuple (result, sum of weights) should be returned
as output (True), or just the result (False). Default is False.
Returns
average, [sum_of_weights] : (tuple of) scalar or MaskedArray
The average along the specified axis. When returned is True, return a tuple with the
average as the first element and the sum of the weights as the second element. The
return type is np.float64 if a is of integer type, otherwise it is of the same type as a. If
returned, sum_of_weights is of the same type as average.
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1., 2., 3., 4.], mask=[False, False, True, True])
>>> np.ma.average(a, weights=[3, 1, 0, 0])
1.25
1.7. Masked arrays
373
>>> x = np.ma.arange(6.).reshape(3, 2)
>>> print x
[[ 0. 1.]
[ 2. 3.]
[ 4. 5.]]
>>> avg, sumweights = np.ma.average(x, axis=0, weights=[1, 2, 3],
...
returned=True)
>>> print avg
[2.66666666667 3.66666666667]
numpy.ma.conjugate(x[, out ]) = <numpy.ma.core._MaskedUnaryOperation instance at 0x272bfc8>

The complex conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input value.
Returns
y : ndarray
The complex conjugate of x, with same dtype as y.
Examples
>>> np.conjugate(1+2j)
(1-2j)
>>> x = np.eye(2) + 1j * np.eye(2)
>>> np.conjugate(x)
array([[ 1.-1.j, 0.-0.j],
[ 0.-0.j, 1.-1.j]])
numpy.ma.corrcoef(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=False, allow_masked=True, ddof=None)

Except for the handling of missing data this function does the same as numpy.corrcoef. For more details
and examples, see numpy.corrcoef.
Parameters
x : array_like
A 1-D or 2-D array containing multiple variables and observations. Each row of x
represents a variable, and each column a single observation of all those variables. Also
see rowvar below.
y : array_like, optional
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same shape as x.
rowvar : bool, optional
If rowvar is True (default), then each row represents a variable, with observations in the
columns. Otherwise, the relationship is transposed: each column represents a variable,
while the rows contain observations.
bias : bool, optional
Default normalization (False) is by (N-1), where N is the number of observations
given (unbiased estimate). If bias is 1, then normalization is by N. This keyword can be
overridden by the keyword ddof in numpy versions >= 1.5.
374
allow_masked : bool, optional

If True, masked values are propagated pair-wise: if a value is masked in x, the corresponding value is masked in y. If False, raises an exception.
ddof : {None, int}, optional
New in version 1.5. If not None normalization is by (N - ddof), where N is the
number of observations; this overrides the value implied by bias. The default value is
None.
See Also:
numpy.corrcoef
cov
numpy.ma.cov(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=False, allow_masked=True, ddof=None)
Except for the handling of missing data this function does the same as numpy.cov. For more details and
examples, see numpy.cov.
By default, masked values are recognized as such. If x and y have the same shape, a common mask is allocated:
if x[i,j] is masked, then y[i,j] will also be masked. Setting allow_masked to False will raise an exception
if values are missing in either of the input arrays.
Parameters
x : array_like
see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same form as x.
Default normalization (False) is by (N-1), where N is the number of observations given
(unbiased estimate). If bias is True, then normalization is by N. This keyword can be
If True, masked values are propagated pair-wise: if a value is masked in x, the corresponding value is masked in y. If False, raises a ValueError exception when some
values are missing.
None.
1.7. Masked arrays
375
Raises
ValueError
Raised if some values are missing and allow_masked is False.
See Also:
numpy.cov
numpy.ma.cumsum(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance
at 0x2820200>
Parameters
first axis.
integer is used.
Returns
cumsum : ndarray.
Notes
Examples
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]
numpy.ma.cumprod(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820170>

Parameters
376
Returns
cumprod : ndarray
Notes
numpy.ma.mean(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at
0x2820440>
Parameters
a : array_like
attempted.
flattened array.
Returns
See Also:
numpy.ma.mean
1.7. Masked arrays
377
numpy.mean
numpy.ma.average
Weighted average.
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5
numpy.ma.median(a, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False)

Returns the median of the array elements.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array or object that can be converted to an array.
Axis along which the medians are computed. The default (None) is to compute the
median along a flattened version of the array.
overwrite_input : bool, optional
If True, then allow use of memory of input array (a) for calculations. The input array
will be modified by the call to median. This will save memory when you do not need to
preserve the contents of the input array. Treat the input as undefined, but it will probably
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. Note that, if overwrite_input is True, and
the input is not already an ndarray, an error will be raised.
Returns
median : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference to out is returned. Return data-type is float64 for integers and floats smaller than
float64, or the input data-type, otherwise.
See Also:
mean
Notes
Given a vector V with N non masked values, the median of V is the middle value of a sorted copy of V (Vs) - i.e.
Vs[(N-1)/2], when N is odd, or {Vs[N/2 - 1] + Vs[N/2]}/2 when N is even.
378
Examples
>>> np.ma.extras.median(x)
1.5
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(10).reshape(2, 5), mask=[0]*6 + [1]*4)
2.5
>>> np.ma.extras.median(x, axis=-1, overwrite_input=True)
masked_array(data = [ 2. 5.],
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
numpy.ma.power(a, b, third=None)
This is the masked array version of numpy.power. For details see numpy.power.
See Also:
numpy.power
Notes
The out argument to numpy.power is not supported, third has to be None.
numpy.ma.prod(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at
0x2820560>
computation.
Parameters
array elements.
Returns
if specified.
See Also:
prod
equivalent function
1.7. Masked arrays
379
Notes
Examples
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
2
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])
numpy.ma.std(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820878>

Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
380
Notes
deviation per se.
and nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.5, 0.5])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45172946707416706

0.44999999925552653
numpy.ma.sum(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at

0x2820908>
Parameters
1.7. Masked arrays
381
Returns
to out is returned.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.sum()
25
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
<type numpy.int64>
numpy.ma.var(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820a28>

Parameters
a : array_like
is attempted.
382
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20405951142311096

0.20249999932997387
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.20250000000000001
1.7. Masked arrays
383
Parameters
array as reference.
See Also:
mean
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],

Parameters
Returns
cumprod : ndarray
Notes
384

Parameters
first axis.
integer is used.
Returns
cumsum : ndarray.
Notes
Examples
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]

Parameters
a : array_like
attempted.
flattened array.
1.7. Masked arrays
385
Returns
See Also:
numpy.ma.mean
numpy.mean
numpy.ma.average
Weighted average.
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5

computation.
Parameters
array elements.
Returns
if specified.
386
See Also:
prod
equivalent function
Notes
Examples
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
2
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])

Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
1.7. Masked arrays
387
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
deviation per se.
and nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.5, 0.5])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45172946707416706

0.44999999925552653

Parameters
388
Returns
to out is returned.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.sum()
25
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
<type numpy.int64>

Parameters
a : array_like
is attempted.
1.7. Masked arrays
389
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20405951142311096

0.20249999932997387
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.20250000000000001
Minimum/maximum
390

ma.argmax(a[, axis, fill_value])
ma.argmin(a[, axis, fill_value])
ma.max(obj[, axis, out, fill_value])
ma.min(obj[, axis, out, fill_value])
ma.ptp(obj[, axis, out, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.argmax([axis, fill_value, out])
ma.MaskedArray.argmin([axis, fill_value, out])
ma.MaskedArray.max([axis, out, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.min([axis, out, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.ptp([axis, out, fill_value])
Function version of the eponymous method.

numpy.ma.argmax(a, axis=None, fill_value=None)

numpy.ma.argmin(a, axis=None, fill_value=None)
Parameters

Returns
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])
numpy.ma.max(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)

Parameters
1.7. Masked arrays
391

mum_fill_value().
Returns
amax : array_like
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
numpy.ma.min(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)
Parameters
minimum_fill_value.
Returns
amin : array_like
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
numpy.ma.ptp(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)
Parameters
Returns
ptp : ndarray.
392
out is returned.
Parameters

Returns
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])

Parameters

Returns
{ndarray, scalar}
given axis.
1.7. Masked arrays
393
Examples
>>> x.shape = (2,2)
>>> print x
[[-- --]
[2 3]]
[0 0]
[1 1]

Parameters
mum_fill_value().
Returns
amax : array_like
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
Parameters
minimum_fill_value.
Returns
amin : array_like
See Also:
394
minimum_fill_value
Parameters
Returns
ptp : ndarray.
out is returned.
Sorting
ma.argsort(a[, axis, kind, order, fill_value])
ma.sort(a[, axis, kind, order, endwith, ...])
ma.MaskedArray.argsort([axis, kind, order, ...])
ma.MaskedArray.sort([axis, kind, order, ...])
numpy.ma.argsort(a, axis=None, kind=quicksort, order=None, fill_value=None)

fill_value.
Parameters
used.
Value used to fill the array before sorting. The default is the fill_value attribute of the
input array.
Sorting algorithm.
Returns
1.7. Masked arrays
In other words,
395
See Also:
sort
lexsort
ndarray.sort
Inplace sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])
numpy.ma.sort(a, axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None, endwith=True, fill_value=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
endwith.
Returns
See Also:
396
ndarray.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
Notes
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])
>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print a
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
[--
a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

print a
-- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> print a
[1 -- -- 3 5]

fill_value.
Parameters
used.
the input array.
Sorting algorithm.
Returns
1.7. Masked arrays
397

In other words,
See Also:
sort
lexsort
ndarray.sort
Inplace sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
endwith.
Returns
398
See Also:
ndarray.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
Notes
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])
>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print a
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
[--
a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

print a
-- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> print a
[1 -- -- 3 5]
Algebra
ma.diag(v[, k])
ma.dot(a, b[, strict])
ma.identity(n[, dtype])
ma.inner(a, b)
ma.innerproduct(a, b)
ma.outer(a, b)
ma.outerproduct(a, b)
ma.trace(self[, offset, axis1, axis2, ...])
ma.MaskedArray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, ...])
Extract a diagonal or construct a diagonal array.

Return the dot product of two arrays.
Return the identity array.
Inner product of two arrays.
Compute the outer product of two vectors.
numpy.ma.diag(v, k=0)
This function is the equivalent of numpy.diag that takes masked values into account, see numpy.diag for
details.
1.7. Masked arrays
399
See Also:
numpy.diag
Equivalent function for ndarrays.
numpy.ma.dot(a, b, strict=False)
Note: Works only with 2-D arrays at the moment.
This function is the equivalent of numpy.dot that takes masked values into account, see numpy.dot for
details.
Parameters
a, b : ndarray
Inputs arrays.
strict : bool, optional
Whether masked data are propagated (True) or set to 0 (False) for the computation.
Default is False. Propagating the mask means that if a masked value appears in a row
or column, the whole row or column is considered masked.
See Also:
numpy.dot
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], mask=[[1, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]])
>>> b = ma.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]], mask=[[1, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]])
>>> np.ma.dot(a, b)
masked_array(data =
[[21 26]
[45 64]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False False]],
>>> np.ma.dot(a, b, strict=True)
masked_array(data =
[[-- --]
[-- 64]],
mask =
[[ True True]
[ True False]],
numpy.ma.identity(n, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at 0x2820d40>

The identity array is a square array with ones on the main diagonal.
Parameters
n : int
Number of rows (and columns) in n x n output.
400

Data-type of the output. Defaults to float.
Returns
out : ndarray
n x n array with its main diagonal set to one, and all other elements 0.
Examples
>>> np.identity(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
numpy.ma.inner(a, b)
Ordinary inner product of vectors for 1-D arrays (without complex conjugation), in higher dimensions a sum
product over the last axes.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
If a and b are nonscalar, their last dimensions of must match.
Returns
out : ndarray
out.shape = a.shape[:-1] + b.shape[:-1]
Raises
ValueError
If the last dimension of a and b has different size.
See Also:
tensordot
Sum products over arbitrary axes.
dot
Generalised matrix product, using second last dimension of b.
einsum
Einstein summation convention.
Notes
Masked values are replaced by 0.
Examples
Ordinary inner product for vectors:
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
A multidimensional example:
1.7. Masked arrays
401
>>> a = np.arange(24).reshape((2,3,4))
>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])
An example where b is a scalar:

>>> np.inner(np.eye(2), 7)
array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.ma.innerproduct(a, b)
Parameters
a, b : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
See Also:
tensordot
dot
einsum
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
>>> np.inner(a, b)
402
array([[ 14, 38, 62],

[ 86, 110, 134]])

array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.ma.outer(a, b)
Given two vectors, a = [a0, a1, ..., aM] and b = [b0, b1, ..., bN], the outer product [R48]
is:
[[a0*b0
[a1*b0
[ ...
[aM*b0
a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

.
.
aM*bN ]]
Parameters
a : (M,) array_like
First input vector. Input is flattened if not already 1-dimensional.
b : (N,) array_like
Second input vector. Input is flattened if not already 1-dimensional.
Returns
out : (M, N) ndarray
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See Also:
inner, einsum
Notes
References
[R48]
Examples
Make a (very coarse) grid for computing a Mandelbrot set:
>>> rl = np.outer(np.ones((5,)), np.linspace(-2, 2, 5))
>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im = np.outer(1j*np.linspace(2, -2, 5), np.ones((5,)))
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
1.7. Masked arrays
403
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j,
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j,
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j,
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j,
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j,
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j,
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j,
0.-1.j,
0.-2.j,
0.-1.j,
0.-2.j,
0.-1.j],
0.-2.j]])
0.+2.j,
0.+1.j,
0.+0.j,
0.-1.j,
0.-2.j,
1.+2.j,
1.+1.j,
1.+0.j,
1.-1.j,
1.-2.j,
2.+2.j],
2.+1.j],
2.+0.j],
2.-1.j],
2.-2.j]])
An example using a vector of letters:

>>> x = np.array([a, b, c], dtype=object)
>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
array([[a, aa, aaa],
[b, bb, bbb],
[c, cc, ccc]], dtype=object)
numpy.ma.outerproduct(a, b)
is:
[[a0*b0
[a1*b0
[ ...
[aM*b0
a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

.
.
aM*bN ]]
Parameters
a : (M,) array_like
b : (N,) array_like
Returns
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See Also:
inner, einsum
Notes
References
[R49]
Examples
404

>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j],
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j]])
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 1.+2.j, 2.+2.j],
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+1.j, 2.+1.j],
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 1.-1.j, 2.-1.j],
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 1.-2.j, 2.-2.j]])

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
[b, bb, bbb],
numpy.ma.trace(self, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None) a.trace(offset=0, axis1=0,

axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at
0x28209e0>
See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
See Also:
numpy.transpose
Examples
>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>>> x
1.7. Masked arrays
405
masked_array(data =
[[0 1]
[2 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
>>> ma.transpose(x)
masked_array(data =
[[0 2]
[1 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],

See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
i[0]).
Parameters
axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
406
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
Polynomial fit
ma.vander(x[, n])
ma.polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w, cov])
Generate a Van der Monde matrix.

Least squares polynomial fit.
numpy.ma.vander(x, n=None)
The columns of the output matrix are decreasing powers of the input vector. Specifically, the i-th output column
is the input vector raised element-wise to the power of N - i - 1. Such a matrix with a geometric progression
in each row is named for Alexandre-Theophile Vandermonde.
Parameters
x : array_like
1-D input array.
N : int, optional
Order of (number of columns in) the output. If N is not specified, a square array is
returned (N = len(x)).
Returns
out : ndarray
Van der Monde matrix of order N. The first column is x^(N-1), the second x^(N-2)
and so forth.
Notes
Masked values in the input array result in rows of zeros.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])
>>> N = 3
>>> np.vander(x, N)
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> np.column_stack([x**(N-1-i) for i in range(N)])
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
1.7. Masked arrays
407
[ 9,
[25,
3,
5,
1],
1]])
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])

>>> np.vander(x)
array([[ 1,
1,
1,
1],
[ 8,
4,
2,
1],
[ 27,
9,
3,
1],
[125, 25,
5,
1]])
The determinant of a square Vandermonde matrix is the product of the differences between the values of the
input vector:
>>> np.linalg.det(np.vander(x))
48.000000000000043
>>> (5-3)*(5-2)*(5-1)*(3-2)*(3-1)*(2-1)
48
numpy.ma.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, cov=False)

Fit a polynomial p(x) = p[0] * x**deg + ...
vector of coefficients p that minimises the squared error.
+ p[deg] of degree deg to points (x, y). Returns a
Parameters
x : array_like, shape (M,)
x-coordinates of the M sample points (x[i], y[i]).
y : array_like, shape (M,) or (M, K)
y-coordinates of the sample points. Several data sets of sample points sharing the same
x-coordinates can be fitted at once by passing in a 2D-array that contains one dataset
per column.
deg : int
Degree of the fitting polynomial
rcond : float, optional
Relative condition number of the fit. Singular values smaller than this relative to the
largest singular value will be ignored. The default value is len(x)*eps, where eps is the
relative precision of the float type, about 2e-16 in most cases.
full : bool, optional
Switch determining nature of return value. When it is False (the default) just the coefficients are returned, when True diagnostic information from the singular value decomposition is also returned.
w : array_like, shape (M,), optional
weights to apply to the y-coordinates of the sample points.
cov : bool, optional
Return the estimate and the covariance matrix of the estimate If full is True, then cov is
not returned.
Returns
p : ndarray, shape (M,) or (M, K)
408
Polynomial coefficients, highest power first. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for k-th data
set are in p[:,k].
residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond : present only if full = True
Residuals of the least-squares fit, the effective rank of the scaled Vandermonde coefficient matrix, its singular values, and the specified value of rcond. For more details, see
linalg.lstsq.
V : ndaray, shape (M,M) or (M,M,K)
The covariance matrix of the polynomial coefficient estimates. The diagonal of this matrix are the variance estimates for each coefficient. If y is a 2-d array, then the covariance
matrix for the k-th data set are in V[:,:,k]
Warns
RankWarning
The rank of the coefficient matrix in the least-squares fit is deficient. The warning is
only raised if full = False.
The warnings can be turned off by
>>> import warnings
>>> warnings.simplefilter(ignore, np.RankWarning)
See Also:
polyval
Computes polynomial values.
linalg.lstsq
Computes a least-squares fit.
scipy.interpolate.UnivariateSpline
Computes spline fits.
Notes
Any masked values in x is propagated in y, and vice-versa.
References
[R50], [R51]
Examples
>>> x =
>>> y =
>>> z =
>>> z
array([
np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])

np.array([0.0, 0.8, 0.9, 0.1, -0.8, -1.0])
np.polyfit(x, y, 3)
0.08703704, -0.81349206,
1.69312169, -0.03968254])
It is convenient to use poly1d objects for dealing with polynomials:

>>> p = np.poly1d(z)
>>> p(0.5)
0.6143849206349179
>>> p(3.5)
-0.34732142857143039
>>> p(10)
22.579365079365115
1.7. Masked arrays
409
High-order polynomials may oscillate wildly:

>>> p30 = np.poly1d(np.polyfit(x, y, 30))
/... RankWarning: Polyfit may be poorly conditioned...
>>> p30(4)
-0.80000000000000204
>>> p30(5)
-0.99999999999999445
>>> p30(4.5)
-0.10547061179440398
Illustration:
>>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

>>> xp = np.linspace(-2, 6, 100)
>>> plt.plot(x, y, ., xp, p(xp), -, xp, p30(xp), --)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>, <matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>, <matplotl
>>> plt.ylim(-2,2)
(-2, 2)
>>> plt.show()
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Clipping and rounding

ma.around
ma.clip(a, a_min, a_max[, out])
ma.round(a[, decimals, out])
ma.MaskedArray.clip(a_min, a_max[, out])
ma.MaskedArray.round([decimals, out])
Round an array to the given number of decimals.

Clip (limit) the values in an array.
Return a copy of a, rounded to decimals places.
numpy.ma.around = <numpy.ma.core._MaskedUnaryOperation instance at 0x2816440>

Refer to around for full documentation.
See Also:
around
410
equivalent function
numpy.ma.clip(a, a_min, a_max, out=None)
Given an interval, values outside the interval are clipped to the interval edges. For example, if an interval of
[0, 1] is specified, values smaller than 0 become 0, and values larger than 1 become 1.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing elements to clip.
a_min : scalar or array_like
Minimum value.
a_max : scalar or array_like
Maximum value. If a_min or a_max are array_like, then they will be broadcasted to the
shape of a.
The results will be placed in this array. It may be the input array for in-place clipping.
out must be of the right shape to hold the output. Its type is preserved.
Returns
clipped_array : ndarray
An array with the elements of a, but where values < a_min are replaced with a_min, and
those > a_max with a_max.
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Examples
>>> np.clip(a, 1, 8)
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, 3, 6, out=a)
array([3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, [3,4,1,1,1,4,4,4,4,4], 8)
array([3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
numpy.ma.round(a, decimals=0, out=None)

When decimals is negative, it specifies the number of positions to the left of the decimal point. The real and
imaginary parts of complex numbers are rounded separately. Nothing is done if the array is not of float type and
decimals is greater than or equal to 0.
Parameters
decimals : int
1.7. Masked arrays
411
Number of decimals to round to. May be negative.

out : array_like
Existing array to use for output. If not given, returns a default copy of a.
Notes
If out is given and does not have a mask attribute, the mask of a is lost!
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
See Also:
numpy.around
equivalent function
Miscellanea
ma.allequal(a, b[, fill_value])
ma.allclose(a, b[, masked_equal, rtol, atol])
ma.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, ...)
ma.arange([start,] stop[, step,][, dtype])
ma.choose(indices, choices[, out, mode])
ma.ediff1d(arr[, to_end, to_begin])
ma.indices(dimensions[, dtype])
ma.where(condition[, x, y])
Return True if all entries of a and b are equal, using

Returns True if two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
Apply a function to 1-D slices along the given axis.
Return evenly spaced values within a given interval.
Compute the differences between consecutive elements of an array.
Return an array representing the indices of a grid.
Return a masked array with elements from x or y, depending on condition.
numpy.ma.allequal(a, b, fill_value=True)
Return True if all entries of a and b are equal, using fill_value as a truth value where either or both are masked.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
Input arrays to compare.
fill_value : bool, optional
Whether masked values in a or b are considered equal (True) or not (False).
Returns
y : bool
Returns True if the two arrays are equal within the given tolerance, False otherwise. If
either array contains NaN, then False is returned.
See Also:
412
all, any, numpy.ma.allclose

Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-7, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> a
masked_array(data = [10000000000.0 1e-07 --],
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> b = array([1e10, 1e-7, -42.0])
>>> b
array([ 1.00000000e+10,
1.00000000e-07,
>>> ma.allequal(a, b, fill_value=False)
False
>>> ma.allequal(a, b)
True
-4.20000000e+01])
numpy.ma.allclose(a, b, masked_equal=True, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08)

This function is equivalent to allclose except that masked values are treated as equal (default) or unequal,
depending on the masked_equal argument.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
masked_equal : bool, optional
Whether masked values in a and b are considered equal (True) or not (False). They are
considered equal by default.
Relative tolerance. The relative difference is equal to rtol * b. Default is 1e-5.
Absolute tolerance. The absolute difference is equal to atol. Default is 1e-8.
Returns
y : bool
See Also:
all, any
numpy.allclose
the non-masked allclose.
Notes
If the following equation is element-wise True, then allclose returns True:
absolute(a - b) <= (atol + rtol * absolute(b))
Return True if all elements of a and b are equal subject to given tolerances.
1.7. Masked arrays
413
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-7, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> a
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> b = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, -42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> ma.allclose(a, b)
False
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> b = ma.array([1.00001e10, 1e-9, -42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
True
>>> ma.allclose(a, b, masked_equal=False)
False
Masked values are not compared directly.

>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> b = ma.array([1.00001e10, 1e-9, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
True
False
numpy.ma.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args, **kwargs)

Execute func1d(a, *args) where func1d operates on 1-D arrays and a is a 1-D slice of arr along axis.
Parameters
func1d : function
This function should accept 1-D arrays. It is applied to 1-D slices of arr along the
specified axis.
axis : integer
Axis along which arr is sliced.
arr : ndarray
Input array.
args : any
Additional arguments to func1d.
Returns
apply_along_axis : ndarray
The output array. The shape of outarr is identical to the shape of arr, except along the
axis dimension, where the length of outarr is equal to the size of the return value of
func1d. If func1d returns a scalar outarr will have one fewer dimensions than arr.
See Also:
apply_over_axes
Apply a function repeatedly over multiple axes.
414
Examples
>>> def my_func(a):
...
"""Average first and last element of a 1-D array"""
...
return (a[0] + a[-1]) * 0.5
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])
>>> np.apply_along_axis(my_func, 0, b)
array([ 4., 5., 6.])
array([ 2., 5., 8.])
For a function that doesnt return a scalar, the number of dimensions in outarr is the same as arr.
>>> b = np.array([[8,1,7], [4,3,9], [5,2,6]])
>>> np.apply_along_axis(sorted, 1, b)
array([[1, 7, 8],
[3, 4, 9],
[2, 5, 6]])
numpy.ma.arange([start ], stop[, step ], dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820bd8>
Values are generated within the half-open interval [start, stop) (in other words, the interval including
start but excluding stop). For integer arguments the function is equivalent to the Python built-in range function,
but returns an ndarray rather than a list.
When using a non-integer step, such as 0.1, the results will often not be consistent. It is better to use linspace
for these cases.
Parameters
start : number, optional
Start of interval. The interval includes this value. The default start value is 0.
stop : number
End of interval. The interval does not include this value, except in some cases where
step is not an integer and floating point round-off affects the length of out.
step : number, optional
Spacing between values. For any output out, this is the distance between two adjacent
values, out[i+1] - out[i]. The default step size is 1. If step is specified, start
must also be given.
dtype : dtype
The type of the output array. If dtype is not given, infer the data type from the other
input arguments.
Returns
arange : ndarray
Array of evenly spaced values.
For floating point arguments, the length of the result is ceil((stop start)/step). Because of floating point overflow, this rule may result in the last
element of out being greater than stop.
See Also:
linspace
Evenly spaced numbers with careful handling of endpoints.
1.7. Masked arrays
415
ogrid
Arrays of evenly spaced numbers in N-dimensions.
mgrid
Grid-shaped arrays of evenly spaced numbers in N-dimensions.
Examples
>>> np.arange(3)
array([0, 1, 2])
>>> np.arange(3.0)
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.arange(3,7)
array([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.arange(3,7,2)
array([3, 5])
numpy.ma.choose(indices, choices, out=None, mode=raise)

Given an array of integers and a set of n choice arrays, this method will create a new array that merges each of
the choice arrays. Where a value in a is i, the new array will have the value that choices[i] contains in the same
place.
Parameters
a : ndarray of ints
This array must contain integers in [0, n-1], where n is the number of choices.
choices : sequence of arrays
Choice arrays. The index array and all of the choices should be broadcastable to the
same shape.
out : array, optional
If provided, the result will be inserted into this array. It should be of the appropriate
shape and dtype.
Specifies how out-of-bounds indices will behave.
raise : raise an error
wrap : wrap around
clip : clip to the range
Returns
merged_array : array
See Also:
choose
equivalent function
Examples
>>> choice = np.array([[1,1,1], [2,2,2], [3,3,3]])
>>> a = np.array([2, 1, 0])
>>> np.ma.choose(a, choice)
416
mask = False,
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.ediff1d(arr, to_end=None, to_begin=None)

This function is the equivalent of numpy.ediff1d that takes masked values into account, see
numpy.ediff1d for details.
See Also:
numpy.ediff1d
numpy.ma.indices(dimensions, dtype=<type int>)
Compute an array where the subarrays contain index values 0,1,... varying only along the corresponding axis.
Parameters
dimensions : sequence of ints
The shape of the grid.
Data type of the result.
Returns
grid : ndarray
The array of grid indices,
tuple(dimensions).
grid.shape = (len(dimensions),) +
See Also:
mgrid, meshgrid
Notes
The output shape is obtained by prepending the number of dimensions in front of the tuple of dimensions, i.e. if
dimensions is a tuple (r0, ..., rN-1) of length N, the output shape is (N,r0,...,rN-1).
The subarrays grid[k] contains the N-D array of indices along the k-th axis. Explicitly:
grid[k,i0,i1,...,iN-1] = ik
Examples
>>> grid = np.indices((2, 3))
>>> grid.shape
(2, 2, 3)
>>> grid[0]
# row indices
array([[0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> grid[1]
# column indices
array([[0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2]])
The indices can be used as an index into an array.
1.7. Masked arrays
417
>>> x = np.arange(20).reshape(5, 4)
>>> row, col = np.indices((2, 3))
>>> x[row, col]
array([[0, 1, 2],
[4, 5, 6]])
Note that it would be more straightforward in the above example to extract the required elements directly with
x[:2, :3].
numpy.ma.where(condition, x=None, y=None)
Returns a masked array, shaped like condition, where the elements are from x when condition is True, and from
y otherwise. If neither x nor y are given, the function returns a tuple of indices where condition is True (the
result of condition.nonzero()).
Parameters
condition : array_like, bool
The condition to meet. For each True element, yield the corresponding element from x,
otherwise from y.
x, y : array_like, optional
Values from which to choose. x and y need to have the same shape as condition, or be
broadcast-able to that shape.
Returns
out : MaskedArray or tuple of ndarrays
The resulting masked array if x and y were given, otherwise the result of
condition.nonzero().
See Also:
numpy.where
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(9.).reshape(3, 3), mask=[[0, 1, 0],
...
[1, 0, 1],
...
[0, 1, 0]])
>>> print x
[[0.0 -- 2.0]
[-- 4.0 --]
[6.0 -- 8.0]]
>>> np.ma.where(x > 5)
# return the indices where x > 5
(array([2, 2]), array([0, 2]))
>>> print np.ma.where(x > 5, x, -3.1416)
[[-3.1416 -- -3.1416]
[-- -3.1416 --]
[6.0 -- 8.0]]
1.8 The Array Interface
418
Note: This page describes the numpy-specific API for accessing the contents of a numpy array from other C extensions. PEP 3118 The Revised Buffer Protocol introduces similar, standardized API to Python 2.6 and
3.0 for any extension module to use. Cythons buffer array support uses the PEP 3118 API; see the Cython numpy
tutorial. Cython provides a way to write code that supports the buffer protocol with Python versions older than 2.6
because it has a backward-compatible implementation utilizing the array interface described here.
version
3
The array interface (sometimes called array protocol) was created in 2005 as a means for array-like Python objects to
re-use each others data buffers intelligently whenever possible. The homogeneous N-dimensional array interface is
a default mechanism for objects to share N-dimensional array memory and information. The interface consists of a
Python-side and a C-side using two attributes. Objects wishing to be considered an N-dimensional array in application
code should support at least one of these attributes. Objects wishing to support an N-dimensional array in application
code should look for at least one of these attributes and use the information provided appropriately.
This interface describes homogeneous arrays in the sense that each item of the array has the same type. This type
can be very simple or it can be a quite arbitrary and complicated C-like structure.
There are two ways to use the interface: A Python side and a C-side. Both are separate attributes.
1.8.1 Python side

This approach to the interface consists of the object having an __array_interface__ attribute.
__array_interface__
A dictionary of items (3 required and 5 optional). The optional keys in the dictionary have implied defaults if
they are not provided.
The keys are:
shape (required)
Tuple whose elements are the array size in each dimension. Each entry is an integer (a Python int or
long). Note that these integers could be larger than the platform int or long could hold (a Python
int is a C long). It is up to the code using this attribute to handle this appropriately; either by raising
an error when overflow is possible, or by using Py_LONG_LONG as the C type for the shapes.
typestr (required)
A string providing the basic type of the homogenous array The basic string format consists of 3 parts:
a character describing the byteorder of the data (<: little-endian, >: big-endian, |: not-relevant), a
character code giving the basic type of the array, and an integer providing the number of bytes the
type uses.
The basic type character codes are:
t
b
i
u
f
c
O
S
U
V
Bit field (following integer gives the number of bits in the bit field).
Boolean (integer type where all values are only True or False)
Integer
Unsigned integer
Floating point
Complex floating point
Object (i.e. the memory contains a pointer to PyObject)
String (fixed-length sequence of char)
Unicode (fixed-length sequence of Py_UNICODE)
Other (void * each item is a fixed-size chunk of memory)
1.8. The Array Interface
419
descr (optional)
A list of tuples providing a more detailed description of the memory layout for each item in the
homogeneous array. Each tuple in the list has two or three elements. Normally, this attribute would
be used when typestr is V[0-9]+, but this is not a requirement. The only requirement is that the
number of bytes represented in the typestr key is the same as the total number of bytes represented
here. The idea is to support descriptions of C-like structs (records) that make up array elements. The
elements of each tuple in the list are
1.A string providing a name associated with this portion of the record. This could also be a tuple
of (full name, basic_name) where basic name would be a valid Python variable
name representing the full name of the field.
2.Either a basic-type description string as in typestr or another list (for nested records)
3.An optional shape tuple providing how many times this part of the record should be repeated. No
repeats are assumed if this is not given. Very complicated structures can be described using this
generic interface. Notice, however, that each element of the array is still of the same data-type.
Some examples of using this interface are given below.
Default: [(, typestr)]
data (optional)
A 2-tuple whose first argument is an integer (a long integer if necessary) that points to the data-area
storing the array contents. This pointer must point to the first element of data (in other words any
offset is always ignored in this case). The second entry in the tuple is a read-only flag (true means
the data area is read-only).
This attribute can also be an object exposing the buffer interface which will be used to share
the data. If this key is not present (or returns None), then memory sharing will be done through the
buffer interface of the object itself. In this case, the offset key can be used to indicate the start of the
buffer. A reference to the object exposing the array interface must be stored by the new object if the
memory area is to be secured.
Default: None
strides (optional)
Either None to indicate a C-style contiguous array or a Tuple of strides which provides the number of
bytes needed to jump to the next array element in the corresponding dimension. Each entry must be
an integer (a Python int or long). As with shape, the values may be larger than can be represented
by a C int or long; the calling code should handle this appropiately, either by raising an error, or
by using Py_LONG_LONG in C. The default is None which implies a C-style contiguous memory
buffer. In this model, the last dimension of the array varies the fastest. For example, the default
strides tuple for an object whose array entries are 8 bytes long and whose shape is (10,20,30) would
be (4800, 240, 8)
Default: None (C-style contiguous)
mask (optional)
None or an object exposing the array interface. All elements of the mask array should be interpreted
only as true or not true indicating which elements of this array are valid. The shape of this object
should be broadcastable to the shape of the original array.
Default: None (All array values are valid)
offset (optional)
An integer offset into the array data region. This can only be used when data is None or returns a
buffer object.
420
Default: 0.
version (required)
An integer showing the version of the interface (i.e. 3 for this version). Be careful not to use this to
invalidate objects exposing future versions of the interface.
1.8.2 C-struct access

This approach to the array interface allows for faster access to an array using only one attribute lookup and a welldefined C-structure.
__array_struct__
A PyCObject whose voidptr member contains a pointer to a filled PyArrayInterface structure.
Memory for the structure is dynamically created and the PyCObject is also created with an appropriate
destructor so the retriever of this attribute simply has to apply Py_DECREF to the object returned by this
attribute when it is finished. Also, either the data needs to be copied out, or a reference to the object exposing
this attribute must be held to ensure the data is not freed. Objects exposing the __array_struct__ interface
must also not reallocate their memory if other objects are referencing them.
The PyArrayInterface structure is defined in numpy/ndarrayobject.h as:
typedef struct {
int two;
int nd;
char typekind;
int itemsize;
int flags;
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
Py_intptr_t *shape;
/*
Py_intptr_t *strides; /*
void *data;
/*
PyObject *descr;
/*
contains the integer 2 -- simple sanity check */

number of dimensions */
kind in array --- character code of typestr */
size of each element */
flags indicating how the data should be interpreted */
must set ARR_HAS_DESCR bit to validate descr */
A length-nd array of shape information */
A length-nd array of stride information */
A pointer to the first element of the array */
NULL or data-description (same as descr key
of __array_interface__) -- must set ARR_HAS_DESCR
flag or this will be ignored. */
} PyArrayInterface;
The flags member may consist of 5 bits showing how the data should be interpreted and one bit showing how
the Interface should be interpreted. The data-bits are CONTIGUOUS (0x1), FORTRAN (0x2), ALIGNED (0x100),
NOTSWAPPED (0x200), and WRITEABLE (0x400). A final flag ARR_HAS_DESCR (0x800) indicates whether or not
this structure has the arrdescr field. The field should not be accessed unless this flag is present.
New since June 16, 2006:
In the past most implementations used the desc member of the PyCObject itself (do not confuse this with the
descr member of the PyArrayInterface structure above they are two separate things) to hold the pointer to
the object exposing the interface. This is now an explicit part of the interface. Be sure to own a reference to the object
when the PyCObject is created using PyCObject_FromVoidPtrAndDesc.
1.8.3 Type description examples

For clarity it is useful to provide some examples of the type description and corresponding __array_interface__
descr entries. Thanks to Scott Gilbert for these examples:
In every case, the descr key is optional, but of course provides more information which may be important for various
applications:
1.8. The Array Interface
421
* Float data
typestr == >f4
descr == [(,>f4)]
* Complex double
typestr == >c8
descr == [(real,>f4), (imag,>f4)]
* RGB Pixel data
typestr == |V3
descr == [(r,|u1), (g,|u1), (b,|u1)]
* Mixed endian (weird but could happen).
typestr == |V8 (or >u8)
descr == [(big,>i4), (little,<i4)]
* Nested structure
struct {
int ival;
struct {
unsigned short sval;
unsigned char bval;
unsigned char cval;
} sub;
}
typestr == |V8 (or <u8 if you want)
descr == [(ival,<i4), (sub, [(sval,<u2), (bval,|u1), (cval,|u1) ]) ]
* Nested array
struct {
int ival;
double data[16*4];
}
typestr == |V516
descr == [(ival,>i4), (data,>f8,(16,4))]
* Padded structure
struct {
int ival;
double dval;
}
typestr == |V16
descr == [(ival,>i4),(,|V4),(dval,>f8)]
It should be clear that any record type could be described using this interface.
1.8.4 Differences with Array interface (Version 2)

The version 2 interface was very similar. The differences were largely asthetic. In particular:
1. The PyArrayInterface structure had no descr member at the end (and therefore no flag ARR_HAS_DESCR)
2. The desc member of the PyCObject returned from __array_struct__ was not specified. Usually, it was the object
exposing the array (so that a reference to it could be kept and destroyed when the C-object was destroyed). Now
it must be a tuple whose first element is a string with PyArrayInterface Version # and whose second element
is the object exposing the array.
422
3. The tuple returned from __array_interface__[data] used to be a hex-string (now it is an integer or a long
integer).
4. There was no __array_interface__ attribute instead all of the keys (except for version) in the __array_interface__
dictionary were their own attribute: Thus to obtain the Python-side information you had to access separately the
attributes:
__array_data__
__array_shape__
__array_strides__
__array_typestr__
__array_descr__
__array_offset__
__array_mask__
1.9 Datetimes and Timedeltas

New in version 1.7.0. Starting in NumPy 1.7, there are core array data types which natively support datetime functionality. The data type is called datetime64, so named because datetime is already taken by the datetime library
included in Python.
Note: The datetime API is experimental in 1.7.0, and may undergo changes in future versions of NumPy.
1.9.1 Basic Datetimes

The most basic way to create datetimes is from strings in ISO 8601 date or datetime format. The unit for internal
storage is automatically selected from the form of the string, and can be either a date unit or a time unit. The date
units are years (Y), months (M), weeks (W), and days (D), while the time units are hours (h), minutes (m),
seconds (s), milliseconds (ms), and some additional SI-prefix seconds-based units.
Example
A simple ISO date:
>>> np.datetime64(2005-02-25)
numpy.datetime64(2005-02-25)
Using months for the unit:

>>> np.datetime64(2005-02)
numpy.datetime64(2005-02)
Specifying just the month, but forcing a days unit:

>>> np.datetime64(2005-02, D)
Using UTC Zulu time:

>>> np.datetime64(2005-02-25T03:30Z)
numpy.datetime64(2005-02-24T21:30-0600)
1.9. Datetimes and Timedeltas
423
ISO 8601 specifies to use the local time zone if none is explicitly given:
>>> np.datetime64(2005-02-25T03:30)
numpy.datetime64(2005-02-25T03:30-0600)
When creating an array of datetimes from a string, it is still possible to automatically select the unit from the inputs,
by using the datetime type with generic units.
Example
>>> np.array([2007-07-13, 2006-01-13, 2010-08-13], dtype=datetime64)
array([2007-07-13, 2006-01-13, 2010-08-13], dtype=datetime64[D])
>>> np.array([2001-01-01T12:00, 2002-02-03T13:56:03.172], dtype=datetime64)
array([2001-01-01T12:00:00.000-0600, 2002-02-03T13:56:03.172-0600], dtype=datetime64[ms])
The datetime type works with many common NumPy functions, for example arange can be used to generate ranges
of dates.
Example
All the dates for one month:
>>> np.arange(2005-02, 2005-03, dtype=datetime64[D])
array([2005-02-01, 2005-02-02, 2005-02-03, 2005-02-04,
2005-02-05, 2005-02-06, 2005-02-07, 2005-02-08,
2005-02-09, 2005-02-10, 2005-02-11, 2005-02-12,
2005-02-13, 2005-02-14, 2005-02-15, 2005-02-16,
2005-02-17, 2005-02-18, 2005-02-19, 2005-02-20,
2005-02-21, 2005-02-22, 2005-02-23, 2005-02-24,
2005-02-25, 2005-02-26, 2005-02-27, 2005-02-28],
dtype=datetime64[D])
The datetime object represents a single moment in time. If two datetimes have different units, they may still be
representing the same moment of time, and converting from a bigger unit like months to a smaller unit like days is
considered a safe cast because the moment of time is still being represented exactly.
Example
>>> np.datetime64(2005) == np.datetime64(2005-01-01)
True
>>> np.datetime64(2010-03-14T15Z) == np.datetime64(2010-03-14T15:00:00.00Z)
True
An important exception to this rule is between datetimes with date units and datetimes with time units. This is because
this kind of conversion generally requires a choice of timezone and particular time of day on the given date.
Example
>>> np.datetime64(2003-12-25, s)
TypeError: Cannot parse "2003-12-25" as unit s using casting rule same_kind
424
>>> np.datetime64(2003-12-25) == np.datetime64(2003-12-25T00Z)

False
1.9.2 Datetime and Timedelta Arithmetic

NumPy allows the subtraction of two Datetime values, an operation which produces a number with a time unit.
Because NumPy doesnt have a physical quantities system in its core, the timedelta64 data type was created to complement datetime64.
Datetimes and Timedeltas work together to provide ways for simple datetime calculations.
Example
>>> np.datetime64(2009-01-01) - np.datetime64(2008-01-01)
numpy.timedelta64(366,D)
>>> np.datetime64(2009) + np.timedelta64(20, D)
>>> np.datetime64(2011-06-15T00:00) + np.timedelta64(12, h)
numpy.datetime64(2011-06-15T12:00-0500)
>>> np.timedelta64(1,W) / np.timedelta64(1,D)
7.0
There are two Timedelta units (Y, years and M, months) which are treated specially, because how much time they
represent changes depending on when they are used. While a timedelta day unit is equivalent to 24 hours, there is no
way to convert a month unit into days, because different months have different numbers of days.
Example
>>> a = np.timedelta64(1, Y)
>>> np.timedelta64(a, M)
numpy.timedelta64(12,M)
>>> np.timedelta64(a, D)
TypeError: Cannot cast NumPy timedelta64 scalar from metadata [Y] to [D] according to the rule same_
1.9.3 Datetime Units

The Datetime and Timedelta data types support a large number of time units, as well as generic units which can be
coerced into any of the other units based on input data.
Datetimes are always stored based on POSIX time (though having a TAI mode which allows for accounting of leapseconds is proposed), with a epoch of 1970-01-01T00:00Z. This means the supported dates are always a symmetric
interval around the epoch, called time span in the table below.
The length of the span is the range of a 64-bit integer times the length of the date or unit. For example, the time span
for W (week) is exactly 7 times longer than the time span for D (day), and the time span for D (day) is exactly 24
times longer than the time span for h (hour).
425
Here are the date units:
Code
Y
M
W
D
And here are the time units:
Meaning
year
month
week
day
Code
h
m
s
ms
us
ns
ps
fs
as
Time span (relative)

+/- 9.2e18 years
+/- 7.6e17 years
+/- 1.7e17 years
+/- 2.5e16 years
Meaning
hour
minute
second
millisecond
microsecond
nanosecond
picosecond
femtosecond
attosecond
Time span (absolute)

[9.2e18 BC, 9.2e18 AD]
[7.6e17 BC, 7.6e17 AD]
[1.7e17 BC, 1.7e17 AD]
[2.5e16 BC, 2.5e16 AD]
Time span (relative)

+/- 1.0e15 years
+/- 1.7e13 years
+/- 2.9e12 years
+/- 2.9e9 years
+/- 2.9e6 years
+/- 292 years
+/- 106 days
+/- 2.6 hours
+/- 9.2 seconds
Time span (absolute)

[1.0e15 BC, 1.0e15 AD]
[1.7e13 BC, 1.7e13 AD]
[ 2.9e9 BC, 2.9e9 AD]
[ 2.9e6 BC, 2.9e6 AD]
[290301 BC, 294241 AD]
[ 1678 AD, 2262 AD]
[ 1969 AD, 1970 AD]
[ 1969 AD, 1970 AD]
[ 1969 AD, 1970 AD]
1.9.4 Business Day Functionality

To allow the datetime to be used in contexts where only certain days of the week are valid, NumPy includes a set of
busday (business day) functions.
The default for busday functions is that the only valid days are Monday through Friday (the usual business days). The
implementation is based on a weekmask containing 7 Boolean flags to indicate valid days; custom weekmasks are
possible that specify other sets of valid days.
The busday functions can additionally check a list of holiday dates, specific dates that are not valid days.
The function busday_offset allows you to apply offsets specified in business days to datetimes with a unit of D
(day).
Example
>>> np.busday_offset(2011-06-23, 1)
When an input date falls on the weekend or a holiday, busday_offset first applies a rule to roll the date to a valid
business day, then applies the offset. The default rule is raise, which simply raises an exception. The rules most
typically used are forward and backward.
Example
ValueError: Non-business day date in busday_offset
>>> np.busday_offset(2011-06-25, 0, roll=forward)
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>>> np.busday_offset(2011-06-25, 0, roll=backward)

In some cases, an appropriate use of the roll and the offset is necessary to get a desired answer.
Example
The first business day on or after a date:
numpy.datetime64(2011-03-21,D)
The first business day strictly after a date:

The function is also useful for computing some kinds of days like holidays. In Canada and the U.S., Mothers day is
on the second Sunday in May, which can be computed with a custom weekmask.
Example
>>> np.busday_offset(2012-05, 1, roll=forward, weekmask=Sun)
When performance is important for manipulating many business dates with one particular choice of weekmask and
holidays, there is an object busdaycalendar which stores the data necessary in an optimized form.
np.is_busday():
To test a datetime64 value to see if it is a valid day, use is_busday.
Example
>>> np.is_busday(np.datetime64(2011-07-15)) # a Friday
True
>>> np.is_busday(np.datetime64(2011-07-16)) # a Saturday
False
>>> np.is_busday(np.datetime64(2011-07-16), weekmask="Sat Sun")
True
>>> a = np.arange(np.datetime64(2011-07-11), np.datetime64(2011-07-18))
>>> np.is_busday(a)
array([ True, True, True, True, True, False, False], dtype=bool)
427
np.busday_count():
To find how many valid days there are in a specified range of datetime64 dates, use busday_count:
Example
>>> np.busday_count(np.datetime64(2011-07-11), np.datetime64(2011-07-18))
5
>>> np.busday_count(np.datetime64(2011-07-18), np.datetime64(2011-07-11))
-5
If you have an array of datetime64 day values, and you want a count of how many of them are valid dates, you can do
this:
Example
>>> a = np.arange(np.datetime64(2011-07-11), np.datetime64(2011-07-18))
>>> np.count_nonzero(np.is_busday(a))
5
Custom Weekmasks
Here are several examples of custom weekmask values. These examples specify the busday default of Monday
through Friday being valid days.
Some examples:
# Positional sequences; positions are Monday through Sunday.
# Length of the sequence must be exactly 7.
weekmask = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0]
# list or other sequence; 0 == invalid day, 1 == valid day
weekmask = "1111100"
# string 0 == invalid day, 1 == valid day
# string abbreviations from this list: Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
weekmask = "Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri"
# any amount of whitespace is allowed; abbreviations are case-sensitive.
weekmask = "MonTue Wed Thu\tFri"
1.9.5 Differences Between 1.6 and 1.7 Datetimes

The NumPy 1.6 release includes a more primitive datetime data type than 1.7. This section documents many of the
changes that have taken place.
String Parsing
The datetime string parser in NumPy 1.6 is very liberal in what it accepts, and silently allows invalid input without
raising errors. The parser in NumPy 1.7 is quite strict about only accepting ISO 8601 dates, with a few convenience
extensions. 1.6 always creates microsecond (us) units by default, whereas 1.7 detects a unit based on the format of the
string. Here is a comparison.:
# NumPy 1.6.1
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-22)
1979-03-22 00:00:00
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# NumPy 1.7.0
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-22)
# NumPy 1.6.1, unit default microseconds
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-22).dtype
dtype(datetime64[us])
# NumPy 1.7.0, unit of days detected from string
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-22).dtype
dtype(<M8[D])
# NumPy 1.6.1, ignores invalid part of string
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-2corruptedstring)
1979-03-02 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0, raises error for invalid input
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-2corruptedstring)
ValueError: Error parsing datetime string "1979-03-2corruptedstring" at position 8
# NumPy 1.6.1, nat produces todays date
>>> np.datetime64(nat)
2012-04-30 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0, nat produces not-a-time
>>> np.datetime64(nat)
numpy.datetime64(NaT)
# NumPy 1.6.1, garbage produces todays date
>>> np.datetime64(garbage)
2012-04-30 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0, garbage raises an exception
>>> np.datetime64(garbage)
ValueError: Error parsing datetime string "garbage" at position 0
# NumPy 1.6.1, cant specify unit in scalar constructor
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-22T19:00, h)
TypeError: function takes at most 1 argument (2 given)
# NumPy 1.7.0, unit in scalar constructor
>>> np.datetime64(1979-03-22T19:00, h)
numpy.datetime64(1979-03-22T19:00-0500,h)
# NumPy 1.6.1, reads ISO 8601 strings w/o TZ as UTC
>>> np.array([1979-03-22T19:00], dtype=M8[h])
array([1979-03-22 19:00:00], dtype=datetime64[h])
# NumPy 1.7.0, reads ISO 8601 strings w/o TZ as local (ISO specifies this)
array([1979-03-22T19-0500], dtype=datetime64[h])
# NumPy 1.6.1, doesnt parse all ISO 8601 strings correctly
>>> np.array([1979-03-22T12], dtype=M8[h])
# NumPy 1.7.0, handles this case correctly
429
>>> np.array([1979-03-22T12], dtype=M8[h])

Unit Conversion
The 1.6 implementation of datetime does not convert between units correctly.:
# NumPy 1.6.1, the representation value is untouched
>>> np.array([1979-03-22], dtype=M8[D])
array([1979-03-22 00:00:00], dtype=datetime64[D])
>>> np.array([1979-03-22], dtype=M8[D]).astype(M8[M])
array([2250-08-01 00:00:00], dtype=datetime64[M])
# NumPy 1.7.0, the representation is scaled accordingly
>>> np.array([1979-03-22], dtype=M8[D])
array([1979-03-22], dtype=datetime64[D])
>>> np.array([1979-03-22], dtype=M8[D]).astype(M8[M])
array([1979-03], dtype=datetime64[M])
Datetime Arithmetic
The 1.6 implementation of datetime only works correctly for a small subset of arithmetic operations. Here we show
some simple cases.:
# NumPy 1.6.1, produces invalid results if units are incompatible
>>> a = np.array([1979-03-22T12], dtype=M8[h])
>>> b = np.array([3*60], dtype=m8[m])
>>> a + b
array([1970-01-01 00:00:00.080988], dtype=datetime64[us])
# NumPy 1.7.0, promotes to higher-resolution unit
>>> a = np.array([1979-03-22T12], dtype=M8[h])
>>> b = np.array([3*60], dtype=m8[m])
>>> a + b
array([1979-03-22T15:00-0500], dtype=datetime64[m])
# NumPy 1.6.1, arithmetic works if everything is microseconds
>>> a = np.array([1979-03-22T12:00], dtype=M8[us])
>>> b = np.array([3*60*60*1000000], dtype=m8[us])
>>> a + b
array([1979-03-22 15:00:00], dtype=datetime64[us])
# NumPy 1.7.0
>>> a = np.array([1979-03-22T12:00], dtype=M8[us])
>>> b = np.array([3*60*60*1000000], dtype=m8[us])
>>> a + b
array([1979-03-22T15:00:00.000000-0500], dtype=datetime64[us])
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CHAPTER
TWO
UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONS (UFUNC)

A universal function (or ufunc for short) is a function that operates on ndarrays in an element-by-element fashion,
supporting array broadcasting, type casting, and several other standard features. That is, a ufunc is a vectorized
wrapper for a function that takes a fixed number of scalar inputs and produces a fixed number of scalar outputs.
In Numpy, universal functions are instances of the numpy.ufunc class. Many of the built-in functions are implemented in compiled C code, but ufunc instances can also be produced using the frompyfunc factory function.
2.1 Broadcasting
Each universal function takes array inputs and produces array outputs by performing the core function element-wise
on the inputs. Standard broadcasting rules are applied so that inputs not sharing exactly the same shapes can still be
usefully operated on. Broadcasting can be understood by four rules:
1. All input arrays with ndim smaller than the input array of largest ndim, have 1s prepended to their shapes.
2. The size in each dimension of the output shape is the maximum of all the input sizes in that dimension.
3. An input can be used in the calculation if its size in a particular dimension either matches the output size in that
dimension, or has value exactly 1.
4. If an input has a dimension size of 1 in its shape, the first data entry in that dimension will be used for all
calculations along that dimension. In other words, the stepping machinery of the ufunc will simply not step
along that dimension (the stride will be 0 for that dimension).
Broadcasting is used throughout NumPy to decide how to handle disparately shaped arrays; for example, all arithmetic operations (+, -, *, ...) between ndarrays broadcast the arrays before operation. A set of arrays is called
broadcastable to the same shape if the above rules produce a valid result, i.e., one of the following is true:
1. The arrays all have exactly the same shape.
2. The arrays all have the same number of dimensions and the length of each dimensions is either a common length
or 1.
3. The arrays that have too few dimensions can have their shapes prepended with a dimension of length 1 to satisfy
property 2.
Example
If a.shape is (5,1), b.shape is (1,6), c.shape is (6,) and d.shape is () so that d is a scalar, then a, b, c, and d
are all broadcastable to dimension (5,6); and
a acts like a (5,6) array where a[:,0] is broadcast to the other columns,
b acts like a (5,6) array where b[0,:] is broadcast to the other rows,
431
c acts like a (1,6) array and therefore like a (5,6) array where c[:] is broadcast to every row, and finally,
d acts like a (5,6) array where the single value is repeated.
2.2 Output type determination

The output of the ufunc (and its methods) is not necessarily an ndarray, if all input arguments are not ndarrays.
All output arrays will be passed to the __array_prepare__ and __array_wrap__ methods of the input (besides ndarrays, and scalars) that defines it and has the highest __array_priority__ of any other
input to the universal function. The default __array_priority__ of the ndarray is 0.0, and the default
__array_priority__ of a subtype is 1.0. Matrices have __array_priority__ equal to 10.0.
All ufuncs can also take output arguments. If necessary, output will be cast to the data-type(s) of the provided output
array(s). If a class with an __array__ method is used for the output, results will be written to the object returned
by __array__. Then, if the class also has an __array_prepare__ method, it is called so metadata may be
determined based on the context of the ufunc (the context consisting of the ufunc itself, the arguments passed to
the ufunc, and the ufunc domain.) The array object returned by __array_prepare__ is passed to the ufunc for
computation. Finally, if the class also has an __array_wrap__ method, the returned ndarray result will be
passed to that method just before passing control back to the caller.
2.3 Use of internal buffers

Internally, buffers are used for misaligned data, swapped data, and data that has to be converted from one data type to
another. The size of internal buffers is settable on a per-thread basis. There can be up to 2(ninputs + noutputs ) buffers
of the specified size created to handle the data from all the inputs and outputs of a ufunc. The default size of a buffer is
10,000 elements. Whenever buffer-based calculation would be needed, but all input arrays are smaller than the buffer
size, those misbehaved or incorrectly-typed arrays will be copied before the calculation proceeds. Adjusting the size of
the buffer may therefore alter the speed at which ufunc calculations of various sorts are completed. A simple interface
for setting this variable is accessible using the function
setbufsize(size)
Set the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.
numpy.setbufsize(size)
Parameters
size : int
Size of buffer.
2.4 Error handling

Universal functions can trip special floating-point status registers in your hardware (such as divide-by-zero). If available on your platform, these registers will be regularly checked during calculation. Error handling is controlled on a
per-thread basis, and can be configured using the functions
seterr([all, divide, over, under, invalid])
seterrcall(func)
432
Set how floating-point errors are handled.

Set the floating-point error callback function or log object.
Chapter 2. Universal functions (ufunc)
numpy.seterr(all=None, divide=None, over=None, under=None, invalid=None)

Note that operations on integer scalar types (such as int16) are handled like floating point, and are affected by
these settings.
Parameters
all : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Set treatment for all types of floating-point errors at once:
ignore: Take no action when the exception occurs.
warn: Print a RuntimeWarning (via the Python warnings module).
raise: Raise a FloatingPointError.
call: Call a function specified using the seterrcall function.
print: Print a warning directly to stdout.
log: Record error in a Log object specified by seterrcall.
The default is not to change the current behavior.
divide : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for division by zero.
over : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for floating-point overflow.
under : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for floating-point underflow.
invalid : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for invalid floating-point operation.
Returns
old_settings : dict
Dictionary containing the old settings.
See Also:
seterrcall
Set a callback function for the call mode.
geterr, geterrcall, errstate
Notes
The floating-point exceptions are defined in the IEEE 754 standard [1]:
Division by zero: infinite result obtained from finite numbers.
Overflow: result too large to be expressed.
Underflow: result so close to zero that some precision was lost.
Invalid operation: result is not an expressible number, typically indicates that a NaN was produced.
2.4. Error handling
433
Examples
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all=ignore) #seterr to known value
>>> np.seterr(over=raise)
{over: ignore, divide: ignore, invalid: ignore,
under: ignore}
>>> np.seterr(**old_settings) # reset to default
{over: raise, divide: ignore, invalid: ignore, under: ignore}
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
30464
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all=warn, over=raise)
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
FloatingPointError: overflow encountered in short_scalars
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all=print)
>>> np.geterr()
{over: print, divide: print, invalid: print, under: print}
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
Warning: overflow encountered in short_scalars
30464
numpy.seterrcall(func)
There are two ways to capture floating-point error messages. The first is to set the error-handler to call, using
seterr. Then, set the function to call using this function.
The second is to set the error-handler to log, using seterr. Floating-point errors then trigger a call to the
write method of the provided object.
Parameters
func : callable f(err, flag) or object with write method
Function to call upon floating-point errors (call-mode) or object whose write method
is used to log such message (log-mode).
The call function takes two arguments. The first is the type of error (one of divide,
over, under, or invalid), and the second is the status flag. The flag is a byte, whose
least-significant bits indicate the status:
[0 0 0 0 invalid over under invalid]
In other words, flags = divide + 2*over + 4*under + 8*invalid.

If an object is provided, its write method should take one argument, a string.
Returns
h : callable, log instance or None
The old error handler.
See Also:
seterr, geterr, geterrcall
Examples
Callback upon error:
434
>>> def err_handler(type, flag):

...
print "Floating point error (%s), with flag %s" % (type, flag)
...
>>> saved_handler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)
>>> save_err = np.seterr(all=call)
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0
Floating point error (divide by zero), with flag 1
array([ Inf, Inf, Inf])
>>> np.seterrcall(saved_handler)
<function err_handler at 0x...>
>>> np.seterr(**save_err)
{over: call, divide: call, invalid: call, under: call}
Log error message:

>>> class Log(object):
...
def write(self, msg):
...
print "LOG: %s" % msg
...
>>> log = Log()
>>> saved_handler = np.seterrcall(log)
>>> save_err = np.seterr(all=log)
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0
LOG: Warning: divide by zero encountered in divide
array([ Inf,
Inf,
Inf])
<__main__.Log object at 0x...>
{over: log, divide: log, invalid: log, under: log}
2.5 Casting Rules

Note: In NumPy 1.6.0, a type promotion API was created to encapsulate the mechansim for determining output types.
See the functions result_type, promote_types, and min_scalar_type for more details.
At the core of every ufunc is a one-dimensional strided loop that implements the actual function for a specific type
combination. When a ufunc is created, it is given a static list of inner loops and a corresponding list of type signatures
over which the ufunc operates. The ufunc machinery uses this list to determine which inner loop to use for a particular
case. You can inspect the .types attribute for a particular ufunc to see which type combinations have a defined inner
loop and which output type they produce (character codes are used in said output for brevity).
Casting must be done on one or more of the inputs whenever the ufunc does not have a core loop implementation for
the input types provided. If an implementation for the input types cannot be found, then the algorithm searches for an
implementation with a type signature to which all of the inputs can be cast safely. The first one it finds in its internal
list of loops is selected and performed, after all necessary type casting. Recall that internal copies during ufuncs (even
for casting) are limited to the size of an internal buffer (which is user settable).
2.5. Casting Rules
435
Note: Universal functions in NumPy are flexible enough to have mixed type signatures. Thus, for example, a universal
function could be defined that works with floating-point and integer values. See ldexp for an example.
By the above description, the casting rules are essentially implemented by the question of when a data type can be
cast safely to another data type. The answer to this question can be determined in Python with a function call:
can_cast(fromtype, totype). The Figure below shows the results of this call for the 24 internally supported
types on the authors 64-bit system. You can generate this table for your system with the code given in the Figure.
Figure
Code segment showing the can cast safely table for a 32-bit system.
>>>
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
>>>
X ?
? 1
b 0
h 0
i 0
l 0
q 0
p 0
B 0
H 0
I 0
L 0
Q 0
P 0
e 0
f 0
d 0
g 0
F 0
D 0
G 0
S 0
U 0
V 0
O 0
M 0
m 0
def print_table(ntypes):
print X,
for char in ntypes: print char,
print
for row in ntypes:
print row,
for col in ntypes:
print int(np.can_cast(row, col)),
print
print_table(np.typecodes[All])
b h i l q p B H I L Q P e f d g F D G S U V O
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
M
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
m
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
You should note that, while included in the table for completeness, the S, U, and V types cannot be operated on
by ufuncs. Also, note that on a 32-bit system the integer types may have different sizes, resulting in a slightly altered
table.
Mixed scalar-array operations use a different set of casting rules that ensure that a scalar cannot upcast an array
unless the scalar is of a fundamentally different kind of data (i.e., under a different hierarchy in the data-type hierarchy)
than the array. This rule enables you to use scalar constants in your code (which, as Python types, are interpreted
436
accordingly in ufuncs) without worrying about whether the precision of the scalar constant will cause upcasting on
your large (small precision) array.
2.6 ufunc
2.6.1 Optional keyword arguments
All ufuncs take optional keyword arguments. Most of these represent advanced usage and will not typically be used.
out
New in version 1.6. The first output can provided as either a positional or a keyword parameter.
where
New in version 1.7. Accepts a boolean array which is broadcast together with the operands. Values of
True indicate to calculate the ufunc at that position, values of False indicate to leave the value in the output
alone.
casting
New in version 1.6. Provides a policy for what kind of casting is permitted. For compatibility with
previous versions of NumPy, this defaults to unsafe. May be no, equiv, safe, same_kind, or
unsafe. See can_cast for explanations of the parameter values.
In a future version of numpy, this argument will default to same_kind. As part of this transition, starting
in version 1.7, ufuncs will produce a DeprecationWarning for calls which are allowed under the unsafe
rules, but not under the same_kind rules.
order
New in version 1.6. Specifies the calculation iteration order/memory layout of the output array. Defaults
to K. C means the output should be C-contiguous, F means F-contiguous, A means F-contiguous
if the inputs are F-contiguous and not also not C-contiguous, C-contiguous otherwise, and K means to
match the element ordering of the inputs as closely as possible.
dtype
New in version 1.6. Overrides the dtype of the calculation and output arrays. Similar to sig.
subok
New in version 1.6. Defaults to true. If set to false, the output will always be a strict array, not a subtype.
sig
Either a data-type, a tuple of data-types, or a special signature string indicating the input and output
types of a ufunc. This argument allows you to provide a specific signature for the 1-d loop to use in
the underlying calculation. If the loop specified does not exist for the ufunc, then a TypeError is raised.
Normally, a suitable loop is found automatically by comparing the input types with what is available and
searching for a loop with data-types to which all inputs can be cast safely. This keyword argument lets
you bypass that search and choose a particular loop. A list of available signatures is provided by the types
attribute of the ufunc object.
extobj
a list of length 1, 2, or 3 specifying the ufunc buffer-size, the error mode integer, and the error callback function. Normally, these values are looked up in a thread-specific dictionary. Passing them here
circumvents that look up and uses the low-level specification provided for the error mode. This may be
2.6. ufunc
437
useful, for example, as an optimization for calculations requiring many ufunc calls on small arrays in a
loop.
2.6.2 Attributes
There are some informational attributes that universal functions possess. None of the attributes can be set.
__doc__ A docstring for each ufunc. The first part of the docstring is dynamically generated from the number of
outputs, the name, and the number of inputs. The second part of the docstring is provided at creation
time and stored with the ufunc.
__name__The name of the ufunc.
ufunc.nin
ufunc.nout
ufunc.nargs
ufunc.ntypes
ufunc.types
ufunc.identity
The number of inputs.

The number of outputs.
The number of arguments.
The number of types.
Returns a list with types grouped input->output.
The identity value.
ufunc.nin
The number of inputs.
Data attribute containing the number of arguments the ufunc treats as input.
Examples
>>>
2
>>>
2
>>>
2
>>>
1
np.add.nin
np.multiply.nin
np.power.nin
np.exp.nin
ufunc.nout
The number of outputs.
Data attribute containing the number of arguments the ufunc treats as output.
Notes
Since all ufuncs can take output arguments, this will always be (at least) 1.
Examples
>>>
1
>>>
1
>>>
1
>>>
1
np.add.nout
np.multiply.nout
np.power.nout
np.exp.nout
ufunc.nargs
The number of arguments.
438
Data attribute containing the number of arguments the ufunc takes, including optional ones.
Notes
Typically this value will be one more than what you might expect because all ufuncs take the optional out
argument.
Examples
>>>
3
>>>
3
>>>
3
>>>
2
np.add.nargs
np.multiply.nargs
np.power.nargs
np.exp.nargs
ufunc.ntypes
The number of types.
The number of numerical NumPy types - of which there are 18 total - on which the ufunc can operate.
See Also:
numpy.ufunc.types
Examples
>>>
18
>>>
18
>>>
17
>>>
7
>>>
14
np.add.ntypes
np.multiply.ntypes
np.power.ntypes
np.exp.ntypes
np.remainder.ntypes
ufunc.types
Returns a list with types grouped input->output.
Data attribute listing the data-type Domain-Range groupings the ufunc can deliver. The data-types are given
using the character codes.
See Also:
numpy.ufunc.ntypes
Examples
>>> np.add.types
[??->?, bb->b, BB->B, hh->h, HH->H, ii->i, II->I, ll->l,
LL->L, qq->q, QQ->Q, ff->f, dd->d, gg->g, FF->F, DD->D,
GG->G, OO->O]
>>> np.multiply.types
[??->?, bb->b, BB->B, hh->h, HH->H, ii->i, II->I, ll->l,
LL->L, qq->q, QQ->Q, ff->f, dd->d, gg->g, FF->F, DD->D,
GG->G, OO->O]
2.6. ufunc
439
>>> np.power.types
[bb->b, BB->B, hh->h, HH->H, ii->i, II->I, ll->l, LL->L,
qq->q, QQ->Q, ff->f, dd->d, gg->g, FF->F, DD->D, GG->G,
OO->O]
>>> np.exp.types
[f->f, d->d, g->g, F->F, D->D, G->G, O->O]
>>> np.remainder.types
[bb->b, BB->B, hh->h, HH->H, ii->i, II->I, ll->l, LL->L,
qq->q, QQ->Q, ff->f, dd->d, gg->g, OO->O]
ufunc.identity
The identity value.
Data attribute containing the identity element for the ufunc, if it has one. If it does not, the attribute value is
None.
Examples
>>> np.add.identity
0
>>> np.multiply.identity
1
>>> np.power.identity
1
>>> print np.exp.identity
None
2.6.3 Methods
All ufuncs have four methods. However, these methods only make sense on ufuncs that take two input arguments
and return one output argument. Attempting to call these methods on other ufuncs will cause a ValueError. The
reduce-like methods all take an axis keyword and a dtype keyword, and the arrays must all have dimension >= 1.
The axis keyword specifies the axis of the array over which the reduction will take place and may be negative, but
must be an integer. The dtype keyword allows you to manage a very common problem that arises when naively using
{op}.reduce. Sometimes you may have an array of a certain data type and wish to add up all of its elements, but the
result does not fit into the data type of the array. This commonly happens if you have an array of single-byte integers.
The dtype keyword allows you to alter the data type over which the reduction takes place (and therefore the type of
the output). Thus, you can ensure that the output is a data type with precision large enough to handle your output.
The responsibility of altering the reduce type is mostly up to you. There is one exception: if no dtype is given for a
reduction on the add or multiply operations, then if the input type is an integer (or Boolean) data-type and smaller
than the size of the int_ data type, it will be internally upcast to the int_ (or uint) data-type.
Ufuncs also have a fifth method that allows in place operations to be performed using fancy indexing. No buffering
is used on the dimensions where fancy indexing is used, so the fancy index can list an item more than once and the
operation will be performed on the result of the previous operation for that item.
ufunc.reduce(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims])
ufunc.accumulate(array[, axis, dtype, out])
ufunc.reduceat(a, indices[, axis, dtype, out])
ufunc.outer(A, B)
ufunc.at(a, indices[, b])
Reduces as dimension by one, by applying ufunc along one axis.

Accumulate the result of applying the operator to all elements.
Performs a (local) reduce with specified slices over a single axis.
Apply the ufunc op to all pairs (a, b) with a in A and b in B.
Performs unbuffered in place operation on operand a for elements specified by
ufunc.reduce(a, axis=0, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

440
Reduces as dimension by one, by applying ufunc along one axis.

Let a.shape = (N0 , ..., Ni , ..., NM 1 ). Then uf unc.reduce(a, axis = i)[k0 , .., ki1 , ki+1 , .., kM 1 ] = the
result of iterating j over range(Ni ), cumulatively applying ufunc to each a[k0 , .., ki1 , j, ki+1 , .., kM 1 ]. For a
one-dimensional array, reduce produces results equivalent to:
r = op.identity # op = ufunc
for i in range(len(A)):
r = op(r, A[i])
return r
For example, add.reduce() is equivalent to sum().

Parameters
a : array_like
The array to act on.
Axis or axes along which a reduction is performed. The default (axis = 0) is perform a
reduction over the first dimension of the input array. axis may be negative, in which case
it counts from the last to the first axis. New in version 1.7.0. If this is None, a reduction
is performed over all the axes. If this is a tuple of ints, a reduction is performed on
multiple axes, instead of a single axis or all the axes as before.
For operations which are either not commutative or not associative, doing a reduction
over multiple axes is not well-defined. The ufuncs do not currently raise an exception
in this case, but will likely do so in the future.
dtype : data-type code, optional
The type used to represent the intermediate results. Defaults to the data-type of the
output array if this is provided, or the data-type of the input array if no output array is
provided.
A location into which the result is stored. If not provided, a freshly-allocated array is
returned.
Returns
r : ndarray
The reduced array. If out was supplied, r is a reference to it.
Examples
>>> np.multiply.reduce([2,3,5])
30
A multi-dimensional array example:

>>> X = np.arange(8).reshape((2,2,2))
>>> X
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5],
2.6. ufunc
441
[6, 7]]])
>>> np.add.reduce(X,
array([[ 4, 6],
[ 8, 10]])
>>> np.add.reduce(X)
array([[ 4, 6],
[ 8, 10]])
array([[ 2, 4],
[10, 12]])
array([[ 1, 5],
[ 9, 13]])
0)
# confirm: default axis value is 0
1)
2)
ufunc.accumulate(array, axis=0, dtype=None, out=None)

Accumulate the result of applying the operator to all elements.
For a one-dimensional array, accumulate produces results equivalent to:
r = np.empty(len(A))
t = op.identity
# op = the ufunc being applied to As
t = op(t, A[i])
r[i] = t
return r
elements
For example, add.accumulate() is equivalent to np.cumsum().

For a multi-dimensional array, accumulate is applied along only one axis (axis zero by default; see Examples
below) so repeated use is necessary if one wants to accumulate over multiple axes.
Parameters
array : array_like
The axis along which to apply the accumulation; default is zero.
The data-type used to represent the intermediate results. Defaults to the data-type of the
output array if such is provided, or the the data-type of the input array if no output array
is provided.
A location into which the result is stored. If not provided a freshly-allocated array is
returned.
Returns
r : ndarray
The accumulated values. If out was supplied, r is a reference to out.
Examples
1-D array examples:
>>> np.add.accumulate([2, 3, 5])
array([ 2, 5, 10])
442
>>> np.multiply.accumulate([2, 3, 5])

array([ 2, 6, 30])
2-D array examples:

>>> I = np.eye(2)
>>> I
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
Accumulate along axis 0 (rows), down columns:

>>> np.add.accumulate(I, 0)
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 1., 1.]])
>>> np.add.accumulate(I) # no axis specified = axis zero
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 1., 1.]])
Accumulate along axis 1 (columns), through rows:

>>> np.add.accumulate(I, 1)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 0., 1.]])
ufunc.reduceat(a, indices, axis=0, dtype=None, out=None)

Performs a (local) reduce with specified slices over a single axis.
For i in range(len(indices)), reduceat computes ufunc.reduce(a[indices[i]:indices[i+1]]),
which becomes the i-th generalized row parallel to axis in the final result (i.e., in a 2-D array, for example, if
axis = 0, it becomes the i-th row, but if axis = 1, it becomes the i-th column). There are two exceptions to this:
when i = len(indices) - 1 (so for the last index), indices[i+1] = a.shape[axis].
if indices[i] >= indices[i + 1], the i-th generalized row is simply a[indices[i]].
The shape of the output depends on the size of indices, and may be larger than a (this happens if
len(indices) > a.shape[axis]).
Parameters
a : array_like
indices : array_like
Paired indices, comma separated (not colon), specifying slices to reduce.
The axis along which to apply the reduceat.
The type used to represent the intermediate results. Defaults to the data type of the
output array if this is provided, or the data type of the input array if no output array is
provided.
A location into which the result is stored. If not provided a freshly-allocated array is
returned.
2.6. ufunc
443
Returns
r : ndarray
The reduced values. If out was supplied, r is a reference to out.
Notes
A descriptive example:
If a is 1-D, the function ufunc.accumulate(a) is the same as ufunc.reduceat(a, indices)[::2]
where indices is range(len(array) - 1) with a zero placed in every other element: indices =
zeros(2 * len(a) - 1), indices[1::2] = range(1, len(a)).
Dont be fooled by this attributes name: reduceat(a) is not necessarily smaller than a.
Examples
To take the running sum of four successive values:
>>> np.add.reduceat(np.arange(8),[0,4, 1,5, 2,6, 3,7])[::2]
array([ 6, 10, 14, 18])
A 2-D example:
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 15, 16).reshape(4,4)
>>> x
array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
#
#
#
#
#
#
reduce such that the result has the following five rows:
[row1 + row2 + row3]
[row4]
[row2]
[row3]
[row1 + row2 + row3 + row4]
>>> np.add.reduceat(x, [0,

array([[ 12., 15., 18.,
[ 12., 13., 14.,
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
[ 8.,
9., 10.,
[ 24., 28., 32.,
3, 1, 2, 0])
21.],
15.],
7.],
11.],
36.]])
# reduce such that result has the following two columns:

# [col1 * col2 * col3, col4]
>>> np.multiply.reduceat(x, [0, 3], 1)
array([[
0.,
3.],
[ 120.,
7.],
[ 720.,
11.],
[ 2184.,
15.]])
ufunc.outer(A, B)
Apply the ufunc op to all pairs (a, b) with a in A and b in B.
Let M = A.ndim, N = B.ndim. Then the result, C, of op.outer(A, B) is an array of dimension M + N
444
such that:
C[i0 , ..., iM 1 , j0 , ..., jN 1 ] = op(A[i0 , ..., iM 1 ], B[j0 , ..., jN 1 ])
For A and B one-dimensional, this is equivalent to:

r = empty(len(A),len(B))
for j in range(len(B)):
r[i,j] = op(A[i], B[j]) # op = ufunc in question
Parameters
A : array_like
First array
B : array_like
Second array
Returns
r : ndarray
Output array
See Also:
numpy.outer
Examples
>>> np.multiply.outer([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6])
array([[ 4, 5, 6],
[ 8, 10, 12],
[12, 15, 18]])
A multi-dimensional example:
>>> A = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> A.shape
(2, 3)
>>> B = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4]])
>>> B.shape
(1, 4)
>>> C = np.multiply.outer(A, B)
>>> C.shape; C
(2, 3, 1, 4)
array([[[[ 1, 2, 3, 4]],
[[ 2, 4, 6, 8]],
[[ 3, 6, 9, 12]]],
[[[ 4, 8, 12, 16]],
[[ 5, 10, 15, 20]],
[[ 6, 12, 18, 24]]]])
ufunc.at(a, indices, b=None)

Performs unbuffered in place operation on operand a for elements specified by indices. For addition ufunc,
this method is equivalent to a[indices] += b, except that results are accumulated for elements that are indexed
more than once. For example, a[[0,0]] += 1 will only increment the first element once because of buffering,
whereas add.at(a, [0,0], 1) will increment the first element twice. New in version 1.8.0.
2.6. ufunc
445
Parameters
a : array_like
The array to perform in place operation on.
indices : array_like or tuple
Array like index object or slice object for indexing into first operand. If first operand has
multiple dimensions, indices can be a tuple of array like index objects or slice objects.
b : array_like
Second operand for ufuncs requiring two operands. Operand must be broadcastable
over first operand after indexing or slicing.
Examples
Set items 0 and 1 to their negative values:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> np.negative.at(a, [0, 1])
>>> print(a)
array([-1, -2, 3, 4])
Increment items 0 and 1, and increment item 2 twice:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> np.add.at(a, [0, 1, 2, 2], 1)
>>> print(a)
array([2, 3, 5, 4])
Add items 0 and 1 in first array to second array, and store results in first array:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> b = np.array([1, 2])
>>> np.add.at(a, [0, 1], b)
>>> print(a)
array([2, 4, 3, 4])
Warning: A reduce-like operation on an array with a data-type that has a range too small to handle the result
will silently wrap. One should use dtype to increase the size of the data-type over which reduction takes place.
2.7 Available ufuncs

There are currently more than 60 universal functions defined in numpy on one or more types, covering a wide variety
of operations. Some of these ufuncs are called automatically on arrays when the relevant infix notation is used (e.g.,
add(a, b) is called internally when a + b is written and a or b is an ndarray). Nevertheless, you may still want
to use the ufunc call in order to use the optional output argument(s) to place the output(s) in an object (or objects) of
your choice.
Recall that each ufunc operates element-by-element. Therefore, each ufunc will be described as if acting on a set of
scalar inputs to return a set of scalar outputs.
Note: The ufunc still returns its output(s) even if you use the optional output argument(s).
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2.7.1 Math operations

add(x1, x2[, out])
subtract(x1, x2[, out])
multiply(x1, x2[, out])
divide(x1, x2[, out])
logaddexp(x1, x2[, out])
logaddexp2(x1, x2[, out])
true_divide(x1, x2[, out])
floor_divide(x1, x2[, out])
negative(x[, out])
power(x1, x2[, out])
remainder(x1, x2[, out])
mod(x1, x2[, out])
fmod(x1, x2[, out])
absolute(x[, out])
rint(x[, out])
sign(x[, out])
conj(x[, out])
exp(x[, out])
exp2(x[, out])
log(x[, out])
log2(x[, out])
log10(x[, out])
expm1(x[, out])
log1p(x[, out])
sqrt(x[, out])
square(x[, out])
reciprocal(x[, out])
ones_like(a[, dtype, order, subok])
Add arguments element-wise.

Subtract arguments, element-wise.
Multiply arguments element-wise.
Divide arguments element-wise.
Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs.
Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs in base-2.
Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
Return the largest integer smaller or equal to the division of the inputs.
Numerical negative, element-wise.
First array elements raised to powers from second array, element-wise.
Return element-wise remainder of division.
Return the element-wise remainder of division.
Calculate the absolute value element-wise.
Round elements of the array to the nearest integer.
Returns an element-wise indication of the sign of a number.
Calculate the exponential of all elements in the input array.
Calculate 2**p for all p in the input array.
Natural logarithm, element-wise.
Base-2 logarithm of x.
Return the base 10 logarithm of the input array, element-wise.
Calculate exp(x) - 1 for all elements in the array.
Return the natural logarithm of one plus the input array, element-wise.
Return the positive square-root of an array, element-wise.
Return the element-wise square of the input.
Return the reciprocal of the argument, element-wise.
Return an array of ones with the same shape and type as a given array.
Tip: The optional output arguments can be used to help you save memory for large calculations. If your arrays are
large, complicated expressions can take longer than absolutely necessary due to the creation and (later) destruction of
temporary calculation spaces. For example, the expression G = a * b + c is equivalent to t1 = A * B; G =
T1 + C; del t1. It will be more quickly executed as G = A * B; add(G, C, G) which is the same as G
= A * B; G += C.
2.7.2 Trigonometric functions

All trigonometric functions use radians when an angle is called for. The ratio of degrees to radians is 180 /.
sin(x[, out])
cos(x[, out])
tan(x[, out])
arcsin(x[, out])
arccos(x[, out])
arctan(x[, out])
arctan2(x1, x2[, out])
2.7. Available ufuncs
Trigonometric sine, element-wise.

Cosine element-wise.
Compute tangent element-wise.
Inverse sine, element-wise.
Trigonometric inverse cosine, element-wise.
Trigonometric inverse tangent, element-wise.
Element-wise arc tangent of x1/x2 choosing the quadrant correctly.
447
hypot(x1, x2[, out])

sinh(x[, out])
cosh(x[, out])
tanh(x[, out])
arcsinh(x[, out])
arccosh(x[, out])
arctanh(x[, out])
deg2rad(x[, out])
rad2deg(x[, out])

Given the legs of a right triangle, return its hypotenuse.
Hyperbolic sine, element-wise.
Hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
Compute hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
Inverse hyperbolic sine element-wise.
Inverse hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
Inverse hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
Convert angles from degrees to radians.
Convert angles from radians to degrees.
2.7.3 Bit-twiddling functions

These function all require integer arguments and they manipulate the bit-pattern of those arguments.
bitwise_and(x1, x2[, out])
bitwise_or(x1, x2[, out])
bitwise_xor(x1, x2[, out])
invert(x[, out])
left_shift(x1, x2[, out])
right_shift(x1, x2[, out])
Compute the bit-wise AND of two arrays element-wise.

Compute the bit-wise OR of two arrays element-wise.
Compute the bit-wise XOR of two arrays element-wise.
Compute bit-wise inversion, or bit-wise NOT, element-wise.
Shift the bits of an integer to the left.
Shift the bits of an integer to the right.
2.7.4 Comparison functions

greater(x1, x2[, out])
greater_equal(x1, x2[, out])
less(x1, x2[, out])
less_equal(x1, x2[, out])
not_equal(x1, x2[, out])
equal(x1, x2[, out])
Return the truth value of (x1 > x2) element-wise.

Return the truth value of (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
Return the truth value of (x1 < x2) element-wise.
Return the truth value of (x1 =< x2) element-wise.
Return (x1 != x2) element-wise.
Return (x1 == x2) element-wise.
Warning: Do not use the Python keywords and and or to combine logical array expressions. These keywords
will test the truth value of the entire array (not element-by-element as you might expect). Use the bitwise operators
& and | instead.
logical_and(x1, x2[, out])
logical_or(x1, x2[, out])
logical_xor(x1, x2[, out])
logical_not(x[, out])
Compute the truth value of x1 AND x2 element-wise.

Compute the truth value of x1 OR x2 element-wise.
Compute the truth value of x1 XOR x2, element-wise.
Compute the truth value of NOT x element-wise.
Warning: The bit-wise operators & and | are the proper way to perform element-by-element array comparisons.
Be sure you understand the operator precedence: (a > 2) & (a < 5) is the proper syntax because a > 2
& a < 5 will result in an error due to the fact that 2 & a is evaluated first.
maximum(x1, x2[, out])
448
Element-wise maximum of array elements.
Tip: The Python function max() will find the maximum over a one-dimensional array, but it will do so using a
slower sequence interface. The reduce method of the maximum ufunc is much faster. Also, the max() method will
not give answers you might expect for arrays with greater than one dimension. The reduce method of minimum also
allows you to compute a total minimum over an array.
minimum(x1, x2[, out])
Element-wise minimum of array elements.
Warning: the behavior of maximum(a, b) is different than that of max(a, b). As a ufunc, maximum(a,
b) performs an element-by-element comparison of a and b and chooses each element of the result according to
which element in the two arrays is larger. In contrast, max(a, b) treats the objects a and b as a whole, looks at
the (total) truth value of a > b and uses it to return either a or b (as a whole). A similar difference exists between
minimum(a, b) and min(a, b).
fmax(x1, x2[, out])
fmin(x1, x2[, out])

2.7.5 Floating functions

Recall that all of these functions work element-by-element over an array, returning an array output. The description
details only a single operation.
isreal(x)
iscomplex(x)
isfinite(x[, out])
isinf(x[, out])
isnan(x[, out])
signbit(x[, out])
copysign(x1, x2[, out])
nextafter(x1, x2[, out])
modf(x[, out1, out2])
ldexp(x1, x2[, out])
frexp(x[, out1, out2])
fmod(x1, x2[, out])
floor(x[, out])
ceil(x[, out])
trunc(x[, out])
2.7. Available ufuncs
Returns a bool array, where True if input element is real.

Returns a bool array, where True if input element is complex.
Test element-wise for finiteness (not infinity or not Not a Number).
Test element-wise for positive or negative infinity.
Test element-wise for NaN and return result as a boolean array.
Returns element-wise True where signbit is set (less than zero).
Change the sign of x1 to that of x2, element-wise.
Return the next floating-point value after x1 towards x2, element-wise.
Return the fractional and integral parts of an array, element-wise.
Returns x1 * 2**x2, element-wise.
Decompose the elements of x into mantissa and twos exponent.
Return the floor of the input, element-wise.
Return the ceiling of the input, element-wise.
Return the truncated value of the input, element-wise.
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450
CHAPTER
THREE
ROUTINES
In this chapter routine docstrings are presented, grouped by functionality. Many docstrings contain example code,
which demonstrates basic usage of the routine. The examples assume that NumPy is imported with:
A convenient way to execute examples is the %doctest_mode mode of IPython, which allows for pasting of multiline examples and preserves indentation.
3.1 Array creation routines

See Also:
Array creation
3.1.1 Ones and zeros

empty(shape[, dtype, order])
empty_like(a[, dtype, order, subok])
eye(N[, M, k, dtype])
identity(n[, dtype])
ones(shape[, dtype, order])
ones_like(a[, dtype, order, subok])
zeros(shape[, dtype, order])
zeros_like(a[, dtype, order, subok])
Return a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Return an array of zeros with the same shape and type as a given array.
numpy.empty(shape, dtype=float, order=C)

Parameters
451

order in memory.
See Also:
Notes
Examples
>>> np.empty([2, 2])
array([[ -9.74499359e+001,
[ 2.13182611e-314,
6.69583040e-309],
3.06959433e-309]])

array([[-1073741821, -1067949133],
[ 496041986,
19249760]])
#random
#random
numpy.empty_like(a, dtype=None, order=K, subok=True)

Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ones_like
zeros_like
empty
ones
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Chapter 3. Routines
zeros
Notes
This function does not initialize the returned array; to do that use zeros_like or ones_like instead. It
may be marginally faster than the functions that do set the array values.
Examples
>>> a = ([1,2,3], [4,5,6])
# a is array-like
array([[-1073741821, -1073741821,
3],
#random
[
0,
0, -1073741821]])
>>> a = np.array([[1., 2., 3.],[4.,5.,6.]])
array([[ -2.00000715e+000,
1.48219694e-323, -2.00000572e+000],#random
[ 4.38791518e-305, -2.00000715e+000,
4.17269252e-309]])
numpy.eye(N, M=None, k=0, dtype=<type float>)

Return a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Parameters
N : int
Number of rows in the output.
M : int, optional
Number of columns in the output. If None, defaults to N.
k : int, optional
Index of the diagonal: 0 (the default) refers to the main diagonal, a positive value refers
to an upper diagonal, and a negative value to a lower diagonal.
Data-type of the returned array.
Returns
I : ndarray of shape (N,M)
An array where all elements are equal to zero, except for the k-th diagonal, whose values
are equal to one.
See Also:
identity
(almost) equivalent function
diag
diagonal 2-D array from a 1-D array specified by the user.
Examples
>>> np.eye(2, dtype=int)
array([[1, 0],
[0, 1]])
>>> np.eye(3, k=1)
array([[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
3.1. Array creation routines
453
numpy.identity(n, dtype=None)
Parameters
n : int
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples
>>> np.identity(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
numpy.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=C)

Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
zeros, ones_like
Examples
>>> np.ones(5)
array([ 1., 1.,
1.,
1.,
1.])

array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.ones((2, 1))
array([[ 1.],
[ 1.]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.ones(s)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.ones_like(a, dtype=None, order=K, subok=True)

Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of ones with the same shape and type as a.
See Also:
zeros_like
empty_like
zeros
ones
empty
Examples
>>> x = x.reshape((2, 3))
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.ones_like(x)
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1]])
455
>>> y = np.arange(3, dtype=np.float)

>>> y
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.ones_like(y)
array([ 1., 1., 1.])
numpy.zeros(shape, dtype=float, order=C)

Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
zeros_like
ones_like
empty_like
ones
empty
Examples
>>> np.zeros(5)
array([ 0., 0.,
0.,
0.,
0.])

array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
>>> np.zeros((2, 1))
array([[ 0.],
[ 0.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.zeros(s)
array([[ 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0.]])
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Chapter 3. Routines

array([(0, 0), (0, 0)],
dtype=[(x, <i4), (y, <i4)])
numpy.zeros_like(a, dtype=None, order=K, subok=True)

Return an array of zeros with the same shape and type as a given array.
Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of zeros with the same shape and type as a.
See Also:
ones_like
empty_like
zeros
ones
empty
Examples
>>> x = x.reshape((2, 3))
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.zeros_like(x)
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
457
>>> y = np.arange(3, dtype=np.float)

>>> y
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.zeros_like(y)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
3.1.2 From existing data

array(object[, dtype, copy, order, subok, ndmin])
asanyarray(a[, dtype, order])
ascontiguousarray(a[, dtype])
copy(a[, order])
frombuffer(buffer[, dtype, count, offset])
fromfile(file[, dtype, count, sep])
fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs)
fromiter(iterable, dtype[, count])
fromstring(string[, dtype, count, sep])
loadtxt(fname[, dtype, comments, delimiter, ...])
Create an array.
Convert the input to an array.
Convert the input to an ndarray, but pass ndarray subclasses through.
Return a contiguous array in memory (C order).
Return an array copy of the given object.
Construct an array from data in a text or binary file.
Create a new 1-dimensional array from an iterable object.
A new 1-D array initialized from raw binary or text data in a string.
Load data from a text file.
numpy.array(object, dtype=None, copy=True, order=None, subok=False, ndmin=0)

Create an array.
Parameters
object : array_like
An array, any object exposing the array interface, an object whose __array__ method
returns an array, or any (nested) sequence.
The desired data-type for the array. If not given, then the type will be determined as the
minimum type required to hold the objects in the sequence. This argument can only be
used to upcast the array. For downcasting, use the .astype(t) method.
any of the other requirements (dtype, order, etc.).
If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through, otherwise the returned array will be
forced to be a base-class array (default).
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Chapter 3. Routines
Specifies the minimum number of dimensions that the resulting array should have. Ones
will be pre-pended to the shape as needed to meet this requirement.
Returns
out : ndarray
An array object satisfying the specified requirements.
See Also:
empty, empty_like, zeros, zeros_like, ones, ones_like, fill
Examples
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3])
array([1, 2, 3])
Upcasting:
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3.0])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
More than one dimension:

>>> np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Minimum dimensions 2:
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3], ndmin=2)
array([[1, 2, 3]])
Type provided:
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=complex)
array([ 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j, 3.+0.j])
Data-type consisting of more than one element:

>>> x = np.array([(1,2),(3,4)],dtype=[(a,<i4),(b,<i4)])
>>> x[a]
array([1, 3])
Creating an array from sub-classes:

>>> np.array(np.mat(1 2; 3 4))
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.array(np.mat(1 2; 3 4), subok=True)
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.asarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes lists, lists of
tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists and ndarrays.
459

Whether to use row-major (C) or column-major (F for FORTRAN) memory representation. Defaults to C.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array interpretation of a. No copy is performed if the input is already an ndarray. If a
is a subclass of ndarray, a base class ndarray is returned.
See Also:
asanyarray
Similar function which passes through subclasses.
ascontiguousarray
Convert input to a contiguous array.
asfarray
Convert input to a floating point ndarray.
asfortranarray
Convert input to an ndarray with column-major memory order.
asarray_chkfinite
Similar function which checks input for NaNs and Infs.
fromiter
Create an array from an iterator.
fromfunction
Construct an array by executing a function on grid positions.
Examples
Convert a list into an array:
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asarray(a)
array([1, 2])
Existing arrays are not copied:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> np.asarray(a) is a
True
If dtype is set, array is copied only if dtype does not match:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.float32)
>>> np.asarray(a, dtype=np.float32) is a
True
False
Contrary to asanyarray, ndarray subclasses are not passed through:
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> issubclass(np.matrix, np.ndarray)

True
>>> a = np.matrix([[1, 2]])
False
>>> np.asanyarray(a) is a
True
numpy.asanyarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes scalars, lists,
lists of tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists, and ndarrays.
Whether to use row-major (C) or column-major (F) memory representation. Defaults
to C.
Returns
out : ndarray or an ndarray subclass
Array interpretation of a. If a is an ndarray or a subclass of ndarray, it is returned as-is
and no copy is performed.
See Also:
asarray
Similar function which always returns ndarrays.
ascontiguousarray
asfarray
asfortranarray
asarray_chkfinite
fromiter
fromfunction
Examples
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asanyarray(a)
array([1, 2])
461
Instances of ndarray subclasses are passed through as-is:

>>> a = np.matrix([1, 2])
True
numpy.ascontiguousarray(a, dtype=None)
Return a contiguous array in memory (C order).
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
dtype : str or dtype object, optional
Data-type of returned array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Contiguous array of same shape and content as a, with type dtype if specified.
See Also:
asfortranarray
require
Return an ndarray that satisfies requirements.
ndarray.flags
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> np.ascontiguousarray(x, dtype=np.float32)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.]], dtype=float32)
>>> x.flags[C_CONTIGUOUS]
True
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
Returns
mat : matrix
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> x[0,0] = 5
>>> m
matrix([[5, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.copy(a, order=K)
Return an array copy of the given object.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
means F if a is Fortran contiguous, C otherwise. K means match the layout of a
as closely as possible. (Note that this function and :meth:ndarray.copy are very similar,
but have different default values for their order= arguments.)
Returns
arr : ndarray
Array interpretation of a.
Notes
This is equivalent to
>>> np.array(a, copy=True)
Examples
Create an array x, with a reference y and a copy z:
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> y = x
>>> z = np.copy(x)
Note that, when we modify x, y changes, but not z:

>>> x[0] = 10
>>> x[0] == y[0]
True
>>> x[0] == z[0]
False
numpy.frombuffer(buffer, dtype=float, count=-1, offset=0)

Parameters
463

Notes
Examples
>>> s = hello world
dtype=|S1)
numpy.fromfile(file, dtype=float, count=-1, sep=)

A highly efficient way of reading binary data with a known data-type, as well as parsing simply formatted text
files. Data written using the tofile method can be read using this function.
Parameters
file : file or str
Open file object or filename.
dtype : data-type
Data type of the returned array. For binary files, it is used to determine the size and
byte-order of the items in the file.
count : int
Number of items to read. -1 means all items (i.e., the complete file).
sep : str
Separator between items if file is a text file. Empty () separator means the file should
be treated as binary. Spaces ( ) in the separator match zero or more whitespace characters. A separator consisting only of spaces must match at least one whitespace.
See Also:
load, save, ndarray.tofile
loadtxt
More flexible way of loading data from a text file.
Notes
Do not rely on the combination of tofile and fromfile for data storage, as the binary files generated are are
not platform independent. In particular, no byte-order or data-type information is saved. Data can be stored in
the platform independent .npy format using save and load instead.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
Construct an ndarray:
>>> dt = np.dtype([(time, [(min, int), (sec, int)]),
...
(temp, float)])
>>> x = np.zeros((1,), dtype=dt)
>>> x[time][min] = 10; x[temp] = 98.25
>>> x
array([((10, 0), 98.25)],
dtype=[(time, [(min, <i4), (sec, <i4)]), (temp, <f8)])
Save the raw data to disk:

>>> import os
>>> fname = os.tmpnam()
>>> x.tofile(fname)
Read the raw data from disk:

>>> np.fromfile(fname, dtype=dt)
array([((10, 0), 98.25)],
The recommended way to store and load data:

>>> np.save(fname, x)
>>> np.load(fname + .npy)
array([((10, 0), 98.25)],
numpy.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs)

Parameters
function : callable
passed to function.
Returns
fromfunction : any
See Also:
indices, meshgrid
465
Notes
Examples
array([[0, 1, 2],
[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
numpy.fromiter(iterable, dtype, count=-1)

Create a new 1-dimensional array from an iterable object.
Parameters
iterable : iterable object
An iterable object providing data for the array.
dtype : data-type
The data-type of the returned array.
The number of items to read from iterable. The default is -1, which means all data is
read.
Returns
out : ndarray
The output array.
Notes
Specify count to improve performance. It allows fromiter to pre-allocate the output array, instead of resizing
it on demand.
Examples
>>> iterable = (x*x for x in range(5))
>>> np.fromiter(iterable, np.float)
array([ 0.,
1.,
4.,
9., 16.])
numpy.fromstring(string, dtype=float, count=-1, sep=)

Parameters
string : str
A string containing the data.
The data type of the array; default: float. For binary input data, the data must be in
exactly this format.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Read this number of dtype elements from the data. If this is negative (the default), the
count will be determined from the length of the data.
sep : str, optional
If not provided or, equivalently, the empty string, the data will be interpreted as binary
data; otherwise, as ASCII text with decimal numbers. Also in this latter case, this
argument is interpreted as the string separating numbers in the data; extra whitespace
between elements is also ignored.
Returns
arr : ndarray
The constructed array.
Raises
ValueError
If the string is not the correct size to satisfy the requested dtype and count.
See Also:
frombuffer, fromfile, fromiter
Examples
>>> np.fromstring(\x01\x02, dtype=np.uint8)
array([1, 2], dtype=uint8)
>>> np.fromstring(1 2, dtype=int, sep= )
array([1, 2])
>>> np.fromstring(1, 2, dtype=int, sep=,)
array([1, 2])
>>> np.fromstring(\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05, dtype=np.uint8, count=3)
array([1, 2, 3], dtype=uint8)
numpy.loadtxt(fname, dtype=<type float>, comments=#, delimiter=None,

skiprows=0, usecols=None, unpack=False, ndmin=0)
converters=None,
Each row in the text file must have the same number of values.
Parameters
fname : file or str
File, filename, or generator to read. If the filename extension is .gz or .bz2, the file
is first decompressed. Note that generators should return byte strings for Python 3k.
Data-type of the resulting array; default: float. If this is a record data-type, the resulting
array will be 1-dimensional, and each row will be interpreted as an element of the array.
In this case, the number of columns used must match the number of fields in the datatype.
comments : str, optional
The character used to indicate the start of a comment; default: #.
delimiter : str, optional
The string used to separate values. By default, this is any whitespace.
converters : dict, optional
467
A dictionary mapping column number to a function that will convert that column to a float. E.g., if column 0 is a date string: converters = {0:
datestr2num}. Converters can also be used to provide a default value for
missing data (but see also genfromtxt): converters = {3: lambda s:
float(s.strip() or 0)}. Default: None.
skiprows : int, optional
Skip the first skiprows lines; default: 0.
usecols : sequence, optional
Which columns to read, with 0 being the first. For example, usecols = (1,4,5)
will extract the 2nd, 5th and 6th columns. The default, None, results in all columns
being read.
unpack : bool, optional
If True, the returned array is transposed, so that arguments may be unpacked using x,
y, z = loadtxt(...). When used with a record data-type, arrays are returned
for each field. Default is False.
The returned array will have at least ndmin dimensions. Otherwise mono-dimensional
axes will be squeezed. Legal values: 0 (default), 1 or 2. New in version 1.6.0.
Returns
out : ndarray
Data read from the text file.
See Also:
load, fromstring, fromregex
genfromtxt
Load data with missing values handled as specified.
scipy.io.loadmat
reads MATLAB data files
Notes
This function aims to be a fast reader for simply formatted files. The genfromtxt function provides more
sophisticated handling of, e.g., lines with missing values.
Examples
>>> from StringIO import StringIO
>>> c = StringIO("0 1\n2 3")
>>> np.loadtxt(c)
array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]])
# StringIO behaves like a file object
>>> d = StringIO("M 21 72\nF 35 58")

>>> np.loadtxt(d, dtype={names: (gender, age, weight),
...
formats: (S1, i4, f4)})
array([(M, 21, 72.0), (F, 35, 58.0)],
dtype=[(gender, |S1), (age, <i4), (weight, <f4)])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> c = StringIO("1,0,2\n3,0,4")
>>> x, y = np.loadtxt(c, delimiter=,, usecols=(0, 2), unpack=True)
>>> x
array([ 1., 3.])
>>> y
array([ 2., 4.])
3.1.3 Creating record arrays (numpy.rec)

Note: numpy.rec is the preferred alias for numpy.core.records.
core.records.array(obj[, dtype, shape, ...])
core.records.fromarrays(arrayList[, dtype, ...])
core.records.fromrecords(recList[, dtype, ...])
core.records.fromstring(datastring[, dtype, ...])
core.records.fromfile(fd[, dtype, shape, ...])
Construct a record array from a wide-variety of objects.

create a record array from a (flat) list of arrays
create a recarray from a list of records in text form
create a (read-only) record array from binary data contained in
Create an array from binary file data
numpy.core.records.array(obj, dtype=None, shape=None, offset=0, strides=None, formats=None,

names=None, titles=None, aligned=False, byteorder=None, copy=True)
Construct a record array from a wide-variety of objects.
numpy.core.records.fromarrays(arrayList,
dtype=None,
shape=None,
formats=None,
names=None, titles=None, aligned=False, byteorder=None)
create a record array from a (flat) list of arrays
>>> x1=np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x2=np.array([a,dd,xyz,12])
>>> x3=np.array([1.1,2,3,4])
>>> r = np.core.records.fromarrays([x1,x2,x3],names=a,b,c)
>>> print r[1]
(2, dd, 2.0)
>>> x1[1]=34
>>> r.a
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
numpy.core.records.fromrecords(recList,
dtype=None,
shape=None,
formats=None,
create a recarray from a list of records in text form
The data in the same field can be heterogeneous, they will be promoted to the highest data type. This
method is intended for creating smaller record arrays. If used to create large array without formats
defined
r=fromrecords([(2,3.,abc)]*100000)
it can be slow.
If formats is None, then this will auto-detect formats. Use list of tuples rather than list of lists for
faster processing.
>>> r=np.core.records.fromrecords([(456,dbe,1.2),(2,de,1.3)],
... names=col1,col2,col3)
>>> print r[0]
(456, dbe, 1.2)
>>> r.col1
469
array([456,
2])
>>> r.col2
chararray([dbe, de],
dtype=|S3)
>>> import pickle
>>> print pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(r))
[(456, dbe, 1.2) (2, de, 1.3)]
numpy.core.records.fromstring(datastring, dtype=None, shape=None, offset=0, formats=None,

create a (read-only) record array from binary data contained in a string
numpy.core.records.fromfile(fd,
dtype=None,
shape=None,
offset=0,
formats=None,
Create an array from binary file data
If file is a string then that file is opened, else it is assumed to be a file object.
>>> from tempfile import TemporaryFile
>>> a = np.empty(10,dtype=f8,i4,a5)
>>> a[5] = (0.5,10,abcde)
>>>
>>> fd=TemporaryFile()
>>> a = a.newbyteorder(<)
>>> a.tofile(fd)
>>>
>>> fd.seek(0)
>>> r=np.core.records.fromfile(fd, formats=f8,i4,a5, shape=10,
... byteorder=<)
>>> print r[5]
(0.5, 10, abcde)
>>> r.shape
(10,)
3.1.4 Creating character arrays (numpy.char)

Note: numpy.char is the preferred alias for numpy.core.defchararray.
core.defchararray.array(obj[, itemsize, ...])
core.defchararray.asarray(obj[, itemsize, ...])
Create a chararray.
Convert the input to a chararray, copying the data only if necessary.
numpy.core.defchararray.array(obj, itemsize=None, copy=True, unicode=None, order=None)

Create a chararray.
Note: This class is provided for numarray backward-compatibility. New code (not concerned with numarray
compatibility) should use arrays of type string_ or unicode_ and use the free functions in numpy.char
for fast vectorized string operations instead.
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Chapter 3. Routines
3.vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. str.endswith) and infix operators (e.g. +, *,
%)
Parameters
any of the other requirements (itemsize, unicode, order, etc.).
a chararray,
numpy.core.defchararray.asarray(obj, itemsize=None, unicode=None, order=None)
Convert the input to a chararray, copying the data only if necessary.
3.vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. str.endswith) and infix operators (e.g. +, *, %)
Parameters
471
a chararray,
will be in Fortran-contiguous order (first-index varies the fastest).
3.1.5 Numerical ranges

arange([start,] stop[, step,][, dtype])
linspace(start, stop[, num, endpoint, retstep])
logspace(start, stop[, num, endpoint, base])
meshgrid(*xi, **kwargs)
mgrid
ogrid

Return evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.
Return numbers spaced evenly on a log scale.
Return coordinate matrices from two or more coordinate vectors.
nd_grid instance which returns a dense multi-dimensional meshgrid.
nd_grid instance which returns an open multi-dimensional meshgrid.
numpy.arange([start ], stop[, step ], dtype=None)

for these cases.
Parameters
stop : number
must also be given.
dtype : dtype
input arguments.
Returns
arange : ndarray
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Chapter 3. Routines

See Also:
linspace
ogrid
mgrid
Examples
>>> np.arange(3)
array([0, 1, 2])
>>> np.arange(3.0)
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.arange(3,7)
array([3, 4, 5, 6])
array([3, 5])
numpy.linspace(start, stop, num=50, endpoint=True, retstep=False)

Return evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.
Returns num evenly spaced samples, calculated over the interval [start, stop ].
The endpoint of the interval can optionally be excluded.
Parameters
start : scalar
The starting value of the sequence.
stop : scalar
The end value of the sequence, unless endpoint is set to False. In that case, the sequence
consists of all but the last of num + 1 evenly spaced samples, so that stop is excluded.
Note that the step size changes when endpoint is False.
num : int, optional
Number of samples to generate. Default is 50.
endpoint : bool, optional
If True, stop is the last sample. Otherwise, it is not included. Default is True.
retstep : bool, optional
If True, return (samples, step), where step is the spacing between samples.
Returns
samples : ndarray
There are num equally spaced samples in the closed interval [start, stop] or
the half-open interval [start, stop) (depending on whether endpoint is True or
False).
473
step : float (only if retstep is True)

Size of spacing between samples.
See Also:
arange
Similar to linspace, but uses a step size (instead of the number of samples).
logspace
Samples uniformly distributed in log space.
Examples
>>> np.linspace(2.0, 3.0, num=5)
array([ 2. , 2.25, 2.5 , 2.75, 3. ])
>>> np.linspace(2.0, 3.0, num=5, endpoint=False)
array([ 2. , 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8])
>>> np.linspace(2.0, 3.0, num=5, retstep=True)
(array([ 2. , 2.25, 2.5 , 2.75, 3. ]), 0.25)
Graphical illustration:
>>> N = 8
>>> y = np.zeros(N)
>>> x1 = np.linspace(0, 10, N, endpoint=True)
>>> x2 = np.linspace(0, 10, N, endpoint=False)
>>> plt.plot(x1, y, o)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>]
>>> plt.plot(x2, y + 0.5, o)
>>> plt.ylim([-0.5, 1])
(-0.5, 1)
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0
10
numpy.logspace(start, stop, num=50, endpoint=True, base=10.0)

Return numbers spaced evenly on a log scale.
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Chapter 3. Routines
In linear space, the sequence starts at base ** start (base to the power of start) and ends with base **
stop (see endpoint below).
Parameters
start : float
base ** start is the starting value of the sequence.
stop : float
base ** stop is the final value of the sequence, unless endpoint is False. In that
case, num + 1 values are spaced over the interval in log-space, of which all but the
last (a sequence of length num) are returned.
num : integer, optional
Number of samples to generate. Default is 50.
endpoint : boolean, optional
If true, stop is the last sample. Otherwise, it is not included. Default is True.
base : float, optional
The base of the log space. The step size between the elements in ln(samples) /
ln(base) (or log_base(samples)) is uniform. Default is 10.0.
Returns
samples : ndarray
num samples, equally spaced on a log scale.
See Also:
arange
Similar to linspace, with the step size specified instead of the number of samples. Note that, when used
with a float endpoint, the endpoint may or may not be included.
linspace
Similar to logspace, but with the samples uniformly distributed in linear space, instead of log space.
Notes
Logspace is equivalent to the code
>>> y = np.linspace(start, stop, num=num, endpoint=endpoint)
...
>>> power(base, y)
...
Examples
>>> np.logspace(2.0, 3.0, num=4)
array([ 100.
,
215.443469 ,
464.15888336, 1000.
>>> np.logspace(2.0, 3.0, num=4, endpoint=False)
array([ 100.
, 177.827941 , 316.22776602, 562.34132519])
>>> np.logspace(2.0, 3.0, num=4, base=2.0)
array([ 4.
, 5.0396842 , 6.34960421, 8.
])
])
Graphical illustration:
475

>>> N = 10
>>> x1 = np.logspace(0.1, 1, N, endpoint=True)
>>> x2 = np.logspace(0.1, 1, N, endpoint=False)
>>> y = np.zeros(N)
>>> plt.plot(x1, y, o)
>>> plt.plot(x2, y + 0.5, o)
>>> plt.ylim([-0.5, 1])
(-0.5, 1)
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
1
10
numpy.meshgrid(*xi, **kwargs)
Return coordinate matrices from two or more coordinate vectors.
Make N-D coordinate arrays for vectorized evaluations of N-D scalar/vector fields over N-D grids, given onedimensional coordinate arrays x1, x2,..., xn.
Parameters
x1, x2,..., xn : array_like
1-D arrays representing the coordinates of a grid.
indexing : {xy, ij}, optional
Cartesian (xy, default) or matrix (ij) indexing of output. See Notes for more details.
sparse : bool, optional
If True a sparse grid is returned in order to conserve memory. Default is False.
If False, a view into the original arrays are returned in order to conserve memory. Default is True. Please note that sparse=False, copy=False will likely return
non-contiguous arrays. Furthermore, more than one element of a broadcast array may
refer to a single memory location. If you need to write to the arrays, make copies first.
Returns
X1, X2,..., XN : ndarray
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Chapter 3. Routines
For vectors x1, x2,..., xn with lengths Ni=len(xi) , return (N1, N2,
N3,...Nn) shaped arrays if indexing=ij or (N2, N1, N3,...Nn) shaped arrays if indexing=xy with the elements of xi repeated to fill the matrix along the first
dimension for x1, the second for x2 and so on.
See Also:
index_tricks.mgrid
Construct a multi-dimensional meshgrid using indexing notation.
index_tricks.ogrid
Construct an open multi-dimensional meshgrid using indexing notation.
Notes
This function supports both indexing conventions through the indexing keyword argument. Giving the string ij
returns a meshgrid with matrix indexing, while xy returns a meshgrid with Cartesian indexing. In the 2-D case
with inputs of length M and N, the outputs are of shape (N, M) for xy indexing and (M, N) for ij indexing.
In the 3-D case with inputs of length M, N and P, outputs are of shape (N, M, P) for xy indexing and (M, N, P)
for ij indexing. The difference is illustrated by the following code snippet:
xv, yv = meshgrid(x, y, sparse=False, indexing=ij)
for i in range(nx):
for j in range(ny):
# treat xv[i,j], yv[i,j]
xv, yv = meshgrid(x, y, sparse=False, indexing=xy)
for i in range(nx):
for j in range(ny):
# treat xv[j,i], yv[j,i]
In the 1-D and 0-D case, the indexing and sparse keywords have no effect.
Examples
>>> nx, ny = (3, 2)
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 1, nx)
>>> y = np.linspace(0, 1, ny)
>>> xv, yv = meshgrid(x, y)
>>> xv
array([[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ],
[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ]])
>>> yv
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 1.]])
>>> xv, yv = meshgrid(x, y, sparse=True)
>>> xv
array([[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ]])
>>> yv
array([[ 0.],
[ 1.]])
# make sparse output arrays
meshgrid is very useful to evaluate functions on a grid.

>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
x =
y =
xx,
z =
h =
np.arange(-5, 5, 0.1)
np.arange(-5, 5, 0.1)
yy = meshgrid(x, y, sparse=True)
np.sin(xx**2 + yy**2) / (xx**2 + yy**2)
plt.contourf(x,y,z)
477
numpy.mgrid = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid object at 0x25df1d0>

nd_grid instance which returns a dense multi-dimensional meshgrid.
An instance of numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid which returns an dense (or fleshed out) mesh-grid
when indexed, so that each returned argument has the same shape. The dimensions and number of the output
arrays are equal to the number of indexing dimensions. If the step length is not a complex number, then the stop
is not inclusive.
However, if the step length is a complex number (e.g. 5j), then the integer part of its magnitude is interpreted
as specifying the number of points to create between the start and stop values, where the stop value is inclusive.
Returns
mesh-grid ndarrays all of the same dimensions
See Also:
numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid
class of ogrid and mgrid objects
ogrid
like mgrid but returns open (not fleshed out) mesh grids
r_
array concatenator
Examples
>>> np.mgrid[0:5,0:5]
array([[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3, 3, 3],
[4, 4, 4, 4, 4]],
[[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]]])
>>> np.mgrid[-1:1:5j]
array([-1. , -0.5, 0. , 0.5,
1. ])
numpy.ogrid = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid object at 0x25df2d0>

An instance of numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid which returns an open (i.e. not fleshed out) meshgrid when indexed, so that only one dimension of each returned array is greater than 1. The dimension and
number of the output arrays are equal to the number of indexing dimensions. If the step length is not a complex
number, then the stop is not inclusive.
Returns
mesh-grid ndarrays with only one dimension 6= 1
See Also:
np.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid
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Chapter 3. Routines
mgrid
like ogrid but returns dense (or fleshed out) mesh grids
r_
array concatenator
Examples
>>> from numpy import ogrid
>>> ogrid[-1:1:5j]
array([-1. , -0.5, 0. , 0.5, 1. ])
>>> ogrid[0:5,0:5]
[array([[0],
[1],
[2],
[3],
[4]]), array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]])]
3.1.6 Building matrices

diag(v[, k])
diagflat(v[, k])
tri(N[, M, k, dtype])
tril(m[, k])
triu(m[, k])
vander(x[, N])

Create a two-dimensional array with the flattened input as a diagonal.
An array with ones at and below the given diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Lower triangle of an array.
Upper triangle of an array.
numpy.diag(v, k=0)
See the more detailed documentation for numpy.diagonal if you use this function to extract a diagonal and
wish to write to the resulting array; whether it returns a copy or a view depends on what version of numpy you
are using.
Parameters
v : array_like
If v is a 2-D array, return a copy of its k-th diagonal. If v is a 1-D array, return a 2-D
array with v on the k-th diagonal.
k : int, optional
Diagonal in question. The default is 0. Use k>0 for diagonals above the main diagonal,
and k<0 for diagonals below the main diagonal.
Returns
out : ndarray
The extracted diagonal or constructed diagonal array.
See Also:
diagonal
diagflat
Create a 2-D array with the flattened input as a diagonal.
479
trace
Sum along diagonals.
triu
tril
Lower triange of an array.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(9).reshape((3,3))
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8]])
>>> np.diag(x)
array([0, 4, 8])
>>> np.diag(x, k=1)
array([1, 5])
>>> np.diag(x, k=-1)
array([3, 7])
>>> np.diag(np.diag(x))
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0],
[0, 0, 8]])
numpy.diagflat(v, k=0)
Create a two-dimensional array with the flattened input as a diagonal.
Parameters
v : array_like
Input data, which is flattened and set as the k-th diagonal of the output.
k : int, optional
Diagonal to set; 0, the default, corresponds to the main diagonal, a positive (negative)
k giving the number of the diagonal above (below) the main.
Returns
out : ndarray
The 2-D output array.
See Also:
diag
MATLAB work-alike for 1-D and 2-D arrays.
diagonal
trace
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.diagflat([[1,2], [3,4]])
array([[1, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 2, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 3, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 4]])
>>> np.diagflat([1,2], 1)
array([[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 2],
[0, 0, 0]])
numpy.tri(N, M=None, k=0, dtype=<type float>)

An array with ones at and below the given diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Parameters
N : int
Number of rows in the array.
M : int, optional
Number of columns in the array. By default, M is taken equal to N.
k : int, optional
The sub-diagonal at and below which the array is filled. k = 0 is the main diagonal,
while k < 0 is below it, and k > 0 is above. The default is 0.
Data type of the returned array. The default is float.
Returns
tri : ndarray of shape (N, M)
Array with its lower triangle filled with ones and zero elsewhere; in other words
T[i,j] == 1 for i <= j + k, 0 otherwise.
Examples
>>> np.tri(3,
array([[1, 1,
[1, 1,
[1, 1,
5,
1,
1,
1,
2,
0,
1,
1,
dtype=int)
0],
0],
1]])
>>> np.tri(3,
array([[ 0.,
[ 1.,
[ 1.,
5, -1)
0., 0.,
0., 0.,
1., 0.,
0.,
0.,
0.,
0.],
0.],
0.]])
numpy.tril(m, k=0)
Lower triangle of an array.
Return a copy of an array with elements above the k-th diagonal zeroed.
Parameters
m : array_like, shape (M, N)
Input array.
k : int, optional
481
Diagonal above which to zero elements. k = 0 (the default) is the main diagonal, k < 0
is below it and k > 0 is above.
Returns
tril : ndarray, shape (M, N)
Lower triangle of m, of same shape and data-type as m.
See Also:
triu
same thing, only for the upper triangle
Examples
>>> np.tril([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9],[10,11,12]], -1)
array([[ 0, 0, 0],
[ 4, 0, 0],
[ 7, 8, 0],
[10, 11, 12]])
numpy.triu(m, k=0)
Return a copy of a matrix with the elements below the k-th diagonal zeroed.
Please refer to the documentation for tril for further details.
See Also:
tril
lower triangle of an array
Examples
>>> np.triu([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9],[10,11,12]], -1)
array([[ 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6],
[ 0, 8, 9],
[ 0, 0, 12]])
numpy.vander(x, N=None)
Parameters
x : array_like
1-D input array.
N : int, optional
Returns
out : ndarray
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Chapter 3. Routines
and so forth.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])
>>> N = 3
>>> np.vander(x, N)
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])
>>> np.vander(x)
array([[ 1,
1,
1,
1],
[ 8,
4,
2,
1],
[ 27,
9,
3,
1],
[125, 25,
5,
1]])
input vector:
48.000000000000043
>>> (5-3)*(5-2)*(5-1)*(3-2)*(3-1)*(2-1)
48
3.1.7 The Matrix class

mat(data[, dtype])

numpy.mat(data, dtype=None)
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
Returns
mat : matrix
483
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> x[0,0] = 5
>>> m
matrix([[5, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.bmat(obj, ldict=None, gdict=None)

Parameters
obj : str or array_like
Input data. Names of variables in the current scope may be referenced, even if obj is a
string.
Returns
out : matrix
Returns a matrix object, which is a specialized 2-D array.
See Also:
matrix
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
A
B
C
D
=
=
=
=
np.mat(1
np.mat(2
np.mat(3
np.mat(7
1;
2;
4;
8;
1
2
5
9
1)
2)
6)
0)
All the following expressions construct the same block matrix:

>>> np.bmat([[A, B], [C, D]])
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
>>> np.bmat(np.r_[np.c_[A, B], np.c_[C, D]])
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
>>> np.bmat(A,B; C,D)
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
3.2 Array manipulation routines

3.2.1 Basic operations
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Chapter 3. Routines
copyto(dst, src[, casting, where, preservena])
Copies values from one array to another, broadcasting as necessary.
numpy.copyto(dst, src, casting=same_kind, where=None, preservena=False)

Copies values from one array to another, broadcasting as necessary.
Raises a TypeError if the casting rule is violated, and if where is provided, it selects which elements to copy.
New in version 1.7.0.
Parameters
dst : ndarray
The array into which values are copied.
src : array_like
The array from which values are copied.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur when copying.
allowed.
where : array_like of bool, optional
A boolean array which is broadcasted to match the dimensions of dst, and selects elements to copy from src to dst wherever it contains the value True.
preservena : bool, optional
If set to True, leaves any NA values in dst untouched. This is similar to the hard mask
feature in numpy.ma.
3.2.2 Changing array shape

reshape(a, newshape[, order])
ravel(a[, order])
ndarray.flat
ndarray.flatten([order])
Gives a new shape to an array without changing its data.

numpy.reshape(a, newshape, order=C)

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be reshaped.
newshape : int or tuple of ints
The new shape should be compatible with the original shape. If an integer, then the
3.2. Array manipulation routines
485
result will be a 1-D array of that length. One shape dimension can be -1. In this case,
the value is inferred from the length of the array and remaining dimensions.
Read the elements of a using this index order, and place the elements into the reshaped
array using this index order. C means to read / write the elements using C-like index
order, with the last axis index changing fastest, back to the first axis index changing
slowest. F means to read / write the elements using Fortran-like index order, with the
first index changing fastest, and the last index changing slowest. Note that the C and
F options take no account of the memory layout of the underlying array, and only refer
to the order of indexing. A means to read / write the elements in Fortran-like index
order if a is Fortran contiguous in memory, C-like order otherwise.
Returns
reshaped_array : ndarray
This will be a new view object if possible; otherwise, it will be a copy. Note there is no
guarantee of the memory layout (C- or Fortran- contiguous) of the returned array.
See Also:
ndarray.reshape
Equivalent method.
Notes
It is not always possible to change the shape of an array without copying the data. If you want an error to be
raise if the data is copied, you should assign the new shape to the shape attribute of the array:
>>> a = np.zeros((10, 2))
# A transpose make the array non-contiguous
>>> b = a.T
# Taking a view makes it possible to modify the shape without modifying the
# initial object.
>>> c = b.view()
>>> c.shape = (20)
AttributeError: incompatible shape for a non-contiguous array
The order keyword gives the index ordering both for fetching the values from a, and then placing the values into
the output array. For example, lets say you have an array:
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3],
[4, 5]])
You can think of reshaping as first raveling the array (using the given index order), then inserting the elements
from the raveled array into the new array using the same kind of index ordering as was used for the raveling.
>>> np.reshape(a, (2, 3)) # C-like index ordering
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(np.ravel(a), (2, 3)) # equivalent to C ravel then C reshape
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(a, (2, 3), order=F) # Fortran-like index ordering
array([[0, 4, 3],
[2, 1, 5]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.reshape(np.ravel(a, order=F), (2, 3), order=F)

array([[0, 4, 3],
[2, 1, 5]])
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])
>>> np.reshape(a, 6)
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.reshape(a, 6, order=F)
array([1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6])
>>> np.reshape(a, (3,-1))
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
# the unspecified value is inferred to be 2
numpy.ravel(a, order=C)
A 1-D array, containing the elements of the input, is returned. A copy is made only if needed.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array. The elements in a are read in the order specified by order, and packed as a
1-D array.
order : {C,F, A, K}, optional
The elements of a are read using this index order. C means to index the elements
in C-like order, with the last axis index changing fastest, back to the first axis index
changing slowest. F means to index the elements in Fortran-like index order, with the
to the order of axis indexing. A means to read the elements in Fortran-like index order
if a is Fortran contiguous in memory, C-like order otherwise. K means to read the
elements in the order they occur in memory, except for reversing the data when strides
are negative. By default, C index order is used.
Returns
1d_array : ndarray
Output of the same dtype as a, and of shape (a.size,).
See Also:
ndarray.flat
1-D iterator over an array.
ndarray.flatten
1-D array copy of the elements of an array in row-major order.
Notes
In C-like (row-major) order, in two dimensions, the row index varies the slowest, and the column index the
quickest. This can be generalized to multiple dimensions, where row-major order implies that the index along
the first axis varies slowest, and the index along the last quickest. The opposite holds for Fortran-like, or
column-major, index ordering.
487
Examples
It is equivalent to reshape(-1, order=order).
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> print np.ravel(x)
[1 2 3 4 5 6]
>>> print x.reshape(-1)
[1 2 3 4 5 6]
>>> print np.ravel(x, order=F)
[1 4 2 5 3 6]
When order is A, it will preserve the arrays C or F ordering:

>>> print np.ravel(x.T)
[1 4 2 5 3 6]
>>> print np.ravel(x.T, order=A)
[1 2 3 4 5 6]
When order is K, it will preserve orderings that are neither C nor F, but wont reverse axes:
>>> a = np.arange(3)[::-1]; a
array([2, 1, 0])
>>> a.ravel(order=C)
array([2, 1, 0])
>>> a.ravel(order=K)
array([2, 1, 0])
>>> a = np.arange(12).reshape(2,3,2).swapaxes(1,2); a
array([[[ 0, 2, 4],
[ 1, 3, 5]],
[[ 6, 8, 10],
[ 7, 9, 11]]])
>>> a.ravel(order=C)
array([ 0, 2, 4, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 7, 9, 11])
>>> a.ravel(order=K)
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11])
ndarray.flat
object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
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Chapter 3. Routines
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
3.2.3 Transpose-like operations

rollaxis(a, axis[, start])
swapaxes(a, axis1, axis2)
ndarray.T
transpose(a[, axes])
Roll the specified axis backwards, until it lies in a given position.

Interchange two axes of an array.
489
numpy.rollaxis(a, axis, start=0)

Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array.
axis : int
The axis to roll backwards. The positions of the other axes do not change relative to one
another.
start : int, optional
The axis is rolled until it lies before this position. The default, 0, results in a complete
roll.
Returns
res : ndarray
Output array.
See Also:
roll
Roll the elements of an array by a number of positions along a given axis.
Examples
>>>
>>>
(3,
>>>
(5,
>>>
(3,
a = np.ones((3,4,5,6))
np.rollaxis(a, 3, 1).shape
6, 4, 5)
np.rollaxis(a, 2).shape
3, 4, 6)
np.rollaxis(a, 1, 4).shape
5, 6, 4)
numpy.swapaxes(a, axis1, axis2)

Interchange two axes of an array.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
axis1 : int
First axis.
axis2 : int
Second axis.
Returns
a_swapped : ndarray
If a is an ndarray, then a view of a is returned; otherwise a new array is created.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3]])
>>> np.swapaxes(x,0,1)
array([[1],
490
Chapter 3. Routines
[2],
[3]])
>>> x = np.array([[[0,1],[2,3]],[[4,5],[6,7]]])
>>> x
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5],
[6, 7]]])
>>> np.swapaxes(x,0,2)
array([[[0, 4],
[2, 6]],
[[1, 5],
[3, 7]]])
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
>>> x.T
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
numpy.transpose(a, axes=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
axes : list of ints, optional
By default, reverse the dimensions, otherwise permute the axes according to the values
given.
Returns
p : ndarray
a with its axes permuted. A view is returned whenever possible.
See Also:
rollaxis
Examples
>>> x
491
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> np.transpose(x)
array([[0, 2],
[1, 3]])
>>> x = np.ones((1, 2, 3))
>>> np.transpose(x, (1, 0, 2)).shape
(2, 1, 3)
3.2.4 Changing number of dimensions

atleast_1d(*arys)
atleast_2d(*arys)
atleast_3d(*arys)
broadcast
broadcast_arrays(*args)
expand_dims(a, axis)
squeeze(a[, axis])

Broadcast any number of arrays against each other.
numpy.atleast_1d(*arys)
Parameters
Returns
ret : ndarray
necessary.
See Also:
atleast_2d, atleast_3d
Examples
array([ 1.])
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7., 8.]])
True
>>> np.atleast_1d(1, [3, 4])
[array([1]), array([3, 4])]
492
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
Examples
array([[ 3.]])
array([[ 0., 1., 2.]])
True
>>> np.atleast_2d(1, [1, 2], [[1, 2]])
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
Examples
array([[[ 3.]]])
(1, 3, 1)
493
(4, 3, 1)
True
...
...
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1 2]]] (1, 1, 2)
class numpy.broadcast
Parameters
in1, in2, ... : array_like
Input parameters.
Returns
b : broadcast object
Broadcast the input parameters against one another, and return an object that encapsulates the result. Amongst others, it has shape and nd properties, and may be used as
an iterator.
Examples
Manually adding two vectors, using broadcasting:
>>> x = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
>>> out = np.empty(b.shape)
>>> out.flat = [u+v for (u,v) in b]
>>> out
array([[ 5., 6., 7.],
[ 6., 7., 8.],
[ 7., 8., 9.]])
Compare against built-in broadcasting:

>>> x + y
array([[5, 6, 7],
[6, 7, 8],
[7, 8, 9]])
Attributes
index
iters
shape
size
494

Chapter 3. Routines
broadcast.index
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
>>> b.index
0
((1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6))
>>> b.index
3
broadcast.iters
Returns a tuple of numpy.flatiter objects, one for each component of self.
See Also:
numpy.flatiter
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
(1,
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]])
row, col = b.iters
row.next(), col.next()
4)
broadcast.shape
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
(3,
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]])
b.shape
3)
broadcast.size
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
9
x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]])
b.size
Methods
next
reset()

495
broadcast.next
broadcast.reset()
Parameters
None
Returns
None
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]]
>>> b.index
0
((1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4))
>>> b.index
3
>>> b.reset()
>>> b.index
0
numpy.broadcast_arrays(*args)
Broadcast any number of arrays against each other.
Parameters
*args : array_likes
The arrays to broadcast.
Returns
broadcasted : list of arrays
These arrays are views on the original arrays. They are typically not contiguous. Furthermore, more than one element of a broadcasted array may refer to a single memory
location. If you need to write to the arrays, make copies first.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3]])
>>> y = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> np.broadcast_arrays(x, y)
[array([[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3]]), array([[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3]])]
Here is a useful idiom for getting contiguous copies instead of non-contiguous views.
>>> [np.array(a) for a in np.broadcast_arrays(x, y)]
[array([[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3]]), array([[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3]])]
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.expand_dims(a, axis)
Insert a new axis, corresponding to a given position in the array shape.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
axis : int
Position (amongst axes) where new axis is to be inserted.
Returns
res : ndarray
Output array. The number of dimensions is one greater than that of the input array.
See Also:
doc.indexing, atleast_1d, atleast_2d, atleast_3d
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2])
>>> x.shape
(2,)
The following is equivalent to x[np.newaxis,:] or x[np.newaxis]:

>>> y = np.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
>>> y
array([[1, 2]])
>>> y.shape
(1, 2)
>>> y = np.expand_dims(x, axis=1)
>>> y
array([[1],
[2]])
>>> y.shape
(2, 1)
# Equivalent to x[:,newaxis]
Note that some examples may use None instead of np.newaxis. These are the same objects:
>>> np.newaxis is None
True
numpy.squeeze(a, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Returns
squeezed : ndarray
497
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[[0], [1], [2]]])
>>> x.shape
(1, 3, 1)
(3,)
(1, 3)
3.2.5 Changing kind of array

asanyarray(a[, dtype, order])
asfarray(a[, dtype])
asfortranarray(a[, dtype])
asscalar(a)
require(a[, dtype, requirements])

Return an array converted to a float type.
Return an array laid out in Fortran order in memory.
Convert an array of size 1 to its scalar equivalent.
Return an ndarray of the provided type that satisfies requirements.
numpy.asarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes lists, lists of
tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists and ndarrays.
Whether to use row-major (C) or column-major (F for FORTRAN) memory representation. Defaults to C.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array interpretation of a. No copy is performed if the input is already an ndarray. If a
is a subclass of ndarray, a base class ndarray is returned.
See Also:
asanyarray
Similar function which passes through subclasses.
ascontiguousarray
asfarray
498
Chapter 3. Routines
asfortranarray
asarray_chkfinite
fromiter
fromfunction
Examples
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asarray(a)
array([1, 2])
Existing arrays are not copied:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
True
If dtype is set, array is copied only if dtype does not match:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.float32)
True
False
Contrary to asanyarray, ndarray subclasses are not passed through:

>>> issubclass(np.matrix, np.ndarray)
True
>>> a = np.matrix([[1, 2]])
False
True
numpy.asanyarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes scalars, lists,
lists of tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists, and ndarrays.
Whether to use row-major (C) or column-major (F) memory representation. Defaults
to C.
499
Returns
out : ndarray or an ndarray subclass
Array interpretation of a. If a is an ndarray or a subclass of ndarray, it is returned as-is
and no copy is performed.
See Also:
asarray
Similar function which always returns ndarrays.
ascontiguousarray
asfarray
asfortranarray
asarray_chkfinite
fromiter
fromfunction
Examples
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asanyarray(a)
array([1, 2])
Instances of ndarray subclasses are passed through as-is:

>>> a = np.matrix([1, 2])
True
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
Returns
mat : matrix
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
500
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> x[0,0] = 5
>>> m
matrix([[5, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.asfarray(a, dtype=<type numpy.float64>)

Return an array converted to a float type.
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
Float type code to coerce input array a. If dtype is one of the int dtypes, it is replaced
with float64.
Returns
out : ndarray
The input a as a float ndarray.
Examples
>>> np.asfarray([2, 3])
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> np.asfarray([2, 3], dtype=float)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> np.asfarray([2, 3], dtype=int8)
array([ 2., 3.])
numpy.asfortranarray(a, dtype=None)
Return an array laid out in Fortran order in memory.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
The input a in Fortran, or column-major, order.
See Also:
ascontiguousarray
Convert input to a contiguous (C order) array.
asanyarray
Convert input to an ndarray with either row or column-major memory order.
require
Return an ndarray that satisfies requirements.
501
ndarray.flags
Examples
>>> y = np.asfortranarray(x)
>>> x.flags[F_CONTIGUOUS]
False
>>> y.flags[F_CONTIGUOUS]
True
numpy.asscalar(a)
Convert an array of size 1 to its scalar equivalent.
Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array of size 1.
Returns
out : scalar
Scalar representation of a. The output data type is the same type returned by the inputs
item method.
Examples
>>> np.asscalar(np.array([24]))
24
numpy.require(a, dtype=None, requirements=None)

Return an ndarray of the provided type that satisfies requirements.
This function is useful to be sure that an array with the correct flags is returned for passing to compiled code
(perhaps through ctypes).
Parameters
a : array_like
The object to be converted to a type-and-requirement-satisfying array.
dtype : data-type
The required data-type, the default data-type is float64).
requirements : str or list of str
The requirements list can be any of the following
F_CONTIGUOUS (F) - ensure a Fortran-contiguous array
C_CONTIGUOUS (C) - ensure a C-contiguous array
ALIGNED (A) - ensure a data-type aligned array
WRITEABLE (W) - ensure a writable array
OWNDATA (O) - ensure an array that owns its own data
See Also:
asarray
Convert input to an ndarray.
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asanyarray
Convert to an ndarray, but pass through ndarray subclasses.
ascontiguousarray
asfortranarray
ndarray.flags
Notes
The returned array will be guaranteed to have the listed requirements by making a copy if needed.
Examples
>>> x.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : False
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y = np.require(x, dtype=np.float32, requirements=[A, O, W, F])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : False
F_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
3.2.6 Joining arrays

column_stack(tup)
concatenate((a1, a2, ...)[, axis])
dstack(tup)
hstack(tup)
vstack(tup)

numpy.column_stack(tup)
Take a sequence of 1-D arrays and stack them as columns to make a single 2-D array. 2-D arrays are stacked
as-is, just like with hstack. 1-D arrays are turned into 2-D columns first.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : 2-D array
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See Also:
hstack, vstack, concatenate
Notes
This function is equivalent to np.vstack(tup).T.
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.concatenate((a1, a2, ...), axis=0)

Parameters
a1, a2, ... : sequence of array_like
Returns
res : ndarray
The concatenated array.
See Also:
ma.concatenate
Concatenate function that preserves input masks.
array_split
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays of equal or near-equal size.
split
Split array into a list of multiple sub-arrays of equal size.
hsplit
Split array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column wise)
vsplit
Split array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row wise)
dsplit
Split array into multiple sub-arrays along the 3rd axis (depth).
hstack
Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise)
vstack
Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise)
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dstack
Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third dimension)
Notes
When one or more of the arrays to be concatenated is a MaskedArray, this function will return a MaskedArray
object instead of an ndarray, but the input masks are not preserved. In cases where a MaskedArray is expected
as input, use the ma.concatenate function from the masked array module instead.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> b = np.array([[5, 6]])
>>> np.concatenate((a, b), axis=0)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
>>> np.concatenate((a, b.T), axis=1)
array([[1, 2, 5],
[3, 4, 6]])
This function will not preserve masking of MaskedArray inputs.

>>> a[1] = np.ma.masked
>>> b = np.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b
array([2, 3, 4])
>>> np.concatenate([a, b])
masked_array(data = [0 1 2 2 3 4],
mask = False,
>>> np.ma.concatenate([a, b])
numpy.dstack(tup)
Takes a sequence of arrays and stack them along the third axis to make a single array. Rebuilds arrays divided
by dsplit. This is a simple way to stack 2D arrays (images) into a single 3D array for processing.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
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hstack
concatenate
Join arrays.
dsplit
Notes
Equivalent to np.concatenate(tup, axis=2).
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])
numpy.hstack(tup)
Take a sequence of arrays and stack them horizontally to make a single array. Rebuild arrays divided by
hsplit.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
dstack
concatenate
hsplit
Notes
Equivalent to np.concatenate(tup, axis=1)
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Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.vstack(tup)
Take a sequence of arrays and stack them vertically to make a single array. Rebuild arrays divided by vsplit.
Parameters
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
concatenate
vsplit
Notes
Equivalent to np.concatenate(tup, axis=0) if tup contains arrays that are at least 2-dimensional.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
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[3],
[4]])
3.2.7 Splitting arrays

array_split(ary, indices_or_sections[, axis])
dsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
split(ary, indices_or_sections[, axis])
vsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays.

Split an array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row-wise).
numpy.array_split(ary, indices_or_sections, axis=0)

Please refer to the split documentation. The only difference between these functions is that array_split
allows indices_or_sections to be an integer that does not equally divide the axis.
See Also:
split
Split array into multiple sub-arrays of equal size.
Examples
>>> np.array_split(x, 3)
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 3.,
4.,
5.]), array([ 6.,
7.])]
numpy.dsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Please refer to the split documentation. dsplit is equivalent to split with axis=2, the array is always
split along the third axis provided the array dimension is greater than or equal to 3.
See Also:
split
Examples
>>> x
array([[[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.]],
[[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]]])
>>> np.dsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0.,
1.],
[ 4.,
5.]],
[[ 8.,
9.],
[ 12., 13.]]]),
array([[[ 2.,
3.],
[ 6.,
7.]],
[[ 10., 11.],
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[ 14., 15.]]])]
>>> np.dsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[[ 0.,
1.,
2.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.]],
[[ 8.,
9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]]),
array([[[ 3.],
[ 7.]],
[[ 11.],
[ 15.]]]),
numpy.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Please refer to the split documentation. hsplit is equivalent to split with axis=1, the array is always
split along the second axis regardless of the array dimension.
See Also:
split
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0.,
1.],
[ 4.,
5.],
[ 8.,
9.],
[ 12., 13.]]),
array([[ 2.,
3.],
[ 6.,
7.],
[ 10., 11.],
[ 14., 15.]])]
[array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.],
[ 8.,
9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]),
array([[ 3.],
[ 7.],
[ 11.],
[ 15.]]),
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
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>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.]],
[[ 4., 5.]]]),
array([[[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 6., 7.]]])]
numpy.split(ary, indices_or_sections, axis=0)

Parameters
ary : ndarray
Array to be divided into sub-arrays.
indices_or_sections : int or 1-D array
If indices_or_sections is an integer, N, the array will be divided into N equal arrays
along axis. If such a split is not possible, an error is raised.
If indices_or_sections is a 1-D array of sorted integers, the entries indicate where along
axis the array is split. For example, [2, 3] would, for axis=0, result in
ary[:2]
ary[2:3]
ary[3:]
If an index exceeds the dimension of the array along axis, an empty sub-array is returned
correspondingly.
The axis along which to split, default is 0.
Returns
sub-arrays : list of ndarrays
A list of sub-arrays.
Raises
ValueError
If indices_or_sections is given as an integer, but a split does not result in equal division.
See Also:
array_split
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays of equal or near-equal size. Does not raise an exception if an equal
division cannot be made.
hsplit
Split array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column-wise).
vsplit
Split array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row wise).
dsplit
concatenate
Join arrays together.
hstack
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vstack
dstack
Examples
>>> np.split(x, 3)
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 3.,
4.,
5.]), array([ 6.,
7.,
8.])]
>>> np.split(x, [3, 5, 6, 10])
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]),
array([ 3., 4.]),
array([ 5.]),
array([ 6., 7.]),
numpy.vsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row-wise).
Please refer to the split documentation. vsplit is equivalent to split with axis=0 (default), the array is
always split along the first axis regardless of the array dimension.
See Also:
split
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.vsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.]]),
array([[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])]
>>> np.vsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.]]),
array([[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]]),
With a higher dimensional array the split is still along the first axis.
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
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>>> np.vsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]]]),
array([[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])]
3.2.8 Tiling arrays

tile(A, reps)
repeat(a, repeats[, axis])
Construct an array by repeating A the number of times given by reps.

numpy.tile(A, reps)
Construct an array by repeating A the number of times given by reps.
If reps has length d, the result will have dimension of max(d, A.ndim).
If A.ndim < d, A is promoted to be d-dimensional by prepending new axes. So a shape (3,) array is promoted
to (1, 3) for 2-D replication, or shape (1, 1, 3) for 3-D replication. If this is not the desired behavior, promote A
to d-dimensions manually before calling this function.
If A.ndim > d, reps is promoted to A.ndim by pre-pending 1s to it. Thus for an A of shape (2, 3, 4, 5), a reps
of (2, 2) is treated as (1, 1, 2, 2).
Parameters
A : array_like
The input array.
reps : array_like
The number of repetitions of A along each axis.
Returns
c : ndarray
The tiled output array.
See Also:
repeat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([0, 1, 2])
>>> np.tile(a, 2)
array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2])
>>> np.tile(a, (2, 2))
array([[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]])
>>> np.tile(a, (2, 1, 2))
array([[[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],
[[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]]])
>>> b = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.tile(b, 2)
array([[1, 2, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 3, 4]])
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>>> np.tile(b, (2, 1))

array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.repeat(a, repeats, axis=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
repeats : {int, array of ints}
The number of repetitions for each element. repeats is broadcasted to fit the shape of
the given axis.
The axis along which to repeat values. By default, use the flattened input array, and
return a flat output array.
Returns
repeated_array : ndarray
Output array which has the same shape as a, except along the given axis.
See Also:
tile
Tile an array.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.repeat(x, 2)
array([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4])
>>> np.repeat(x, 3, axis=1)
array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4]])
>>> np.repeat(x, [1, 2], axis=0)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[3, 4]])
3.2.9 Adding and removing elements

delete(arr, obj[, axis])
insert(arr, obj, values[, axis])
append(arr, values[, axis])
resize(a, new_shape)
trim_zeros(filt[, trim])
unique(ar[, return_index, return_inverse])
Return a new array with sub-arrays along an axis deleted.

Insert values along the given axis before the given indices.
Append values to the end of an array.
Trim the leading and/or trailing zeros from a 1-D array or sequence.
Find the unique elements of an array.
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numpy.delete(arr, obj, axis=None)

Return a new array with sub-arrays along an axis deleted. For a one dimensional array, this returns those entries
not returned by arr[obj].
Parameters
arr : array_like
Input array.
obj : slice, int or array of ints
Indicate which sub-arrays to remove.
The axis along which to delete the subarray defined by obj. If axis is None, obj is
applied to the flattened array.
Returns
out : ndarray
A copy of arr with the elements specified by obj removed. Note that delete does not
occur in-place. If axis is None, out is a flattened array.
See Also:
insert
Insert elements into an array.
append
Append elements at the end of an array.
Notes
Often it is preferable to use a boolean mask. For example:
>>> mask = np.ones(len(arr), dtype=bool)
>>> mask[[0,2,4]] = False
>>> result = arr[mask,...]
Is equivalent to np.delete(arr, [0,2,4], axis=0), but allows further use of mask.

Examples
>>> arr = np.array([[1,2,3,4], [5,6,7,8], [9,10,11,12]])
>>> arr
array([[ 1, 2, 3, 4],
[ 5, 6, 7, 8],
[ 9, 10, 11, 12]])
>>> np.delete(arr, 1, 0)
array([[ 1, 2, 3, 4],
[ 9, 10, 11, 12]])
>>> np.delete(arr, np.s_[::2], 1)
array([[ 2, 4],
[ 6, 8],
[10, 12]])
>>> np.delete(arr, [1,3,5], None)
array([ 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])
numpy.insert(arr, obj, values, axis=None)

Insert values along the given axis before the given indices.
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Parameters
arr : array_like
Input array.
obj : int, slice or sequence of ints
Object that defines the index or indices before which values is inserted. New in version
1.8.0. Support for multiple insertions when obj is a single scalar or a sequence with one
element (similar to calling insert multiple times).
values : array_like
Values to insert into arr. If the type of values is different from that of arr, values is
converted to the type of arr. values should be shaped so that arr[...,obj,...]
= values is legal.
Axis along which to insert values. If axis is None then arr is flattened first.
Returns
out : ndarray
A copy of arr with values inserted. Note that insert does not occur in-place: a new
array is returned. If axis is None, out is a flattened array.
See Also:
append
Append elements at the end of an array.
concatenate
delete
Delete elements from an array.
Notes
Note that for higher dimensional inserts obj=0 behaves very different from obj=[0] just like arr[:,0,:] = values
is different from arr[:,[0],:] = values.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [2, 2], [3, 3]])
>>> a
array([[1, 1],
[2, 2],
[3, 3]])
>>> np.insert(a, 1, 5)
array([1, 5, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(a, 1, 5, axis=1)
array([[1, 5, 1],
[2, 5, 2],
[3, 5, 3]])
Difference between sequence and scalars: >>> np.insert(a, [1], [[1],[2],[3]], axis=1) array([[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2], [3, 3, 3]])
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>>> np.array_equal(np.insert(a, 1, [1, 2, 3], axis=1),

...
np.insert(a, [1], [[1],[2],[3]], axis=1))
True
>>> b = a.flatten()
>>> b
array([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(b, [2, 2], [5, 6])
array([1, 1, 5, 6, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(b, slice(2, 4), [5, 6])
array([1, 1, 5, 2, 6, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(b, [2, 2], [7.13, False]) # type casting
array([1, 1, 7, 0, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> idx = (1, 3)
>>> np.insert(x, idx, 999, axis=1)
array([[ 0, 999,
1,
2, 999,
3],
[ 4, 999,
5,
6, 999,
7]])
numpy.append(arr, values, axis=None)

Append values to the end of an array.
Parameters
arr : array_like
Values are appended to a copy of this array.
values : array_like
These values are appended to a copy of arr. It must be of the correct shape (the same
shape as arr, excluding axis). If axis is not specified, values can be any shape and will
be flattened before use.
The axis along which values are appended. If axis is not given, both arr and values are
flattened before use.
Returns
append : ndarray
A copy of arr with values appended to axis. Note that append does not occur in-place:
a new array is allocated and filled. If axis is None, out is a flattened array.
See Also:
insert
Insert elements into an array.
delete
Delete elements from an array.
Examples
>>> np.append([1, 2, 3], [[4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
When axis is specified, values must have the correct shape.
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>>> np.append([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9]], axis=0)

array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])
>>> np.append([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [7, 8, 9], axis=0)
...
ValueError: arrays must have same number of dimensions
numpy.resize(a, new_shape)
If the new array is larger than the original array, then the new array is filled with repeated copies of a. Note that
this behavior is different from a.resize(new_shape) which fills with zeros instead of repeated copies of a.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be resized.
new_shape : int or tuple of int
Returns
The new array is formed from the data in the old array, repeated if necessary to fill out
the required number of elements. The data are repeated in the order that they are stored
in memory.
See Also:
ndarray.resize
resize an array in-place.
Examples
>>> a=np.array([[0,1],[2,3]])
>>> np.resize(a,(1,4))
array([[0, 1, 2, 3]])
>>> np.resize(a,(2,4))
array([[0, 1, 2, 3],
[0, 1, 2, 3]])
numpy.trim_zeros(filt, trim=fb)
Trim the leading and/or trailing zeros from a 1-D array or sequence.
Parameters
filt : 1-D array or sequence
Input array.
trim : str, optional
A string with f representing trim from front and b to trim from back. Default is fb,
trim zeros from both front and back of the array.
Returns
trimmed : 1-D array or sequence
The result of trimming the input. The input data type is preserved.
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Examples
>>> a = np.array((0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1, 0))
>>> np.trim_zeros(a)
array([1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1])
>>> np.trim_zeros(a, b)
array([0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1])
The input data type is preserved, list/tuple in means list/tuple out.

>>> np.trim_zeros([0, 1, 2, 0])
[1, 2]
numpy.unique(ar, return_index=False, return_inverse=False)

Returns the sorted unique elements of an array. There are two optional outputs in addition to the unique elements:
the indices of the input array that give the unique values, and the indices of the unique array that reconstruct the
input array.
Parameters
ar : array_like
Input array. This will be flattened if it is not already 1-D.
return_index : bool, optional
If True, also return the indices of ar that result in the unique array.
return_inverse : bool, optional
If True, also return the indices of the unique array that can be used to reconstruct ar.
Returns
unique : ndarray
The sorted unique values.
unique_indices : ndarray, optional
The indices of the first occurrences of the unique values in the (flattened) original array.
Only provided if return_index is True.
unique_inverse : ndarray, optional
The indices to reconstruct the (flattened) original array from the unique array. Only
provided if return_inverse is True.
See Also:
numpy.lib.arraysetops
Module with a number of other functions for performing set operations on arrays.
Examples
>>> np.unique([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
array([1, 2, 3])
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> np.unique(a)
array([1, 2, 3])
Return the indices of the original array that give the unique values:
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>>> a = np.array([a, b, b, c, a])

>>> u, indices = np.unique(a, return_index=True)
>>> u
array([a, b, c],
dtype=|S1)
>>> indices
array([0, 1, 3])
>>> a[indices]
array([a, b, c],
dtype=|S1)
Reconstruct the input array from the unique values:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 2])
>>> u, indices = np.unique(a, return_inverse=True)
>>> u
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 6])
>>> indices
array([0, 1, 4, 3, 1, 2, 1])
>>> u[indices]
array([1, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 2])
3.2.10 Rearranging elements

fliplr(m)
flipud(m)
reshape(a, newshape[, order])
roll(a, shift[, axis])
rot90(m[, k])
Flip array in the left/right direction.

Flip array in the up/down direction.
Roll array elements along a given axis.
Rotate an array by 90 degrees in the counter-clockwise direction.
numpy.fliplr(m)
Flip the entries in each row in the left/right direction. Columns are preserved, but appear in a different order
than before.
Parameters
m : array_like
Input array.
Returns
f : ndarray
A view of m with the columns reversed. Since a view is returned, this operation is O(1).
See Also:
flipud
rot90
Rotate array counterclockwise.
Notes
Equivalent to A[:,::-1]. Does not require the array to be two-dimensional.
519
Examples
>>> A = np.diag([1.,2.,3.])
>>> A
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 3.]])
>>> np.fliplr(A)
array([[ 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 3., 0., 0.]])
>>> A = np.random.randn(2,3,5)
>>> np.all(np.fliplr(A)==A[:,::-1,...])
True
numpy.flipud(m)
Flip the entries in each column in the up/down direction. Rows are preserved, but appear in a different order
than before.
Parameters
m : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : array_like
A view of m with the rows reversed. Since a view is returned, this operation is O(1).
See Also:
fliplr
rot90
Rotate array counterclockwise.
Notes
Equivalent to A[::-1,...]. Does not require the array to be two-dimensional.
Examples
>>> A = np.diag([1.0, 2, 3])
>>> A
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 3.]])
>>> np.flipud(A)
array([[ 0., 0., 3.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 1., 0., 0.]])
>>> A = np.random.randn(2,3,5)
>>> np.all(np.flipud(A)==A[::-1,...])
True
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>>> np.flipud([1,2])
array([2, 1])
numpy.reshape(a, newshape, order=C)

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be reshaped.
newshape : int or tuple of ints
The new shape should be compatible with the original shape. If an integer, then the
result will be a 1-D array of that length. One shape dimension can be -1. In this case,
the value is inferred from the length of the array and remaining dimensions.
Read the elements of a using this index order, and place the elements into the reshaped
array using this index order. C means to read / write the elements using C-like index
order, with the last axis index changing fastest, back to the first axis index changing
slowest. F means to read / write the elements using Fortran-like index order, with the
to the order of indexing. A means to read / write the elements in Fortran-like index
order if a is Fortran contiguous in memory, C-like order otherwise.
Returns
This will be a new view object if possible; otherwise, it will be a copy. Note there is no
guarantee of the memory layout (C- or Fortran- contiguous) of the returned array.
See Also:
ndarray.reshape
Equivalent method.
Notes
It is not always possible to change the shape of an array without copying the data. If you want an error to be
raise if the data is copied, you should assign the new shape to the shape attribute of the array:
>>> a = np.zeros((10, 2))
# A transpose make the array non-contiguous
>>> b = a.T
# Taking a view makes it possible to modify the shape without modifying the
# initial object.
>>> c = b.view()
>>> c.shape = (20)
AttributeError: incompatible shape for a non-contiguous array
The order keyword gives the index ordering both for fetching the values from a, and then placing the values into
the output array. For example, lets say you have an array:
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3],
[4, 5]])
521
You can think of reshaping as first raveling the array (using the given index order), then inserting the elements
from the raveled array into the new array using the same kind of index ordering as was used for the raveling.
>>> np.reshape(a, (2, 3)) # C-like index ordering
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(np.ravel(a), (2, 3)) # equivalent to C ravel then C reshape
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(a, (2, 3), order=F) # Fortran-like index ordering
array([[0, 4, 3],
[2, 1, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(np.ravel(a, order=F), (2, 3), order=F)
array([[0, 4, 3],
[2, 1, 5]])
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])
>>> np.reshape(a, 6)
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.reshape(a, 6, order=F)
array([1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6])
>>> np.reshape(a, (3,-1))
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
# the unspecified value is inferred to be 2
numpy.roll(a, shift, axis=None)

Roll array elements along a given axis.
Elements that roll beyond the last position are re-introduced at the first.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
shift : int
The number of places by which elements are shifted.
The axis along which elements are shifted. By default, the array is flattened before
shifting, after which the original shape is restored.
Returns
res : ndarray
Output array, with the same shape as a.
See Also:
rollaxis
Examples
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.roll(x, 2)
array([8, 9, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
>>> x2 = np.reshape(x, (2,5))
>>> x2
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]])
>>> np.roll(x2, 1)
array([[9, 0, 1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]])
>>> np.roll(x2, 1, axis=0)
array([[5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]])
>>> np.roll(x2, 1, axis=1)
array([[4, 0, 1, 2, 3],
[9, 5, 6, 7, 8]])
numpy.rot90(m, k=1)
Rotate an array by 90 degrees in the counter-clockwise direction.
The first two dimensions are rotated; therefore, the array must be at least 2-D.
Parameters
m : array_like
Array of two or more dimensions.
k : integer
Number of times the array is rotated by 90 degrees.
Returns
y : ndarray
Rotated array.
See Also:
fliplr
Flip an array horizontally.
flipud
Flip an array vertically.
Examples
>>> m = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]], int)
>>> m
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.rot90(m)
array([[2, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> np.rot90(m, 2)
array([[4, 3],
[2, 1]])
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3.3 Binary operations

3.3.1 Elementwise bit operations
bitwise_and(x1, x2[, out])
bitwise_or(x1, x2[, out])
bitwise_xor(x1, x2[, out])
invert(x[, out])
left_shift(x1, x2[, out])
right_shift(x1, x2[, out])

numpy.bitwise_and(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc bitwise_and>

Computes the bit-wise AND of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This
ufunc implements the C/Python operator &.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Only integer and boolean types are handled.
Returns
out : array_like
Result.
See Also:
logical_and, bitwise_or, bitwise_xor
binary_repr
Return the binary representation of the input number as a string.
Examples
The number 13 is represented by 00001101. Likewise, 17 is represented by 00010001. The bit-wise AND
of 13 and 17 is therefore 000000001, or 1:
>>> np.bitwise_and(13, 17)
1
>>> np.bitwise_and(14, 13)
12
>>> np.binary_repr(12)
1100
>>> np.bitwise_and([14,3], 13)
array([12, 1])
>>> np.bitwise_and([11,7], [4,25])
array([0, 1])
>>> np.bitwise_and(np.array([2,5,255]), np.array([3,14,16]))
array([ 2, 4, 16])
>>> np.bitwise_and([True, True], [False, True])
array([False, True], dtype=bool)
numpy.bitwise_or(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc bitwise_or>

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Chapter 3. Routines
Computes the bit-wise OR of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This ufunc
implements the C/Python operator |.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Array into which the output is placed. Its type is preserved and it must be of the right
shape to hold the output. See doc.ufuncs.
Returns
out : array_like
Result.
See Also:
logical_or, bitwise_and, bitwise_xor
binary_repr
Examples
The number 13 has the binaray representation 00001101. Likewise, 16 is represented by 00010000. The
bit-wise OR of 13 and 16 is then 000111011, or 29:
>>> np.bitwise_or(13, 16)
29
11101
>>> np.bitwise_or(32, 2)
34
>>> np.bitwise_or([33, 4], 1)
array([33, 5])
>>> np.bitwise_or([33, 4], [1, 2])
array([33, 6])
>>> np.bitwise_or(np.array([2, 5, 255]), np.array([4, 4, 4]))
array([ 6,
5, 255])
>>> np.array([2, 5, 255]) | np.array([4, 4, 4])
array([ 6,
5, 255])
>>> np.bitwise_or(np.array([2, 5, 255, 2147483647L], dtype=np.int32),
...
np.array([4, 4, 4, 2147483647L], dtype=np.int32))
array([
6,
5,
255, 2147483647])
>>> np.bitwise_or([True, True], [False, True])
array([ True, True], dtype=bool)
numpy.bitwise_xor(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc bitwise_xor>

Computes the bit-wise XOR of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This
ufunc implements the C/Python operator ^.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
3.3. Binary operations
525
Returns
out : array_like
Result.
See Also:
logical_xor, bitwise_and, bitwise_or
binary_repr
Examples
The number 13 is represented by 00001101. Likewise, 17 is represented by 00010001. The bit-wise XOR
of 13 and 17 is therefore 00011100, or 28:
>>> np.bitwise_xor(13, 17)
28
11100
>>> np.bitwise_xor(31, 5)
26
>>> np.bitwise_xor([31,3], 5)
array([26, 6])
>>> np.bitwise_xor([31,3], [5,6])
array([26, 5])
>>> np.bitwise_xor([True, True], [False, True])
array([ True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.invert(x[, out ]) = <ufunc invert>

Computes the bit-wise NOT of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This
ufunc implements the C/Python operator ~.
For signed integer inputs, the twos complement is returned. In a twos-complement system negative numbers
are represented by the twos complement of the absolute value. This is the most common method of representing
signed integers on computers [R32]. A N-bit twos-complement system can represent every integer in the range
2N 1 to +2N 1 1.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Returns
out : array_like
Result.
See Also:
bitwise_and, bitwise_or, bitwise_xor, logical_not
binary_repr
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
bitwise_not is an alias for invert:
>>> np.bitwise_not is np.invert
True
References
[R32]
Examples
Weve seen that 13 is represented by 00001101. The invert or bit-wise NOT of 13 is then:
>>> np.invert(np.array([13], dtype=uint8))
array([242], dtype=uint8)
>>> np.binary_repr(x, width=8)
00001101
>>> np.binary_repr(242, width=8)
11110010
The result depends on the bit-width:

>>> np.invert(np.array([13], dtype=uint16))
array([65522], dtype=uint16)
>>> np.binary_repr(x, width=16)
0000000000001101
1111111111110010
When using signed integer types the result is the twos complement of the result for the unsigned type:
>>> np.invert(np.array([13], dtype=int8))
array([-14], dtype=int8)
>>> np.binary_repr(-14, width=8)
11110010
Booleans are accepted as well:

>>> np.invert(array([True, False]))
numpy.left_shift(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc left_shift>

Bits are shifted to the left by appending x2 0s at the right of x1. Since the internal representation of numbers is
in binary format, this operation is equivalent to multiplying x1 by 2**x2.
Parameters
x1 : array_like of integer type
Input values.
x2 : array_like of integer type
Number of zeros to append to x1. Has to be non-negative.
Returns
out : array of integer type
Return x1 with bits shifted x2 times to the left.
See Also:
527
right_shift
binary_repr
Examples
101
>>> np.left_shift(5, 2)
20
10100
>>> np.left_shift(5, [1,2,3])
array([10, 20, 40])
numpy.right_shift(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc right_shift>

Bits are shifted to the right x2. Because the internal representation of numbers is in binary format, this operation
is equivalent to dividing x1 by 2**x2.
Parameters
x1 : array_like, int
Input values.
Number of bits to remove at the right of x1.
Returns
out : ndarray, int
Return x1 with bits shifted x2 times to the right.
See Also:
left_shift
binary_repr
Examples
1010
>>> np.right_shift(10, 1)
5
101
>>> np.right_shift(10, [1,2,3])
array([5, 2, 1])
3.3.2 Bit packing
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Chapter 3. Routines
packbits(myarray[, axis])
unpackbits(myarray[, axis])
Packs the elements of a binary-valued array into bits in a uint8 array.

Unpacks elements of a uint8 array into a binary-valued output array.
numpy.packbits(myarray, axis=None)
The result is padded to full bytes by inserting zero bits at the end.
Parameters
myarray : array_like
An integer type array whose elements should be packed to bits.
The dimension over which bit-packing is done. None implies packing the flattened
array.
Returns
packed : ndarray
Array of type uint8 whose elements represent bits corresponding to the logical (0 or
nonzero) value of the input elements. The shape of packed has the same number of
dimensions as the input (unless axis is None, in which case the output is 1-D).
See Also:
unpackbits
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[[1,0,1],
...
[0,1,0]],
...
[[1,1,0],
...
[0,0,1]]])
>>> b = np.packbits(a, axis=-1)
>>> b
array([[[160],[64]],[[192],[32]]], dtype=uint8)
Note that in binary 160 = 1010 0000, 64 = 0100 0000, 192 = 1100 0000, and 32 = 0010 0000.
numpy.unpackbits(myarray, axis=None)
Each element of myarray represents a bit-field that should be unpacked into a binary-valued output array. The
shape of the output array is either 1-D (if axis is None) or the same shape as the input array with unpacking done
along the axis specified.
Parameters
myarray : ndarray, uint8 type
Input array.
Unpacks along this axis.
Returns
unpacked : ndarray, uint8 type
529
The elements are binary-valued (0 or 1).

See Also:
packbits
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[2], [7], [23]], dtype=np.uint8)
>>> a
array([[ 2],
[ 7],
[23]], dtype=uint8)
>>> b = np.unpackbits(a, axis=1)
>>> b
array([[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1],
[0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1]], dtype=uint8)
3.3.3 Output formatting

binary_repr(num[, width])
numpy.binary_repr(num, width=None)
For negative numbers, if width is not given, a minus sign is added to the front. If width is given, the twos
complement of the number is returned, with respect to that width.
In a twos-complement system negative numbers are represented by the twos complement of the absolute
value. This is the most common method of representing signed integers on computers [R16]. A N-bit twoscomplement system can represent every integer in the range 2N 1 to +2N 1 1.
Parameters
num : int
Only an integer decimal number can be used.
width : int, optional
The length of the returned string if num is positive, the length of the twos complement
if num is negative.
Returns
bin : str
Binary representation of num or twos complement of num.
See Also:
base_repr
Return a string representation of a number in the given base system.
Notes
binary_repr is equivalent to using base_repr with base 2, but about 25x faster.
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Chapter 3. Routines
References
[R16]
Examples
11
>>> np.binary_repr(-3)
-11
0011
The twos complement is returned when the input number is negative and width is specified:
1101
3.4 String operations

This module provides a set of vectorized string operations for arrays of type numpy.string_ or
numpy.unicode_. All of them are based on the string methods in the Python standard library.
3.4.1 String operations

add(x1, x2)
multiply(a, i)
mod(a, values)
capitalize(a)
center(a, width[, fillchar])
decode(a[, encoding, errors])
encode(a[, encoding, errors])
join(sep, seq)
ljust(a, width[, fillchar])
lower(a)
lstrip(a[, chars])
partition(a, sep)
replace(a, old, new[, count])
rjust(a, width[, fillchar])
rpartition(a, sep)
rsplit(a[, sep, maxsplit])
rstrip(a[, chars])
split(a[, sep, maxsplit])
splitlines(a[, keepends])
strip(a[, chars])
swapcase(a)
title(a)
translate(a, table[, deletechars])
upper(a)
zfill(a, width)
3.4. String operations
Return element-wise string concatenation for two arrays of str or unicode.

Return (a * i), that is string multiple concatenation, element-wise.
Return (a % i), that is pre-Python 2.6 string formatting
Return a copy of a with only the first character of each element capitalized.
Return a copy of a with its elements centered in a string of length width.
Return an array with the elements of a left-justified in a string of length width.
Return an array with the elements converted to lowercase.
For each element in a, return a copy with the leading characters removed.
Partition each element in a around sep.
For each element in a, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced
Return an array with the elements of a right-justified in a string of length width.
Partition (split) each element around the right-most separator.
For each element in a, return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter string.
For each element in a, return a copy with the trailing characters removed.
For each element in a, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
For each element in a, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
Return element-wise a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
Return element-wise title cased version of string or unicode.
For each element in a, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional
Return an array with the elements converted to uppercase.
Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros
531
numpy.core.defchararray.add(x1, x2)
Return element-wise string concatenation for two arrays of str or unicode.
Arrays x1 and x2 must have the same shape.
Parameters
x1 : array_like of str or unicode
Input array.
x2 : array_like of str or unicode
Input array.
Returns
add : ndarray
Output array of string_ or unicode_, depending on input types of the same shape
as x1 and x2.
numpy.core.defchararray.multiply(a, i)
Return (a * i), that is string multiple concatenation, element-wise.
Values in i of less than 0 are treated as 0 (which yields an empty string).
Parameters
a : array_like of str or unicode
i : array_like of ints
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of str or unicode, depending on input types
numpy.core.defchararray.mod(a, values)
Return (a % i), that is pre-Python 2.6 string formatting (iterpolation), element-wise for a pair of array_likes of
str or unicode.
Parameters
values : array_like of values
These values will be element-wise interpolated into the string.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.__mod__
numpy.core.defchararray.capitalize(a)
Return a copy of a with only the first character of each element capitalized.
Calls str.capitalize element-wise.
For 8-bit strings, this method is locale-dependent.
Parameters
Input array of strings to capitalize.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.capitalize
Examples
>>> c = np.array([a1b2,1b2a,b2a1,2a1b],S4); c
array([a1b2, 1b2a, b2a1, 2a1b],
dtype=|S4)
>>> np.char.capitalize(c)
array([A1b2, 1b2a, B2a1, 2a1b],
dtype=|S4)
numpy.core.defchararray.center(a, width, fillchar= )

Return a copy of a with its elements centered in a string of length width.
Calls str.center element-wise.
Parameters
width : int
The length of the resulting strings
fillchar : str or unicode, optional
The padding character to use (default is space).
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.center
numpy.core.defchararray.decode(a, encoding=None, errors=None)
The set of available codecs comes from the Python standard library, and may be extended at runtime. For more
information, see the codecs module.
Parameters
encoding : str, optional
The name of an encoding
errors : str, optional
Specifies how to handle encoding errors
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.decode
533
Notes
The type of the result will depend on the encoding specified.
Examples
>>> c = np.array([aAaAaA, aA , abBABba])
>>> c
array([aAaAaA, aA , abBABba],
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.encode(c, encoding=cp037)
array([\x81\xc1\x81\xc1\x81\xc1, @@\x81\xc1@@,
\x81\x82\xc2\xc1\xc2\x82\x81],
dtype=|S7)
numpy.core.defchararray.encode(a, encoding=None, errors=None)

The set of available codecs comes from the Python standard library, and may be extended at runtime. For more
information, see the codecs module.
Parameters
encoding : str, optional
The name of an encoding
errors : str, optional
Specifies how to handle encoding errors
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.encode
Notes
The type of the result will depend on the encoding specified.
numpy.core.defchararray.join(sep, seq)
Calls str.join element-wise.
Parameters
sep : array_like of str or unicode
seq : array_like of str or unicode
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.join
numpy.core.defchararray.ljust(a, width, fillchar= )
Return an array with the elements of a left-justified in a string of length width.
Calls str.ljust element-wise.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
width : int
The character to use for padding
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of str or unicode, depending on input type
See Also:
str.ljust
numpy.core.defchararray.lower(a)
Return an array with the elements converted to lowercase.
Call str.lower element-wise.
Parameters
a : array_like, {str, unicode}
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray, {str, unicode}
See Also:
str.lower
Examples
>>> c = np.array([A1B C, 1BCA, BCA1]); c
array([A1B C, 1BCA, BCA1],
dtype=|S5)
>>> np.char.lower(c)
array([a1b c, 1bca, bca1],
dtype=|S5)
numpy.core.defchararray.lstrip(a, chars=None)
For each element in a, return a copy with the leading characters removed.
Calls str.lstrip element-wise.
Parameters
a : array-like, {str, unicode}
Input array.
chars : {str, unicode}, optional
The chars argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted
or None, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace. The chars argument is
not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
535
Returns
See Also:
str.lstrip
Examples
>>> c
dtype=|S7)
The a variable is unstripped from c[1] because whitespace leading.

>>> np.char.lstrip(c, a)
array([AaAaA, aA , bBABba],
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.lstrip(c, A) # leaves c unchanged
dtype=|S7)
>>> (np.char.lstrip(c, ) == np.char.lstrip(c, )).all()
... # XXX: is this a regression? this line now returns False
... # np.char.lstrip(c,) does not modify c at all.
True
>>> (np.char.lstrip(c, ) == np.char.lstrip(c, None)).all()
True
numpy.core.defchararray.partition(a, sep)
Partition each element in a around sep.
Calls str.partition element-wise.
For each element in a, split the element as the first occurrence of sep, and return 3 strings containing the part
before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return 3
strings containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
Parameters
Input array
sep : {str, unicode}
Separator to split each string element in a.
Returns
Output array of str or unicode, depending on input type. The output array will have an
extra dimension with 3 elements per input element.
See Also:
str.partition
numpy.core.defchararray.replace(a, old, new, count=None)
For each element in a, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
Calls str.replace element-wise.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
a : array-like of str or unicode
old, new : str or unicode
If the optional argument count is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.replace
numpy.core.defchararray.rjust(a, width, fillchar= )
Return an array with the elements of a right-justified in a string of length width.
Calls str.rjust element-wise.
Parameters
width : int
The character to use for padding
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.rjust
numpy.core.defchararray.rpartition(a, sep)
Partition (split) each element around the right-most separator.
Calls str.rpartition element-wise.
For each element in a, split the element as the last occurrence of sep, and return 3 strings containing the part
before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return 3
strings containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
Parameters
Input array
sep : str or unicode
Right-most separator to split each element in array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of string or unicode, depending on input type. The output array will have
an extra dimension with 3 elements per input element.
537
See Also:
str.rpartition
numpy.core.defchararray.rsplit(a, sep=None, maxsplit=None)
Calls str.rsplit element-wise.
Except for splitting from the right, rsplit behaves like split.
Parameters
sep : str or unicode, optional
If sep is not specified or None, any whitespace string is a separator.
maxsplit : int, optional
If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits are done, the rightmost ones.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of list objects
See Also:
str.rsplit, split
numpy.core.defchararray.rstrip(a, chars=None)
For each element in a, return a copy with the trailing characters removed.
Calls str.rstrip element-wise.
Parameters
chars : str or unicode, optional
not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.rstrip
Examples
>>> c = np.array([aAaAaA, abBABba], dtype=S7); c
array([aAaAaA, abBABba],
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.rstrip(c, a)
array([aAaAaA, abBABb],
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.rstrip(c, A)
array([aAaAa, abBABba],
dtype=|S7)
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.core.defchararray.split(a, sep=None, maxsplit=None)

Calls str.rsplit element-wise.
Parameters
sep : str or unicode, optional
If sep is not specified or None, any whitespace string is a separator.
maxsplit : int, optional
If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits are done.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.split, rsplit
numpy.core.defchararray.splitlines(a, keepends=None)
For each element in a, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
Calls str.splitlines element-wise.
Parameters
keepends : bool, optional
Line breaks are not included in the resulting list unless keepends is given and true.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.splitlines
numpy.core.defchararray.strip(a, chars=None)
For each element in a, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
Calls str.rstrip element-wise.
Parameters
chars : str or unicode, optional
not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.strip
539
Examples
>>> c
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.strip(c)
array([aAaAaA, aA, abBABba],
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.strip(c, a) # a unstripped from c[1] because whitespace leads
array([AaAaA, aA , bBABb],
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.strip(c, A) # A unstripped from c[1] because (unprinted) ws trails
array([aAaAa, aA , abBABba],
dtype=|S7)
numpy.core.defchararray.swapcase(a)
Return element-wise a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and vice versa.
Calls str.swapcase element-wise.
Parameters
Input array.
Returns
See Also:
str.swapcase
Examples
>>> c=np.array([a1B c,1b Ca,b Ca1,cA1b],S5); c
array([a1B c, 1b Ca, b Ca1, cA1b],
dtype=|S5)
>>> np.char.swapcase(c)
array([A1b C, 1B cA, B cA1, Ca1B],
dtype=|S5)
numpy.core.defchararray.title(a)
Return element-wise title cased version of string or unicode.
Title case words start with uppercase characters, all remaining cased characters are lowercase.
Calls str.title element-wise.
Parameters
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
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See Also:
str.title
Examples
>>> c=np.array([a1b c,1b ca,b ca1,ca1b],S5); c
array([a1b c, 1b ca, b ca1, ca1b],
dtype=|S5)
>>> np.char.title(c)
array([A1B C, 1B Ca, B Ca1, Ca1B],
dtype=|S5)
numpy.core.defchararray.translate(a, table, deletechars=None)

For each element in a, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters have been mapped through the given translation table.
Calls str.translate element-wise.
Parameters
table : str of length 256
deletechars : str
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.translate
numpy.core.defchararray.upper(a)
Return an array with the elements converted to uppercase.
Calls str.upper element-wise.
Parameters
Input array.
Returns
See Also:
str.upper
Examples
>>> c = np.array([a1b c, 1bca, bca1]); c
array([a1b c, 1bca, bca1],
dtype=|S5)
>>> np.char.upper(c)
array([A1B C, 1BCA, BCA1],
dtype=|S5)
541
numpy.core.defchararray.zfill(a, width)
Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros
Calls str.zfill element-wise.
Parameters
Input array.
width : int
Width of string to left-fill elements in a.
Returns
See Also:
str.zfill
3.4.2 Comparison
Unlike the standard numpy comparison operators, the ones in the char module strip trailing whitespace characters
before performing the comparison.
equal(x1, x2)
not_equal(x1, x2)
greater_equal(x1, x2)
less_equal(x1, x2)
greater(x1, x2)
less(x1, x2)

Return (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
Return (x1 <= x2) element-wise.
Return (x1 > x2) element-wise.
Return (x1 < x2) element-wise.
numpy.core.defchararray.equal(x1, x2)
Unlike numpy.equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the end of
the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like of str or unicode
Input arrays of the same shape.
Returns
out : {ndarray, bool}
Output array of bools, or a single bool if x1 and x2 are scalars.
See Also:
not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.not_equal(x1, x2)
Unlike numpy.not_equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the
end of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.greater_equal(x1, x2)
Return (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.greater_equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from
the end of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
equal, not_equal, less_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.less_equal(x1, x2)
Return (x1 <= x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.less_equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the
end of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
equal, not_equal, greater_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.greater(x1, x2)
Return (x1 > x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.greater, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the end
of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
Parameters
Returns
543

See Also:
equal, not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, less
numpy.core.defchararray.less(x1, x2)
Return (x1 < x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.greater, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the end
of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
equal, not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater
3.4.3 String information

count(a, sub[, start, end])
find(a, sub[, start, end])
index(a, sub[, start, end])
isalpha(a)
isdecimal(a)
isdigit(a)
islower(a)
isnumeric(a)
isspace(a)
istitle(a)
isupper(a)
rfind(a, sub[, start, end])
rindex(a, sub[, start, end])
startswith(a, prefix[, start, end])
Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in the range
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least o
For each element, return True if there are only decimal
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one ch
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at l
For each element, return True if there are only numeric
Returns true for each element if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is a
Returns true for each element if the element is a titlecased string and there is at least one chara
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at l
For each element in a, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such
numpy.core.defchararray.count(a, sub, start=0, end=None)

Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in the range [start, end].
Calls str.count element-wise.
Parameters
sub : str or unicode
The substring to search for.
start, end : int, optional
Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as slice notation to specify the range
in which to count.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of ints.
See Also:
str.count
Examples
>>> c
dtype=|S7)
>>> np.char.count(c, A)
array([3, 1, 1])
>>> np.char.count(c, aA)
array([3, 1, 0])
>>> np.char.count(c, A, start=1, end=4)
array([2, 1, 1])
>>> np.char.count(c, A, start=1, end=3)
array([1, 0, 0])
numpy.core.defchararray.find(a, sub, start=0, end=None)

Calls str.find element-wise.
For each element, return the lowest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub is contained
in the range [start, end].
Parameters
Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.
Returns
out : ndarray or int
Output array of ints. Returns -1 if sub is not found.
See Also:
str.find
numpy.core.defchararray.index(a, sub, start=0, end=None)
Calls str.index element-wise.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of ints. Returns -1 if sub is not found.
545
See Also:
find, str.find
numpy.core.defchararray.isalpha(a)
false otherwise.
Calls str.isalpha element-wise.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of bools
See Also:
str.isalpha
numpy.core.defchararray.isdecimal(a)
For each element, return True if there are only decimal characters in the element.
Calls unicode.isdecimal element-wise.
Decimal characters include digit characters, and all characters that that can be used to form decimal-radix
numbers, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO.
Parameters
a : array_like, unicode
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray, bool
Array of booleans identical in shape to a.
See Also:
unicode.isdecimal
numpy.core.defchararray.isdigit(a)
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
Calls str.isdigit element-wise.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.isdigit
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.core.defchararray.islower(a)
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one cased
Calls str.islower element-wise.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.islower
numpy.core.defchararray.isnumeric(a)
For each element, return True if there are only numeric characters in the element.
Calls unicode.isnumeric element-wise.
Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters that have the Unicode numeric value property,
e.g. U+2155, VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH.
Parameters
a : array_like, unicode
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray, bool
Array of booleans of same shape as a.
See Also:
unicode.isnumeric
numpy.core.defchararray.isspace(a)
Calls str.isspace element-wise.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.isspace
numpy.core.defchararray.istitle(a)
otherwise.
Call str.istitle element-wise.
547

Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.istitle
numpy.core.defchararray.isupper(a)
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
Call str.isupper element-wise.
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
str.isupper
numpy.core.defchararray.rfind(a, sub, start=0, end=None)
For each element in a, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub is
contained within [start, end].
Calls str.rfind element-wise.
Parameters
Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of ints. Return -1 on failure.
See Also:
str.rfind
numpy.core.defchararray.rindex(a, sub, start=0, end=None)
Calls str.rindex element-wise.
Parameters
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Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
out : ndarray
Output array of ints.
See Also:
rfind, str.rindex
numpy.core.defchararray.startswith(a, prefix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in a starts with prefix, otherwise False.
Calls str.startswith element-wise.
Parameters
prefix : str
With optional start, test beginning at that position. With optional end, stop comparing
at that position.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of booleans
See Also:
str.startswith
3.4.4 Convenience class

chararray
class numpy.core.defchararray.chararray
Note: The chararray class exists for backwards compatibility with Numarray, it is not recommended for
new development. Starting from numpy 1.4, if one needs arrays of strings, it is recommended to use arrays of
dtype object_, string_ or unicode_, and use the free functions in the numpy.char module for fast
vectorized string operations.
3.vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. endswith) and infix operators (e.g. "+",
"*", "%")
chararrays should be created using numpy.char.array or numpy.char.asarray, rather than this constructor directly.
This constructor creates the array, using buffer (with offset and strides) if it is not None. If buffer
549
is None, then constructs a new array with strides in C order, unless both len(shape) >= 2 and
order=Fortran, in which case strides is in Fortran order.
Parameters
shape : tuple
Shape of the array.
Length of each array element, in number of characters. Default is 1.
Are the array elements of type unicode (True) or string (False). Default is False.
buffer : int, optional
Memory address of the start of the array data. Default is None, in which case a new
array is created.
Fixed stride displacement from the beginning of an axis? Default is 0. Needs to be >=0.
strides : array_like of ints, optional
Strides for the array (see ndarray.strides for full description). Default is None.
The order in which the array data is stored in memory: C -> row major order (the
default), F -> column major (Fortran) order.
Examples
>>> charar = np.chararray((3, 3))
>>> charar[:] = a
>>> charar
chararray([[a, a, a],
[a, a, a],
[a, a, a]],
dtype=|S1)
>>> charar = np.chararray(charar.shape, itemsize=5)
>>> charar[:] = abc
>>> charar
chararray([[abc, abc, abc],
[abc, abc, abc],
[abc, abc, abc]],
dtype=|S5)
Attributes
T
base
ctypes
data
dtype
flags
flat
550

Chapter 3. Routines
imag
itemsize
nbytes
ndim
real
shape
size
strides

chararray.T
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
>>> x.T
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
chararray.base
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True

>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
chararray.ctypes
Parameters
None
Returns
c : Python object
551
See Also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
For example:
Examples
>>> import ctypes
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
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Chapter 3. Routines

chararray.data
chararray.dtype
Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype(int32)
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type numpy.dtype>
chararray.flags
Notes
access.
553
Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
(F)
DATA
(O)
ABLE
(W)
ALIGNED
(A)
COPY
(U)
FNC
FORC
(B)
CARRAY
(CA)
FARRAY
(FA)
chararray.flat
iterator object.
See Also:
flatten
flatiter
Examples
>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
chararray.imag
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.imag
array([ 0.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype(float64)
chararray.itemsize
Examples
>>>
>>>
8
>>>
>>>
16
x.itemsize
x.itemsize
chararray.nbytes
Notes
Examples
>>> x.nbytes
480
480
chararray.ndim
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> x.ndim
1
555
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))

>>> y.ndim
3
chararray.real
See Also:
numpy.real
equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
>>> x.real
array([ 1.
, 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype(float64)
chararray.shape
Notes
elements
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
0.],
0.],
0.]])
unchanged
chararray.size
Examples
>>> x.size
30
30
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Chapter 3. Routines
chararray.strides
See Also:
Notes
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
(20, 4).
Examples
>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
17
>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
813
Methods
copy([order])

557
count(sub[, start, end])

decode([encoding, errors])
dump(file)
dumps()
encode([encoding, errors])
endswith(suffix[, start, end])
expandtabs([tabsize])
fill(value)
find(sub[, start, end])
flatten([order])
index(sub[, start, end])
isalnum()
isalpha()
isdecimal()
isdigit()
islower()
isnumeric()
isspace()
istitle()
isupper()
item(*args)
join(seq)
ljust(width[, fillchar])
lower()
lstrip([chars])
nonzero()
ravel([order])
replace(old, new[, count])
rfind(sub[, start, end])
rindex(sub[, start, end])
rjust(width[, fillchar])
rsplit([sep, maxsplit])
rstrip([chars])
split([sep, maxsplit])
splitlines([keepends])
squeeze([axis])
startswith(prefix[, start, end])
strip([chars])
swapcase()
558

Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in
Return a copy of each string element where all tab characters are replaced by one or m
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at lea
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and th
Returns true for each element if there are only whitespace characters in the string and
Returns true for each element if the element is a titlecased string and there is at least o
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and th
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring o
For each element in self, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is f
For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boun
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters remove
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with uppercase characters convert
Chapter 3. Routines
title()
tolist()
tostring([order])
translate(table[, deletechars])
transpose(*axes)
upper()
view([dtype, type])
zfill(width)

For each element in self, return a titlecased version of the string: words start with upp
For each element in self, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in t
chararray.astype(dtype, order=K, casting=unsafe, subok=True, copy=True)

Parameters
Default is K.
allowed.
of a copy.
Returns
arr_t : ndarray
Raises
ComplexWarning
559

a.real.astype(t).
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
chararray.copy(order=C)
Parameters
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
chararray.count(sub, start=0, end=None)

Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in the range [start,
end].
See Also:
char.count
chararray.decode(encoding=None, errors=None)
See Also:
char.decode
560
Chapter 3. Routines
chararray.dump(file)
Parameters
file : str
chararray.dumps()
array.
Parameters
None
chararray.encode(encoding=None, errors=None)
See Also:
char.encode
chararray.endswith(suffix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self ends with suffix, otherwise False.
See Also:
char.endswith
chararray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Return a copy of each string element where all tab characters are replaced by one or more spaces.
See Also:
char.expandtabs
chararray.fill(value)
Parameters
value : scalar
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
chararray.find(sub, start=0, end=None)

See Also:
char.find
chararray.flatten(order=C)
561
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
chararray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
chararray.index(sub, start=0, end=None)

See Also:
char.index
chararray.isalnum()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one
See Also:
char.isalnum
chararray.isalpha()
false otherwise.
See Also:
char.isalpha
chararray.isdecimal()
For each element in self, return True if there are only decimal characters in the element.
See Also:
char.isdecimal
chararray.isdigit()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See Also:
char.isdigit
chararray.islower()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one
cased character, false otherwise.
See Also:
char.islower
chararray.isnumeric()
For each element in self, return True if there are only numeric characters in the element.
See Also:
char.isnumeric
chararray.isspace()
See Also:
char.isspace
chararray.istitle()
otherwise.
See Also:
563
char.istitle
chararray.isupper()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one
See Also:
char.isupper
chararray.item(*args)
Parameters
Returns
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
chararray.join(seq)
See Also:
char.join
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Chapter 3. Routines
chararray.ljust(width, fillchar= )
See Also:
char.ljust
chararray.lower()
See Also:
char.lower
chararray.lstrip(chars=None)
See Also:
char.lstrip
chararray.nonzero()
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
equivalent function
chararray.put(indices, values, mode=raise)
See Also:
numpy.put
equivalent function
chararray.ravel([order ])
See Also:
numpy.ravel
equivalent function
ndarray.flat
chararray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.repeat
equivalent function
565
chararray.replace(old, new, count=None)

For each element in self, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
See Also:
char.replace
chararray.reshape(shape, order=C)
See Also:
numpy.reshape
equivalent function
chararray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Parameters
Returns
None
Raises
ValueError
must be changed.
SystemError
See Also:
resize
Notes
Examples
566
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=C)

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order=F)
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
chararray.rfind(sub, start=0, end=None)

For each element in self, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub
is contained within [start, end].
See Also:
char.rfind
chararray.rindex(sub, start=0, end=None)
See Also:
char.rindex
chararray.rjust(width, fillchar= )
See Also:
char.rjust
chararray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
See Also:
567
char.rsplit
chararray.rstrip(chars=None)
See Also:
char.rstrip
chararray.searchsorted(v, side=left, sorter=None)
See Also:
numpy.searchsorted
equivalent function
chararray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)
Parameters
val : object
Returns
None
See Also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000,
1.48219694e-323,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.00000000e+000,
[ 1.48219694e-323,
1.48219694e-323,
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
568
1.48219694e-323],
1.48219694e-323],
1.00000000e+000]])
Chapter 3. Routines
[ 0.,
[ 0.,
1.,
0.,
0.],
1.]])
chararray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Parameters
Notes
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
569
chararray.sort(axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Parameters
See Also:
numpy.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
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Chapter 3. Routines
chararray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
See Also:
char.split
chararray.splitlines(keepends=None)
For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
See Also:
char.splitlines
chararray.squeeze(axis=None)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
chararray.startswith(prefix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self starts with prefix, otherwise False.
See Also:
char.startswith
chararray.strip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
See Also:
char.strip
chararray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
chararray.swapcase()
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
vice versa.
See Also:
char.swapcase
chararray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)
See Also:
571
numpy.take
equivalent function
chararray.title()
For each element in self, return a titlecased version of the string: words start with uppercase characters, all
remaining cased characters are lowercase.
See Also:
char.title
chararray.tofile(fid, sep=, format=%s)
Parameters
fid : file or str
sep : str
format : str
Notes
chararray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters
none
Returns
y : list
Notes
Examples
>>>
>>>
[1,
>>>
572
a = np.array([1, 2])
a.tolist()
2]
a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
chararray.tostring(order=C)
Parameters
array.
Returns
s : str
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> x.tostring()
True
>>> x.tostring(F)
chararray.translate(table, deletechars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters have been mapped through the given translation
table.
See Also:
char.translate
chararray.transpose(*axes)
= (i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
Parameters
j-th axis.
573
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
chararray.upper()
See Also:
char.upper
chararray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
Parameters
type preservation.
Notes
574
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples

>>> y
>>> print type(y)

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print x
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]

>>> z.a
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
575
chararray.zfill(width)
See Also:
char.zfill
argsort
3.5 C-Types Foreign Function Interface (numpy.ctypeslib)

numpy.ctypeslib.as_array(obj, shape=None)
Create a numpy array from a ctypes array or a ctypes POINTER. The numpy array shares the memory with the
ctypes object.
The size parameter must be given if converting from a ctypes POINTER. The size parameter is ignored if
converting from a ctypes array
numpy.ctypeslib.as_ctypes(obj)
Create and return a ctypes object from a numpy array. Actually anything that exposes the __array_interface__
is accepted.
numpy.ctypeslib.ctypes_load_library(*args, **kwds)
ctypes_load_library is deprecated, use load_library instead!
numpy.ctypeslib.load_library(libname, loader_path)
numpy.ctypeslib.ndpointer(dtype=None, ndim=None, shape=None, flags=None)
Array-checking restype/argtypes.
An ndpointer instance is used to describe an ndarray in restypes and argtypes specifications. This approach
is more flexible than using, for example, POINTER(c_double), since several restrictions can be specified,
which are verified upon calling the ctypes function. These include data type, number of dimensions, shape and
flags. If a given array does not satisfy the specified restrictions, a TypeError is raised.
Parameters
Array data-type.
ndim : int, optional
shape : tuple of ints, optional
Array shape.
flags : str or tuple of str
Array flags; may be one or more of:
C_CONTIGUOUS / C / CONTIGUOUS
F_CONTIGUOUS / F / FORTRAN
OWNDATA / O
WRITEABLE / W
ALIGNED / A
UPDATEIFCOPY / U
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
klass : ndpointer type object
A type object, which is an _ndtpr instance containing dtype, ndim, shape and flags
information.
Raises
TypeError
If a given array does not satisfy the specified restrictions.
Examples
>>> clib.somefunc.argtypes = [np.ctypeslib.ndpointer(dtype=np.float64,
...
ndim=1,
...
flags=C_CONTIGUOUS)]
...
>>> clib.somefunc(np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.float64))
...
3.6 Datetime Support Functions

3.6.1 Business Day Functions
busdaycalendar
is_busday(dates[, weekmask, holidays, ...])
busday_offset(dates, offsets[, roll, ...])
busday_count(begindates, enddates[, ...])
A business day calendar object that efficiently stores information defining valid days
Calculates which of the given dates are valid days, and which are not.
First adjusts the date to fall on a valid day according to the roll rule, then applies o
Counts the number of valid days between begindates and enddates, not including the
class numpy.busdaycalendar
A business day calendar object that efficiently stores information defining valid days for the busday family of
functions.
The default valid days are Monday through Friday (business days). A busdaycalendar object can be specified
with any set of weekly valid days, plus an optional holiday dates that always will be invalid.
Once a busdaycalendar object is created, the weekmask and holidays cannot be modified. New in version 1.7.0.
Parameters
weekmask : str or array_like of bool, optional
A seven-element array indicating which of Monday through Sunday are valid days.
May be specified as a length-seven list or array, like [1,1,1,1,1,0,0]; a length-seven
string, like 1111100; or a string like Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri, made up of 3-character
abbreviations for weekdays, optionally separated by white space. Valid abbreviations
are: Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
holidays : array_like of datetime64[D], optional
An array of dates to consider as invalid dates, no matter which weekday they fall upon.
Holiday dates may be specified in any order, and NaT (not-a-time) dates are ignored.
This list is saved in a normalized form that is suited for fast calculations of valid days.
Returns
out : busdaycalendar
A business day calendar object containing the specified weekmask and holidays values.
3.6. Datetime Support Functions
577
See Also:
is_busday
Returns a boolean array indicating valid days.
busday_offset
Applies an offset counted in valid days.
busday_count
Counts how many valid days are in a half-open date range.
Examples
>>> # Some important days in July
... bdd = np.busdaycalendar(
...
holidays=[2011-07-01, 2011-07-04, 2011-07-17])
>>> # Default is Monday to Friday weekdays
... bdd.weekmask
array([ True, True, True, True, True, False, False], dtype=bool)
>>> # Any holidays already on the weekend are removed
... bdd.holidays
array([2011-07-01, 2011-07-04], dtype=datetime64[D])
Attributes
weekmask
holidays
A copy of the seven-element boolean mask indicating valid days.

A copy of the holiday array indicating additional invalid days.
busdaycalendar.weekmask
A copy of the seven-element boolean mask indicating valid days.
busdaycalendar.holidays
A copy of the holiday array indicating additional invalid days.
Note: once a busdaycalendar object is created, you cannot modify the
weekmask or holidays. The attributes return copies of internal data.
numpy.is_busday(dates, weekmask=1111100, holidays=None, busdaycal=None, out=None)
Calculates which of the given dates are valid days, and which are not. New in version 1.7.0.
Parameters
dates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of dates to process.
An array of dates to consider as invalid dates. They may be specified in any order, and
NaT (not-a-time) dates are ignored. This list is saved in a normalized form that is suited
for fast calculations of valid days.
busdaycal : busdaycalendar, optional
578
Chapter 3. Routines
A busdaycalendar object which specifies the valid days. If this parameter is provided, neither weekmask nor holidays may be provided.
out : array of bool, optional
If provided, this array is filled with the result.
Returns
out : array of bool
An array with the same shape as dates, containing True for each valid day, and False
for each invalid day.
See Also:
busdaycalendar
An object that specifies a custom set of valid days.
busday_offset
busday_count
Examples
>>> # The weekdays are Friday, Saturday, and Monday
... np.is_busday([2011-07-01, 2011-07-02, 2011-07-18],
...
holidays=[2011-07-01, 2011-07-04, 2011-07-17])
array([False, False, True], dtype=bool)
numpy.busday_offset(dates, offsets, roll=raise, weekmask=1111100, holidays=None, busdaycal=None, out=None)

First adjusts the date to fall on a valid day according to the roll rule, then applies offsets to the given dates
counted in valid days. New in version 1.7.0.
Parameters
dates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of dates to process.
offsets : array_like of int
The array of offsets, which is broadcast with dates.
roll : {raise, nat, forward, following, backward, preceding, modifiedfollowing,
modifiedpreceding}, optional
How to treat dates that do not fall on a valid day. The default is raise.
raise means to raise an exception for an invalid day.
nat means to return a NaT (not-a-time) for an invalid day.
forward and following mean to take the first valid day later in time.
backward and preceding mean to take the first valid day earlier in time.
modifiedfollowing means to take the first valid day later in time unless it is across a
Month boundary, in which case to take the first valid day earlier in time.
modifiedpreceding means to take the first valid day earlier in time unless it is across
a Month boundary, in which case to take the first valid day later in time.
579
out : array of datetime64[D], optional
Returns
out : array of datetime64[D]
An array with a shape from broadcasting dates and offsets together, containing
the dates with offsets applied.
See Also:
busdaycalendar
is_busday
busday_count
Examples
>>> # First business day in October 2011 (not accounting for holidays)
... np.busday_offset(2011-10, 0, roll=forward)
>>> # Last business day in February 2012 (not accounting for holidays)
... np.busday_offset(2012-03, -1, roll=forward)
>>> # Third Wednesday in January 2011
... np.busday_offset(2011-01, 2, roll=forward, weekmask=Wed)
>>> # 2012 Mothers Day in Canada and the U.S.
... np.busday_offset(2012-05, 1, roll=forward, weekmask=Sun)
>>> # First business day on or after a date
... np.busday_offset(2011-03-20, 0, roll=forward)
>>> # First business day after a date
... np.busday_offset(2011-03-20, 1, roll=backward)
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Chapter 3. Routines

numpy.busday_count(begindates, enddates, weekmask=1111100, holidays=[], busdaycal=None,

out=None)
Counts the number of valid days between begindates and enddates, not including the day of enddates.
If enddates specifies a date value that is earlier than the corresponding begindates date value, the count
will be negative. New in version 1.7.0.
Parameters
begindates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of the first dates for counting.
enddates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of the end dates for counting, which are excluded from the count themselves.
out : array of int, optional
Returns
out : array of int
An array with a shape from broadcasting begindates and enddates together, containing the number of valid days between the begin and end dates.
See Also:
busdaycalendar
is_busday
busday_offset
Examples
581
>>>
...
21
>>>
...
260
>>>
...
53
# Number of weekdays in January 2011

np.busday_count(2011-01, 2011-02)
# Number of weekdays in 2011
np.busday_count(2011, 2012)
# Number of Saturdays in 2011
np.busday_count(2011, 2012, weekmask=Sat)
3.7 Data type routines

can_cast(from, totype, casting = )
promote_types(type1, type2)
min_scalar_type(a)
result_type(*arrays_and_dtypes)
common_type(*arrays)
obj2sctype(rep[, default])
Returns True if cast between data types can occur according to the
Returns the data type with the smallest size and smallest scalar kind to which both type1 an
For scalar a, returns the data type with the smallest size and smallest scalar kind which can h
Returns the type that results from applying the NumPy
Return a scalar type which is common to the input arrays.
Return the scalar dtype or NumPy equivalent of Python type of an object.
numpy.can_cast(from, totype, casting = safe)

Returns True if cast between data types can occur according to the casting rule. If from is a scalar or array
scalar, also returns True if the scalar value can be cast without overflow or truncation to an integer.
Parameters
from : dtype, dtype specifier, scalar, or array
Data type, scalar, or array to cast from.
totype : dtype or dtype specifier
Data type to cast to.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur.
allowed.
Returns
out : bool
True if cast can occur according to the casting rule.
See Also:
dtype, result_type
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
Basic examples
>>> np.can_cast(np.int32, np.int64)
True
>>> np.can_cast(np.float64, np.complex)
True
>>> np.can_cast(np.complex, np.float)
False
>>> np.can_cast(i8, f8)
True
>>> np.can_cast(i8, f4)
False
>>> np.can_cast(i4, S4)
True
Casting scalars
>>> np.can_cast(100, i1)
True
>>> np.can_cast(150, i1)
False
>>> np.can_cast(150, u1)
True
>>> np.can_cast(3.5e100, np.float32)
False
>>> np.can_cast(1000.0, np.float32)
True
Array scalar checks the value, array does not

>>> np.can_cast(np.array(1000.0), np.float32)
True
>>> np.can_cast(np.array([1000.0]), np.float32)
False
Using the casting rules

>>> np.can_cast(i8, i8, no)
True
>>> np.can_cast(<i8, >i8, no)
False
>>> np.can_cast(<i8, >i8, equiv)
True
>>> np.can_cast(<i4, >i8, equiv)
False
>>> np.can_cast(<i4, >i8, safe)
True
>>> np.can_cast(<i8, >i4, safe)
False
>>> np.can_cast(<i8, >i4, same_kind)
True
>>> np.can_cast(<i8, >u4, same_kind)
False
3.7. Data type routines
583
>>> np.can_cast(<i8, >u4, unsafe)

True
numpy.promote_types(type1, type2)
Returns the data type with the smallest size and smallest scalar kind to which both type1 and type2 may be
safely cast. The returned data type is always in native byte order.
This function is symmetric and associative.
Parameters
type1 : dtype or dtype specifier
First data type.
type2 : dtype or dtype specifier
Second data type.
Returns
out : dtype
The promoted data type.
See Also:
result_type, dtype, can_cast
Notes
Examples
>>> np.promote_types(f4, f8)
dtype(float64)
>>> np.promote_types(i8, f4)
dtype(float64)
>>> np.promote_types(>i8, <c8)
dtype(complex128)
>>> np.promote_types(i1, S8)
TypeError: invalid type promotion
numpy.min_scalar_type(a)
For scalar a, returns the data type with the smallest size and smallest scalar kind which can hold its value. For
non-scalar array a, returns the vectors dtype unmodified.
Floating point values are not demoted to integers, and complex values are not demoted to floats.
Parameters
a : scalar or array_like
The value whose minimal data type is to be found.
Returns
out : dtype
The minimal data type.
584
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
result_type, promote_types, dtype, can_cast
Notes
Examples
>>> np.min_scalar_type(10)
dtype(uint8)
>>> np.min_scalar_type(-260)
dtype(int16)
>>> np.min_scalar_type(3.1)
dtype(float16)
>>> np.min_scalar_type(1e50)
dtype(float64)
>>> np.min_scalar_type(np.arange(4,dtype=f8))
dtype(float64)
numpy.result_type(*arrays_and_dtypes)
Returns the type that results from applying the NumPy type promotion rules to the arguments.
Type promotion in NumPy works similarly to the rules in languages like C++, with some slight differences.
When both scalars and arrays are used, the arrays type takes precedence and the actual value of the scalar is
taken into account.
For example, calculating 3*a, where a is an array of 32-bit floats, intuitively should result in a 32-bit float output.
If the 3 is a 32-bit integer, the NumPy rules indicate it cant convert losslessly into a 32-bit float, so a 64-bit
float should be the result type. By examining the value of the constant, 3, we see that it fits in an 8-bit integer,
which can be cast losslessly into the 32-bit float.
Parameters
arrays_and_dtypes : list of arrays and dtypes
The operands of some operation whose result type is needed.
Returns
out : dtype
The result type.
See Also:
dtype, promote_types, min_scalar_type, can_cast
Notes
New in version 1.6.0. The specific algorithm used is as follows.
Categories are determined by first checking which of boolean, integer (int/uint), or floating point (float/complex)
the maximum kind of all the arrays and the scalars are.
If there are only scalars or the maximum category of the scalars is higher than the maximum category of the
arrays, the data types are combined with promote_types to produce the return value.
Otherwise, min_scalar_type is called on each array, and the resulting data types are all combined with
promote_types to produce the return value.
585
The set of int values is not a subset of the uint values for types with the same number of bits, something not
reflected in min_scalar_type, but handled as a special case in result_type.
Examples
>>> np.result_type(3, np.arange(7, dtype=i1))
dtype(int8)
>>> np.result_type(i4, c8)
dtype(complex128)
>>> np.result_type(3.0, -2)
dtype(float64)
numpy.common_type(*arrays)
Return a scalar type which is common to the input arrays.
The return type will always be an inexact (i.e. floating point) scalar type, even if all the arrays are integer arrays.
If one of the inputs is an integer array, the minimum precision type that is returned is a 64-bit floating point
dtype.
All input arrays can be safely cast to the returned dtype without loss of information.
Parameters
array1, array2, ... : ndarrays
Input arrays.
Returns
out : data type code
Data type code.
See Also:
dtype, mintypecode
Examples
>>> np.common_type(np.arange(2, dtype=np.float32))
<type numpy.float32>
>>> np.common_type(np.arange(2, dtype=np.float32), np.arange(2))
>>> np.common_type(np.arange(4), np.array([45, 6.j]), np.array([45.0]))
<type numpy.complex128>
numpy.obj2sctype(rep, default=None)
Return the scalar dtype or NumPy equivalent of Python type of an object.
Parameters
rep : any
The object of which the type is returned.
default : any, optional
If given, this is returned for objects whose types can not be determined. If not given,
None is returned for those objects.
Returns
dtype : dtype or Python type
The data type of rep.
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Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
sctype2char, issctype, issubsctype, issubdtype, maximum_sctype
Examples
>>> np.obj2sctype(np.int32)
<type numpy.int32>
>>> np.obj2sctype(np.array([1., 2.]))
>>> np.obj2sctype(np.array([1.j]))
<type numpy.complex128>
>>> np.obj2sctype(dict)
<type numpy.object_>
>>> np.obj2sctype(string)
<type numpy.string_>
>>> np.obj2sctype(1, default=list)
<type list>
3.7.1 Creating data types

dtype
format_parser(formats, names, titles[, ...])

Class to convert formats, names, titles description to a dtype.
class numpy.dtype
A numpy array is homogeneous, and contains elements described by a dtype object. A dtype object can be
constructed from different combinations of fundamental numeric types.
Parameters
obj
Object to be converted to a data type object.
Add padding to the fields to match what a C compiler would output for a similar Cstruct. Can be True only if obj is a dictionary or a comma-separated string. If a struct
dtype is being created, this also sets a sticky alignment flag isalignedstruct.
Make a new copy of the data-type object. If False, the result may just be a reference
to a built-in data-type object.
See Also:
result_type
Examples
Using array-scalar type:
>>> np.dtype(np.int16)
dtype(int16)
587
Record, one field name f1, containing int16:

>>> np.dtype([(f1, np.int16)])
dtype([(f1, <i2)])
Record, one field named f1, in itself containing a record with one field:
>>> np.dtype([(f1, [(f1, np.int16)])])
dtype([(f1, [(f1, <i2)])])
Record, two fields: the first field contains an unsigned int, the second an int32:
>>> np.dtype([(f1, np.uint), (f2, np.int32)])
dtype([(f1, <u4), (f2, <i4)])
Using array-protocol type strings:

>>> np.dtype([(a,f8),(b,S10)])
dtype([(a, <f8), (b, |S10)])
Using comma-separated field formats. The shape is (2,3):

>>> np.dtype("i4, (2,3)f8")
dtype([(f0, <i4), (f1, <f8, (2, 3))])
Using tuples. int is a fixed type, 3 the fields shape. void is a flexible type, here of size 10:
>>> np.dtype([(hello,(np.int,3)),(world,np.void,10)])
dtype([(hello, <i4, 3), (world, |V10)])
Subdivide int16 into 2 int8s, called x and y. 0 and 1 are the offsets in bytes:
>>> np.dtype((np.int16, {x:(np.int8,0), y:(np.int8,1)}))
dtype((<i2, [(x, |i1), (y, |i1)]))
Using dictionaries. Two fields named gender and age:

>>> np.dtype({names:[gender,age], formats:[S1,np.uint8]})
dtype([(gender, |S1), (age, |u1)])
Offsets in bytes, here 0 and 25:

>>> np.dtype({surname:(S25,0),age:(np.uint8,25)})
dtype([(surname, |S25), (age, |u1)])
Attributes
base
descr
fields
hasobject
isalignedstruct
isbuiltin
isnative
metadata
name
names
shape

Boolean indicating whether the dtype is a struct which maintains field alignment.
588
Chapter 3. Routines

str
subdtype
dtype.base
dtype.descr
dtype.fields
The dictionary is indexed by keys that are the names of the fields. Each entry in the dictionary is a tuple
fully describing the field:
If present, the optional title can be any object (if it is a string or unicode then it will also be a key in
the fields dictionary, otherwise its meta-data). Notice also that the first two elements of the tuple can be
passed directly as arguments to the ndarray.getfield and ndarray.setfield methods.
See Also:
Examples
>>> print dt.fields
dtype.hasobject
Recall that what is actually in the ndarray memory representing the Python object is the memory address
of that object (a pointer). Special handling may be required, and this attribute is useful for distinguishing
data types that may contain arbitrary Python objects and data-types that wont.
dtype.isalignedstruct
Boolean indicating whether the dtype is a struct which maintains field alignment. This flag is sticky, so
when combining multiple structs together, it is preserved and produces new dtypes which are also aligned.
dtype.isbuiltin
Read-only.
0
1
2

if the dtype is for a user-defined numpy type A user-defined type uses the numpy C-API
machinery to extend numpy to handle a new array type. See user.user-defined-data-types in the
Numpy manual.
Examples
589
dt = np.dtype(i2)
dt.isbuiltin
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
1
>>>
>>>
0
dt = np.dtype(f8)
dt.isbuiltin
dt.isbuiltin
dtype.isnative
dtype.metadata
dtype.name
dtype.names
The names are ordered according to increasing byte offset. This can be used, for example, to walk through
all of the named fields in offset order.
Examples
>>> dt.names
(name, grades)
dtype.shape
dtype.str
dtype.subdtype
The shape is the fixed shape of the sub-array described by this data type, and item_dtype the data type of
the array.
If a field whose dtype object has this attribute is retrieved, then the extra dimensions implied by shape are
tacked on to the end of the retrieved array.
Methods
Parameters
590
Chapter 3. Routines
*
*
*
*
*
S {<,
{>,
{=,
{|,
swap
L}
B}
N}
I}

- little endian
- big endian
- native order
Returns
new_dtype : dtype
Notes
Examples
>>> import sys
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
True
class numpy.format_parser(formats, names, titles, aligned=False, byteorder=None)

Class to convert formats, names, titles description to a dtype.
After constructing the format_parser object, the dtype attribute is the converted data-type: dtype =
format_parser(formats, names, titles).dtype
Parameters
formats : str or list of str
The format description, either specified as a string with comma-separated format descriptions in the form f8, i4, a5, or a list of format description strings in the
591
form [f8, i4, a5].

names : str or list/tuple of str
The field names, either specified as a comma-separated string in the form col1,
col2, col3, or as a list or tuple of strings in the form [col1, col2,
col3]. An empty list can be used, in that case default field names (f0, f1, ...) are
used.
titles : sequence
Sequence of title strings. An empty list can be used to leave titles out.
aligned : bool, optional
If True, align the fields by padding as the C-compiler would. Default is False.
byteorder : str, optional
If specified, all the fields will be changed to the provided byte-order. Otherwise, the default byte-order is used. For all available string specifiers, see
dtype.newbyteorder.
See Also:
dtype, typename, sctype2char
Examples
>>> np.format_parser([f8, i4, a5], [col1, col2, col3],
...
[T1, T2, T3]).dtype
dtype([((T1, col1), <f8), ((T2, col2), <i4),
((T3, col3), |S5)])
names and/or titles can be empty lists. If titles is an empty list, titles will simply not appear. If names is empty,
default field names will be used.
>>> np.format_parser([f8, i4, a5], [col1, col2, col3],
...
[]).dtype
dtype([(col1, <f8), (col2, <i4), (col3, |S5)])
>>> np.format_parser([f8, i4, a5], [], []).dtype
dtype([(f0, <f8), (f1, <i4), (f2, |S5)])
Attributes
dtype
(dtype) The converted data-type.
3.7.2 Data type information

finfo
iinfo(type)
MachAr([float_conv, int_conv, ...])
Machine limits for floating point types.

Machine limits for integer types.
Diagnosing machine parameters.
class numpy.finfo
Parameters
dtype : float, dtype, or instance
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Chapter 3. Routines
Kind of floating point data-type about which to get information.

See Also:
MachAr
The implementation of the tests that produce this information.
iinfo
The equivalent for integer data types.
Notes
For developers of NumPy: do not instantiate this at the module level. The initial calculation of these parameters
is expensive and negatively impacts import times. These objects are cached, so calling finfo() repeatedly
inside your functions is not a problem.
Attributes
eps
epsneg
iexp
machar
machep
max
maxexp
min
minexp
negep
nexp
nmant
precision
resolution
tiny
(float) The smallest representable positive number such that 1.0 + eps != 1.0. Type of eps
is an appropriate floating point type.
(floating point number of the appropriate type) The smallest representable positive number such
that 1.0 - epsneg != 1.0.
(int) The number of bits in the exponent portion of the floating point representation.
(MachAr) The object which calculated these parameters and holds more detailed information.
(int) The exponent that yields eps.
(floating point number of the appropriate type) The largest representable number.
(int) The smallest positive power of the base (2) that causes overflow.
(floating point number of the appropriate type) The smallest representable number, typically
-max.
(int) The most negative power of the base (2) consistent with there being no leading 0s in the
mantissa.
(int) The exponent that yields epsneg.
(int) The number of bits in the exponent including its sign and bias.
(int) The number of bits in the mantissa.
(int) The approximate number of decimal digits to which this kind of float is precise.
(floating point number of the appropriate type) The approximate decimal resolution of this type,
i.e., 10**-precision.
(float) The smallest positive usable number. Type of tiny is an appropriate floating point type.
class numpy.iinfo(type)
Parameters
type : integer type, dtype, or instance
The kind of integer data type to get information about.
See Also:
finfo
The equivalent for floating point data types.
Examples
With types:
593
>>> ii16 = np.iinfo(np.int16)

>>> ii16.min
-32768
>>> ii16.max
32767
>>> ii32 = np.iinfo(np.int32)
>>> ii32.min
-2147483648
>>> ii32.max
2147483647
With instances:
>>> ii32 = np.iinfo(np.int32(10))
>>> ii32.min
-2147483648
>>> ii32.max
2147483647
Attributes
min
max
Minimum value of given dtype.

Maximum value of given dtype.
iinfo.min
Minimum value of given dtype.
iinfo.max
Maximum value of given dtype.
class numpy.MachAr(float_conv=<type float>, int_conv=<type int>, float_to_float=<type float>,
float_to_str=<function <lambda> at 0x248ab90>, title=Python floating point number)
Diagnosing machine parameters.
Parameters
float_conv : function, optional
Function that converts an integer or integer array to a float or float array. Default is
float.
int_conv : function, optional
Function that converts a float or float array to an integer or integer array. Default is int.
float_to_float : function, optional
Function that converts a float array to float. Default is float. Note that this does not
seem to do anything useful in the current implementation.
float_to_str : function, optional
Function that converts a single float to a string. Default is lambda v:%24.16e
%v.
title : str, optional
Title that is printed in the string representation of MachAr.
See Also:
594
Chapter 3. Routines
finfo
iinfo
References
[R1]
Attributes
ibeta
it
machep
eps
negep
epsneg
iexp
minexp
xmin
maxexp
xmax
irnd
ngrd
epsilon
tiny
huge
precision
resolution
(int) Radix in which numbers are represented.

(int) Number of base-ibeta digits in the floating point mantissa M.
(int) Exponent of the smallest (most negative) power of ibeta that, added to 1.0, gives something
different from 1.0
(float) Floating-point number beta**machep (floating point precision)
(int) Exponent of the smallest power of ibeta that, substracted from 1.0, gives something
different from 1.0.
(float) Floating-point number beta**negep.
(int) Number of bits in the exponent (including its sign and bias).
(int) Smallest (most negative) power of ibeta consistent with there being no leading zeros in the
mantissa.
(float) Floating point number beta**minexp (the smallest [in magnitude] usable floating
value).
(int) Smallest (positive) power of ibeta that causes overflow.
(float) (1-epsneg) * beta**maxexp (the largest [in magnitude] usable floating value).
(int) In range(6), information on what kind of rounding is done in addition, and on how
underflow is handled.
(int) Number of guard digits used when truncating the product of two mantissas to fit the
representation.
(float) Same as eps.
(float) Same as xmin.
(float) Same as xmax.
(float) - int(-log10(eps))
(float) - 10**(-precision)
3.7.3 Data type testing

issctype(rep)
issubdtype(arg1, arg2)
issubsctype(arg1, arg2)
issubclass_(arg1, arg2)
find_common_type(array_types, scalar_types)
Determines whether the given object represents a scalar data-type.

Returns True if first argument is a typecode lower/equal in type hierarchy.
Determine if the first argument is a subclass of the second argument.
Determine if a class is a subclass of a second class.
Determine common type following standard coercion rules.
numpy.issctype(rep)
Determines whether the given object represents a scalar data-type.
Parameters
rep : any
595
If rep is an instance of a scalar dtype, True is returned. If not, False is returned.

Returns
out : bool
Boolean result of check whether rep is a scalar dtype.
See Also:
issubsctype, issubdtype, obj2sctype, sctype2char
Examples
>>> np.issctype(np.int32)
True
>>> np.issctype(list)
False
>>> np.issctype(1.1)
False
Strings are also a scalar type:

>>> np.issctype(np.dtype(str))
True
numpy.issubdtype(arg1, arg2)
Returns True if first argument is a typecode lower/equal in type hierarchy.
Parameters
arg1, arg2 : dtype_like
dtype or string representing a typecode.
Returns
out : bool
See Also:
issubsctype, issubclass_
numpy.core.numerictypes
Overview of numpy type hierarchy.
Examples
>>> np.issubdtype(S1, str)
True
>>> np.issubdtype(np.float64, np.float32)
False
numpy.issubsctype(arg1, arg2)
Determine if the first argument is a subclass of the second argument.
Parameters
arg1, arg2 : dtype or dtype specifier
Data-types.
Returns
out : bool
The result.
596
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
issctype, issubdtype, obj2sctype
Examples
>>> np.issubsctype(S8, str)
True
>>> np.issubsctype(np.array([1]), np.int)
True
>>> np.issubsctype(np.array([1]), np.float)
False
numpy.issubclass_(arg1, arg2)
Determine if a class is a subclass of a second class.
issubclass_ is equivalent to the Python built-in issubclass, except that it returns False instead of raising
a TypeError is one of the arguments is not a class.
Parameters
arg1 : class
Input class. True is returned if arg1 is a subclass of arg2.
arg2 : class or tuple of classes.
Input class. If a tuple of classes, True is returned if arg1 is a subclass of any of the tuple
elements.
Returns
out : bool
Whether arg1 is a subclass of arg2 or not.
See Also:
issubsctype, issubdtype, issctype
Examples
>>> np.issubclass_(np.int32, np.int)
True
>>> np.issubclass_(np.int32, np.float)
False
numpy.find_common_type(array_types, scalar_types)
Determine common type following standard coercion rules.
Parameters
array_types : sequence
A list of dtypes or dtype convertible objects representing arrays.
scalar_types : sequence
A list of dtypes or dtype convertible objects representing scalars.
Returns
datatype : dtype
The common data type, which is the maximum of array_types ignoring scalar_types,
unless the maximum of scalar_types is of a different kind (dtype.kind). If the kind
is not understood, then None is returned.
597
See Also:
dtype, common_type, can_cast, mintypecode
Examples
>>> np.find_common_type([], [np.int64, np.float32, np.complex])
dtype(complex128)
>>> np.find_common_type([np.int64, np.float32], [])
dtype(float64)
The standard casting rules ensure that a scalar cannot up-cast an array unless the scalar is of a fundamentally
different kind of data (i.e. under a different hierarchy in the data type hierarchy) then the array:
>>> np.find_common_type([np.float32], [np.int64, np.float64])
dtype(float32)
Complex is of a different type, so it up-casts the float in the array_types argument:

>>> np.find_common_type([np.float32], [np.complex])
dtype(complex128)
Type specifier strings are convertible to dtypes and can therefore be used instead of dtypes:
>>> np.find_common_type([f4, f4, i4], [c8])
dtype(complex128)
3.7.4 Miscellaneous
typename(char)
sctype2char(sctype)
mintypecode(typechars[, typeset, default])
Return a description for the given data type code.

Return the string representation of a scalar dtype.
Return the character for the minimum-size type to which given types can be safely ca
numpy.typename(char)
Return a description for the given data type code.
Parameters
char : str
Data type code.
Returns
out : str
Description of the input data type code.
See Also:
dtype, typecodes
Examples
>>> typechars = [S1, ?, B, D, G, F, I, H, L, O, Q,
...
S, U, V, b, d, g, f, i, h, l, q]
>>> for typechar in typechars:
...
print typechar, : , np.typename(typechar)
...
S1 : character
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Chapter 3. Routines
?
B
D
G
F
I
H
L
O
Q
S
U
V
b
d
g
f
i
h
l
q
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
bool
unsigned char
complex double precision
complex long double precision
complex single precision
unsigned integer
unsigned short
unsigned long integer
object
unsigned long long integer
string
unicode
void
signed char
double precision
long precision
single precision
integer
short
long integer
long long integer
numpy.sctype2char(sctype)
Return the string representation of a scalar dtype.
Parameters
sctype : scalar dtype or object
If a scalar dtype, the corresponding string character is returned. If an object,
sctype2char tries to infer its scalar type and then return the corresponding string
character.
Returns
typechar : str
The string character corresponding to the scalar type.
Raises
ValueError
If sctype is an object for which the type can not be inferred.
See Also:
obj2sctype, issctype, issubsctype, mintypecode
Examples
>>> for sctype in [np.int32, np.float, np.complex, np.string_, np.ndarray]:
...
print np.sctype2char(sctype)
l
d
D
S
O
>>> x = np.array([1., 2-1.j])
>>> np.sctype2char(x)
D
>>> np.sctype2char(list)
O
599
numpy.mintypecode(typechars, typeset=GDFgdf, default=d)

Return the character for the minimum-size type to which given types can be safely cast.
The returned type character must represent the smallest size dtype such that an array of the returned type can
handle the data from an array of all types in typechars (or if typechars is an array, then its dtype.char).
Parameters
typechars : list of str or array_like
If a list of strings, each string should represent a dtype. If array_like, the character
representation of the array dtype is used.
typeset : str or list of str, optional
The set of characters that the returned character is chosen from. The default set is
GDFgdf.
default : str, optional
The default character, this is returned if none of the characters in typechars matches a
character in typeset.
Returns
typechar : str
The character representing the minimum-size type that was found.
See Also:
dtype, sctype2char, maximum_sctype
Examples
>>> np.mintypecode([d, f, S])
d
>>> x = np.array([1.1, 2-3.j])
>>> np.mintypecode(x)
D
>>> np.mintypecode(abceh, default=G)
G
3.8 Optionally Scipy-accelerated routines (numpy.dual)

Aliases for functions which may be accelerated by Scipy.
Scipy can be built to use accelerated or otherwise improved libraries for FFTs, linear algebra, and special functions.
This module allows developers to transparently support these accelerated functions when scipy is available but still
support users who have only installed Numpy.
3.8.1 Linear algebra

cholesky(a)
det(a)
eig(a)
eigh(a[, UPLO])
600
Cholesky decomposition.
Compute the determinant of an array.
Compute the eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of a square array.
Return the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian or symmetric matrix.
Chapter 3. Routines

eigvals(a)
Compute the eigenvalues of a general matrix.
eigvalsh(a[, UPLO])
Compute the eigenvalues of a Hermitian or real symmetric matrix.
inv(a)
Compute the (multiplicative) inverse of a matrix.
lstsq(a, b[, rcond])
Return the least-squares solution to a linear matrix equation.
norm(x[, ord, axis])
Matrix or vector norm.
pinv(a[, rcond])
Compute the (Moore-Penrose) pseudo-inverse of a matrix.
solve(a, b)
Solve a linear matrix equation, or system of linear scalar equations.
svd(a[, full_matrices, compute_uv]) Singular Value Decomposition.
3.8.2 FFT
fft(a[, n, axis])
fft2(a[, s, axes])
fftn(a[, s, axes])
ifft(a[, n, axis])
ifft2(a[, s, axes])
ifftn(a[, s, axes])
Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.

Compute the 2-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform
Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.
Compute the one-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Transform.
Compute the 2-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Transform.
Compute the N-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Transform.
3.8.3 Other
i0(x)
Modified Bessel function of the first kind, order 0.
3.9 Mathematical functions with automatic domain (numpy.emath)

Note: numpy.emath is a preferred alias for numpy.lib.scimath, available after numpy is imported.
Wrapper functions to more user-friendly calling of certain math functions whose output data-type is different than the
input data-type in certain domains of the input.
For example, for functions like log with branch cuts, the versions in this module provide the mathematically valid
answers in the complex plane:
>>> import math
>>> from numpy.lib import scimath
>>> scimath.log(-math.exp(1)) == (1+1j*math.pi)
True
Similarly, sqrt, other base logarithms, power and trig functions are correctly handled. See their respective docstrings for specific examples.
3.10 Floating point error handling

3.10.1 Setting and getting error handling
seterr([all, divide, over, under, invalid])

3.9. Mathematical functions with automatic domain (numpy.emath)
601
geterr()
seterrcall(func)
geterrcall()
errstate(**kwargs)

Get the current way of handling floating-point errors.
Return the current callback function used on floating-point errors.
Context manager for floating-point error handling.
numpy.seterr(all=None, divide=None, over=None, under=None, invalid=None)

Note that operations on integer scalar types (such as int16) are handled like floating point, and are affected by
these settings.
Parameters
all : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Set treatment for all types of floating-point errors at once:
ignore: Take no action when the exception occurs.
warn: Print a RuntimeWarning (via the Python warnings module).
raise: Raise a FloatingPointError.
call: Call a function specified using the seterrcall function.
print: Print a warning directly to stdout.
log: Record error in a Log object specified by seterrcall.
The default is not to change the current behavior.
divide : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for division by zero.
over : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for floating-point overflow.
under : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for floating-point underflow.
invalid : {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}, optional
Treatment for invalid floating-point operation.
Returns
old_settings : dict
Dictionary containing the old settings.
See Also:
seterrcall
Set a callback function for the call mode.
geterr, geterrcall, errstate
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
The floating-point exceptions are defined in the IEEE 754 standard [1]:
Division by zero: infinite result obtained from finite numbers.
Overflow: result too large to be expressed.
Underflow: result so close to zero that some precision was lost.
Invalid operation: result is not an expressible number, typically indicates that a NaN was produced.
Examples
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all=ignore) #seterr to known value
>>> np.seterr(over=raise)
{over: ignore, divide: ignore, invalid: ignore,
under: ignore}
>>> np.seterr(**old_settings) # reset to default
{over: raise, divide: ignore, invalid: ignore, under: ignore}
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
30464
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all=warn, over=raise)
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
FloatingPointError: overflow encountered in short_scalars
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all=print)
>>> np.geterr()
{over: print, divide: print, invalid: print, under: print}
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
Warning: overflow encountered in short_scalars
30464
numpy.geterr()
Get the current way of handling floating-point errors.
Returns
res : dict
A dictionary with keys divide, over, under, and invalid, whose values are from
the strings ignore, print, log, warn, raise, and call. The keys represent possible floating-point exceptions, and the values define how these exceptions are handled.
See Also:
geterrcall, seterr, seterrcall
Notes
For complete documentation of the types of floating-point exceptions and treatment options, see seterr.
Examples
>>> np.geterr()
{over: warn, divide: warn, invalid: warn,
under: ignore}
>>> np.arange(3.) / np.arange(3.)
array([ NaN,
1.,
1.])
3.10. Floating point error handling
603
>>> oldsettings = np.seterr(all=warn, over=raise)

>>> np.geterr()
{over: raise, divide: warn, invalid: warn, under: warn}
>>> np.arange(3.) / np.arange(3.)
__main__:1: RuntimeWarning: invalid value encountered in divide
array([ NaN,
1.,
1.])
numpy.seterrcall(func)
There are two ways to capture floating-point error messages. The first is to set the error-handler to call, using
seterr. Then, set the function to call using this function.
The second is to set the error-handler to log, using seterr. Floating-point errors then trigger a call to the
write method of the provided object.
Parameters
func : callable f(err, flag) or object with write method
Function to call upon floating-point errors (call-mode) or object whose write method
is used to log such message (log-mode).
The call function takes two arguments. The first is the type of error (one of divide,
over, under, or invalid), and the second is the status flag. The flag is a byte, whose
least-significant bits indicate the status:
[0 0 0 0 invalid over under invalid]
In other words, flags = divide + 2*over + 4*under + 8*invalid.

If an object is provided, its write method should take one argument, a string.
Returns
h : callable, log instance or None
The old error handler.
See Also:
seterr, geterr, geterrcall
Examples
Callback upon error:
...
...
>>> saved_handler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)
>>> save_err = np.seterr(all=call)
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0
<function err_handler at 0x...>
{over: call, divide: call, invalid: call, under: call}
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Chapter 3. Routines
Log error message:

>>> class Log(object):
...
def write(self, msg):
...
print "LOG: %s" % msg
...
>>> log = Log()
>>> saved_handler = np.seterrcall(log)
>>> save_err = np.seterr(all=log)
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0
LOG: Warning: divide by zero encountered in divide
array([ Inf,
Inf,
Inf])
<__main__.Log object at 0x...>
{over: log, divide: log, invalid: log, under: log}
numpy.geterrcall()
Return the current callback function used on floating-point errors.
When the error handling for a floating-point error (one of divide, over, under, or invalid) is set to call
or log, the function that is called or the log instance that is written to is returned by geterrcall. This
function or log instance has been set with seterrcall.
Returns
errobj : callable, log instance or None
The current error handler. If no handler was set through seterrcall, None is returned.
See Also:
seterrcall, seterr, geterr
Notes
Examples
>>> np.geterrcall()
# we did not yet set a handler, returns None
>>> oldsettings = np.seterr(all=call)

...
>>> oldhandler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0
>>> cur_handler = np.geterrcall()
>>> cur_handler is err_handler
True
class numpy.errstate(**kwargs)
Context manager for floating-point error handling.
605
Using an instance of errstate as a context manager allows statements in that context to execute with a known
error handling behavior. Upon entering the context the error handling is set with seterr and seterrcall,
and upon exiting it is reset to what it was before.
Parameters
kwargs : {divide, over, under, invalid}
Keyword arguments. The valid keywords are the possible floating-point exceptions.
Each keyword should have a string value that defines the treatment for the particular
error. Possible values are {ignore, warn, raise, call, print, log}.
See Also:
seterr, geterr, seterrcall, geterrcall
Notes
The with statement was introduced in Python 2.5, and can only be used there by importing it: from
__future__ import with_statement. In earlier Python versions the with statement is not available.
Examples
>>> from __future__ import with_statement # use with in Python 2.5
>>> olderr = np.seterr(all=ignore) # Set error handling to known state.
>>> np.arange(3) / 0.
array([ NaN, Inf, Inf])
>>> with np.errstate(divide=warn):
...
np.arange(3) / 0.
...
__main__:2: RuntimeWarning: divide by zero encountered in divide
array([ NaN, Inf, Inf])
>>> np.sqrt(-1)
nan
>>> with np.errstate(invalid=raise):
...
np.sqrt(-1)
FloatingPointError: invalid value encountered in sqrt
Outside the context the error handling behavior has not changed:
>>> np.geterr()
{over: warn, divide: warn, invalid: warn,
under: ignore}
3.10.2 Internal functions

seterrobj(errobj)
geterrobj()
Set the object that defines floating-point error handling.

Return the current object that defines floating-point error handling.
numpy.seterrobj(errobj)
Set the object that defines floating-point error handling.
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The error object contains all information that defines the error handling behavior in Numpy. seterrobj is
used internally by the other functions that set error handling behavior (seterr, seterrcall).
Parameters
errobj : list
The error object, a list containing three elements: [internal numpy buffer size, error
mask, error callback function].
The error mask is a single integer that holds the treatment information on all four floating point errors. The information for each error type is contained in three bits of the
integer. If we print it in base 8, we can see what treatment is set for invalid, under,
over, and divide (in that order). The printed string can be interpreted with
0 : ignore
1 : warn
2 : raise
3 : call
4 : print
5 : log
See Also:
geterrobj, seterr, geterr, seterrcall, geterrcall, getbufsize, setbufsize
Notes
Examples
>>> old_errobj = np.geterrobj()
>>> old_errobj
[10000, 0, None]
# first get the defaults

...
...
>>> new_errobj = [20000, 12, err_handler]
>>> np.seterrobj(new_errobj)
>>> np.base_repr(12, 8) # int for divide=4 (print) and over=1 (warn)
14
>>> np.geterr()
{over: warn, divide: print, invalid: ignore, under: ignore}
>>> np.geterrcall() is err_handler
True
numpy.geterrobj()
Return the current object that defines floating-point error handling.
The error object contains all information that defines the error handling behavior in Numpy. geterrobj is used
internally by the other functions that get and set error handling behavior (geterr, seterr, geterrcall,
seterrcall).
Returns
errobj : list
607
The error object, a list containing three elements: [internal numpy buffer size, error
mask, error callback function].
The error mask is a single integer that holds the treatment information on all four floating point errors. The information for each error type is contained in three bits of the
integer. If we print it in base 8, we can see what treatment is set for invalid, under,
over, and divide (in that order). The printed string can be interpreted with
0 : ignore
1 : warn
2 : raise
3 : call
4 : print
5 : log
See Also:
seterrobj, seterr, geterr, seterrcall, geterrcall, getbufsize, setbufsize
Notes
Examples
>>> np.geterrobj()
[10000, 0, None]
# first get the defaults

...
...
>>> old_bufsize = np.setbufsize(20000)
>>> old_err = np.seterr(divide=raise)
>>> old_handler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)
>>> np.geterrobj()
[20000, 2, <function err_handler at 0x91dcaac>]
>>> old_err = np.seterr(all=ignore)
>>> np.base_repr(np.geterrobj()[1], 8)
0
>>> old_err = np.seterr(divide=warn, over=log, under=call,
invalid=print)
>>> np.base_repr(np.geterrobj()[1], 8)
4351
3.11 Discrete Fourier Transform (numpy.fft)

3.11.1 Standard FFTs
fft(a[, n, axis])
ifft(a[, n, axis])
fft2(a[, s, axes])
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Chapter 3. Routines
ifft2(a[, s, axes])
fftn(a[, s, axes])
ifftn(a[, s, axes])

numpy.fft.fft(a, n=None, axis=-1)

This function computes the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) with the efficient Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm [CT].
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array, can be complex.
n : int, optional
Length of the transformed axis of the output. If n is smaller than the length of the input,
the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros. If n is not given, the
length of the input (along the axis specified by axis) is used.
Axis over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
Returns
out : complex ndarray
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axis indicated by axis, or the
last one if axis is not specified.
Raises
IndexError
if axes is larger than the last axis of a.
See Also:
numpy.fft
for definition of the DFT and conventions used.
ifft
The inverse of fft.
fft2
The two-dimensional FFT.
fftn
The n-dimensional FFT.
rfftn
The n-dimensional FFT of real input.
fftfreq
Frequency bins for given FFT parameters.
Notes
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) refers to a way the discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) can be calculated efficiently,
by using symmetries in the calculated terms. The symmetry is highest when n is a power of 2, and the transform
is therefore most efficient for these sizes.
3.11. Discrete Fourier Transform (numpy.fft)
609
The DFT is defined, with the conventions used in this implementation, in the documentation for the numpy.fft
module.
References
[CT]
Examples
>>> np.fft.fft(np.exp(2j * np.pi * np.arange(8) / 8))
array([ -3.44505240e-16 +1.14383329e-17j,
8.00000000e+00 -5.71092652e-15j,
2.33482938e-16 +1.22460635e-16j,
1.64863782e-15 +1.77635684e-15j,
9.95839695e-17 +2.33482938e-16j,
0.00000000e+00 +1.66837030e-15j,
1.14383329e-17 +1.22460635e-16j,
-1.64863782e-15 +1.77635684e-15j])
>>> t = np.arange(256)
>>> sp = np.fft.fft(np.sin(t))
>>> freq = np.fft.fftfreq(t.shape[-1])
>>> plt.plot(freq, sp.real, freq, sp.imag)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>, <matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>]
>>> plt.show()
In this example, real input has an FFT which is Hermitian, i.e., symmetric in the real part and anti-symmetric in
the imaginary part, as described in the numpy.fft documentation.
numpy.fft.ifft(a, n=None, axis=-1)
This function computes the inverse of the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier transform computed by
fft. In other words, ifft(fft(a)) == a to within numerical accuracy. For a general description of the
algorithm and definitions, see numpy.fft.
The input should be ordered in the same way as is returned by fft, i.e., a[0] should contain the zero frequency term, a[1:n/2+1] should contain the positive-frequency terms, and a[n/2+1:] should contain the
negative-frequency terms, in order of decreasingly negative frequency. See numpy.fft for details.
Parameters
a : array_like
n : int, optional
Length of the transformed axis of the output. If n is smaller than the length of the input,
the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros. If n is not given, the
length of the input (along the axis specified by axis) is used. See notes about padding
issues.
Axis over which to compute the inverse DFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
Returns
last one if axis is not specified.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Raises
IndexError
If axes is larger than the last axis of a.
See Also:
numpy.fft
An introduction, with definitions and general explanations.
fft
The one-dimensional (forward) FFT, of which ifft is the inverse
ifft2
The two-dimensional inverse FFT.
ifftn
The n-dimensional inverse FFT.
Notes
If the input parameter n is larger than the size of the input, the input is padded by appending zeros at the end.
Even though this is the common approach, it might lead to surprising results. If a different padding is desired, it
must be performed before calling ifft.
Examples
>>> np.fft.ifft([0, 4, 0, 0])
array([ 1.+0.j, 0.+1.j, -1.+0.j,
0.-1.j])
Create and plot a band-limited signal with random phases:

>>> t = np.arange(400)
>>> n = np.zeros((400,), dtype=complex)
>>> n[40:60] = np.exp(1j*np.random.uniform(0, 2*np.pi, (20,)))
>>> s = np.fft.ifft(n)
>>> plt.plot(t, s.real, b-, t, s.imag, r--)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>, <matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>]
>>> plt.legend((real, imaginary))
<matplotlib.legend.Legend object at 0x...>
>>> plt.show()
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real
imaginary
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
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100
150
200
250
300
350
400
numpy.fft.fft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1))

This function computes the n-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any axes in an M-dimensional array
by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). By default, the transform is computed over the last two axes of
the input array, i.e., a 2-dimensional FFT.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array, can be complex
s : sequence of ints, optional
Shape (length of each transformed axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to axis
1, etc.). This corresponds to n for fft(x, n). Along each axis, if the given shape is smaller
than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros.
if s is not given, the shape of the input (along the axes specified by axes) is used.
axes : sequence of ints, optional
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last two axes are used. A repeated
index in axes means the transform over that axis is performed multiple times. A oneelement sequence means that a one-dimensional FFT is performed.
Returns
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axes indicated by axes, or
the last two axes if axes is not given.
Raises
ValueError
If s and axes have different length, or axes not given and len(s) != 2.
IndexError
If an element of axes is larger than than the number of axes of a.
See Also:
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.fft
Overall view of discrete Fourier transforms, with definitions and conventions used.
ifft2
The inverse two-dimensional FFT.
fft
The one-dimensional FFT.
fftn
fftshift
Shifts zero-frequency terms to the center of the array. For two-dimensional input, swaps first and third
quadrants, and second and fourth quadrants.
Notes
fft2 is just fftn with a different default for axes.
The output, analogously to fft, contains the term for zero frequency in the low-order corner of the transformed
axes, the positive frequency terms in the first half of these axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle
of the axes and the negative frequency terms in the second half of the axes, in order of decreasingly negative
frequency.
See fftn for details and a plotting example, and numpy.fft for definitions and conventions used.
Examples
>>> a = np.mgrid[:5, :5][0]
>>> np.fft.fft2(a)
array([[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
[ 5.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
[ 10.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
[ 15.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
[ 20.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
0.+0.j],
0.+0.j],
0.+0.j],
0.+0.j]])
numpy.fft.ifft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1))

This function computes the inverse of the 2-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes
in an M-dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). In other words, ifft2(fft2(a))
== a to within numerical accuracy. By default, the inverse transform is computed over the last two axes of the
input array.
The input, analogously to ifft, should be ordered in the same way as is returned by fft2, i.e. it should have
the term for zero frequency in the low-order corner of the two axes, the positive frequency terms in the first half
of these axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle of the axes and the negative frequency terms in
the second half of both axes, in order of decreasingly negative frequency.
Parameters
a : array_like
Shape (length of each axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to axis 1, etc.).
This corresponds to n for ifft(x, n). Along each axis, if the given shape is smaller
if s is not given, the shape of the input (along the axes specified by axes) is used. See
notes for issue on ifft zero padding.
613

Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last two axes are used. A repeated
index in axes means the transform over that axis is performed multiple times. A oneelement sequence means that a one-dimensional FFT is performed.
Returns
the last two axes if axes is not given.
Raises
ValueError
If s and axes have different length, or axes not given and len(s) != 2.
IndexError
See Also:
numpy.fft
fft2
The forward 2-dimensional FFT, of which ifft2 is the inverse.
ifftn
The inverse of the n-dimensional FFT.
fft
ifft
The one-dimensional inverse FFT.
Notes
ifft2 is just ifftn with a different default for axes.
See ifftn for details and a plotting example, and numpy.fft for definition and conventions used.
Zero-padding, analogously with ifft, is performed by appending zeros to the input along the specified dimension. Although this is the common approach, it might lead to surprising results. If another form of zero padding
is desired, it must be performed before ifft2 is called.
Examples
>>> a = 4 * np.eye(4)
>>> np.fft.ifft2(a)
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j,
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j,
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j,
[ 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
1.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
1.+0.j],
0.+0.j],
0.+0.j]])
numpy.fft.fftn(a, s=None, axes=None)

This function computes the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes in an Mdimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
a : array_like
Shape (length of each transformed axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to axis
1, etc.). This corresponds to n for fft(x, n). Along any axis, if the given shape is smaller
if s is not given, the shape of the input (along the axes specified by axes) is used.
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used, or
all axes if s is also not specified. Repeated indices in axes means that the transform over
that axis is performed multiple times.
Returns
by a combination of s and a, as explained in the parameters section above.
Raises
ValueError
If s and axes have different length.
IndexError
See Also:
numpy.fft
ifftn
The inverse of fftn, the inverse n-dimensional FFT.
fft
The one-dimensional FFT, with definitions and conventions used.
rfftn
fft2
The two-dimensional FFT.
fftshift
Shifts zero-frequency terms to centre of array
Notes
The output, analogously to fft, contains the term for zero frequency in the low-order corner of all axes, the
positive frequency terms in the first half of all axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle of all axes
and the negative frequency terms in the second half of all axes, in order of decreasingly negative frequency.
See numpy.fft for details, definitions and conventions used.
615
Examples
>>> a = np.mgrid[:3, :3, :3][0]
>>> np.fft.fftn(a, axes=(1, 2))
array([[[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j]],
[[ 9.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j]],
[[ 18.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j,
0.+0.j,
0.+0.j]]])
>>> np.fft.fftn(a, (2, 2), axes=(0, 1))
array([[[ 2.+0.j, 2.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[-2.+0.j, -2.+0.j, -2.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])
>>> [X, Y] = np.meshgrid(2 * np.pi * np.arange(200) / 12,
...
2 * np.pi * np.arange(200) / 34)
>>> S = np.sin(X) + np.cos(Y) + np.random.uniform(0, 1, X.shape)
>>> FS = np.fft.fftn(S)
>>> plt.imshow(np.log(np.abs(np.fft.fftshift(FS))**2))
<matplotlib.image.AxesImage object at 0x...>
>>> plt.show()
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100
150
0
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numpy.fft.ifftn(a, s=None, axes=None)

This function computes the inverse of the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes
in an M-dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). In other words, ifftn(fftn(a))
== a to within numerical accuracy. For a description of the definitions and conventions used, see numpy.fft.
The input, analogously to ifft, should be ordered in the same way as is returned by fftn, i.e. it should have
the term for zero frequency in all axes in the low-order corner, the positive frequency terms in the first half of all
axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle of all axes and the negative frequency terms in the second
half of all axes, in order of decreasingly negative frequency.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
a : array_like
Shape (length of each transformed axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to
axis 1, etc.). This corresponds to n for ifft(x, n). Along any axis, if the given
shape is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is
padded with zeros. if s is not given, the shape of the input (along the axes specified by
axes) is used. See notes for issue on ifft zero padding.
Axes over which to compute the IFFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used,
or all axes if s is also not specified. Repeated indices in axes means that the inverse
transform over that axis is performed multiple times.
Returns
by a combination of s or a, as explained in the parameters section above.
Raises
ValueError
IndexError
See Also:
numpy.fft
fftn
The forward n-dimensional FFT, of which ifftn is the inverse.
ifft
The one-dimensional inverse FFT.
ifft2
The two-dimensional inverse FFT.
ifftshift
Undoes fftshift, shifts zero-frequency terms to beginning of array.
Notes
See numpy.fft for definitions and conventions used.
Zero-padding, analogously with ifft, is performed by appending zeros to the input along the specified dimension. Although this is the common approach, it might lead to surprising results. If another form of zero padding
is desired, it must be performed before ifftn is called.
Examples
617
>>> a = np.eye(4)
>>> np.fft.ifftn(np.fft.fftn(a, axes=(0,)), axes=(1,))
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j]])
Create and plot an image with band-limited frequency content:

>>> n = np.zeros((200,200), dtype=complex)
>>> n[60:80, 20:40] = np.exp(1j*np.random.uniform(0, 2*np.pi, (20, 20)))
>>> im = np.fft.ifftn(n).real
>>> plt.imshow(im)
>>> plt.show()
0
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100
150
0
50
100
150
3.11.2 Real FFTs

rfft(a[, n, axis])
irfft(a[, n, axis])
rfft2(a[, s, axes])
irfft2(a[, s, axes])
rfftn(a[, s, axes])
irfftn(a[, s, axes])
Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input.

Compute the inverse of the n-point DFT for real input.
Compute the 2-dimensional FFT of a real array.
Compute the 2-dimensional inverse FFT of a real array.
Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input.
Compute the inverse of the N-dimensional FFT of real input.
numpy.fft.rfft(a, n=None, axis=-1)

Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input.
This function computes the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) of a real-valued array by
means of an efficient algorithm called the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
Parameters
a : array_like
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Chapter 3. Routines
Input array
n : int, optional
Number of points along transformation axis in the input to use. If n is smaller than the
length of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros. If
n is not given, the length of the input (along the axis specified by axis) is used.
Axis over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
Returns
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axis indicated by axis, or
the last one if axis is not specified. If n is even, the length of the transformed axis is
(n/2)+1. If n is odd, the length is (n+1)/2.
Raises
IndexError
If axis is larger than the last axis of a.
See Also:
numpy.fft
For definition of the DFT and conventions used.
irfft
The inverse of rfft.
fft
The one-dimensional FFT of general (complex) input.
fftn
rfftn
Notes
When the DFT is computed for purely real input, the output is Hermite-symmetric, i.e. the negative frequency
terms are just the complex conjugates of the corresponding positive-frequency terms, and the negative-frequency
terms are therefore redundant. This function does not compute the negative frequency terms, and the length of
the transformed axis of the output is therefore n//2+1.
When A = rfft(a) and fs is the sampling frequency, A[0] contains the zero-frequency term 0*fs, which is
real due to Hermitian symmetry.
If n is even, A[-1] contains the term representing both positive and negative Nyquist frequency (+fs/2 and
-fs/2), and must also be purely real. If n is odd, there is no term at fs/2; A[-1] contains the largest positive
frequency (fs/2*(n-1)/n), and is complex in the general case.
If the input a contains an imaginary part, it is silently discarded.
Examples
>>> np.fft.fft([0, 1, 0, 0])
array([ 1.+0.j, 0.-1.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+1.j])
>>> np.fft.rfft([0, 1, 0, 0])
array([ 1.+0.j, 0.-1.j, -1.+0.j])
619
Notice how the final element of the fft output is the complex conjugate of the second element, for real input.
For rfft, this symmetry is exploited to compute only the non-negative frequency terms.
numpy.fft.irfft(a, n=None, axis=-1)
Compute the inverse of the n-point DFT for real input.
This function computes the inverse of the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier Transform of real input
computed by rfft. In other words, irfft(rfft(a), len(a)) == a to within numerical accuracy.
(See Notes below for why len(a) is necessary here.)
The input is expected to be in the form returned by rfft, i.e. the real zero-frequency term followed by the
complex positive frequency terms in order of increasing frequency. Since the discrete Fourier Transform of
real input is Hermite-symmetric, the negative frequency terms are taken to be the complex conjugates of the
corresponding positive frequency terms.
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
n : int, optional
Length of the transformed axis of the output. For n output points, n//2+1 input points
are necessary. If the input is longer than this, it is cropped. If it is shorter than this, it is
padded with zeros. If n is not given, it is determined from the length of the input (along
the axis specified by axis).
Axis over which to compute the inverse FFT.
Returns
out : ndarray
last one if axis is not specified. The length of the transformed axis is n, or, if n is not
given, 2*(m-1) where m is the length of the transformed axis of the input. To get an
odd number of output points, n must be specified.
Raises
IndexError
If axis is larger than the last axis of a.
See Also:
numpy.fft
For definition of the DFT and conventions used.
rfft
The one-dimensional FFT of real input, of which irfft is inverse.
fft
irfft2
The inverse of the two-dimensional FFT of real input.
irfftn
The inverse of the n-dimensional FFT of real input.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Returns the real valued n-point inverse discrete Fourier transform of a, where a contains the non-negative frequency terms of a Hermite-symmetric sequence. n is the length of the result, not the input.
If you specify an n such that a must be zero-padded or truncated, the extra/removed values will be
added/removed at high frequencies. One can thus resample a series to m points via Fourier interpolation by:
a_resamp = irfft(rfft(a), m).
Examples
>>> np.fft.ifft([1, -1j, -1, 1j])
array([ 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j,
>>> np.fft.irfft([1, -1j, -1])
array([ 0., 1., 0., 0.])
0.+0.j])
Notice how the last term in the input to the ordinary ifft is the complex conjugate of the second term, and the
output has zero imaginary part everywhere. When calling irfft, the negative frequencies are not specified,
and the output array is purely real.
numpy.fft.rfft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1))
Compute the 2-dimensional FFT of a real array.
Parameters
a : array
Input array, taken to be real.
Shape of the FFT.
Axes over which to compute the FFT.
Returns
out : ndarray
The result of the real 2-D FFT.
See Also:
rfftn
Notes
This is really just rfftn with different default behavior. For more details see rfftn.
numpy.fft.irfft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1))
Compute the 2-dimensional inverse FFT of a real array.
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array
Shape of the inverse FFT.
The axes over which to compute the inverse fft. Default is the last two axes.
621
Returns
out : ndarray
The result of the inverse real 2-D FFT.
See Also:
irfftn
Notes
This is really irfftn with different defaults. For more details see irfftn.
numpy.fft.rfftn(a, s=None, axes=None)
This function computes the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes in an Mdimensional real array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). By default, all axes are transformed,
with the real transform performed over the last axis, while the remaining transforms are complex.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array, taken to be real.
Shape (length along each transformed axis) to use from the input. (s[0] refers to axis
0, s[1] to axis 1, etc.). The final element of s corresponds to n for rfft(x, n),
while for the remaining axes, it corresponds to n for fft(x, n). Along any axis, if
the given shape is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger,
the input is padded with zeros. if s is not given, the shape of the input (along the axes
specified by axes) is used.
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used, or
all axes if s is also not specified.
Returns
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axes indicated by axes, or by
a combination of s and a, as explained in the parameters section above. The length of
the last axis transformed will be s[-1]//2+1, while the remaining transformed axes
will have lengths according to s, or unchanged from the input.
Raises
ValueError
IndexError
See Also:
irfftn
The inverse of rfftn, i.e. the inverse of the n-dimensional FFT of real input.
622
Chapter 3. Routines
fft
rfft
The one-dimensional FFT of real input.
fftn
rfft2
The two-dimensional FFT of real input.
Notes
The transform for real input is performed over the last transformation axis, as by rfft, then the transform over
the remaining axes is performed as by fftn. The order of the output is as for rfft for the final transformation
axis, and as for fftn for the remaining transformation axes.
See fft for details, definitions and conventions used.
Examples
>>> a = np.ones((2, 2, 2))
>>> np.fft.rfftn(a)
array([[[ 8.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])
>>> np.fft.rfftn(a, axes=(2, 0))
array([[[ 4.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 4.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])
numpy.fft.irfftn(a, s=None, axes=None)

This function computes the inverse of the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input over any
number of axes in an M-dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). In other words,
irfftn(rfftn(a), a.shape) == a to within numerical accuracy. (The a.shape is necessary like
len(a) is for irfft, and for the same reason.)
The input should be ordered in the same way as is returned by rfftn, i.e. as for irfft for the final transformation axis, and as for ifftn along all the other axes.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Shape (length of each transformed axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to
axis 1, etc.). s is also the number of input points used along this axis, except for the last
axis, where s[-1]//2+1 points of the input are used. Along any axis, if the shape
indicated by s is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the
input is padded with zeros. If s is not given, the shape of the input (along the axes
specified by axes) is used.
623
Axes over which to compute the inverse FFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used,
or all axes if s is also not specified. Repeated indices in axes means that the inverse
transform over that axis is performed multiple times.
Returns
out : ndarray
by a combination of s or a, as explained in the parameters section above. The length of
each transformed axis is as given by the corresponding element of s, or the length of the
input in every axis except for the last one if s is not given. In the final transformed axis
the length of the output when s is not given is 2*(m-1) where m is the length of the
final transformed axis of the input. To get an odd number of output points in the final
axis, s must be specified.
Raises
ValueError
IndexError
See Also:
rfftn
The forward n-dimensional FFT of real input, of which ifftn is the inverse.
fft
irfft
The inverse of the one-dimensional FFT of real input.
irfft2
The inverse of the two-dimensional FFT of real input.
Notes
See fft for definitions and conventions used.
See rfft for definitions and conventions used for real input.
Examples
>>> a = np.zeros((3, 2, 2))
>>> a[0, 0, 0] = 3 * 2 * 2
>>> np.fft.irfftn(a)
array([[[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]],
[[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]],
[[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]]])
3.11.3 Hermitian FFTs

624
Chapter 3. Routines

hfft(a[, n, axis])
ihfft(a[, n, axis])
Compute the FFT of a signal whose spectrum has Hermitian symmetry.

Compute the inverse FFT of a signal whose spectrum has Hermitian symmetry.
numpy.fft.hfft(a, n=None, axis=-1)

Compute the FFT of a signal whose spectrum has Hermitian symmetry.
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
n : int, optional
The length of the FFT.
The axis over which to compute the FFT, assuming Hermitian symmetry of the spectrum. Default is the last axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
The transformed input.
See Also:
rfft
Compute the one-dimensional FFT for real input.
ihfft
The inverse of hfft.
Notes
hfft/ihfft are a pair analogous to rfft/irfft, but for the opposite case: here the signal is real in the
frequency domain and has Hermite symmetry in the time domain. So here its hfft for which you must supply
the length of the result if it is to be odd: ihfft(hfft(a), len(a)) == a, within numerical accuracy.
Examples
>>> signal = np.array([[1, 1.j], [-1.j, 2]])
>>> np.conj(signal.T) - signal
# check Hermitian symmetry
array([[ 0.-0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.-0.j]])
>>> freq_spectrum = np.fft.hfft(signal)
>>> freq_spectrum
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 2., -2.]])
numpy.fft.ihfft(a, n=None, axis=-1)

Compute the inverse FFT of a signal whose spectrum has Hermitian symmetry.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
n : int, optional
625
Length of the inverse FFT.

Axis over which to compute the inverse FFT, assuming Hermitian symmetry of the
spectrum. Default is the last axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
The transformed input.
See Also:
hfft, irfft
Notes
hfft/ihfft are a pair analogous to rfft/irfft, but for the opposite case: here the signal is real in the
frequency domain and has Hermite symmetry in the time domain. So here its hfft for which you must supply
the length of the result if it is to be odd: ihfft(hfft(a), len(a)) == a, within numerical accuracy.
3.11.4 Helper routines

fftfreq(n[, d])
rfftfreq(n[, d])
fftshift(x[, axes])
ifftshift(x[, axes])
Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies.

Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies
Shift the zero-frequency component to the center of the spectrum.
The inverse of fftshift.
numpy.fft.fftfreq(n, d=1.0)
Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies.
The returned float array f contains the frequency bin centers in cycles per unit of the sample spacing (with zero
at the start). For instance, if the sample spacing is in seconds, then the frequency unit is cycles/second.
Given a window length n and a sample spacing d:
f = [0, 1, ...,
n/2-1,
-n/2, ..., -1] / (d*n)
f = [0, 1, ..., (n-1)/2, -(n-1)/2, ..., -1] / (d*n)
if n is even
if n is odd
Parameters
n : int
Window length.
d : scalar, optional
Sample spacing (inverse of the sampling rate). Defaults to 1.
Returns
f : ndarray
Array of length n containing the sample frequencies.
Examples
>>> signal = np.array([-2, 8, 6, 4, 1, 0, 3, 5], dtype=float)
>>> fourier = np.fft.fft(signal)
>>> n = signal.size
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> timestep = 0.1

>>> freq = np.fft.fftfreq(n, d=timestep)
>>> freq
array([ 0. , 1.25, 2.5 , 3.75, -5. , -3.75, -2.5 , -1.25])
numpy.fft.rfftfreq(n, d=1.0)
Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies (for usage with rfft, irfft).
The returned float array f contains the frequency bin centers in cycles per unit of the sample spacing (with zero
at the start). For instance, if the sample spacing is in seconds, then the frequency unit is cycles/second.
Given a window length n and a sample spacing d:
f = [0, 1, ...,
n/2-1,
n/2] / (d*n)
f = [0, 1, ..., (n-1)/2-1, (n-1)/2] / (d*n)
if n is even
if n is odd
Unlike fftfreq (but like scipy.fftpack.rfftfreq) the Nyquist frequency component is considered
to be positive.
Parameters
n : int
Window length.
d : scalar, optional
Sample spacing (inverse of the sampling rate). Defaults to 1.
Returns
f : ndarray
Array of length n//2 + 1 containing the sample frequencies.
Examples
>>> signal = np.array([-2, 8, 6, 4, 1, 0, 3, 5, -3, 4], dtype=float)
>>> fourier = np.fft.rfft(signal)
>>> n = signal.size
>>> sample_rate = 100
>>> freq = np.fft.fftfreq(n, d=1./sample_rate)
>>> freq
array([ 0., 10., 20., 30., 40., -50., -40., -30., -20., -10.])
>>> freq = np.fft.rfftfreq(n, d=1./sample_rate)
>>> freq
array([ 0., 10., 20., 30., 40., 50.])
numpy.fft.fftshift(x, axes=None)
Shift the zero-frequency component to the center of the spectrum.
This function swaps half-spaces for all axes listed (defaults to all). Note that y[0] is the Nyquist component
only if len(x) is even.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
axes : int or shape tuple, optional
Axes over which to shift. Default is None, which shifts all axes.
Returns
y : ndarray
627
The shifted array.

See Also:
ifftshift
Examples
>>> freqs = np.fft.fftfreq(10, 0.1)
>>> freqs
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4., -5., -4., -3., -2., -1.])
>>> np.fft.fftshift(freqs)
array([-5., -4., -3., -2., -1., 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.])
Shift the zero-frequency component only along the second axis:

>>> freqs = np.fft.fftfreq(9, d=1./9).reshape(3, 3)
>>> freqs
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -4.],
[-3., -2., -1.]])
>>> np.fft.fftshift(freqs, axes=(1,))
array([[ 2., 0., 1.],
[-4., 3., 4.],
[-1., -3., -2.]])
numpy.fft.ifftshift(x, axes=None)
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
axes : int or shape tuple, optional
Axes over which to calculate. Defaults to None, which shifts all axes.
Returns
y : ndarray
The shifted array.
See Also:
fftshift
Shift zero-frequency component to the center of the spectrum.
Examples
>>> freqs = np.fft.fftfreq(9, d=1./9).reshape(3, 3)
>>> freqs
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -4.],
[-3., -2., -1.]])
>>> np.fft.ifftshift(np.fft.fftshift(freqs))
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -4.],
[-3., -2., -1.]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
3.11.5 Background information

Fourier analysis is fundamentally a method for expressing a function as a sum of periodic components, and for recovering the function from those components. When both the function and its Fourier transform are replaced with
discretized counterparts, it is called the discrete Fourier transform (DFT). The DFT has become a mainstay of numerical computing in part because of a very fast algorithm for computing it, called the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT),
which was known to Gauss (1805) and was brought to light in its current form by Cooley and Tukey [CT]. Press et al.
[NR] provide an accessible introduction to Fourier analysis and its applications.
Because the discrete Fourier transform separates its input into components that contribute at discrete frequencies, it
has a great number of applications in digital signal processing, e.g., for filtering, and in this context the discretized
input to the transform is customarily referred to as a signal, which exists in the time domain. The output is called a
spectrum or transform and exists in the frequency domain.
3.11.6 Implementation details

There are many ways to define the DFT, varying in the sign of the exponent, normalization, etc. In this implementation,
the DFT is defined as
Ak =
n1
X

mk
am exp 2i
n
m=0
k = 0, . . . , n 1.
The DFT is in general defined for complex inputs and outputs, and a single-frequency component at linear frequency
f is represented by a complex exponential am = exp{2i f mt}, where t is the sampling interval.
The values in the result follow so-called standard order: If A = fft(a, n), then A[0] contains the zerofrequency term (the mean of the signal), which is always purely real for real inputs. Then A[1:n/2] contains
the positive-frequency terms, and A[n/2+1:] contains the negative-frequency terms, in order of decreasingly negative frequency. For an even number of input points, A[n/2] represents both positive and negative Nyquist frequency,
and is also purely real for real input. For an odd number of input points, A[(n-1)/2] contains the largest positive
frequency, while A[(n+1)/2] contains the largest negative frequency. The routine np.fft.fftfreq(n) returns
an array giving the frequencies of corresponding elements in the output. The routine np.fft.fftshift(A) shifts
transforms and their frequencies to put the zero-frequency components in the middle, and np.fft.ifftshift(A)
undoes that shift.
When the input a is a time-domain signal and A = fft(a), np.abs(A) is its amplitude spectrum and
np.abs(A)**2 is its power spectrum. The phase spectrum is obtained by np.angle(A).
The inverse DFT is defined as
am

n1
1X
mk
=
Ak exp 2i
n
n
m = 0, . . . , n 1.
k=0
It differs from the forward transform by the sign of the exponential argument and the normalization by 1/n.
3.11.7 Real and Hermitian transforms

When the input is purely real, its transform is Hermitian, i.e., the component at frequency fk is the complex conjugate
of the component at frequency fk , which means that for real inputs there is no information in the negative frequency
components that is not already available from the positive frequency components. The family of rfft functions is
designed to operate on real inputs, and exploits this symmetry by computing only the positive frequency components,
629
up to and including the Nyquist frequency. Thus, n input points produce n/2+1 complex output points. The inverses
of this family assumes the same symmetry of its input, and for an output of n points uses n/2+1 input points.
Correspondingly, when the spectrum is purely real, the signal is Hermitian. The hfft family of functions exploits
this symmetry by using n/2+1 complex points in the input (time) domain for n real points in the frequency domain.
In higher dimensions, FFTs are used, e.g., for image analysis and filtering. The computational efficiency of the FFT
means that it can also be a faster way to compute large convolutions, using the property that a convolution in the time
domain is equivalent to a point-by-point multiplication in the frequency domain.
3.11.8 Higher dimensions

In two dimensions, the DFT is defined as
Akl =
M
1 N
1
X
X
m=0

mk nl
+
amn exp 2i
M
N
n=0
k = 0, . . . , M 1;
l = 0, . . . , N 1,
which extends in the obvious way to higher dimensions, and the inverses in higher dimensions also extend in the same
way.
3.11.9 References
3.11.10 Examples
For examples, see the various functions.
3.12 Financial functions

3.12.1 Simple financial functions
fv(rate, nper, pmt, pv[, when])
pv(rate, nper, pmt[, fv, when])
npv(rate, values)
pmt(rate, nper, pv[, fv, when])
ppmt(rate, per, nper, pv[, fv, when])
ipmt(rate, per, nper, pv[, fv, when])
irr(values)
mirr(values, finance_rate, reinvest_rate)
nper(rate, pmt, pv[, fv, when])
rate(nper, pmt, pv, fv[, when, guess, tol, ...])
Compute the future value.

Compute the present value.
Returns the NPV (Net Present Value) of a cash flow series.
Compute the payment against loan principal plus interest.
Compute the payment against loan principal.
Compute the interest portion of a payment.
Return the Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
Modified internal rate of return.
Compute the number of periodic payments.
Compute the rate of interest per period.
numpy.fv(rate, nper, pmt, pv, when=end)

Compute the future value.
Given:
a present value, pv
630
Chapter 3. Routines
an interest rate compounded once per period, of which there are

nper total
a (fixed) payment, pmt, paid either
at the beginning (when = {begin, 1}) or the end (when = {end, 0}) of each period
Return:
the value at the end of the nper periods
Parameters
rate : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Rate of interest as decimal (not per cent) per period
nper : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Number of compounding periods
pmt : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Payment
pv : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Present value
when : {{begin, 1}, {end, 0}}, {string, int}, optional
When payments are due (begin (1) or end (0)). Defaults to {end, 0}.
Returns
out : ndarray
Future values. If all input is scalar, returns a scalar float. If any input is array_like,
returns future values for each input element. If multiple inputs are array_like, they all
must have the same shape.
Notes
The future value is computed by solving the equation:
fv +
pv*(1+rate)**nper +
pmt*(1 + rate*when)/rate*((1 + rate)**nper - 1) == 0
or, when rate == 0:

fv + pv + pmt * nper == 0
References
[WRW]
Examples
What is the future value after 10 years of saving $100 now, with an additional monthly savings of $100. Assume
the interest rate is 5% (annually) compounded monthly?
>>> np.fv(0.05/12, 10*12, -100, -100)
15692.928894335748
3.12. Financial functions
631
By convention, the negative sign represents cash flow out (i.e. money not available today). Thus, saving $100 a
month at 5% annual interest leads to $15,692.93 available to spend in 10 years.
If any input is array_like, returns an array of equal shape. Lets compare different interest rates from the example
above.
>>> a = np.array((0.05, 0.06, 0.07))/12
>>> np.fv(a, 10*12, -100, -100)
array([ 15692.92889434, 16569.87435405,
17509.44688102])
numpy.pv(rate, nper, pmt, fv=0.0, when=end)

Compute the present value.
Given:
a future value, fv
nper total
a (fixed) payment, pmt, paid either
at the beginning (when = {begin, 1}) or the end (when = {end, 0}) of each period
Return:
the value now
Parameters
rate : array_like
Rate of interest (per period)
nper : array_like
pmt : array_like
Payment
fv : array_like, optional
Future value
When payments are due (begin (1) or end (0))
Returns
out : ndarray, float
Present value of a series of payments or investments.
Notes
The present value is computed by solving the equation:
fv +
pv*(1 + rate)**nper +
pmt*(1 + rate*when)/rate*((1 + rate)**nper - 1) = 0
or, when rate = 0:
632
Chapter 3. Routines
fv + pv + pmt * nper = 0
for pv, which is then returned.

References
[WRW]
Examples
What is the present value (e.g., the initial investment) of an investment that needs to total $15692.93 after 10
years of saving $100 every month? Assume the interest rate is 5% (annually) compounded monthly.
>>> np.pv(0.05/12, 10*12, -100, 15692.93)
-100.00067131625819
By convention, the negative sign represents cash flow out (i.e., money not available today). Thus, to end up with
$15,692.93 in 10 years saving $100 a month at 5% annual interest, ones initial deposit should also be $100.
If any input is array_like, pv returns an array of equal shape. Lets compare different interest rates in the
example above:
>>> a = np.array((0.05, 0.04, 0.03))/12
>>> np.pv(a, 10*12, -100, 15692.93)
array([ -100.00067132, -649.26771385, -1273.78633713])
So, to end up with the same $15692.93 under the same $100 per month savings plan, for annual interest rates
of 4% and 3%, one would need initial investments of $649.27 and $1273.79, respectively.
numpy.npv(rate, values)
Returns the NPV (Net Present Value) of a cash flow series.
Parameters
rate : scalar
The discount rate.
values : array_like, shape(M, )
The values of the time series of cash flows. The (fixed) time interval between cash flow
events must be the same as that for which rate is given (i.e., if rate is per year, then
precisely a year is understood to elapse between each cash flow event). By convention,
investments or deposits are negative, income or withdrawals are positive; values
must begin with the initial investment, thus values[0] will typically be negative.
Returns
out : float
The NPV of the input cash flow series values at the discount rate.
Notes
Returns the result of: [G51]
M
1
X
t=0
valuest
(1 + rate)t
References
[G51]
633
Examples
>>> np.npv(0.281,[-100, 39, 59, 55, 20])
-0.0084785916384548798
(Compare with the Example given for numpy.lib.financial.irr)

numpy.pmt(rate, nper, pv, fv=0, when=end)
Compute the payment against loan principal plus interest.
Given:
a present value, pv (e.g., an amount borrowed)
a future value, fv (e.g., 0)
nper total
and (optional) specification of whether payment is made at the beginning (when = {begin, 1}) or the
end (when = {end, 0}) of each period
Return:
the (fixed) periodic payment.
Parameters
rate : array_like
nper : array_like
pv : array_like
Present value
fv : array_like (optional)
Future value (default = 0)
when : {{begin, 1}, {end, 0}}, {string, int}
Returns
out : ndarray
Payment against loan plus interest. If all input is scalar, returns a scalar float. If any
input is array_like, returns payment for each input element. If multiple inputs are array_like, they all must have the same shape.
Notes
The payment is computed by solving the equation:
fv +
pv*(1 + rate)**nper +
pmt*(1 + rate*when)/rate*((1 + rate)**nper - 1) == 0
or, when rate == 0:
634
Chapter 3. Routines
fv + pv + pmt * nper == 0
for pmt.
Note that computing a monthly mortgage payment is only one use for this function. For example, pmt returns the
periodic deposit one must make to achieve a specified future balance given an initial deposit, a fixed, periodically
compounded interest rate, and the total number of periods.
References
[WRW]
Examples
What is the monthly payment needed to pay off a $200,000 loan in 15 years at an annual interest rate of 7.5%?
>>> np.pmt(0.075/12, 12*15, 200000)
-1854.0247200054619
In order to pay-off (i.e., have a future-value of 0) the $200,000 obtained today, a monthly payment of $1,854.02
would be required. Note that this example illustrates usage of fv having a default value of 0.
numpy.ppmt(rate, per, nper, pv, fv=0.0, when=end)
Compute the payment against loan principal.
Parameters
rate : array_like
per : array_like, int
Amount paid against the loan changes. The per is the period of interest.
nper : array_like
pv : array_like
Present value
Future value
when : {{begin, 1}, {end, 0}}, {string, int}
See Also:
pmt, pv, ipmt
numpy.ipmt(rate, per, nper, pv, fv=0.0, when=end)
Compute the interest portion of a payment.
Parameters
rate : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Rate of interest as decimal (not per cent) per period
per : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Interest paid against the loan changes during the life or the loan. The per is the payment
period to calculate the interest amount.
635
nper : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )

pv : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Present value
fv : scalar or array_like of shape(M, ), optional
Future value
When payments are due (begin (1) or end (0)). Defaults to {end, 0}.
Returns
out : ndarray
Interest portion of payment. If all input is scalar, returns a scalar float. If any input
is array_like, returns interest payment for each input element. If multiple inputs are
array_like, they all must have the same shape.
See Also:
ppmt, pmt, pv
Notes
The total payment is made up of payment against principal plus interest.
pmt = ppmt + ipmt
Examples
What is the amortization schedule for a 1 year loan of $2500 at 8.24% interest per year compounded monthly?
>>> principal = 2500.00
The per variable represents the periods of the loan. Remember that financial equations start the period count
at 1!
>>> per = np.arange(1*12) + 1
>>> ipmt = np.ipmt(0.0824/12, per, 1*12, principal)
>>> ppmt = np.ppmt(0.0824/12, per, 1*12, principal)
Each element of the sum of the ipmt and ppmt arrays should equal pmt.
>>> pmt = np.pmt(0.0824/12, 1*12, principal)
>>> np.allclose(ipmt + ppmt, pmt)
True
>>>
>>>
...
...
...
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
636
fmt = {0:2d} {1:8.2f} {2:8.2f} {3:8.2f}

for payment in per:
index = payment - 1
principal = principal + ppmt[index]
print fmt.format(payment, ppmt[index], ipmt[index], principal)
-200.58
-17.17 2299.42
-201.96
-15.79 2097.46
-203.35
-14.40 1894.11
-204.74
-13.01 1689.37
-206.15
-11.60 1483.22
-207.56
-10.18 1275.66
-208.99
-8.76 1066.67
Chapter 3. Routines
8
9
10
11
12
-210.42
-211.87
-213.32
-214.79
-216.26
-7.32
-5.88
-4.42
-2.96
-1.49
856.25
644.38
431.05
216.26
-0.00
>>> interestpd = np.sum(ipmt)

>>> np.round(interestpd, 2)
-112.98
numpy.irr(values)
Return the Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
This is the average periodically compounded rate of return that gives a net present value of 0.0; for a more
complete explanation, see Notes below.
Parameters
values : array_like, shape(N,)
Input cash flows per time period. By convention, net deposits are negative and net
withdrawals are positive. Thus, for example, at least the first element of values, which
represents the initial investment, will typically be negative.
Returns
out : float
Internal Rate of Return for periodic input values.
Notes
The IRR is perhaps best understood through an example (illustrated using np.irr in the Examples section below).
Suppose one invests 100 units and then makes the following withdrawals at regular (fixed) intervals: 39, 59, 55,
20. Assuming the ending value is 0, ones 100 unit investment yields 173 units; however, due to the combination of compounding and the periodic withdrawals, the average rate of return is neither simply 0.73/4 nor
(1.73)^0.25-1. Rather, it is the solution (for r) of the equation:
100 +
59
55
20
39
+
+
+
=0
2
3
1 + r (1 + r)
(1 + r)
(1 + r)4
In general, for values = [v0 , v1 , ...vM ], irr is the solution of the equation: [G32]
M
X
t=0
vt
=0
(1 + irr)t
References
[G32]
Examples
>>> round(irr([-100, 39, 59, 55, 20]), 5)
0.28095
>>> round(irr([-100, 0, 0, 74]), 5)
-0.0955
>>> round(irr([-100, 100, 0, -7]), 5)
-0.0833
637
>>> round(irr([-100, 100, 0, 7]), 5)

0.06206
>>> round(irr([-5, 10.5, 1, -8, 1]), 5)
0.0886
(Compare with the Example given for numpy.lib.financial.npv)

numpy.mirr(values, finance_rate, reinvest_rate)
Modified internal rate of return.
Parameters
values : array_like
Cash flows (must contain at least one positive and one negative value) or nan is returned.
The first value is considered a sunk cost at time zero.
finance_rate : scalar
Interest rate paid on the cash flows
reinvest_rate : scalar
Interest rate received on the cash flows upon reinvestment
Returns
out : float
Modified internal rate of return
numpy.nper(rate, pmt, pv, fv=0, when=end)
Compute the number of periodic payments.
Parameters
rate : array_like
pmt : array_like
Payment
pv : array_like
Present value
Future value
Notes
The number of periods nper is computed by solving the equation:
fv + pv*(1+rate)**nper + pmt*(1+rate*when)/rate*((1+rate)**nper-1) = 0
but if rate = 0 then:

fv + pv + pmt*nper = 0
638
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
If you only had $150/month to pay towards the loan, how long would it take to pay-off a loan of $8,000 at 7%
annual interest?
>>> print round(np.nper(0.07/12, -150, 8000), 5)
64.07335
So, over 64 months would be required to pay off the loan.

The same analysis could be done with several different interest rates and/or payments and/or total amounts to
produce an entire table.
>>> np.nper(*(np.ogrid[0.07/12: 0.08/12: 0.01/12,
...
-150
: -99
: 50
,
...
8000
: 9001
: 1000]))
array([[[ 64.07334877,
74.06368256],
[ 108.07548412, 127.99022654]],
[[ 66.12443902,
76.87897353],
[ 114.70165583, 137.90124779]]])
numpy.rate(nper, pmt, pv, fv, when=end, guess=0.1, tol=1e-06, maxiter=100)

Compute the rate of interest per period.
Parameters
nper : array_like
pmt : array_like
Payment
pv : array_like
Present value
fv : array_like
Future value
guess : float, optional
Starting guess for solving the rate of interest
tol : float, optional
Required tolerance for the solution
maxiter : int, optional
Maximum iterations in finding the solution
Notes
The rate of interest is computed by iteratively solving the (non-linear) equation:
fv + pv*(1+rate)**nper + pmt*(1+rate*when)/rate * ((1+rate)**nper - 1) = 0
for rate.
639
References
Wheeler, D. A., E. Rathke, and R. Weir (Eds.) (2009, May). Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument)v1.2, Part 2: Recalculated Formula (OpenFormula) Format - Annotated Version, PreDraft 12. Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). Billerica, MA,
USA. [ODT Document]. Available: http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/documents.php?wg_abbrev=officeformula OpenDocument-formula-20090508.odt
3.13 Functional programming

apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args)
apply_over_axes(func, a, axes)
vectorize(pyfunc[, otypes, doc, excluded, cache])
frompyfunc(func, nin, nout)
piecewise(x, condlist, funclist, *args, **kw)

Generalized function class.
Takes an arbitrary Python function and returns a Numpy ufunc.
Evaluate a piecewise-defined function.
numpy.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args)

Parameters
func1d : function
specified axis.
axis : integer
arr : ndarray
Input array.
args : any
Returns
See Also:
apply_over_axes
Examples
>>> def my_func(a):
...
...
return (a[0] + a[-1]) * 0.5
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
array([ 4., 5., 6.])

array([ 2., 5., 8.])
>>> b = np.array([[8,1,7], [4,3,9], [5,2,6]])
array([[1, 7, 8],
[3, 4, 9],
[2, 5, 6]])
numpy.apply_over_axes(func, a, axes)
func is called as res = func(a, axis), where axis is the first element of axes. The result res of the function call must
have either the same dimensions as a or one less dimension. If res has one less dimension than a, a dimension
is inserted before axis. The call to func is then repeated for each axis in axes, with res as the first argument.
Parameters
func : function
This function must take two arguments, func(a, axis).
a : array_like
Input array.
axes : array_like
Axes over which func is applied; the elements must be integers.
Returns
apply_over_axis : ndarray
The output array. The number of dimensions is the same as a, but the shape can be
different. This depends on whether func changes the shape of its output with respect to
its input.
See Also:
apply_along_axis
Apply a function to 1-D slices of an array along the given axis.
Examples
>>> a
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
Sum over axes 0 and 2. The result has same number of dimensions as the original array:
>>> np.apply_over_axes(np.sum, a, [0,2])
array([[[ 60],
[ 92],
[124]]])
3.13. Functional programming
641
class numpy.vectorize(pyfunc, otypes=, doc=None, excluded=None, cache=False)

Generalized function class.
Define a vectorized function which takes a nested sequence of objects or numpy arrays as inputs and returns a
numpy array as output. The vectorized function evaluates pyfunc over successive tuples of the input arrays like
the python map function, except it uses the broadcasting rules of numpy.
The data type of the output of vectorized is determined by calling the function with the first element of the input.
This can be avoided by specifying the otypes argument.
Parameters
pyfunc : callable
A python function or method.
otypes : str or list of dtypes, optional
The output data type. It must be specified as either a string of typecode characters or a
list of data type specifiers. There should be one data type specifier for each output.
doc : str, optional
The docstring for the function. If None, the docstring will be the pyfunc.__doc__.
excluded : set, optional
Set of strings or integers representing the positional or keyword arguments for which
the function will not be vectorized. These will be passed directly to pyfunc unmodified.
cache : bool, optional
If True, then cache the first function call that determines the number of outputs if otypes
is not provided.
Returns
vectorized : callable
Vectorized function.
Notes
The vectorize function is provided primarily for convenience, not for performance. The implementation is
essentially a for loop.
If otypes is not specified, then a call to the function with the first argument will be used to determine the number
of outputs. The results of this call will be cached if cache is True to prevent calling the function twice. However,
to implement the cache, the original function must be wrapped which will slow down subsequent calls, so only
do this if your function is expensive.
The new keyword argument interface and excluded argument support further degrades performance.
Examples
>>> def myfunc(a, b):
...
"Return a-b if a>b, otherwise return a+b"
...
if a > b:
...
return a - b
...
else:
...
return a + b
642
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> vfunc = np.vectorize(myfunc)

>>> vfunc([1, 2, 3, 4], 2)
array([3, 4, 1, 2])
The docstring is taken from the input function to vectorize unless it is specified
>>> vfunc.__doc__
Return a-b if a>b, otherwise return a+b
>>> vfunc = np.vectorize(myfunc, doc=Vectorized myfunc)
>>> vfunc.__doc__
Vectorized myfunc
The output type is determined by evaluating the first element of the input, unless it is specified
>>> out = vfunc([1, 2, 3, 4], 2)
>>> type(out[0])
<type numpy.int32>
>>> vfunc = np.vectorize(myfunc, otypes=[np.float])
>>> out = vfunc([1, 2, 3, 4], 2)
>>> type(out[0])
The excluded argument can be used to prevent vectorizing over certain arguments. This can be useful for arraylike arguments of a fixed length such as the coefficients for a polynomial as in polyval:
>>> def mypolyval(p, x):
...
_p = list(p)
...
res = _p.pop(0)
...
while _p:
...
res = res*x + _p.pop(0)
...
return res
>>> vpolyval = np.vectorize(mypolyval, excluded=[p])
>>> vpolyval(p=[1, 2, 3], x=[0, 1])
array([3, 6])
Positional arguments may also be excluded by specifying their position:

>>> vpolyval.excluded.add(0)
>>> vpolyval([1, 2, 3], x=[0, 1])
array([3, 6])
Methods
__call__(*args, **kwargs)
Return arrays with the results of pyfunc broadcast (vectorized) over
vectorize.__call__(*args, **kwargs)
Return arrays with the results of pyfunc broadcast (vectorized) over args and kwargs not in excluded.
numpy.frompyfunc(func, nin, nout)
Takes an arbitrary Python function and returns a Numpy ufunc.
Can be used, for example, to add broadcasting to a built-in Python function (see Examples section).
Parameters
func : Python function object
An arbitrary Python function.
nin : int
3.13. Functional programming
643
The number of input arguments.

nout : int
The number of objects returned by func.
Returns
out : ufunc
Returns a Numpy universal function (ufunc) object.
Notes
The returned ufunc always returns PyObject arrays.
Examples
Use frompyfunc to add broadcasting to the Python function oct:
>>> oct_array = np.frompyfunc(oct, 1, 1)
>>> oct_array(np.array((10, 30, 100)))
array([012, 036, 0144], dtype=object)
>>> np.array((oct(10), oct(30), oct(100))) # for comparison
array([012, 036, 0144],
dtype=|S4)
numpy.piecewise(x, condlist, funclist, *args, **kw)

Evaluate a piecewise-defined function.
Given a set of conditions and corresponding functions, evaluate each function on the input data wherever its
condition is true.
Parameters
x : ndarray
The input domain.
condlist : list of bool arrays
Each boolean array corresponds to a function in funclist. Wherever condlist[i] is True,
funclist[i](x) is used as the output value.
Each boolean array in condlist selects a piece of x, and should therefore be of the same
shape as x.
The length of condlist must correspond to that of funclist. If one extra function is given,
i.e. if len(funclist) - len(condlist) == 1, then that extra function is the
default value, used wherever all conditions are false.
funclist : list of callables, f(x,*args,**kw), or scalars
Each function is evaluated over x wherever its corresponding condition is True. It should
take an array as input and give an array or a scalar value as output. If, instead of
a callable, a scalar is provided then a constant function (lambda x: scalar) is
assumed.
args : tuple, optional
Any further arguments given to piecewise are passed to the functions upon execution, i.e., if called piecewise(..., ..., 1, a), then each function is called
as f(x, 1, a).
kw : dict, optional
644
Chapter 3. Routines
Keyword arguments used in calling piecewise are passed to the functions upon execution, i.e., if called piecewise(..., ..., lambda=1), then each function is
called as f(x, lambda=1).
Returns
out : ndarray
The output is the same shape and type as x and is found by calling the functions in
funclist on the appropriate portions of x, as defined by the boolean arrays in condlist.
Portions not covered by any condition have undefined values.
See Also:
choose, select, where
Notes
This is similar to choose or select, except that functions are evaluated on elements of x that satisfy the corresponding condition from condlist.
The result is:
|-|funclist[0](x[condlist[0]])
out = |funclist[1](x[condlist[1]])
|...
|funclist[n2](x[condlist[n2]])
|--
Examples
Define the sigma function, which is -1 for x < 0 and +1 for x >= 0.
>>> x = np.linspace(-2.5, 2.5, 6)
>>> np.piecewise(x, [x < 0, x >= 0], [-1, 1])
array([-1., -1., -1., 1., 1., 1.])
Define the absolute value, which is -x for x <0 and x for x >= 0.
>>> np.piecewise(x, [x < 0, x >= 0], [lambda x: -x, lambda x: x])
array([ 2.5, 1.5, 0.5, 0.5, 1.5, 2.5])
3.14 Numpy-specific help functions

3.14.1 Finding help
lookfor(what[, module, import_modules, ...])
Do a keyword search on docstrings.
numpy.lookfor(what, module=None, import_modules=True, regenerate=False, output=None)

Do a keyword search on docstrings.
A list of of objects that matched the search is displayed, sorted by relevance. All given keywords need to be
found in the docstring for it to be returned as a result, but the order does not matter.
Parameters
what : str
3.14. Numpy-specific help functions
645
String containing words to look for.

module : str or list, optional
Name of module(s) whose docstrings to go through.
import_modules : bool, optional
Whether to import sub-modules in packages. Default is True.
regenerate : bool, optional
Whether to re-generate the docstring cache. Default is False.
output : file-like, optional
File-like object to write the output to. If omitted, use a pager.
See Also:
source, info
Notes
Relevance is determined only roughly, by checking if the keywords occur in the function name, at the start of a
docstring, etc.
Examples
>>> np.lookfor(binary representation)
Search results for binary representation
-----------------------------------------numpy.binary_repr
numpy.core.setup_common.long_double_representation
Given a binary dump as given by GNU od -b, look for long double
numpy.base_repr
...
3.14.2 Reading help

info([object, maxwidth, output, toplevel])
source(object[, output])
Get help information for a function, class, or module.

Print or write to a file the source code for a Numpy object.
numpy.info(object=None, maxwidth=76, output=<open file <stdout>, mode w at 0x2ac351aa0150>,

toplevel=numpy)
Get help information for a function, class, or module.
Parameters
object : object or str, optional
Input object or name to get information about. If object is a numpy object, its docstring is given. If it is a string, available modules are searched for matching objects. If
None, information about info itself is returned.
maxwidth : int, optional
Printing width.
output : file like object, optional
646
Chapter 3. Routines
File like object that the output is written to, default is stdout. The object has to be
opened in w or a mode.
toplevel : str, optional
Start search at this level.
See Also:
source, lookfor
Notes
When used interactively with an object, np.info(obj) is equivalent to help(obj) on the Python prompt
or obj? on the IPython prompt.
Examples
>>> np.info(np.polyval)
polyval(p, x)
Evaluate the polynomial p at x.
...
When using a string for object it is possible to get multiple results.

>>> np.info(fft)
*** Found in numpy ***
Core FFT routines
...
*** Found in numpy.fft ***
fft(a, n=None, axis=-1)
...
*** Repeat reference found in numpy.fft.fftpack ***
*** Total of 3 references found. ***
numpy.source(object, output=<open file <stdout>, mode w at 0x2ac351aa0150>)

Print or write to a file the source code for a Numpy object.
The source code is only returned for objects written in Python. Many functions and classes are defined in C and
will therefore not return useful information.
Parameters
object : numpy object
Input object. This can be any object (function, class, module, ...).
output : file object, optional
If output not supplied then source code is printed to screen (sys.stdout). File object must
be created with either write w or append a modes.
See Also:
lookfor, info
Examples
>>> np.source(np.interp)
In file: /usr/lib/python2.6/dist-packages/numpy/lib/function_base.py
def interp(x, xp, fp, left=None, right=None):
""".... (full docstring printed)"""
if isinstance(x, (float, int, number)):
return compiled_interp([x], xp, fp, left, right).item()
3.14. Numpy-specific help functions
647
else:
return compiled_interp(x, xp, fp, left, right)
The source code is only returned for objects written in Python.

>>> np.source(np.array)
Not available for this object.
3.15 Indexing routines

See Also:
Indexing
3.15.1 Generating index arrays

c_
r_
s_
nonzero(a)
where(condition, [x, y])
indices(dimensions[, dtype])
ix_(*args)
ogrid
ravel_multi_index(multi_index, dims[, mode, ...])
unravel_index(indices, dims[, order])
diag_indices(n[, ndim])
diag_indices_from(arr)
mask_indices(n, mask_func[, k])
tril_indices(n[, k])
tril_indices_from(arr[, k])
triu_indices(n[, k])
triu_indices_from(arr[, k])
Translates slice objects to concatenation along the second axis.

Translates slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
A nicer way to build up index tuples for arrays.
Return elements, either from x or y, depending on condition.
Construct an open mesh from multiple sequences.
Converts a tuple of index arrays into an array of flat indices, applying boun
Converts a flat index or array of flat indices into a tuple of coordinate array
Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an array.
Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an n-dimensional array.
Return the indices to access (n, n) arrays, given a masking function.
Return the indices for the lower-triangle of an (n, n) array.
Return the indices for the lower-triangle of arr.
Return the indices for the upper-triangle of an (n, n) array.
Return the indices for the upper-triangle of a (N, N) array.
numpy.c_ = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.CClass object at 0x25df410>

This is short-hand for np.r_[-1,2,0, index expression], which is useful because of its common
occurrence. In particular, arrays will be stacked along their last axis after being upgraded to at least 2-D with
1s post-pended to the shape (column vectors made out of 1-D arrays).
For detailed documentation, see r_.
Examples
>>> np.c_[np.array([[1,2,3]]), 0, 0, np.array([[4,5,6]])]
array([[1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6]])
numpy.r_ = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.RClass object at 0x25df350>

Translates slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
This is a simple way to build up arrays quickly. There are two use cases.
648
Chapter 3. Routines
1.If the index expression contains comma separated arrays, then stack them along their first axis.
2.If the index expression contains slice notation or scalars then create a 1-D array with a range indicated by
the slice notation.
If slice notation is used, the syntax start:stop:step is equivalent to np.arange(start, stop,
step) inside of the brackets. However, if step is an imaginary number (i.e. 100j) then its integer
portion is interpreted as a number-of-points desired and the start and stop are inclusive. In other words
start:stop:stepj is interpreted as np.linspace(start, stop, step, endpoint=1) inside
of the brackets. After expansion of slice notation, all comma separated sequences are concatenated together.
Optional character strings placed as the first element of the index expression can be used to change the output.
The strings r or c result in matrix output. If the result is 1-D and r is specified a 1 x N (row) matrix is
produced. If the result is 1-D and c is specified, then a N x 1 (column) matrix is produced. If the result is 2-D
then both provide the same matrix result.
A string integer specifies which axis to stack multiple comma separated arrays along. A string of two commaseparated integers allows indication of the minimum number of dimensions to force each entry into as the second
integer (the axis to concatenate along is still the first integer).
A string with three comma-separated integers allows specification of the axis to concatenate along, the minimum
number of dimensions to force the entries to, and which axis should contain the start of the arrays which are less
than the specified number of dimensions. In other words the third integer allows you to specify where the 1s
should be placed in the shape of the arrays that have their shapes upgraded. By default, they are placed in the
front of the shape tuple. The third argument allows you to specify where the start of the array should be instead.
Thus, a third argument of 0 would place the 1s at the end of the array shape. Negative integers specify where
in the new shape tuple the last dimension of upgraded arrays should be placed, so the default is -1.
Parameters
Not a function, so takes no parameters
Returns
A concatenated ndarray or matrix.
See Also:
concatenate
c_
Examples
>>> np.r_[np.array([1,2,3]), 0, 0, np.array([4,5,6])]
array([1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.r_[-1:1:6j, [0]*3, 5, 6]
array([-1. , -0.6, -0.2, 0.2, 0.6, 1. , 0. , 0. ,
0. ,
5. ,
6. ])
String integers specify the axis to concatenate along or the minimum number of dimensions to force entries into.
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.r_[-1, a, a] # concatenate along last axis
array([[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.r_[0,2, [1,2,3], [4,5,6]] # concatenate along first axis, dim>=2
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
3.15. Indexing routines
649
>>> np.r_[0,2,0, [1,2,3], [4,5,6]]

array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[4],
[5],
[6]])
>>> np.r_[1,2,0, [1,2,3], [4,5,6]]
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
Using r or c as a first string argument creates a matrix.

>>> np.r_[r,[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]
matrix([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]])
numpy.s_ = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.IndexExpression object at 0x25df550>

A nicer way to build up index tuples for arrays.
Note: Use one of the two predefined instances index_exp or s_ rather than directly using IndexExpression.
For any index combination, including slicing and axis insertion, a[indices] is the same as
a[np.index_exp[indices]] for any array a. However, np.index_exp[indices] can be used anywhere in Python code and returns a tuple of slice objects that can be used in the construction of complex index
expressions.
Parameters
maketuple : bool
If True, always returns a tuple.
See Also:
index_exp
Predefined instance that always returns a tuple: index_exp = IndexExpression(maketuple=True).
s_
Predefined instance without tuple conversion: s_ = IndexExpression(maketuple=False).
Notes
You can do all this with slice() plus a few special objects, but theres a lot to remember and this version is simpler
because it uses the standard array indexing syntax.
Examples
>>> np.s_[2::2]
slice(2, None, 2)
>>> np.index_exp[2::2]
(slice(2, None, 2),)
>>> np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])[np.s_[2::2]]
array([2, 4])
numpy.nonzero(a)
650
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns a tuple of arrays, one for each dimension of a, containing the indices of the non-zero elements in that
a[nonzero(a)]
To group the indices by element, rather than dimension, use:

transpose(nonzero(a))
The result of this is always a 2-D array, with a row for each non-zero element.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
See Also:
flatnonzero
ndarray.nonzero
count_nonzero
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0.,
[ 0., 1.,
[ 0., 0.,
>>> np.nonzero(x)
(array([0, 1, 2]),
0.],
0.],
1.]])
array([0, 1, 2]))
>>> x[np.nonzero(x)]
array([ 1., 1., 1.])
>>> np.transpose(np.nonzero(x))
array([[0, 0],
[1, 1],
[2, 2]])
condition a > 3 is a boolean array and since False is interpreted as 0, np.nonzero(a > 3) yields the indices of the
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
array([[False, False, False],
[ True, True, True],
[ True, True, True]], dtype=bool)
>>> np.nonzero(a > 3)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
651
The nonzero method of the boolean array can also be called.

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.where(condition[, x, y ])
If only condition is given, return condition.nonzero().
Parameters
When True, yield x, otherwise yield y.
Values from which to choose. x and y need to have the same shape as condition.
Returns
out : ndarray or tuple of ndarrays
If both x and y are specified, the output array contains elements of x where condition is
True, and elements from y elsewhere.
If only condition is given, return the tuple condition.nonzero(), the indices
where condition is True.
See Also:
nonzero, choose
Notes
If x and y are given and input arrays are 1-D, where is equivalent to:
[xv if c else yv for (c,xv,yv) in zip(condition,x,y)]
Examples
>>> np.where([[True, False], [True, True]],
...
[[1, 2], [3, 4]],
...
[[9, 8], [7, 6]])
array([[1, 8],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.where([[0, 1], [1, 0]])
(array([0, 1]), array([1, 0]))
>>> np.where( x > 5 )
(array([2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))
>>> x[np.where( x > 3.0 )]
array([ 4., 5., 6., 7., 8.])
>>> np.where(x < 5, x, -1)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -1.],
[-1., -1., -1.]])
# Note: result is 1D.

# Note: broadcasting.
Find the indices of elements of x that are in goodvalues.
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> goodvalues = [3, 4, 7]

>>> ix = np.in1d(x.ravel(), goodvalues).reshape(x.shape)
>>> ix
[ True, True, False],
[False, True, False]], dtype=bool)
>>> np.where(ix)
(array([1, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 1]))
numpy.indices(dimensions, dtype=<type int>)

Parameters
Returns
grid : ndarray
tuple(dimensions).
See Also:
mgrid, meshgrid
Notes
Examples
>>> grid.shape
(2, 2, 3)
>>> grid[0]
# row indices
array([[0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> grid[1]
# column indices
array([[0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2]])

>>> x[row, col]
array([[0, 1, 2],
[4, 5, 6]])
653
x[:2, :3].
numpy.ix_(*args)
Construct an open mesh from multiple sequences.
This function takes N 1-D sequences and returns N outputs with N dimensions each, such that the shape is 1 in
all but one dimension and the dimension with the non-unit shape value cycles through all N dimensions.
Using ix_ one can quickly construct index arrays that will index the cross product.
a[np.ix_([1,3],[2,5])] returns the array [[a[1,2] a[1,5]], [a[3,2] a[3,5]]].
Parameters
args : 1-D sequences
Returns
out : tuple of ndarrays
N arrays with N dimensions each, with N the number of input sequences. Together
these arrays form an open mesh.
See Also:
ogrid, mgrid, meshgrid
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(10).reshape(2, 5)
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]])
>>> ixgrid = np.ix_([0,1], [2,4])
>>> ixgrid
(array([[0],
[1]]), array([[2, 4]]))
>>> ixgrid[0].shape, ixgrid[1].shape
((2, 1), (1, 2))
>>> a[ixgrid]
array([[2, 4],
[7, 9]])
numpy.ogrid = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid object at 0x25df2d0>

An instance of numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid which returns an open (i.e. not fleshed out) meshgrid when indexed, so that only one dimension of each returned array is greater than 1. The dimension and
number of the output arrays are equal to the number of indexing dimensions. If the step length is not a complex
number, then the stop is not inclusive.
Returns
mesh-grid ndarrays with only one dimension 6= 1
See Also:
np.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid
mgrid
like ogrid but returns dense (or fleshed out) mesh grids
654
Chapter 3. Routines
r_
array concatenator
Examples
>>> from numpy import ogrid
>>> ogrid[-1:1:5j]
array([-1. , -0.5, 0. , 0.5, 1. ])
>>> ogrid[0:5,0:5]
[array([[0],
[1],
[2],
[3],
[4]]), array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]])]
numpy.ravel_multi_index(multi_index, dims, mode=raise, order=C)

Converts a tuple of index arrays into an array of flat indices, applying boundary modes to the multi-index.
Parameters
multi_index : tuple of array_like
A tuple of integer arrays, one array for each dimension.
dims : tuple of ints
The shape of array into which the indices from multi_index apply.
Specifies how out-of-bounds indices are handled. Can specify either one mode or a
tuple of modes, one mode per index.
raise raise an error (default)
wrap wrap around
clip clip to the range
In clip mode, a negative index which would normally wrap will clip to 0 instead.
Determines whether the multi-index should be viewed as indexing in C (row-major)
order or FORTRAN (column-major) order.
Returns
raveled_indices : ndarray
An array of indices into the flattened version of an array of dimensions dims.
See Also:
unravel_index
Notes
Examples
>>> arr = np.array([[3,6,6],[4,5,1]])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (7,6))
array([22, 41, 37])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (7,6), order=F)
655
array([31, 41, 13])

>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (4,6), mode=clip)
array([22, 23, 19])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (4,4), mode=(clip,wrap))
array([12, 13, 13])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index((3,1,4,1), (6,7,8,9))
1621
numpy.unravel_index(indices, dims, order=C)

Converts a flat index or array of flat indices into a tuple of coordinate arrays.
Parameters
An integer array whose elements are indices into the flattened version of an array of
dimensions dims. Before version 1.6.0, this function accepted just one index value.
dims : tuple of ints
The shape of the array to use for unraveling indices.
New in version 1.6.0. Determines whether the indices should be viewed as indexing in
C (row-major) order or FORTRAN (column-major) order.
Returns
unraveled_coords : tuple of ndarray
Each array in the tuple has the same shape as the indices array.
See Also:
ravel_multi_index
Examples
>>> np.unravel_index([22, 41, 37], (7,6))
(array([3, 6, 6]), array([4, 5, 1]))
>>> np.unravel_index([31, 41, 13], (7,6), order=F)
(array([3, 6, 6]), array([4, 5, 1]))
>>> np.unravel_index(1621, (6,7,8,9))
(3, 1, 4, 1)
numpy.diag_indices(n, ndim=2)
Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an array.
This returns a tuple of indices that can be used to access the main diagonal of an array a with a.ndim >= 2
dimensions and shape (n, n, ..., n). For a.ndim = 2 this is the usual diagonal, for a.ndim > 2 this is the
set of indices to access a[i, i, ..., i] for i = [0..n-1].
Parameters
n : int
The size, along each dimension, of the arrays for which the returned indices can be
used.
ndim : int, optional
The number of dimensions.
656
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
diag_indices_from
Notes
Examples
Create a set of indices to access the diagonal of a (4, 4) array:
>>> di = np.diag_indices(4)
>>> di
(array([0, 1, 2, 3]), array([0, 1, 2, 3]))
>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]])
>>> a[di] = 100
>>> a
array([[100,
1,
2,
3],
[ 4, 100,
6,
7],
[ 8,
9, 100, 11],
[ 12, 13, 14, 100]])
Now, we create indices to manipulate a 3-D array:

>>> d3 = np.diag_indices(2, 3)
>>> d3
(array([0, 1]), array([0, 1]), array([0, 1]))
And use it to set the diagonal of an array of zeros to 1:

>>> a = np.zeros((2, 2, 2), dtype=np.int)
>>> a[d3] = 1
>>> a
array([[[1, 0],
[0, 0]],
[[0, 0],
[0, 1]]])
numpy.diag_indices_from(arr)
Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an n-dimensional array.
See diag_indices for full details.
Parameters
arr : array, at least 2-D
See Also:
diag_indices
Notes
numpy.mask_indices(n, mask_func, k=0)
Return the indices to access (n, n) arrays, given a masking function.
657
Assume mask_func is a function that, for a square array a of size (n, n) with a possible offset argument k,
when called as mask_func(a, k) returns a new array with zeros in certain locations (functions like triu
or tril do precisely this). Then this function returns the indices where the non-zero values would be located.
Parameters
n : int
The returned indices will be valid to access arrays of shape (n, n).
mask_func : callable
A function whose call signature is similar to that of triu, tril. That is,
mask_func(x, k) returns a boolean array, shaped like x. k is an optional argument
to the function.
k : scalar
An optional argument which is passed through to mask_func. Functions like triu,
tril take a second argument that is interpreted as an offset.
Returns
indices : tuple of arrays.
The n arrays of indices corresponding
mask_func(np.ones((n, n)), k) is True.
to
the
locations
where
See Also:
triu, tril, triu_indices, tril_indices
Notes
Examples
These are the indices that would allow you to access the upper triangular part of any 3x3 array:
>>> iu = np.mask_indices(3, np.triu)
For example, if a is a 3x3 array:

>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8]])
>>> a[iu]
array([0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8])
An offset can be passed also to the masking function. This gets us the indices starting on the first diagonal right
of the main one:
>>> iu1 = np.mask_indices(3, np.triu, 1)
with which we now extract only three elements:

>>> a[iu1]
array([1, 2, 5])
numpy.tril_indices(n, k=0)
Return the indices for the lower-triangle of an (n, n) array.
658
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
n : int
The row dimension of the square arrays for which the returned indices will be valid.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see tril for details).
Returns
inds : tuple of arrays
The indices for the triangle. The returned tuple contains two arrays, each with the
indices along one dimension of the array.
See Also:
triu_indices
similar function, for upper-triangular.
mask_indices
generic function accepting an arbitrary mask function.
tril, triu
Notes
Examples
Compute two different sets of indices to access 4x4 arrays, one for the lower triangular part starting at the main
diagonal, and one starting two diagonals further right:
>>> il1 = np.tril_indices(4)
>>> il2 = np.tril_indices(4, 2)
Here is how they can be used with a sample array:

>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]])
Both for indexing:

>>> a[il1]
array([ 0,
4,
5,
8,
9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15])
And for assigning values:

>>> a[il1] = -1
>>> a
array([[-1, 1, 2, 3],
[-1, -1, 6, 7],
[-1, -1, -1, 11],
[-1, -1, -1, -1]])
These cover almost the whole array (two diagonals right of the main one):
659
>>> a[il2] =
>>> a
array([[-10,
[-10,
[-10,
[-10,
-10
-10,
-10,
-10,
-10,
-10,
3],
-10, -10],
-10, -10],
-10, -10]])
numpy.tril_indices_from(arr, k=0)
Return the indices for the lower-triangle of arr.
See tril_indices for full details.
Parameters
arr : array_like
The indices will be valid for square arrays whose dimensions are the same as arr.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see tril for details).
See Also:
tril_indices, tril
Notes
numpy.triu_indices(n, k=0)
Return the indices for the upper-triangle of an (n, n) array.
Parameters
n : int
The size of the arrays for which the returned indices will be valid.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see triu for details).
Returns
inds : tuple, shape(2) of ndarrays, shape(n)
The indices for the triangle. The returned tuple contains two arrays, each with the
indices along one dimension of the array. Can be used to slice a ndarray of shape(n, n).
See Also:
tril_indices
similar function, for lower-triangular.
mask_indices
generic function accepting an arbitrary mask function.
triu, tril
Notes
660
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
Compute two different sets of indices to access 4x4 arrays, one for the upper triangular part starting at the main
diagonal, and one starting two diagonals further right:
>>> iu1 = np.triu_indices(4)
>>> iu2 = np.triu_indices(4, 2)
Here is how they can be used with a sample array:

>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]])
Both for indexing:

>>> a[iu1]
array([ 0,
1,
2,
3,
5,
6,
7, 10, 11, 15])
And for assigning values:

>>> a[iu1] = -1
>>> a
array([[-1, -1,
[ 4, -1,
[ 8, 9,
[12, 13,
-1,
-1,
-1,
14,
-1],
-1],
-1],
-1]])
These cover only a small part of the whole array (two diagonals right of the main one):
>>> a[iu2] = -10
>>> a
array([[ -1, -1, -10, -10],
[ 4, -1, -1, -10],
[ 8,
9, -1, -1],
[ 12, 13, 14, -1]])
numpy.triu_indices_from(arr, k=0)
Return the indices for the upper-triangle of a (N, N) array.
See triu_indices for full details.
Parameters
arr : ndarray, shape(N, N)
The indices will be valid for square arrays.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see triu for details).
Returns
triu_indices_from : tuple, shape(2) of ndarray, shape(N)
Indices for the upper-triangle of arr.
See Also:
triu_indices, triu
661
Notes
3.15.2 Indexing-like operations

take(a, indices[, axis, out, mode])
choose(a, choices[, out, mode])
compress(condition, a[, axis, out])
diag(v[, k])
diagonal(a[, offset, axis1, axis2])
select(condlist, choicelist[, default])
Take elements from an array along an axis.

Construct an array from an index array and a set of arrays to choose from.
Return selected slices of an array along given axis.
Return an array drawn from elements in choicelist, depending on conditions.
numpy.take(a, indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=raise)

Take elements from an array along an axis.
This function does the same thing as fancy indexing (indexing arrays using arrays); however, it can be easier
to use if you need elements along a given axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
The source array.
The indices of the values to extract. New in version 1.8.0. Also allow scalars for indices.
The axis over which to select values. By default, the flattened input array is used.
If provided, the result will be placed in this array. It should be of the appropriate shape
and dtype.
wrap wrap around
clip mode means that all indices that are too large are replaced by the index that addresses the last element along that axis. Note that this disables indexing with negative
numbers.
Returns
subarray : ndarray
The returned array has the same type as a.
See Also:
ndarray.take
equivalent method
662
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = [4, 3, 5, 7, 6, 8]
>>> indices = [0, 1, 4]
>>> np.take(a, indices)
array([4, 3, 6])
In this example if a is an ndarray, fancy indexing can be used.

>>> a = np.array(a)
>>> a[indices]
array([4, 3, 6])
If indices is not one dimensional, the output also has these dimensions.
>>> np.take(a, [[0, 1], [2, 3]])
array([[4, 3],
[5, 7]])
numpy.choose(a, choices, out=None, mode=raise)

Construct an array from an index array and a set of arrays to choose from.
First of all, if confused or uncertain, definitely look at the Examples - in its full generality, this function is less
simple than it might seem from the following code description (below ndi = numpy.lib.index_tricks):
np.choose(a,c) == np.array([c[a[I]][I] for I in ndi.ndindex(a.shape)]).
But this omits some subtleties. Here is a fully general summary:
Given an index array (a) of integers and a sequence of n arrays (choices), a and each choice array are first
broadcast, as necessary, to arrays of a common shape; calling these Ba and Bchoices[i], i = 0,...,n-1 we have that,
necessarily, Ba.shape == Bchoices[i].shape for each i. Then, a new array with shape Ba.shape is
created as follows:
if mode=raise (the default), then, first of all, each element of a (and thus Ba) must be in the range [0,
n-1]; now, suppose that i (in that range) is the value at the (j0, j1, ..., jm) position in Ba - then the value at
the same position in the new array is the value in Bchoices[i] at that same position;
if mode=wrap, values in a (and thus Ba) may be any (signed) integer; modular arithmetic is used to map
integers outside the range [0, n-1] back into that range; and then the new array is constructed as above;
if mode=clip, values in a (and thus Ba) may be any (signed) integer; negative integers are mapped to 0;
values greater than n-1 are mapped to n-1; and then the new array is constructed as above.
Parameters
a : int array
This array must contain integers in [0, n-1], where n is the number of choices, unless
mode=wrap or mode=clip, in which cases any integers are permissible.
Choice arrays. a and all of the choices must be broadcastable to the same shape. If
choices is itself an array (not recommended), then its outermost dimension (i.e., the one
corresponding to choices.shape[0]) is taken as defining the sequence.
shape and dtype.
mode : {raise (default), wrap, clip}, optional
663
Specifies how indices outside [0, n-1] will be treated:

raise : an exception is raised
wrap : value becomes value mod n
clip : values < 0 are mapped to 0, values > n-1 are mapped to n-1
Returns
The merged result.
Raises
ValueError: shape mismatch
If a and each choice array are not all broadcastable to the same shape.
See Also:
ndarray.choose
equivalent method
Notes
To reduce the chance of misinterpretation, even though the following abuse is nominally supported, choices
should neither be, nor be thought of as, a single array, i.e., the outermost sequence-like container should be
either a list or a tuple.
Examples
>>> choices = [[0, 1, 2, 3], [10, 11, 12, 13],
...
[20, 21, 22, 23], [30, 31, 32, 33]]
>>> np.choose([2, 3, 1, 0], choices
... # the first element of the result will be the first element of the
... # third (2+1) "array" in choices, namely, 20; the second element
... # will be the second element of the fourth (3+1) choice array, i.e.,
... # 31, etc.
... )
array([20, 31, 12, 3])
>>> np.choose([2, 4, 1, 0], choices, mode=clip) # 4 goes to 3 (4-1)
array([20, 31, 12, 3])
>>> # because there are 4 choice arrays
>>> np.choose([2, 4, 1, 0], choices, mode=wrap) # 4 goes to (4 mod 4)
array([20, 1, 12, 3])
>>> # i.e., 0
A couple examples illustrating how choose broadcasts:

>>> a = [[1, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 1]]
>>> choices = [-10, 10]
>>> np.choose(a, choices)
array([[ 10, -10, 10],
[-10, 10, -10],
[ 10, -10, 10]])
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
664
# With thanks to Anne Archibald

a = np.array([0, 1]).reshape((2,1,1))
c1 = np.array([1, 2, 3]).reshape((1,3,1))
c2 = np.array([-1, -2, -3, -4, -5]).reshape((1,1,5))
np.choose(a, (c1, c2)) # result is 2x3x5, res[0,:,:]=c1, res[1,:,:]=c2
Chapter 3. Routines
array([[[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2],
[ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3]],
[[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5],
[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5],
[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5]]])
numpy.compress(condition, a, axis=None, out=None)

Return selected slices of an array along given axis.
When working along a given axis, a slice along that axis is returned in output for each index where condition
evaluates to True. When working on a 1-D array, compress is equivalent to extract.
Parameters
condition : 1-D array of bools
Array that selects which entries to return. If len(condition) is less than the size of a
along the given axis, then output is truncated to the length of the condition array.
a : array_like
Array from which to extract a part.
Axis along which to take slices. If None (default), work on the flattened array.
Output array. Its type is preserved and it must be of the right shape to hold the output.
Returns
A copy of a without the slices along axis for which condition is false.
See Also:
take, choose, diag, diagonal, select
ndarray.compress
Equivalent method in ndarray
np.extract
Equivalent method when working on 1-D arrays
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
>>> np.compress([0, 1], a, axis=0)
array([[3, 4]])
>>> np.compress([False, True, True], a, axis=0)
array([[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
>>> np.compress([False, True], a, axis=1)
array([[2],
665
[4],
[6]])
Working on the flattened array does not return slices along an axis but selects elements.
>>> np.compress([False, True], a)
array([2])
numpy.diag(v, k=0)
See the more detailed documentation for numpy.diagonal if you use this function to extract a diagonal and
wish to write to the resulting array; whether it returns a copy or a view depends on what version of numpy you
are using.
Parameters
v : array_like
If v is a 2-D array, return a copy of its k-th diagonal. If v is a 1-D array, return a 2-D
array with v on the k-th diagonal.
k : int, optional
Diagonal in question. The default is 0. Use k>0 for diagonals above the main diagonal,
and k<0 for diagonals below the main diagonal.
Returns
out : ndarray
The extracted diagonal or constructed diagonal array.
See Also:
diagonal
diagflat
Create a 2-D array with the flattened input as a diagonal.
trace
triu
tril
Lower triange of an array.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8]])
>>> np.diag(x)
array([0, 4, 8])
>>> np.diag(x, k=1)
array([1, 5])
>>> np.diag(x, k=-1)
array([3, 7])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.diag(np.diag(x))
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0],
[0, 0, 8]])
numpy.diagonal(a, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

If a is 2-D, returns the diagonal of a with the given offset, i.e., the collection of elements of the form a[i,
i+offset]. If a has more than two dimensions, then the axes specified by axis1 and axis2 are used to
determine the 2-D sub-array whose diagonal is returned. The shape of the resulting array can be determined by
removing axis1 and axis2 and appending an index to the right equal to the size of the resulting diagonals.
In versions of NumPy prior to 1.7, this function always returned a new, independent array containing a copy of
the values in the diagonal.
In NumPy 1.7, it continues to return a copy of the diagonal, but depending on this fact is deprecated. Writing to
the resulting array continues to work as it used to, but a FutureWarning will be issued.
In NumPy 1.9, it will switch to returning a read-only view on the original array. Attempting to write to the
resulting array will produce an error.
In NumPy 1.10, it will still return a view, but this view will no longer be marked read-only. Writing to the
returned array will alter your original array as well.
If you dont write to the array returned by this function, then you can just ignore all of the above.
If you depend on the current behavior, then we suggest copying the returned array explicitly, i.e., use
np.diagonal(a).copy() instead of just np.diagonal(a). This will work with both past and future
versions of NumPy.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array from which the diagonals are taken.
Offset of the diagonal from the main diagonal. Can be positive or negative. Defaults to
main diagonal (0).
axis1 : int, optional
Axis to be used as the first axis of the 2-D sub-arrays from which the diagonals should
be taken. Defaults to first axis (0).
axis2 : int, optional
Axis to be used as the second axis of the 2-D sub-arrays from which the diagonals
should be taken. Defaults to second axis (1).
Returns
array_of_diagonals : ndarray
If a is 2-D, a 1-D array containing the diagonal is returned. If the dimension of a is
larger, then an array of diagonals is returned, packed from left-most dimension to
right-most (e.g., if a is 3-D, then the diagonals are packed along rows).
Raises
ValueError
If the dimension of a is less than 2.
See Also:
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diag
MATLAB work-a-like for 1-D and 2-D arrays.
diagflat
Create diagonal arrays.
trace
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> a.diagonal()
array([0, 3])
>>> a.diagonal(1)
array([1])
A 3-D example:
>>> a = np.arange(8).reshape(2,2,2); a
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5],
[6, 7]]])
>>> a.diagonal(0, # Main diagonals of two arrays created by skipping
...
0, # across the outer(left)-most axis last and
...
1) # the "middle" (row) axis first.
array([[0, 6],
[1, 7]])
The sub-arrays whose main diagonals we just obtained; note that each corresponds to fixing the right-most
(column) axis, and that the diagonals are packed in rows.
>>> a[:,:,0] # main diagonal is [0 6]
array([[0, 2],
[4, 6]])
>>> a[:,:,1] # main diagonal is [1 7]
array([[1, 3],
[5, 7]])
numpy.select(condlist, choicelist, default=0)

Return an array drawn from elements in choicelist, depending on conditions.
Parameters
condlist : list of bool ndarrays
The list of conditions which determine from which array in choicelist the output elements are taken. When multiple conditions are satisfied, the first one encountered in
condlist is used.
choicelist : list of ndarrays
The list of arrays from which the output elements are taken. It has to be of the same
length as condlist.
default : scalar, optional
The element inserted in output when all conditions evaluate to False.
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Returns
output : ndarray
The output at position m is the m-th element of the array in choicelist where the m-th
element of the corresponding array in condlist is True.
See Also:
where
Return elements from one of two arrays depending on condition.
take, choose, compress, diag, diagonal
Examples
>>> condlist = [x<3, x>5]
>>> choicelist = [x, x**2]
>>> np.select(condlist, choicelist)
array([ 0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 36, 49, 64, 81])
3.15.3 Inserting data into arrays

place(arr, mask, vals)
put(a, ind, v[, mode])
putmask(a, mask, values)
fill_diagonal(a, val[, wrap])
Change elements of an array based on conditional and input values.

Replaces specified elements of an array with given values.
Changes elements of an array based on conditional and input values.
Fill the main diagonal of the given array of any dimensionality.
numpy.place(arr, mask, vals)

Change elements of an array based on conditional and input values.
Similar to np.copyto(arr, vals, where=mask), the difference is that place uses the first N elements of vals, where N is the number of True values in mask, while copyto uses the elements where mask is
True.
Note that extract does the exact opposite of place.
Parameters
arr : array_like
Array to put data into.
mask : array_like
Boolean mask array. Must have the same size as a.
vals : 1-D sequence
Values to put into a. Only the first N elements are used, where N is the number of True
values in mask. If vals is smaller than N it will be repeated.
See Also:
copyto, put, take, extract
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Examples
>>> arr = np.arange(6).reshape(2, 3)
>>> np.place(arr, arr>2, [44, 55])
>>> arr
array([[ 0, 1, 2],
[44, 55, 44]])
numpy.put(a, ind, v, mode=raise)

Replaces specified elements of an array with given values.
The indexing works on the flattened target array. put is roughly equivalent to:
a.flat[ind] = v
Parameters
a : ndarray
Target array.
ind : array_like
Target indices, interpreted as integers.
v : array_like
Values to place in a at target indices. If v is shorter than ind it will be repeated as
necessary.
wrap wrap around
clip mode means that all indices that are too large are replaced by the index that addresses the last element along that axis. Note that this disables indexing with negative
numbers.
See Also:
putmask, place
Examples
>>> np.put(a, [0, 2], [-44, -55])
>>> a
array([-44,
1, -55,
3,
4])
>>> np.put(a, 22, -5, mode=clip)
>>> a
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, -5])
numpy.putmask(a, mask, values)

Changes elements of an array based on conditional and input values.
Sets a.flat[n] = values[n] for each n where mask.flat[n]==True.
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Chapter 3. Routines
If values is not the same size as a and mask then it will repeat. This gives behavior different from a[mask] =
values.
Note: The putmask functionality is also provided by copyto, which can be significantly faster and
in addition is NA-aware (preservena keyword). Replacing putmask with np.copyto(a, values,
where=mask) is recommended.
Parameters
a : array_like
Target array.
mask : array_like
Boolean mask array. It has to be the same shape as a.
values : array_like
Values to put into a where mask is True. If values is smaller than a it will be repeated.
See Also:
place, put, take, copyto
Examples
>>> np.putmask(x, x>2, x**2)
>>> x
array([[ 0, 1, 2],
[ 9, 16, 25]])
If values is smaller than a it is repeated:

>>> np.putmask(x, x>1, [-33, -44])
>>> x
array([ 0,
1, -33, -44, -33])
numpy.fill_diagonal(a, val, wrap=False)

Fill the main diagonal of the given array of any dimensionality.
For an array a with a.ndim > 2, the diagonal is the list of locations with indices a[i, i, ..., i] all
identical. This function modifies the input array in-place, it does not return a value.
Parameters
a : array, at least 2-D.
Array whose diagonal is to be filled, it gets modified in-place.
val : scalar
Value to be written on the diagonal, its type must be compatible with that of the array a.
wrap : bool
For tall matrices in NumPy version up to 1.6.2, the diagonal wrapped after N columns.
You can have this behavior with this option. This affect only tall matrices.
See Also:
diag_indices, diag_indices_from
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Notes
New in version 1.4.0. This functionality can be obtained via diag_indices, but internally this version uses
a much faster implementation that never constructs the indices and uses simple slicing.
Examples
>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3), int)
>>> np.fill_diagonal(a, 5)
>>> a
array([[5, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 5]])
The same function can operate on a 4-D array:

>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3, 3, 3), int)
>>> np.fill_diagonal(a, 4)
We only show a few blocks for clarity:

>>> a[0, 0]
array([[4, 0,
[0, 0,
[0, 0,
>>> a[1, 1]
array([[0, 0,
[0, 4,
[0, 0,
>>> a[2, 2]
array([[0, 0,
[0, 0,
[0, 0,
0],
0],
0]])
0],
0],
0]])
0],
0],
4]])
# tall matrices no wrap >>> a = np.zeros((5, 3),int) >>> fill_diagonal(a, 4) array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0], [0, 0, 4], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]])
# tall matrices wrap >>> a = np.zeros((5, 3),int) >>> fill_diagonal(a, 4) array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0], [0, 0, 4], [0, 0, 0], [4, 0, 0]])
# wide matrices >>> a = np.zeros((3, 5),int) >>> fill_diagonal(a, 4) array([[4, 0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 4, 0, 0]])
3.15.4 Iterating over arrays

nditer
ndenumerate(arr)
ndindex(*shape)
flatiter
Efficient multi-dimensional iterator object to iterate over arrays.

An N-dimensional iterator object to index arrays.
Flat iterator object to iterate over arrays.
class numpy.nditer
Efficient multi-dimensional iterator object to iterate over arrays. To get started using this object, see the introductory guide to array iteration.
Parameters
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Chapter 3. Routines
op : ndarray or sequence of array_like

The array(s) to iterate over.
flags : sequence of str, optional
Flags to control the behavior of the iterator.
buffered enables buffering when required.
c_index causes a C-order index to be tracked.
f_index causes a Fortran-order index to be tracked.
multi_index causes a multi-index, or a tuple of indices with one per iteration dimension, to be tracked.
common_dtype causes all the operands to be converted to a common data type,
with copying or buffering as necessary.
delay_bufalloc delays allocation of the buffers until a reset() call is made. Allows
allocate operands to be initialized before their values are copied into the buffers.
external_loop causes the values given to be one-dimensional arrays with multiple
values instead of zero-dimensional arrays.
grow_inner allows the value array sizes to be made larger than the buffer size
when both buffered and external_loop is used.
ranged allows the iterator to be restricted to a sub-range of the iterindex values.
refs_ok enables iteration of reference types, such as object arrays.
reduce_ok enables iteration of readwrite operands which are broadcasted, also
known as reduction operands.
zerosize_ok allows itersize to be zero.
op_flags : list of list of str, optional
This is a list of flags for each operand. At minimum, one of readonly, readwrite, or
writeonly must be specified.
readonly indicates the operand will only be read from.
readwrite indicates the operand will be read from and written to.
writeonly indicates the operand will only be written to.
no_broadcast prevents the operand from being broadcasted.
contig forces the operand data to be contiguous.
aligned forces the operand data to be aligned.
nbo forces the operand data to be in native byte order.
copy allows a temporary read-only copy if required.
updateifcopy allows a temporary read-write copy if required.
allocate causes the array to be allocated if it is None in the op parameter.
no_subtype prevents an allocate operand from using a subtype.
arraymask indicates that this operand is the mask to use for selecting elements when
writing to operands with the writemasked flag set. The iterator does not enforce
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this, but when writing from a buffer back to the array, it only copies those elements
indicated by this mask.
writemasked indicates that only elements where the chosen arraymask operand is
True will be written to.
op_dtypes : dtype or tuple of dtype(s), optional
The required data type(s) of the operands. If copying or buffering is enabled, the data
will be converted to/from their original types.
Controls the iteration order. C means C order, F means Fortran order, A means F
order if all the arrays are Fortran contiguous, C order otherwise, and K means as
close to the order the array elements appear in memory as possible. This also affects the
element memory order of allocate operands, as they are allocated to be compatible
with iteration order. Default is K.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur when making a copy or buffering. Setting
this to unsafe is not recommended, as it can adversely affect accumulations.
allowed.
op_axes : list of list of ints, optional
If provided, is a list of ints or None for each operands. The list of axes for an operand
is a mapping from the dimensions of the iterator to the dimensions of the operand. A
value of -1 can be placed for entries, causing that dimension to be treated as newaxis.
itershape : tuple of ints, optional
The desired shape of the iterator. This allows allocate operands with a dimension
mapped by op_axes not corresponding to a dimension of a different operand to get a
value not equal to 1 for that dimension.
buffersize : int, optional
When buffering is enabled, controls the size of the temporary buffers. Set to 0 for the
default value.
Notes
nditer supersedes flatiter. The iterator implementation behind nditer is also exposed by the Numpy
C API.
The Python exposure supplies two iteration interfaces, one which follows the Python iterator protocol, and
another which mirrors the C-style do-while pattern. The native Python approach is better in most cases, but if
you need the iterators coordinates or index, use the C-style pattern.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
Here is how we might write an iter_add function, using the Python iterator protocol:
def iter_add_py(x, y, out=None):
addop = np.add
it = np.nditer([x, y, out], [],
[[readonly], [readonly], [writeonly,allocate]])
for (a, b, c) in it:
addop(a, b, out=c)
Here is the same function, but following the C-style pattern:

def iter_add(x, y, out=None):
addop = np.add
it = np.nditer([x, y, out], [],
[[readonly], [readonly], [writeonly,allocate]])
while not it.finished:
addop(it[0], it[1], out=it[2])
it.iternext()
Here is an example outer product function:

def outer_it(x, y, out=None):
mulop = np.multiply
it = np.nditer([x, y, out], [external_loop],
[[readonly], [readonly], [writeonly, allocate]],
op_axes=[range(x.ndim)+[-1]*y.ndim,
[-1]*x.ndim+range(y.ndim),
None])
for (a, b, c) in it:
mulop(a, b, out=c)
>>> a = np.arange(2)+1
>>> b = np.arange(3)+1
>>> outer_it(a,b)
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 4, 6]])
Here is an example function which operates like a lambda ufunc:

def luf(lamdaexpr, *args, **kwargs):
"luf(lambdaexpr, op1, ..., opn, out=None, order=K, casting=safe, buffersize=0)"
nargs = len(args)
op = (kwargs.get(out,None),) + args
it = np.nditer(op, [buffered,external_loop],
[[writeonly,allocate,no_broadcast]] +
[[readonly,nbo,aligned]]*nargs,
order=kwargs.get(order,K),
casting=kwargs.get(casting,safe),
buffersize=kwargs.get(buffersize,0))
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while not it.finished:

it[0] = lamdaexpr(*it[1:])
it.iternext()
>>> b = np.ones(5)
>>> luf(lambda i,j:i*i + j/2, a, b)
array([ 0.5,
1.5,
4.5,
9.5, 16.5])
Attributes
dtypes
(tuple of dtype(s)) The data types of the values provided in value. This may be different
from the operand data types if buffering is enabled.
finished
(bool) Whether the iteration over the operands is finished or not.
has_delayed_bufalloc
(bool) If True, the iterator was created with the delay_bufalloc flag, and no reset()
function was called on it yet.
has_index
(bool) If True, the iterator was created with either the c_index or the f_index flag, and
the property index can be used to retrieve it.
has_multi_index(bool) If True, the iterator was created with the multi_index flag, and the property
multi_index can be used to retrieve it.
index :
When the c_index or f_index flag was used, this property provides access to the index.
Raises a ValueError if accessed and has_index is False.
itera(bool) Whether iteration requires access to the Python API, for example if one of the
tionneedoperands is an object array.
sapi
iterindex
(int) An index which matches the order of iteration.
itersize
(int) Size of the iterator.
itviews :
Structured view(s) of operands in memory, matching the reordered and optimized iterator
access pattern.
multi_index When the multi_index flag was used, this property provides access to the index. Raises a
:
ValueError if accessed accessed and has_multi_index is False.
ndim
(int) The iterators dimension.
nop
(int) The number of iterator operands.
operands
(tuple of operand(s)) The array(s) to be iterated over.
shape
(tuple of ints) Shape tuple, the shape of the iterator.
value :
Value of operands at current iteration. Normally, this is a tuple of array scalars, but if the
flag external_loop is used, it is a tuple of one dimensional arrays.
Methods
copy()
debug_print()
enable_external_loop()
iternext()
next
remove_axis(i)
remove_multi_index()
reset()
Get a copy of the iterator in its current state.

Print the current state of the nditer instance and debug info to stdout.
When the external_loop was not used during construction, but
Check whether iterations are left, and perform a single internal iteration without returning the result
Removes axis i from the iterator.
When the multi_index flag was specified, this removes it, allowing
Reset the iterator to its initial state.
nditer.copy()
Get a copy of the iterator in its current state.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> y = x + 1
>>> it = np.nditer([x, y])
>>> it.next()
(array(0), array(1))
>>> it2 = it.copy()
>>> it2.next()
(array(1), array(2))
nditer.debug_print()
Print the current state of the nditer instance and debug info to stdout.
nditer.enable_external_loop()
When the external_loop was not used during construction, but is desired, this modifies the iterator to
behave as if the flag was specified.
nditer.iternext()
Check whether iterations are left, and perform a single internal iteration without returning the result. Used
in the C-style pattern do-while pattern. For an example, see nditer.
Returns
iternext : bool
Whether or not there are iterations left.
nditer.next
nditer.remove_axis(i)
Removes axis i from the iterator. Requires that the flag multi_index be enabled.
nditer.remove_multi_index()
When the multi_index flag was specified, this removes it, allowing the internal iteration structure to be
optimized further.
nditer.reset()
Reset the iterator to its initial state.
class numpy.ndenumerate(arr)
Return an iterator yielding pairs of array coordinates and values.
Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array.
See Also:
ndindex, flatiter
Examples
>>>
>>>
...
(0,
(0,
(1,
(1,
a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

for index, x in np.ndenumerate(a):
print index, x
0) 1
1) 2
0) 3
1) 4
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Methods
next()
ndenumerate.next()
Returns
coords : tuple of ints
The indices of the current iteration.
val : scalar
The array element of the current iteration.
class numpy.ndindex(*shape)
An N-dimensional iterator object to index arrays.
Given the shape of an array, an ndindex instance iterates over the N-dimensional index of the array. At each
iteration a tuple of indices is returned, the last dimension is iterated over first.
Parameters
*args : ints
The size of each dimension of the array.
See Also:
ndenumerate, flatiter
Examples
>>>
...
(0,
(0,
(1,
(1,
(2,
(2,
for index in np.ndindex(3, 2, 1):

print index
0, 0)
1, 0)
0, 0)
1, 0)
0, 0)
1, 0)
Methods
ndincr()
next()
Increment the multi-dimensional index by one.

Standard iterator method, updates the index and returns the index tuple.
ndindex.ndincr()
Increment the multi-dimensional index by one.
This method is for backward compatibility only: do not use.
ndindex.next()
Standard iterator method, updates the index and returns the index tuple.
Returns
val : tuple of ints
Returns a tuple containing the indices of the current iteration.
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Chapter 3. Routines
class numpy.flatiter
Flat iterator object to iterate over arrays.
A flatiter iterator is returned by x.flat for any array x. It allows iterating over the array as if it were a
1-D array, either in a for-loop or by calling its next method.
Iteration is done in C-contiguous style, with the last index varying the fastest. The iterator can also be indexed
using basic slicing or advanced indexing.
See Also:
ndarray.flat
Return a flat iterator over an array.
ndarray.flatten
Returns a flattened copy of an array.
Notes
A flatiter iterator can not be constructed directly from Python code by calling the flatiter constructor.
Examples
>>> fl = x.flat
>>> type(fl)
>>> for item in fl:
...
print item
...
0
1
2
3
4
5
>>> fl[2:4]
array([2, 3])
Attributes
coords
An N-dimensional tuple of current coordinates.
flatiter.coords
An N-dimensional tuple of current coordinates.
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
(0,
>>>
0
>>>
(0,
x = np.arange(6).reshape(2, 3)
fl = x.flat
fl.coords
0)
fl.next()
fl.coords
1)
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Methods
copy()
next
Get a copy of the iterator as a 1-D array.

flatiter.copy()
Get a copy of the iterator as a 1-D array.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> fl = x.flat
>>> fl.copy()
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
flatiter.next
3.16 Input and output

3.16.1 NPZ files
load(file[, mmap_mode])
save(file, arr)
savez(file, *args, **kwds)
savez_compressed(file, *args, **kwds)
Load an array(s) or pickled objects from .npy, .npz, or pickled files.

Save an array to a binary file in NumPy .npy format.
Save several arrays into a single file in uncompressed .npz format.
Save several arrays into a single file in compressed .npz format.
numpy.load(file, mmap_mode=None)
Load an array(s) or pickled objects from .npy, .npz, or pickled files.
Parameters
file : file-like object or string
The file to read. Compressed files with the filename extension .gz are acceptable. Filelike objects must support the seek() and read() methods. Pickled files require that
the file-like object support the readline() method as well.
mmap_mode : {None, r+, r, w+, c}, optional
If not None, then memory-map the file, using the given mode (see numpy.memmap for
a detailed description of the modes). A memory-mapped array is kept on disk. However,
it can be accessed and sliced like any ndarray. Memory mapping is especially useful for
accessing small fragments of large files without reading the entire file into memory.
Returns
result : array, tuple, dict, etc.
Data stored in the file. For .npz files, the returned instance of NpzFile class must be
closed to avoid leaking file descriptors.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Raises
IOError
If the input file does not exist or cannot be read.
See Also:
save, savez, savez_compressed, loadtxt
memmap
Create a memory-map to an array stored in a file on disk.
Notes
If the file contains pickle data, then whatever object is stored in the pickle is returned.
If the file is a .npy file, then a single array is returned.
If the file is a .npz file, then a dictionary-like object is returned, containing {filename:
key-value pairs, one for each file in the archive.
array}
If the file is a .npz file, the returned value supports the context manager protocol in a similar fashion to
the open function:
with load(foo.npz) as data:
a = data[a]
The underlying file descriptor is closed when exiting the with block.
Examples
Store data to disk, and load it again:
>>> np.save(/tmp/123, np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]))
>>> np.load(/tmp/123.npy)
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
Store compressed data to disk, and load it again:

>>> a=np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> b=np.array([1, 2])
>>> np.savez(/tmp/123.npz, a=a, b=b)
>>> data = np.load(/tmp/123.npz)
>>> data[a]
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> data[b]
array([1, 2])
>>> data.close()
Mem-map the stored array, and then access the second row directly from disk:
>>> X = np.load(/tmp/123.npy, mmap_mode=r)
>>> X[1, :]
memmap([4, 5, 6])
numpy.save(file, arr)
Save an array to a binary file in NumPy .npy format.
Parameters
file : file or str
3.16. Input and output
681
File or filename to which the data is saved. If file is a file-object, then the filename is
unchanged. If file is a string, a .npy extension will be appended to the file name if it
does not already have one.
arr : array_like
Array data to be saved.
See Also:
savez
Save several arrays into a .npz archive
savetxt, load
Notes
For a description of the .npy format, see format.
Examples
>>> from tempfile import TemporaryFile
>>> outfile = TemporaryFile()
>>> np.save(outfile, x)
>>> outfile.seek(0) # Only needed here to simulate closing & reopening file
>>> np.load(outfile)
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
numpy.savez(file, *args, **kwds)

Save several arrays into a single file in uncompressed .npz format.
If arguments are passed in with no keywords, the corresponding variable names, in the .npz file, are arr_0,
arr_1, etc. If keyword arguments are given, the corresponding variable names, in the .npz file will match the
keyword names.
Parameters
file : str or file
Either the file name (string) or an open file (file-like object) where the data will be saved.
If file is a string, the .npz extension will be appended to the file name if it is not already
there.
args : Arguments, optional
Arrays to save to the file. Since it is not possible for Python to know the names of the
arrays outside savez, the arrays will be saved with names arr_0, arr_1, and so on.
These arguments can be any expression.
kwds : Keyword arguments, optional
Arrays to save to the file. Arrays will be saved in the file with the keyword names.
Returns
None
See Also:
save
Save a single array to a binary file in NumPy format.
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Chapter 3. Routines
savetxt
Save an array to a file as plain text.
savez_compressed
Save several arrays into a compressed .npz file format
Notes
The .npz file format is a zipped archive of files named after the variables they contain. The archive is not
compressed and each file in the archive contains one variable in .npy format. For a description of the .npy
format, see format.
When opening the saved .npz file with load a NpzFile object is returned. This is a dictionary-like object
which can be queried for its list of arrays (with the .files attribute), and for the arrays themselves.
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
from tempfile import TemporaryFile

outfile = TemporaryFile()
x = np.arange(10)
y = np.sin(x)
Using savez with *args, the arrays are saved with default names.
>>> np.savez(outfile, x, y)
>>> outfile.seek(0) # Only needed here to simulate closing & reopening file
>>> npzfile = np.load(outfile)
>>> npzfile.files
[arr_1, arr_0]
>>> npzfile[arr_0]
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
Using savez with **kwds, the arrays are saved with the keyword names.
>>> outfile = TemporaryFile()
>>> np.savez(outfile, x=x, y=y)
>>> outfile.seek(0)
>>> npzfile = np.load(outfile)
>>> npzfile.files
[y, x]
>>> npzfile[x]
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
numpy.savez_compressed(file, *args, **kwds)

Save several arrays into a single file in compressed .npz format.
If keyword arguments are given, then filenames are taken from the keywords. If arguments are passed in with
no keywords, then stored file names are arr_0, arr_1, etc.
Parameters
file : str
File name of .npz file.
args : Arguments
Function arguments.
kwds : Keyword arguments
Keywords.
See Also:
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numpy.savez
Save several arrays into an uncompressed .npz file format
numpy.load
Load the files created by savez_compressed.
3.16.2 Text files

loadtxt(fname[, dtype, comments, delimiter, ...])
savetxt(fname, X[, fmt, delimiter, newline, ...])
genfromtxt(fname[, dtype, comments, ...])
fromregex(file, regexp, dtype)
fromstring(string[, dtype, count, sep])
ndarray.tolist()

Save an array to a text file.
Load data from a text file, with missing values handled as specified.
Construct an array from a text file, using regular expression parsing.
numpy.loadtxt(fname, dtype=<type float>, comments=#, delimiter=None,

skiprows=0, usecols=None, unpack=False, ndmin=0)
converters=None,
Each row in the text file must have the same number of values.
Parameters
fname : file or str
File, filename, or generator to read. If the filename extension is .gz or .bz2, the file
is first decompressed. Note that generators should return byte strings for Python 3k.
Data-type of the resulting array; default: float. If this is a record data-type, the resulting
array will be 1-dimensional, and each row will be interpreted as an element of the array.
In this case, the number of columns used must match the number of fields in the datatype.
The character used to indicate the start of a comment; default: #.
The string used to separate values. By default, this is any whitespace.
converters : dict, optional
A dictionary mapping column number to a function that will convert that column to a float. E.g., if column 0 is a date string: converters = {0:
datestr2num}. Converters can also be used to provide a default value for
missing data (but see also genfromtxt): converters = {3: lambda s:
float(s.strip() or 0)}. Default: None.
skiprows : int, optional
Skip the first skiprows lines; default: 0.
Which columns to read, with 0 being the first. For example, usecols = (1,4,5)
will extract the 2nd, 5th and 6th columns. The default, None, results in all columns
being read.
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y, z = loadtxt(...). When used with a record data-type, arrays are returned
for each field. Default is False.
The returned array will have at least ndmin dimensions. Otherwise mono-dimensional
axes will be squeezed. Legal values: 0 (default), 1 or 2. New in version 1.6.0.
Returns
out : ndarray
Data read from the text file.
See Also:
load, fromstring, fromregex
genfromtxt
Load data with missing values handled as specified.
scipy.io.loadmat
reads MATLAB data files
Notes
This function aims to be a fast reader for simply formatted files. The genfromtxt function provides more
sophisticated handling of, e.g., lines with missing values.
Examples
>>> c = StringIO("0 1\n2 3")
>>> np.loadtxt(c)
array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]])
# StringIO behaves like a file object
>>> d = StringIO("M 21 72\nF 35 58")

>>> np.loadtxt(d, dtype={names: (gender, age, weight),
...
formats: (S1, i4, f4)})
array([(M, 21, 72.0), (F, 35, 58.0)],
dtype=[(gender, |S1), (age, <i4), (weight, <f4)])
>>> c = StringIO("1,0,2\n3,0,4")
>>> x, y = np.loadtxt(c, delimiter=,, usecols=(0, 2), unpack=True)
>>> x
array([ 1., 3.])
>>> y
array([ 2., 4.])
numpy.savetxt(fname, X, fmt=%.18e, delimiter= , newline=\n, header=, footer=, comments=#

)
Save an array to a text file.
Parameters
fname : filename or file handle
If the filename ends in .gz, the file is automatically saved in compressed gzip format.
loadtxt understands gzipped files transparently.
X : array_like
685
Data to be saved to a text file.

fmt : str or sequence of strs, optional
A single format (%10.5f), a sequence of formats, or a multi-format string, e.g. Iteration
%d %10.5f, in which case delimiter is ignored. For complex X, the legal options for
fmt are:
1. a single specifier, fmt=%.4e, resulting in numbers formatted
like (%s+%sj) % (fmt, fmt)
2. a full string specifying every real and imaginary part, e.g.
%.4e %+.4j %.4e %+.4j %.4e %+.4j for 3 columns
3. a list of specifiers, one per column - in this case, the real
and imaginary part must have separate specifiers, e.g.
(%.15e%+.15ej)] for 2 columns
[%.3e + %.3ej,

Character separating columns.
newline : str, optional
header : str, optional
String that will be written at the beginning of the file. New in version 1.7.0.
footer : str, optional
String that will be written at the end of the file. New in version 1.7.0.
String that will be prepended to the header and footer strings, to mark them as
comments. Default: # , as expected by e.g. numpy.loadtxt. New in version 1.7.0.
Character separating lines.
See Also:
save
Save an array to a binary file in NumPy .npy format
savez
Save several arrays into a .npz compressed archive
Notes
Further explanation of the fmt parameter (%[flag]width[.precision]specifier):
flags:
- : left justify
+ : Forces to preceed result with + or -.
0 : Left pad the number with zeros instead of space (see width).
width:
Minimum number of characters to be printed. The value is not truncated if it has more characters.
precision:
For integer specifiers (eg. d,i,o,x), the minimum number of digits.
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For e, E and f specifiers, the number of digits to print after the decimal point.
For g and G, the maximum number of significant digits.
For s, the maximum number of characters.
specifiers:
c : character
d or i : signed decimal integer
e or E : scientific notation with e or E.
f : decimal floating point
g,G : use the shorter of e,E or f
o : signed octal
s : string of characters
u : unsigned decimal integer
x,X : unsigned hexadecimal integer
This explanation of fmt is not complete, for an exhaustive specification see [R242].
References
[R242]
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
x = y = z = np.arange(0.0,5.0,1.0)
np.savetxt(test.out, x, delimiter=,)
# X is an array
np.savetxt(test.out, (x,y,z))
# x,y,z equal sized 1D arrays
np.savetxt(test.out, x, fmt=%1.4e)
# use exponential notation
numpy.genfromtxt(fname, dtype=<type float>, comments=#, delimiter=None, skiprows=0,

skip_header=0, skip_footer=0, converters=None, missing=, missing_values=None,
filling_values=None,
usecols=None,
names=None,
excludelist=None,
deletechars=None, replace_space=_, autostrip=False, case_sensitive=True,
defaultfmt=f%i, unpack=None, usemask=False, loose=True, invalid_raise=True)
Load data from a text file, with missing values handled as specified.
Each line past the first skip_header lines is split at the delimiter character, and characters following the comments
character are discarded.
Parameters
fname : file or str
File, filename, or generator to read. If the filename extension is gz or bz2, the file is
first decompressed. Note that generators must return byte strings in Python 3k.
Data type of the resulting array. If None, the dtypes will be determined by the contents
of each column, individually.
The character used to indicate the start of a comment. All the characters occurring on a
line after a comment are discarded
delimiter : str, int, or sequence, optional
687
The string used to separate values. By default, any consecutive whitespaces act as
delimiter. An integer or sequence of integers can also be provided as width(s) of each
field.
skip_header : int, optional
The numbers of lines to skip at the beginning of the file.
skip_footer : int, optional
The numbers of lines to skip at the end of the file
converters : variable, optional
The set of functions that convert the data of a column to a value. The converters can also
be used to provide a default value for missing data: converters = {3: lambda
s: float(s or 0)}.
missing_values : variable, optional
The set of strings corresponding to missing data.
filling_values : variable, optional
The set of values to be used as default when the data are missing.
Which columns to read, with 0 being the first. For example, usecols = (1, 4,
5) will extract the 2nd, 5th and 6th columns.
names : {None, True, str, sequence}, optional
If names is True, the field names are read from the first valid line after the first
skip_header lines. If names is a sequence or a single-string of comma-separated names,
the names will be used to define the field names in a structured dtype. If names is None,
the names of the dtype fields will be used, if any.
excludelist : sequence, optional
A list of names to exclude. This list is appended to the default list [return,file,print].
Excluded names are appended an underscore: for example, file would become file_.
deletechars : str, optional
A string combining invalid characters that must be deleted from the names.
defaultfmt : str, optional
A format used to define default field names, such as f%i or f_%02i.
autostrip : bool, optional
Whether to automatically strip white spaces from the variables.
replace_space : char, optional
Character(s) used in replacement of white spaces in the variables names. By default,
use a _.
case_sensitive : {True, False, upper, lower}, optional
If True, field names are case sensitive. If False or upper, field names are converted to
upper case. If lower, field names are converted to lower case.
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y, z = loadtxt(...)
usemask : bool, optional
If True, return a masked array. If False, return a regular array.
invalid_raise : bool, optional
If True, an exception is raised if an inconsistency is detected in the number of columns.
If False, a warning is emitted and the offending lines are skipped.
Returns
out : ndarray
Data read from the text file. If usemask is True, this is a masked array.
See Also:
numpy.loadtxt
equivalent function when no data is missing.
Notes
When spaces are used as delimiters, or when no delimiter has been given as input, there should not be any
missing data between two fields.
When the variables are named (either by a flexible dtype or with names, there must not be any header in
the file (else a ValueError exception is raised).
Individual values are not stripped of spaces by default. When using a custom converter, make sure the
function does remove spaces.
References
[R20]
Examples
Comma delimited file with mixed dtype

>>> s = StringIO("1,1.3,abcde")
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype=[(myint,i8),(myfloat,f8),
... (mystring,S5)], delimiter=",")
>>> data
array((1, 1.3, abcde),
dtype=[(myint, <i8), (myfloat, <f8), (mystring, |S5)])
Using dtype = None

>>> s.seek(0) # needed for StringIO example only
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype=None,
... names = [myint,myfloat,mystring], delimiter=",")
>>> data
Specifying dtype and names
689
>>> s.seek(0)
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype="i8,f8,S5",
... names=[myint,myfloat,mystring], delimiter=",")
>>> data
An example with fixed-width columns

>>> s = StringIO("11.3abcde")
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype=None, names=[intvar,fltvar,strvar],
...
delimiter=[1,3,5])
>>> data
dtype=[(intvar, <i8), (fltvar, <f8), (strvar, |S5)])
numpy.fromregex(file, regexp, dtype)

Construct an array from a text file, using regular expression parsing.
The returned array is always a structured array, and is constructed from all matches of the regular expression in
the file. Groups in the regular expression are converted to fields of the structured array.
Parameters
file : str or file
File name or file object to read.
regexp : str or regexp
Regular expression used to parse the file. Groups in the regular expression correspond
to fields in the dtype.
dtype : dtype or list of dtypes
Dtype for the structured array.
Returns
output : ndarray
The output array, containing the part of the content of file that was matched by regexp.
output is always a structured array.
Raises
TypeError
When dtype is not a valid dtype for a structured array.
See Also:
fromstring, loadtxt
Notes
Dtypes for structured arrays can be specified in several forms, but all forms specify at least the data type and
field name. For details see doc.structured_arrays.
Examples
>>> f = open(test.dat, w)
>>> f.write("1312 foo\n1534 bar\n444
>>> f.close()
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> regexp = r"(\d+)\s+(...)" # match [digits, whitespace, anything]

>>> output = np.fromregex(test.dat, regexp,
...
[(num, np.int64), (key, S3)])
>>> output
array([(1312L, foo), (1534L, bar), (444L, qux)],
dtype=[(num, <i8), (key, |S3)])
>>> output[num]
array([1312, 1534, 444], dtype=int64)
numpy.fromstring(string, dtype=float, count=-1, sep=)

Parameters
string : str
A string containing the data.
The data type of the array; default: float. For binary input data, the data must be in
exactly this format.
Read this number of dtype elements from the data. If this is negative (the default), the
count will be determined from the length of the data.
sep : str, optional
If not provided or, equivalently, the empty string, the data will be interpreted as binary
data; otherwise, as ASCII text with decimal numbers. Also in this latter case, this
argument is interpreted as the string separating numbers in the data; extra whitespace
between elements is also ignored.
Returns
arr : ndarray
The constructed array.
Raises
ValueError
If the string is not the correct size to satisfy the requested dtype and count.
See Also:
frombuffer, fromfile, fromiter
Examples
>>> np.fromstring(\x01\x02, dtype=np.uint8)
array([1, 2], dtype=uint8)
>>> np.fromstring(1 2, dtype=int, sep= )
array([1, 2])
>>> np.fromstring(1, 2, dtype=int, sep=,)
array([1, 2])
>>> np.fromstring(\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05, dtype=np.uint8, count=3)
array([1, 2, 3], dtype=uint8)

691
Data is always written in C order, independent of the order of a. The data produced by this method can be
recovered using the function fromfile().
Parameters
fid : file or str
sep : str
format : str
Notes
This is a convenience function for quick storage of array data. Information on endianness and precision is lost,
so this method is not a good choice for files intended to archive data or transport data between machines with
different endianness. Some of these problems can be overcome by outputting the data as text files, at the expense
of speed and file size.
ndarray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters
none
Returns
y : list
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])
>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
3.16.3 Raw binary files

fromfile(file[, dtype, count, sep])
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3.16.4 String formatting

array_repr(arr[, max_line_width, precision, ...])
array_str(a[, max_line_width, precision, ...])
Return the string representation of an array.

Return a string representation of the data in an array.
numpy.array_repr(arr, max_line_width=None, precision=None, suppress_small=None)

Return the string representation of an array.
Parameters
arr : ndarray
Input array.
max_line_width : int, optional
The maximum number of columns the string should span. Newline characters split the
string appropriately after array elements.
precision : int, optional
Floating point precision. Default is the current printing precision (usually 8), which can
be altered using set_printoptions.
suppress_small : bool, optional
Represent very small numbers as zero, default is False. Very small is defined by precision, if the precision is 8 then numbers smaller than 5e-9 are represented as zero.
Returns
string : str
The string representation of an array.
See Also:
array_str, array2string, set_printoptions
Examples
>>> np.array_repr(np.array([1,2]))
array([1, 2])
>>> np.array_repr(np.ma.array([0.]))
MaskedArray([ 0.])
>>> np.array_repr(np.array([], np.int32))
array([], dtype=int32)
>>> x = np.array([1e-6, 4e-7, 2, 3])
>>> np.array_repr(x, precision=6, suppress_small=True)
array([ 0.000001, 0.
, 2.
, 3.
])
numpy.array_str(a, max_line_width=None, precision=None, suppress_small=None)

Return a string representation of the data in an array.
The data in the array is returned as a single string. This function is similar to array_repr, the difference
being that array_repr also returns information on the kind of array and its data type.
Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array.
max_line_width : int, optional
693
Inserts newlines if text is longer than max_line_width. The default is, indirectly, 75.
Floating point precision. Default is the current printing precision (usually 8), which can
be altered using set_printoptions.
suppress_small : bool, optional
Represent numbers very close to zero as zero; default is False. Very close is defined
by precision: if the precision is 8, e.g., numbers smaller (in absolute value) than 5e-9
are represented as zero.
See Also:
array2string, array_repr, set_printoptions
Examples
>>> np.array_str(np.arange(3))
[0 1 2]
3.16.5 Memory mapping files

memmap
class numpy.memmap
Memory-mapped files are used for accessing small segments of large files on disk, without reading the entire
file into memory. Numpys memmaps are array-like objects. This differs from Pythons mmap module, which
uses file-like objects.
This subclass of ndarray has some unpleasant interactions with some operations, because it doesnt quite fit
properly as a subclass. An alternative to using this subclass is to create the mmap object yourself, then create an
ndarray with ndarray.__new__ directly, passing the object created in its buffer= parameter.
This class may at some point be turned into a factory function which returns a view into an mmap buffer.
Parameters
filename : str or file-like object
The file name or file object to be used as the array data buffer.
The data-type used to interpret the file contents. Default is uint8.
mode : {r+, r, w+, c}, optional
The file is opened in this mode:
r
r+
w+
c
Open existing file for reading only.

Open existing file for reading and writing.
Create or overwrite existing file for reading and writing.
Copy-on-write: assignments affect data in memory, but changes are not saved
to disk. The file on disk is read-only.
Default is r+.
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In the file, array data starts at this offset. Since offset is measured in bytes, it should
normally be a multiple of the byte-size of dtype. When mode != r, even positive offsets beyond end of file are valid; The file will be extended to accommodate the
additional data. The default offset is 0.
shape : tuple, optional
The desired shape of the array. If mode == r and the number of remaining bytes
after offset is not a multiple of the byte-size of dtype, you must specify shape. By
default, the returned array will be 1-D with the number of elements determined by file
size and data-type.
Specify the order of the ndarray memory layout: C (row-major) or Fortran (columnmajor). This only has an effect if the shape is greater than 1-D. The default order is
C.
Notes
The memmap object can be used anywhere an ndarray is accepted. Given a memmap fp, isinstance(fp,
numpy.ndarray) returns True.
Memory-mapped arrays use the Python memory-map object which (prior to Python 2.5) does not allow files to
be larger than a certain size depending on the platform. This size is always < 2GB even on 64-bit systems.
Examples
>>> data = np.arange(12, dtype=float32)
>>> data.resize((3,4))
This example uses a temporary file so that doctest doesnt write files to your directory. You would use a normal
filename.
>>> from tempfile import mkdtemp
>>> import os.path as path
>>> filename = path.join(mkdtemp(), newfile.dat)
Create a memmap with dtype and shape that matches our data:
>>> fp = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=w+, shape=(3,4))
>>> fp
memmap([[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
Write data to memmap array:

>>> fp[:] = data[:]
>>> fp
memmap([[ 0.,
1.,
[ 4.,
5.,
[ 8.,
9.,
2.,
6.,
10.,
3.],
7.],
>>> fp.filename == path.abspath(filename)

True
Deletion flushes memory changes to disk before removing the object:

>>> del fp
695
Load the memmap and verify data was stored:

>>> newfp = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=r, shape=(3,4))
>>> newfp
memmap([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
Read-only memmap:
>>> fpr = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=r, shape=(3,4))
>>> fpr.flags.writeable
False
Copy-on-write memmap:
>>> fpc = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=c, shape=(3,4))
>>> fpc.flags.writeable
True
Its possible to assign to copy-on-write array, but values are only written into the memory copy of the array, and
not written to disk:
>>> fpc
memmap([[ 0.,
1.,
[ 4.,
5.,
[ 8.,
9.,
>>> fpc[0,:] = 0
>>> fpc
memmap([[ 0.,
0.,
[ 4.,
5.,
[ 8.,
9.,
2.,
6.,
10.,
3.],
7.],
0.,
6.,
10.,
0.],
7.],
2.,
6.,
10.,
3.],
7.],
File on disk is unchanged:

>>> fpr
memmap([[
[
[
0.,
4.,
8.,
1.,
5.,
9.,
Offset into a memmap:

>>> fpo = np.memmap(filename, dtype=float32, mode=r, offset=16)
>>> fpo
memmap([ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.,
8.,
9., 10., 11.], dtype=float32)
Attributes
filename
offset
mode
(str) Path to the mapped file.

(int) Offset position in the file.
(str) File mode.
Methods
flush()
memmap.flush()
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Parameters
None
See Also:
memmap
close
Close the memmap file.
3.16.6 Text formatting options

set_printoptions([precision, threshold, ...])
get_printoptions()
set_string_function(f[, repr])
Set printing options.

Return the current print options.
Set a Python function to be used when pretty printing arrays.
numpy.set_printoptions(precision=None, threshold=None, edgeitems=None, linewidth=None, suppress=None, nanstr=None, infstr=None, formatter=None)

Set printing options.
These options determine the way floating point numbers, arrays and other NumPy objects are displayed.
Parameters
Number of digits of precision for floating point output (default 8).
threshold : int, optional
Total number of array elements which trigger summarization rather than full repr (default 1000).
edgeitems : int, optional
Number of array items in summary at beginning and end of each dimension (default 3).
linewidth : int, optional
The number of characters per line for the purpose of inserting line breaks (default 75).
suppress : bool, optional
Whether or not suppress printing of small floating point values using scientific notation
(default False).
nanstr : str, optional
String representation of floating point not-a-number (default nan).
infstr : str, optional
String representation of floating point infinity (default inf).
formatter : dict of callables, optional
If not None, the keys should indicate the type(s) that the respective formatting function
applies to. Callables should return a string. Types that are not specified (by their corresponding keys) are handled by the default formatters. Individual types for which a
formatter can be set are:
697
bool
int
timedelta : a numpy.timedelta64
datetime : a numpy.datetime64
float
longfloat : 128-bit floats
complexfloat
longcomplexfloat : composed of two 128-bit floats
numpy_str : types numpy.string_ and numpy.unicode_
str : all other strings
Other keys that can be used to set a group of types at once are:
-
all : sets all types

int_kind : sets int
float_kind : sets float and longfloat
complex_kind : sets complexfloat and longcomplexfloat
str_kind : sets str and numpystr
See Also:
get_printoptions, set_string_function, array2string
Notes
formatter is always reset with a call to set_printoptions.
Examples
Floating point precision can be set:
>>> np.set_printoptions(precision=4)
>>> print np.array([1.123456789])
[ 1.1235]
Long arrays can be summarised:

>>> np.set_printoptions(threshold=5)
>>> print np.arange(10)
[0 1 2 ..., 7 8 9]
Small results can be suppressed:

>>> eps = np.finfo(float).eps
>>> x = np.arange(4.)
>>> x**2 - (x + eps)**2
array([ -4.9304e-32, -4.4409e-16,
0.0000e+00,
>>> np.set_printoptions(suppress=True)
>>> x**2 - (x + eps)**2
array([-0., -0., 0., 0.])
0.0000e+00])
A custom formatter can be used to display array elements as desired:

>>> np.set_printoptions(formatter={all:lambda x: int: +str(-x)})
>>> x
array([int: 0, int: -1, int: -2])
>>> np.set_printoptions() # formatter gets reset
>>> x
array([0, 1, 2])
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Chapter 3. Routines
To put back the default options, you can use:

>>> np.set_printoptions(edgeitems=3,infstr=inf,
... linewidth=75, nanstr=nan, precision=8,
... suppress=False, threshold=1000, formatter=None)
numpy.get_printoptions()
Return the current print options.
Returns
print_opts : dict
Dictionary of current print options with keys
precision : int
threshold : int
edgeitems : int
linewidth : int
suppress : bool
nanstr : str
infstr : str
formatter : dict of callables
For a full description of these options, see set_printoptions.
See Also:
set_printoptions, set_string_function
numpy.set_string_function(f, repr=True)
Set a Python function to be used when pretty printing arrays.
Parameters
f : function or None
Function to be used to pretty print arrays. The function should expect a single array
argument and return a string of the representation of the array. If None, the function is
reset to the default NumPy function to print arrays.
repr : bool, optional
If True (default), the function for pretty printing (__repr__) is set, if False the function that returns the default string representation (__str__) is set.
See Also:
set_printoptions, get_printoptions
Examples
>>> def pprint(arr):
...
return HA! - What are you going to do now?
...
>>> np.set_string_function(pprint)
>>> a
HA! - What are you going to do now?
>>> print a
[0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
699
We can reset the function to the default:

>>> np.set_string_function(None)
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
repr affects either pretty printing or normal string representation. Note that __repr__ is still affected by
setting __str__ because the width of each array element in the returned string becomes equal to the length of
the result of __str__().
>>> np.set_string_function(lambda x:random, repr=False)
>>> x.__str__()
random
>>> x.__repr__()
array([
0,
1,
2,
3])
3.16.7 Base-n representations

binary_repr(num[, width])
base_repr(number[, base, padding])

numpy.binary_repr(num, width=None)
For negative numbers, if width is not given, a minus sign is added to the front. If width is given, the twos
complement of the number is returned, with respect to that width.
In a twos-complement system negative numbers are represented by the twos complement of the absolute
value. This is the most common method of representing signed integers on computers [R16]. A N-bit twoscomplement system can represent every integer in the range 2N 1 to +2N 1 1.
Parameters
num : int
Only an integer decimal number can be used.
width : int, optional
The length of the returned string if num is positive, the length of the twos complement
if num is negative.
Returns
bin : str
Binary representation of num or twos complement of num.
See Also:
base_repr
Notes
binary_repr is equivalent to using base_repr with base 2, but about 25x faster.
References
[R16]
700
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
11
>>> np.binary_repr(-3)
-11
0011
The twos complement is returned when the input number is negative and width is specified:
1101
numpy.base_repr(number, base=2, padding=0)

Parameters
number : int
The value to convert. Only positive values are handled.
base : int, optional
Convert number to the base number system. The valid range is 2-36, the default value
is 2.
padding : int, optional
Number of zeros padded on the left. Default is 0 (no padding).
Returns
out : str
String representation of number in base system.
See Also:
binary_repr
Faster version of base_repr for base 2.
Examples
>>> np.base_repr(5)
101
>>> np.base_repr(6, 5)
11
>>> np.base_repr(7, base=5, padding=3)
00012
>>> np.base_repr(10, base=16)
A
>>> np.base_repr(32, base=16)
20
3.16.8 Data sources

DataSource([destpath])
A generic data source file (file, http, ftp, ...).
701
class numpy.DataSource(destpath=.)
A generic data source file (file, http, ftp, ...).
DataSources can be local files or remote files/URLs. The files may also be compressed or uncompressed.
DataSource hides some of the low-level details of downloading the file, allowing you to simply pass in a valid
file path (or URL) and obtain a file object.
Parameters
destpath : str or None, optional
Path to the directory where the source file gets downloaded to for use. If destpath is
None, a temporary directory will be created. The default path is the current directory.
Notes
URLs require a scheme string (http://) to be used, without it they will fail:
>>> repos = DataSource()
>>> repos.exists(www.google.com/index.html)
False
>>> repos.exists(http://www.google.com/index.html)
True
Temporary directories are deleted when the DataSource is deleted.

Examples
>>> ds = DataSource(/home/guido)
>>> urlname = http://www.google.com/index.html
>>> gfile = ds.open(http://www.google.com/index.html)
>>> ds.abspath(urlname)
/home/guido/www.google.com/site/index.html
# remote file
>>> ds = DataSource(None) # use with temporary file

>>> ds.open(/home/guido/foobar.txt)
<open file /home/guido.foobar.txt, mode r at 0x91d4430>
>>> ds.abspath(/home/guido/foobar.txt)
/tmp/tmpy4pgsP/home/guido/foobar.txt
Methods
abspath(path)
exists(path)
open(path[, mode])
Return absolute path of file in the DataSource directory.

Test if path exists.
Open and return file-like object.
DataSource.abspath(path)
Return absolute path of file in the DataSource directory.
If path is an URL, then abspath will return either the location the file exists locally or the location it
would exist when opened using the open method.
Parameters
path : str
Can be a local file or a remote URL.
Returns
out : str
Complete path, including the DataSource destination directory.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
The functionality is based on os.path.abspath.
DataSource.exists(path)
Test if path exists.
Test if path exists as (and in this order):
a local file.
a remote URL that has been downloaded and stored locally in the DataSource directory.
a remote URL that has not been downloaded, but is valid and accessible.
Parameters
path : str
Can be a local file or a remote URL.
Returns
out : bool
True if path exists.
Notes
When path is an URL, exists will return True if its either stored locally in the DataSource directory,
or is a valid remote URL. DataSource does not discriminate between the two, the file is accessible if it
exists in either location.
DataSource.open(path, mode=r)
Open and return file-like object.
If path is an URL, it will be downloaded, stored in the DataSource directory and opened from there.
Parameters
path : str
Local file path or URL to open.
mode : {r, w, a}, optional
Mode to open path. Mode r for reading, w for writing, a to append. Available
modes depend on the type of object specified by path. Default is r.
Returns
out : file object
File object.
3.17 Linear algebra (numpy.linalg)

3.17.1 Matrix and vector products
dot(a, b[, out])
vdot(a, b)
inner(a, b)
outer(a, b)

Return the dot product of two vectors.
3.17. Linear algebra (numpy.linalg)
703

tensordot(a, b[, axes])
Compute tensor dot product along specified axes for arrays >= 1-D.
einsum(subscripts, *operands[, out, dtype, ...]) Evaluates the Einstein summation convention on the operands.
linalg.matrix_power(M, n)
Raise a square matrix to the (integer) power n.
kron(a, b)
Kronecker product of two arrays.
numpy.dot(a, b, out=None)
For 2-D arrays it is equivalent to matrix multiplication, and for 1-D arrays to inner product of vectors (without
complex conjugation). For N dimensions it is a sum product over the last axis of a and the second-to-last of b:
dot(a, b)[i,j,k,m] = sum(a[i,j,:] * b[k,:,m])
Parameters
a : array_like
First argument.
b : array_like
Second argument.
Output argument. This must have the exact kind that would be returned if it was not
used. In particular, it must have the right type, must be C-contiguous, and its dtype
must be the dtype that would be returned for dot(a,b). This is a performance feature.
Therefore, if these conditions are not met, an exception is raised, instead of attempting
to be flexible.
Returns
output : ndarray
Returns the dot product of a and b. If a and b are both scalars or both 1-D arrays then a
scalar is returned; otherwise an array is returned. If out is given, then it is returned.
Raises
ValueError
If the last dimension of a is not the same size as the second-to-last dimension of b.
See Also:
vdot
Complex-conjugating dot product.
tensordot
einsum
Examples
>>> np.dot(3, 4)
12
Neither argument is complex-conjugated:
704
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.dot([2j, 3j], [2j, 3j])

(-13+0j)
For 2-D arrays its the matrix product:

>>> a = [[1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> b = [[4, 1], [2, 2]]
>>> np.dot(a, b)
array([[4, 1],
[2, 2]])
>>> a = np.arange(3*4*5*6).reshape((3,4,5,6))
>>> b = np.arange(3*4*5*6)[::-1].reshape((5,4,6,3))
>>> np.dot(a, b)[2,3,2,1,2,2]
499128
>>> sum(a[2,3,2,:] * b[1,2,:,2])
499128
numpy.vdot(a, b)
Return the dot product of two vectors.
The vdot(a, b) function handles complex numbers differently than dot(a, b). If the first argument is complex the
complex conjugate of the first argument is used for the calculation of the dot product.
Note that vdot handles multidimensional arrays differently than dot: it does not perform a matrix product,
but flattens input arguments to 1-D vectors first. Consequently, it should only be used for vectors.
Parameters
a : array_like
If a is complex the complex conjugate is taken before calculation of the dot product.
b : array_like
Second argument to the dot product.
Returns
output : ndarray
Dot product of a and b. Can be an int, float, or complex depending on the types of a
and b.
See Also:
dot
Return the dot product without using the complex conjugate of the first argument.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1+2j,3+4j])
>>> b = np.array([5+6j,7+8j])
>>> np.vdot(a, b)
(70-8j)
>>> np.vdot(b, a)
(70+8j)
Note that higher-dimensional arrays are flattened!

>>> a = np.array([[1, 4], [5, 6]])
>>> b = np.array([[4, 1], [2, 2]])
>>> np.vdot(a, b)
705
30
>>> np.vdot(b, a)
30
>>> 1*4 + 4*1 + 5*2 + 6*2
30
numpy.inner(a, b)
Parameters
a, b : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
See Also:
tensordot
dot
einsum
Notes
For vectors (1-D arrays) it computes the ordinary inner-product:
np.inner(a, b) = sum(a[:]*b[:])
More generally, if ndim(a) = r > 0 and ndim(b) = s > 0:

np.inner(a, b) = np.tensordot(a, b, axes=(-1,-1))
or explicitly:
np.inner(a, b)[i0,...,ir-1,j0,...,js-1]
= sum(a[i0,...,ir-1,:]*b[j0,...,js-1,:])
In addition a or b may be scalars, in which case:

np.inner(a,b) = a*b
Examples
706
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])

array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.outer(a, b)
is:
[[a0*b0
[a1*b0
[ ...
[aM*b0
a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

.
.
aM*bN ]]
Parameters
a : (M,) array_like
b : (N,) array_like
Returns
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See Also:
inner, einsum
References
[R53]
Examples
>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
707
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])

>>> im = np.outer(1j*np.linspace(2,
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j,
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j,
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j,
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j,
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j,
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j,
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j,
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j,
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j,
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j,
-2, 5), np.ones((5,)))

0.+2.j,
0.+1.j,
0.+0.j,
0.-1.j,
0.-2.j,
0.+2.j],
0.+1.j],
0.+0.j],
0.-1.j],
0.-2.j]])
1.+2.j,
1.+1.j,
1.+0.j,
1.-1.j,
1.-2.j,
2.+2.j],
2.+1.j],
2.+0.j],
2.-1.j],
2.-2.j]])

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
[b, bb, bbb],
numpy.tensordot(a, b, axes=2)
Compute tensor dot product along specified axes for arrays >= 1-D.
Given two tensors (arrays of dimension greater than or equal to one), a and b, and an array_like object containing
two array_like objects, (a_axes, b_axes), sum the products of as and bs elements (components) over the
axes specified by a_axes and b_axes. The third argument can be a single non-negative integer_like scalar,
N; if it is such, then the last N dimensions of a and the first N dimensions of b are summed over.
Parameters
a, b : array_like, len(shape) >= 1
Tensors to dot.
axes : variable type
integer_like scalar Number of axes to sum over (applies to both arrays); or
(2,) array_like, both elements array_like of the same length List of axes to be summed over,
first sequence applying to a, second to b.
See Also:
dot, einsum
Notes
When there is more than one axis to sum over - and they are not the last (first) axes of a (b) - the argument axes
should consist of two sequences of the same length, with the first axis to sum over given first in both sequences,
the second axis second, and so forth.
Examples
A traditional example:
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
708
a = np.arange(60.).reshape(3,4,5)
b = np.arange(24.).reshape(4,3,2)
c = np.tensordot(a,b, axes=([1,0],[0,1]))
c.shape
Chapter 3. Routines
(5, 2)
>>> c
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
>>> # A slower but equivalent way of computing the same...
>>> d = np.zeros((5,2))
>>> for i in range(5):
...
for j in range(2):
...
for k in range(3):
...
for n in range(4):
...
d[i,j] += a[k,n,i] * b[n,k,j]
>>> c == d
array([[ True, True],
[ True, True],
[ True, True],
[ True, True],
[ True, True]], dtype=bool)
An extended example taking advantage of the overloading of + and *:

>>> a = np.array(range(1, 9))
>>> a.shape = (2, 2, 2)
>>> A = np.array((a, b, c, d), dtype=object)
>>> A.shape = (2, 2)
>>> a; A
array([[[1, 2],
[3, 4]],
[[5, 6],
[7, 8]]])
array([[a, b],
[c, d]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A) # third argument default is 2
array([abbcccdddd, aaaaabbbbbbcccccccdddddddd], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, 1)
array([[[acc, bdd],
[aaacccc, bbbdddd]],
[[aaaaacccccc, bbbbbdddddd],
[aaaaaaacccccccc, bbbbbbbdddddddd]]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, 0) # "Left for reader" (result too long to incl.)
array([[[[[a, b],
[c, d]],
...
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, (0, 1))
array([[[abbbbb, cddddd],
[aabbbbbb, ccdddddd]],
[[aaabbbbbbb, cccddddddd],
[aaaabbbbbbbb, ccccdddddddd]]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, (2, 1))
array([[[abb, cdd],
[aaabbbb, cccdddd]],
709
[[aaaaabbbbbb, cccccdddddd],
[aaaaaaabbbbbbbb, cccccccdddddddd]]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, ((0, 1), (0, 1)))
array([abbbcccccddddddd, aabbbbccccccdddddddd], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, ((2, 1), (1, 0)))
array([acccbbdddd, aaaaacccccccbbbbbbdddddddd], dtype=object)
numpy.einsum(subscripts, *operands, out=None, dtype=None, order=K, casting=safe)

Evaluates the Einstein summation convention on the operands.
Using the Einstein summation convention, many common multi-dimensional array operations can be represented
in a simple fashion. This function provides a way compute such summations. The best way to understand this
function is to try the examples below, which show how many common NumPy functions can be implemented
as calls to einsum.
Parameters
subscripts : str
Specifies the subscripts for summation.
operands : list of array_like
These are the arrays for the operation.
If provided, the calculation is done into this array.
If provided, forces the calculation to use the data type specified. Note that you may
have to also give a more liberal casting parameter to allow the conversions.
Controls the memory layout of the output. C means it should be C contiguous. F
means it should be Fortran contiguous, A means it should be F if the inputs are all
F, C otherwise. K means it should be as close to the layout as the inputs as is
possible, including arbitrarily permuted axes. Default is K.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur. Setting this to unsafe is not recommended, as it can adversely affect accumulations.
allowed.
Returns
output : ndarray
The calculation based on the Einstein summation convention.
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Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
dot, inner, outer, tensordot
Notes
New in version 1.6.0. The subscripts string is a comma-separated list of subscript labels, where each label refers
to a dimension of the corresponding operand. Repeated subscripts labels in one operand take the diagonal. For
example, np.einsum(ii, a) is equivalent to np.trace(a).
Whenever a label is repeated, it is summed, so np.einsum(i,i, a, b) is equivalent to
np.inner(a,b). If a label appears only once, it is not summed, so np.einsum(i, a) produces a
view of a with no changes.
The order of labels in the output is by default alphabetical. This means that np.einsum(ij, a) doesnt
affect a 2D array, while np.einsum(ji, a) takes its transpose.
The output can be controlled by specifying output subscript labels as well. This specifies the label order,
and allows summing to be disallowed or forced when desired. The call np.einsum(i->, a) is like
np.sum(a, axis=-1), and np.einsum(ii->i, a) is like np.diag(a). The difference is that
einsum does not allow broadcasting by default.
To enable and control broadcasting, use an ellipsis. Default NumPy-style broadcasting is done by adding an
ellipsis to the left of each term, like np.einsum(...ii->...i, a). To take the trace along the first
and last axes, you can do np.einsum(i...i, a), or to do a matrix-matrix product with the left-most
indices instead of rightmost, you can do np.einsum(ij...,jk...->ik..., a, b).
When there is only one operand, no axes are summed, and no output parameter is provided, a view into the
operand is returned instead of a new array. Thus, taking the diagonal as np.einsum(ii->i, a) produces
a view.
An alternative way to provide the subscripts and operands is as einsum(op0, sublist0, op1,
sublist1, ..., [sublistout]). The examples below have corresponding einsum calls with the
two parameter methods.
Examples
>>> c = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> np.einsum(ii, a)
60
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,0])
60
>>> np.trace(a)
60
>>> np.einsum(ii->i, a)
array([ 0, 6, 12, 18, 24])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,0], [0])
array([ 0, 6, 12, 18, 24])
>>> np.diag(a)
array([ 0, 6, 12, 18, 24])
>>> np.einsum(ij,j, a, b)
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,1], b, [1])
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
711
>>> np.dot(a, b)
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
>>> np.einsum(ji, c)
array([[0, 3],
[1, 4],
[2, 5]])
>>> np.einsum(c, [1,0])
array([[0, 3],
[1, 4],
[2, 5]])
>>> c.T
array([[0, 3],
[1, 4],
[2, 5]])
>>> np.einsum(..., ..., 3, c)
array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.einsum(3, [Ellipsis], c, [Ellipsis])
array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.multiply(3, c)
array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.einsum(i,i, b, b)
30
>>> np.einsum(b, [0], b, [0])
30
>>> np.inner(b,b)
30
>>> np.einsum(i,j, np.arange(2)+1, b)
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]])
>>> np.einsum(np.arange(2)+1, [0], b, [1])
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]])
>>> np.outer(np.arange(2)+1, b)
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]])
>>> np.einsum(i...->..., a)
array([50, 55, 60, 65, 70])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,Ellipsis], [Ellipsis])
array([50, 55, 60, 65, 70])
>>> np.sum(a, axis=0)
array([50, 55, 60, 65, 70])
>>> a = np.arange(60.).reshape(3,4,5)
>>> b = np.arange(24.).reshape(4,3,2)
>>> np.einsum(ijk,jil->kl, a, b)
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,1,2], b, [1,0,3], [2,3])

array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
>>> np.tensordot(a,b, axes=([1,0],[0,1]))
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
numpy.linalg.matrix_power(M, n)
Raise a square matrix to the (integer) power n.
For positive integers n, the power is computed by repeated matrix squarings and matrix multiplications. If n ==
0, the identity matrix of the same shape as M is returned. If n < 0, the inverse is computed and then raised to
the abs(n).
Parameters
M : ndarray or matrix object
Matrix to be powered. Must be square, i.e. M.shape == (m, m), with m a positive integer.
n : int
The exponent can be any integer or long integer, positive, negative, or zero.
Returns
M**n : ndarray or matrix object
The return value is the same shape and type as M; if the exponent is positive or zero
then the type of the elements is the same as those of M. If the exponent is negative the
elements are floating-point.
Raises
LinAlgError
If the matrix is not numerically invertible.
See Also:
matrix
Provides an equivalent function as the exponentiation operator (**, not ^).
Examples
>>> from numpy import linalg as LA
>>> i = np.array([[0, 1], [-1, 0]]) # matrix equiv. of the imaginary unit
>>> LA.matrix_power(i, 3) # should = -i
array([[ 0, -1],
[ 1, 0]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(np.matrix(i), 3) # matrix arg returns matrix
matrix([[ 0, -1],
[ 1, 0]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(i, 0)
array([[1, 0],
[0, 1]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(i, -3) # should = 1/(-i) = i, but w/ f.p. elements
713
array([[ 0.,
[-1.,
1.],
0.]])
Somewhat more sophisticated example

>>> q = np.zeros((4, 4))
>>> q[0:2, 0:2] = -i
>>> q[2:4, 2:4] = i
>>> q # one of the three quarternion units not equal to 1
array([[ 0., -1., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 0., -1., 0.]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(q, 2) # = -np.eye(4)
array([[-1., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., -1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., -1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., -1.]])
numpy.kron(a, b)
Kronecker product of two arrays.
Computes the Kronecker product, a composite array made of blocks of the second array scaled by the first.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
outer
The outer product
Notes
The function assumes that the number of dimenensions of a and b are the same, if necessary prepending the
smallest with ones. If a.shape = (r0,r1,..,rN) and b.shape = (s0,s1,...,sN), the Kronecker product has shape
(r0*s0, r1*s1, ..., rN*SN). The elements are products of elements from a and b, organized explicitly by:
kron(a,b)[k0,k1,...,kN] = a[i0,i1,...,iN] * b[j0,j1,...,jN]
where:
kt = it * st + jt,
t = 0,...,N
In the common 2-D case (N=1), the block structure can be visualized:
[[ a[0,0]*b,
[ ...
[ a[-1,0]*b,
a[0,1]*b,
... , a[0,-1]*b ],
...
],
a[-1,1]*b, ... , a[-1,-1]*b ]]
Examples
>>> np.kron([1,10,100], [5,6,7])
array([ 5,
6,
7, 50, 60, 70, 500, 600, 700])
>>> np.kron([5,6,7], [1,10,100])
array([ 5, 50, 500,
6, 60, 600,
7, 70, 700])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.kron(np.eye(2), np.ones((2,2)))

array([[ 1., 1., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1., 1.],
[ 0., 0., 1., 1.]])
>>> a = np.arange(100).reshape((2,5,2,5))
>>> b = np.arange(24).reshape((2,3,4))
>>> c = np.kron(a,b)
>>> c.shape
(2, 10, 6, 20)
>>> I = (1,3,0,2)
>>> J = (0,2,1)
>>> J1 = (0,) + J
# extend to ndim=4
>>> S1 = (1,) + b.shape
>>> K = tuple(np.array(I) * np.array(S1) + np.array(J1))
>>> c[K] == a[I]*b[J]
True
3.17.2 Decompositions
linalg.cholesky(a)
linalg.qr(a[, mode])
linalg.svd(a[, full_matrices, compute_uv])
Compute the qr factorization of a matrix.
Singular Value Decomposition.
numpy.linalg.cholesky(a)
Return the Cholesky decomposition, L * L.H, of the square matrix a, where L is lower-triangular and .H is
the conjugate transpose operator (which is the ordinary transpose if a is real-valued). a must be Hermitian
(symmetric if real-valued) and positive-definite. Only L is actually returned.
Parameters
a : (..., M, M) array_like
Hermitian (symmetric if all elements are real), positive-definite input matrix.
Returns
L : (..., M, M) array_like
Upper or lower-triangular Cholesky factor of a. Returns a matrix object if a is a matrix
object.
Raises
LinAlgError
If the decomposition fails, for example, if a is not positive-definite.
Notes
Broadcasting rules apply, see the numpy.linalg documentation for details.
The Cholesky decomposition is often used as a fast way of solving
Ax = b
715
(when A is both Hermitian/symmetric and positive-definite).

First, we solve for y in
Ly = b,
and then for x in

L.Hx = y.
Examples
>>> A = np.array([[1,-2j],[2j,5]])
>>> A
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> L = np.linalg.cholesky(A)
>>> L
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 1.+0.j]])
>>> np.dot(L, L.T.conj()) # verify that L * L.H = A
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> A = [[1,-2j],[2j,5]] # what happens if A is only array_like?
>>> np.linalg.cholesky(A) # an ndarray object is returned
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 1.+0.j]])
>>> # But a matrix object is returned if A is a matrix object
>>> LA.cholesky(np.matrix(A))
matrix([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 1.+0.j]])
numpy.linalg.qr(a, mode=reduced)
Compute the qr factorization of a matrix.
Factor the matrix a as qr, where q is orthonormal and r is upper-triangular.
Parameters
a : array_like, shape (M, N)
Matrix to be factored.
mode : {reduced, complete, r, raw, full, economic}, optional
If K = min(M, N), then
reduced : returns q, r with dimensions (M, K), (K, N) (default) complete : returns
q, r with dimensions (M, M), (M, N) r : returns r only with dimensions (K, N) raw
: returns h, tau with dimensions (N, M), (K,) full : alias of reduced, deprecated
economic : returns h from raw, deprecated.
The options reduced, complete, and raw are new in numpy 1.8, see the notes for
more information. The default is reduced and to maintain backward compatibility
with earlier versions of numpy both it and the old default full can be omitted. Note
that array h returned in raw mode is transposed for calling Fortran. The economic
mode is deprecated. The modes full and economic may be passed using only the
first letter for backwards compatibility, but all others must be spelled out. See the Notes
for more explanation.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
q : ndarray of float or complex, optional
A matrix with orthonormal columns. When mode = complete the result is an orthogonal/unitary matrix depending on whether or not a is real/complex. The determinant may
be either +/- 1 in that case.
r : ndarray of float or complex, optional
The upper-triangular matrix.
(h, tau) : ndarrays of np.double or np.cdouble, optional
The array h contains the Householder reflectors that generate q along with r. The tau
array contains scaling factors for the reflectors. In the deprecated economic mode only
h is returned.
Raises
LinAlgError
If factoring fails.
Notes
This is an interface to the LAPACK routines dgeqrf, zgeqrf, dorgqr, and zungqr.
For more information on the qr factorization, see for example: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_factorization
Subclasses of ndarray are preserved except for the raw mode. So if a is of type matrix, all the return values
will be matrices too.
New reduced, complete, and raw options for mode were added in Numpy 1.8 and the old option full
was made an alias of reduced. In addition the options full and economic were deprecated. Because full
was the previous default and reduced is the new default, backward compatibility can be maintained by letting
mode default. The raw option was added so that LAPACK routines that can multiply arrays by q using the
Householder reflectors can be used. Note that in this case the returned arrays are of type np.double or np.cdouble
and the h array is transposed to be FORTRAN compatible. No routines using the raw return are currently
exposed by numpy, but some are available in lapack_lite and just await the necessary work.
Examples
>>> a = np.random.randn(9, 6)
>>> q, r = np.linalg.qr(a)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(q, r)) # a does equal qr
True
>>> r2 = np.linalg.qr(a, mode=r)
>>> r3 = np.linalg.qr(a, mode=economic)
>>> np.allclose(r, r2) # mode=r returns the same r as mode=full
True
>>> # But only triu parts are guaranteed equal when mode=economic
>>> np.allclose(r, np.triu(r3[:6,:6], k=0))
True
Example illustrating a common use of qr: solving of least squares problems

What are the least-squares-best m and y0 in y = y0 + mx for the following data: {(0,1), (1,0), (1,2), (2,1)}.
(Graph the points and youll see that it should be y0 = 0, m = 1.) The answer is provided by solving the
over-determined matrix equation Ax = b, where:
A = array([[0, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [2, 1]])
x = array([[y0], [m]])
b = array([[1], [0], [2], [1]])
717
If A = qr such that q is orthonormal (which is always possible via Gram-Schmidt), then x = inv(r) *
(q.T) * b. (In numpy practice, however, we simply use lstsq.)
>>> A = np.array([[0, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [2, 1]])
>>> A
array([[0, 1],
[1, 1],
[1, 1],
[2, 1]])
>>> b = np.array([1, 0, 2, 1])
>>> q, r = LA.qr(A)
>>> p = np.dot(q.T, b)
>>> np.dot(LA.inv(r), p)
array([ 1.1e-16,
1.0e+00])
numpy.linalg.svd(a, full_matrices=1, compute_uv=1)

Singular Value Decomposition.
Factors the matrix a as u * np.diag(s) * v, where u and v are unitary and s is a 1-d array of as singular
values.
Parameters
a : (..., M, N) array_like
A real or complex matrix of shape (M, N) .
full_matrices : bool, optional
If True (default), u and v have the shapes (M, M) and (N, N), respectively. Otherwise,
the shapes are (M, K) and (K, N), respectively, where K = min(M, N).
compute_uv : bool, optional
Whether or not to compute u and v in addition to s. True by default.
Returns
u : { (..., M, M), (..., M, K) } array
Unitary matrices. The actual shape depends on the value of full_matrices. Only
returned when compute_uv is True.
s : (..., K) array
The singular values for every matrix, sorted in descending order.
v : { (..., N, N), (..., K, N) } array
Unitary matrices. The actual shape depends on the value of full_matrices. Only
returned when compute_uv is True.
Raises
LinAlgError
If SVD computation does not converge.
Notes
The decomposition is performed using LAPACK routine _gesdd
The SVD is commonly written as a = U S V.H. The v returned by this function is V.H and u = U.
If U is a unitary matrix, it means that it satisfies U.H = inv(U).
718
Chapter 3. Routines
The rows of v are the eigenvectors of a.H a. The columns of u are the eigenvectors of a a.H. For row i in v
and column i in u, the corresponding eigenvalue is s[i]**2.
If a is a matrix object (as opposed to an ndarray), then so are all the return values.
Examples
>>> a = np.random.randn(9, 6) + 1j*np.random.randn(9, 6)
Reconstruction based on full SVD:

>>> U, s, V = np.linalg.svd(a, full_matrices=True)
>>> U.shape, V.shape, s.shape
((9, 9), (6, 6), (6,))
>>> S = np.zeros((9, 6), dtype=complex)
>>> S[:6, :6] = np.diag(s)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(U, np.dot(S, V)))
True
Reconstruction based on reduced SVD:

>>> U, s, V = np.linalg.svd(a, full_matrices=False)
>>> U.shape, V.shape, s.shape
((9, 6), (6, 6), (6,))
>>> S = np.diag(s)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(U, np.dot(S, V)))
True
3.17.3 Matrix eigenvalues

linalg.eig(a)
linalg.eigh(a[, UPLO])
linalg.eigvals(a)
linalg.eigvalsh(a[, UPLO])

numpy.linalg.eig(a)
Parameters
a : (..., M, M) array
Matrices for which the eigenvalues and right eigenvectors will be computed
Returns
w : (..., M) array
The eigenvalues, each repeated according to its multiplicity. The eigenvalues are not
necessarily ordered. The resulting array will be always be of complex type. When a is
real the resulting eigenvalues will be real (0 imaginary part) or occur in conjugate pairs
v : (..., M, M) array
The normalized (unit length) eigenvectors, such that the column v[:,i] is the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue w[i].
Raises
LinAlgError
If the eigenvalue computation does not converge.
719
See Also:
eigvalsh
eigenvalues of a symmetric or Hermitian (conjugate symmetric) array.
eigvals
eigenvalues of a non-symmetric array.
Notes
This is implemented using the _geev LAPACK routines which compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
general square arrays.
The number w is an eigenvalue of a if there exists a vector v such that dot(a,v) = w * v. Thus, the arrays
a, w, and v satisfy the equations dot(a[:,:], v[:,i]) = w[i] * v[:,i] for i {0, ..., M 1}.
The array v of eigenvectors may not be of maximum rank, that is, some of the columns may be linearly dependent, although round-off error may obscure that fact. If the eigenvalues are all different, then theoretically the
eigenvectors are linearly independent. Likewise, the (complex-valued) matrix of eigenvectors v is unitary if the
matrix a is normal, i.e., if dot(a, a.H) = dot(a.H, a), where a.H denotes the conjugate transpose of
a.
Finally, it is emphasized that v consists of the right (as in right-hand side) eigenvectors of a. A vector y satisfying
dot(y.T, a) = z * y.T for some number z is called a left eigenvector of a, and, in general, the left and
right eigenvectors of a matrix are not necessarily the (perhaps conjugate) transposes of each other.
References
G. Strang, Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 2nd Ed., Orlando, FL, Academic Press, Inc., 1980, Various pp.
Examples
(Almost) trivial example with real e-values and e-vectors.

>>> w, v = LA.eig(np.diag((1, 2, 3)))
>>> w; v
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
Real matrix possessing complex e-values and e-vectors; note that the e-values are complex conjugates of each
other.
>>> w, v = LA.eig(np.array([[1, -1], [1, 1]]))
>>> w; v
array([ 1. + 1.j, 1. - 1.j])
array([[ 0.70710678+0.j
, 0.70710678+0.j
],
[ 0.00000000-0.70710678j, 0.00000000+0.70710678j]])
Complex-valued matrix with real e-values (but complex-valued e-vectors); note that a.conj().T = a, i.e., a is
Hermitian.
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1j], [-1j, 1]])
>>> w, v = LA.eig(a)
>>> w; v
array([ 2.00000000e+00+0.j,
5.98651912e-36+0.j]) # i.e., {2, 0}
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Chapter 3. Routines
array([[ 0.00000000+0.70710678j,
[ 0.70710678+0.j
,
0.70710678+0.j
],
0.00000000+0.70710678j]])
Be careful about round-off error!

>>> a = np.array([[1 + 1e-9, 0], [0, 1 - 1e-9]])
>>> # Theor. e-values are 1 +/- 1e-9
>>> w, v = LA.eig(a)
>>> w; v
array([ 1., 1.])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
numpy.linalg.eigh(a, UPLO=L)
Returns two objects, a 1-D array containing the eigenvalues of a, and a 2-D square array or matrix (depending
on the input type) of the corresponding eigenvectors (in columns).
Parameters
A : (..., M, M) array
Hermitian/Symmetric matrices whose eigenvalues and eigenvectors are to be computed.
UPLO : {L, U}, optional
Specifies whether the calculation is done with the lower triangular part of a (L, default)
or the upper triangular part (U).
Returns
w : (..., M) ndarray
The eigenvalues, not necessarily ordered.
v : {(..., M, M) ndarray, (..., M, M) matrix}
The column v[:, i] is the normalized eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
w[i]. Will return a matrix object if a is a matrix object.
Raises
LinAlgError
See Also:
eigvalsh
eigenvalues of symmetric or Hermitian arrays.
eig
eigenvalues and right eigenvectors for non-symmetric arrays.
eigvals
eigenvalues of non-symmetric arrays.
Notes
The eigenvalues/eigenvectors are computed using LAPACK routines _ssyevd, _heevd
The eigenvalues of real symmetric or complex Hermitian matrices are always real. [R38] The array v of (column)
eigenvectors is unitary and a, w, and v satisfy the equations dot(a, v[:, i]) = w[i] * v[:, i].
721
References
[R38]
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, -2j], [2j, 5]])
>>> a
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> w, v = LA.eigh(a)
>>> w; v
array([ 0.17157288, 5.82842712])
array([[-0.92387953+0.j
, -0.38268343+0.j
],
[ 0.00000000+0.38268343j, 0.00000000-0.92387953j]])
>>> np.dot(a, v[:, 0]) - w[0] * v[:, 0] # verify 1st e-val/vec pair
array([2.77555756e-17 + 0.j, 0. + 1.38777878e-16j])
>>> np.dot(a, v[:, 1]) - w[1] * v[:, 1] # verify 2nd e-val/vec pair
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
>>> A = np.matrix(a) # what happens if input is a matrix object
>>> A
matrix([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> w, v = LA.eigh(A)
>>> w; v
array([ 0.17157288, 5.82842712])
matrix([[-0.92387953+0.j
, -0.38268343+0.j
],
[ 0.00000000+0.38268343j, 0.00000000-0.92387953j]])
numpy.linalg.eigvals(a)
Main difference between eigvals and eig: the eigenvectors arent returned.
Parameters
A complex- or real-valued matrix whose eigenvalues will be computed.
Returns
w : (..., M,) ndarray
The eigenvalues, each repeated according to its multiplicity. They are not necessarily
ordered, nor are they necessarily real for real matrices.
Raises
LinAlgError
See Also:
eig
eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of general arrays
eigvalsh
eigenvalues of symmetric or Hermitian arrays.
722
Chapter 3. Routines
eigh
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of symmetric/Hermitian arrays.
Notes
This is implemented using the _geev LAPACK routines which compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
general square arrays.
Examples
Illustration, using the fact that the eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are its diagonal elements, that multiplying
a matrix on the left by an orthogonal matrix, Q, and on the right by Q.T (the transpose of Q), preserves the
eigenvalues of the middle matrix. In other words, if Q is orthogonal, then Q * A * Q.T has the same
eigenvalues as A:
>>> x = np.random.random()
>>> Q = np.array([[np.cos(x), -np.sin(x)], [np.sin(x), np.cos(x)]])
>>> LA.norm(Q[0, :]), LA.norm(Q[1, :]), np.dot(Q[0, :],Q[1, :])
(1.0, 1.0, 0.0)
Now multiply a diagonal matrix by Q on one side and by Q.T on the other:
>>> D = np.diag((-1,1))
>>> LA.eigvals(D)
array([-1., 1.])
>>> A = np.dot(Q, D)
>>> A = np.dot(A, Q.T)
>>> LA.eigvals(A)
array([ 1., -1.])
numpy.linalg.eigvalsh(a, UPLO=L)
Main difference from eigh: the eigenvectors are not computed.
Parameters
A complex- or real-valued matrix whose eigenvalues are to be computed.
UPLO : {L, U}, optional
Same as lower, with L for lower and U for upper triangular. Deprecated.
Returns
w : (..., M,) ndarray
The eigenvalues, not necessarily ordered, each repeated according to its multiplicity.
Raises
LinAlgError
See Also:
eigh
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of symmetric/Hermitian arrays.
723
eigvals
eigenvalues of general real or complex arrays.
eig
eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of general real or complex arrays.
Notes
The eigenvalues are computed using LAPACK routines _ssyevd, _heevd
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, -2j], [2j, 5]])
>>> LA.eigvalsh(a)
array([ 0.17157288+0.j, 5.82842712+0.j])
3.17.4 Norms and other numbers

linalg.norm(x[, ord, axis])
linalg.cond(x[, p])
linalg.det(a)
linalg.slogdet(a)
trace(a[, offset, axis1, axis2, dtype, out])

Compute the condition number of a matrix.
Compute the sign and (natural) logarithm of the determinant of an array.
numpy.linalg.norm(x, ord=None, axis=None)

This function is able to return one of seven different matrix norms, or one of an infinite number of vector norms
(described below), depending on the value of the ord parameter.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array. If axis is None, x must be 1-D or 2-D.
ord : {non-zero int, inf, -inf, fro}, optional
Order of the norm (see table under Notes). inf means numpys inf object.
axis : {int, 2-tuple of ints, None}, optional
If axis is an integer, it specifies the axis of x along which to compute the vector norms.
If axis is a 2-tuple, it specifies the axes that hold 2-D matrices, and the matrix norms of
these matrices are computed. If axis is None then either a vector norm (when x is 1-D)
or a matrix norm (when x is 2-D) is returned.
Returns
n : float or ndarray
Norm of the matrix or vector(s).
Notes
For values of ord <= 0, the result is, strictly speaking, not a mathematical norm, but it may still be useful
for various numerical purposes.
724
Chapter 3. Routines
The following norms can be calculated:

ord
None
fro
inf
-inf
0
1
-1
2
-2
other
norm for matrices

Frobenius norm
Frobenius norm
max(sum(abs(x), axis=1))
min(sum(abs(x), axis=1))
2-norm (largest sing. value)
smallest singular value
norm for vectors

2-norm
max(abs(x))
min(abs(x))
sum(x != 0)
as below
as below
as below
as below
sum(abs(x)**ord)**(1./ord)
The Frobenius norm is given by [R39]:

P
||A||F = [ i,j abs(ai,j )2 ]1/2
References
[R39]
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(9) - 4
>>> a
array([-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
>>> b = a.reshape((3, 3))
>>> b
array([[-4, -3, -2],
[-1, 0, 1],
[ 2, 3, 4]])
3,
4])
>>> LA.norm(a)
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(b)
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(b, fro)
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(a, np.inf)
4
>>> LA.norm(b, np.inf)
9
>>> LA.norm(a, -np.inf)
0
>>> LA.norm(b, -np.inf)
2
>>> LA.norm(a, 1)
20
>>> LA.norm(b, 1)
7
>>> LA.norm(a, -1)
-4.6566128774142013e-010
>>> LA.norm(b, -1)
6
>>> LA.norm(a, 2)
7.745966692414834
725
>>> LA.norm(b, 2)
7.3484692283495345
>>> LA.norm(a, -2)
nan
>>> LA.norm(b, -2)
1.8570331885190563e-016
>>> LA.norm(a, 3)
5.8480354764257312
>>> LA.norm(a, -3)
nan
Using the axis argument to compute vector norms:

>>> c = np.array([[ 1, 2, 3],
...
[-1, 1, 4]])
>>> LA.norm(c, axis=0)
array([ 1.41421356, 2.23606798, 5.
>>> LA.norm(c, axis=1)
array([ 3.74165739, 4.24264069])
>>> LA.norm(c, ord=1, axis=1)
array([6, 6])
])
Using the axis argument to compute matrix norms:

>>> m = np.arange(8).reshape(2,2,2)
>>> LA.norm(m, axis=(1,2))
array([ 3.74165739, 11.22497216])
>>> LA.norm(m[0, :, :]), LA.norm(m[1, :, :])
(3.7416573867739413, 11.224972160321824)
numpy.linalg.cond(x, p=None)
Compute the condition number of a matrix.
This function is capable of returning the condition number using one of seven different norms, depending on the
value of p (see Parameters below).
Parameters
x : (M, N) array_like
The matrix whose condition number is sought.
p : {None, 1, -1, 2, -2, inf, -inf, fro}, optional
Order of the norm:
p
None
fro
inf
-inf
1
-1
2
-2
norm for matrices

2-norm, computed directly using the SVD
Frobenius norm
2-norm (largest sing. value)
smallest singular value
inf means the numpy.inf object, and the Frobenius norm is the root-of-sum-of-squares
norm.
Returns
c : {float, inf}
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Chapter 3. Routines
The condition number of the matrix. May be infinite.

See Also:
numpy.linalg.norm
Notes
The condition number of x is defined as the norm of x times the norm of the inverse of x [R37]; the norm can be
the usual L2-norm (root-of-sum-of-squares) or one of a number of other matrix norms.
References
[R37]
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 0, -1], [0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 1]])
>>> a
array([[ 1, 0, -1],
[ 0, 1, 0],
[ 1, 0, 1]])
>>> LA.cond(a)
1.4142135623730951
>>> LA.cond(a, fro)
3.1622776601683795
>>> LA.cond(a, np.inf)
2.0
>>> LA.cond(a, -np.inf)
1.0
>>> LA.cond(a, 1)
2.0
>>> LA.cond(a, -1)
1.0
>>> LA.cond(a, 2)
1.4142135623730951
>>> LA.cond(a, -2)
0.70710678118654746
>>> min(LA.svd(a, compute_uv=0))*min(LA.svd(LA.inv(a), compute_uv=0))
0.70710678118654746
numpy.linalg.det(a)
Parameters
Input array to compute determinants for.
Returns
det : (...) array_like
Determinant of a.
See Also:
slogdet
Another way to representing the determinant, more suitable for large matrices where underflow/overflow
may occur.
727
Notes
The determinant is computed via LU factorization using the LAPACK routine z/dgetrf.
Examples
The determinant of a 2-D array [[a, b], [c, d]] is ad - bc:
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.linalg.det(a)
-2.0
Computing determinants for a stack of matrices:

>>> a = np.array([ [[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[1, 2], [2, 1]], [[1, 3], [3, 1]] ])
>>> a.shape
(2, 2, 2
>>> np.linalg.det(a)
array([-2., -3., -8.])
numpy.linalg.slogdet(a)
Compute the sign and (natural) logarithm of the determinant of an array.
If an array has a very small or very large determinant, than a call to det may overflow or underflow. This
routine is more robust against such issues, because it computes the logarithm of the determinant rather than the
determinant itself.
Parameters
Input array, has to be a square 2-D array.
Returns
sign : (...) array_like
A number representing the sign of the determinant. For a real matrix, this is 1, 0, or -1.
For a complex matrix, this is a complex number with absolute value 1 (i.e., it is on the
unit circle), or else 0.
logdet : (...) array_like
The natural log of the absolute value of the determinant.
If the determinant is zero, then sign will be 0 and logdet will be
-Inf. In all cases, the determinant is equal to sign * np.exp(logdet).
See Also:
det
Notes
The determinant is computed via LU factorization using the LAPACK routine z/dgetrf. New in version 1.6.0..
Examples
The determinant of a 2-D array [[a, b], [c, d]] is ad - bc:
728
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> (sign, logdet) = np.linalg.slogdet(a)
>>> (sign, logdet)
(-1, 0.69314718055994529)
>>> sign * np.exp(logdet)
-2.0
Computing log-determinants for a stack of matrices:

>>> a = np.array([ [[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[1, 2], [2, 1]], [[1, 3], [3, 1]] ])
>>> a.shape
(3, 2, 2)
>>> sign, logdet = np.linalg.slogdet(a)
>>> (sign, logdet)
(array([-1., -1., -1.]), array([ 0.69314718, 1.09861229, 2.07944154]))
>>> sign * np.exp(logdet)
array([-2., -3., -8.])
This routine succeeds where ordinary det does not:

>>> np.linalg.det(np.eye(500) * 0.1)
0.0
>>> np.linalg.slogdet(np.eye(500) * 0.1)
(1, -1151.2925464970228)
numpy.trace(a, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

If a is 2-D, the sum along its diagonal with the given offset is returned, i.e., the sum of elements
a[i,i+offset] for all i.
If a has more than two dimensions, then the axes specified by axis1 and axis2 are used to determine the 2-D
sub-arrays whose traces are returned. The shape of the resulting array is the same as that of a with axis1 and
axis2 removed.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array, from which the diagonals are taken.
Offset of the diagonal from the main diagonal. Can be both positive and negative.
Defaults to 0.
axis1, axis2 : int, optional
Axes to be used as the first and second axis of the 2-D sub-arrays from which the
diagonals should be taken. Defaults are the first two axes of a.
Determines the data-type of the returned array and of the accumulator where the elements are summed. If dtype has the value None and a is of integer type of precision less
than the default integer precision, then the default integer precision is used. Otherwise,
the precision is the same as that of a.
shape to hold the output.
729
Returns
sum_along_diagonals : ndarray
If a is 2-D, the sum along the diagonal is returned. If a has larger dimensions, then an
array of sums along diagonals is returned.
See Also:
diag, diagonal, diagflat
Examples
>>> np.trace(np.eye(3))
3.0
>>> np.trace(a)
array([6, 8])
>>> a = np.arange(24).reshape((2,2,2,3))
>>> np.trace(a).shape
(2, 3)
3.17.5 Solving equations and inverting matrices

linalg.solve(a, b)
linalg.tensorsolve(a, b[, axes])
linalg.lstsq(a, b[, rcond])
linalg.inv(a)
linalg.pinv(a[, rcond])
linalg.tensorinv(a[, ind])

Solve the tensor equation a x = b for x.
Compute the inverse of an N-dimensional array.
numpy.linalg.solve(a, b)
Computes the exact solution, x, of the well-determined, i.e., full rank, linear matrix equation ax = b.
Parameters
Coefficient matrix.
b : {(..., M,), (..., M, K)}, array_like
Ordinate or dependent variable values.
Returns
x : {(..., M,), (..., M, K)} ndarray
Solution to the system a x = b. Returned shape is identical to b.
Raises
LinAlgError
If a is singular or not square.
Notes
730
Chapter 3. Routines
The solutions are computed using LAPACK routine _gesv

a must be square and of full-rank, i.e., all rows (or, equivalently, columns) must be linearly independent; if either
is not true, use lstsq for the least-squares best solution of the system/equation.
References
[R41]
Examples
Solve the system of equations 3 * x0 + x1 = 9 and x0 + 2 * x1 = 8:
>>> a =
>>> b =
>>> x =
>>> x
array([
np.array([[3,1], [1,2]])
np.array([9,8])
np.linalg.solve(a, b)
2.,
3.])
Check that the solution is correct:

>>> np.allclose(np.dot(a, x), b)
True
numpy.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b, axes=None)
Solve the tensor equation a x = b for x.
It is assumed that all indices of x are summed over in the product, together with the rightmost indices of a, as is
done in, for example, tensordot(a, x, axes=len(b.shape)).
Parameters
a : array_like
Coefficient tensor, of shape b.shape + Q. Q, a tuple, equals the shape of that
sub-tensor of a consisting of the appropriate number of its rightmost indices, and
must be such that
prod(Q) == prod(b.shape) (in which sense a is said to be square).
b : array_like
Right-hand tensor, which can be of any shape.
axes : tuple of ints, optional
Axes in a to reorder to the right, before inversion. If None (default), no reordering is
done.
Returns
x : ndarray, shape Q
Raises
LinAlgError
If a is singular or not square (in the above sense).
See Also:
tensordot, tensorinv, einsum
Examples
731
>>> a = np.eye(2*3*4)
>>> a.shape = (2*3, 4, 2, 3, 4)
>>> b = np.random.randn(2*3, 4)
>>> x = np.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b)
>>> x.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> np.allclose(np.tensordot(a, x, axes=3), b)
True
numpy.linalg.lstsq(a, b, rcond=-1)
Solves the equation a x = b by computing a vector x that minimizes the Euclidean 2-norm || b - a x ||^2. The
equation may be under-, well-, or overdetermined (i.e., the number of linearly independent rows of a can be
less than, equal to, or greater than its number of linearly independent columns). If a is square and of full rank,
then x (but for round-off error) is the exact solution of the equation.
Parameters
a : (M, N) array_like
Coefficient matrix.
b : {(M,), (M, K)} array_like
Ordinate or dependent variable values. If b is two-dimensional, the least-squares
solution is calculated for each of the K columns of b.
Cut-off ratio for small singular values of a. Singular values are set to zero if they are
smaller than rcond times the largest singular value of a.
Returns
x : {(N,), (N, K)} ndarray
Least-squares solution. If b is two-dimensional, the solutions are in the K columns of x.
residuals : {(), (1,), (K,)} ndarray
Sums of residuals; squared Euclidean 2-norm for each column in b - a*x. If the rank
of a is < N or > M, this is an empty array. If b is 1-dimensional, this is a (1,) shape
array. Otherwise the shape is (K,).
rank : int
Rank of matrix a.
s : (min(M, N),) ndarray
Singular values of a.
Raises
LinAlgError
If computation does not converge.
Notes
If b is a matrix, then all array results are returned as matrices.
Examples
Fit a line, y = mx + c, through some noisy data-points:
732
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])

>>> y = np.array([-1, 0.2, 0.9, 2.1])
By examining the coefficients, we see that the line should have a gradient of roughly 1 and cut the y-axis at,
more or less, -1.
We can rewrite the line equation as y = Ap, where A = [[x 1]] and p = [[m], [c]]. Now use
lstsq to solve for p:
>>> A = np.vstack([x, np.ones(len(x))]).T
>>> A
array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 1., 1.],
[ 2., 1.],
[ 3., 1.]])
>>> m, c = np.linalg.lstsq(A, y)[0]
>>> print m, c
1.0 -0.95
Plot the data along with the fitted line:

>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

plt.plot(x, y, o, label=Original data, markersize=10)
plt.plot(x, m*x + c, r, label=Fitted line)
plt.legend()
plt.show()
numpy.linalg.inv(a)
Given a square matrix a, return the matrix ainv satisfying dot(a, ainv) = dot(ainv, a) =
eye(a.shape[0]).
Parameters
Matrix to be inverted.
Returns
ainv : (..., M, M) ndarray or matrix
(Multiplicative) inverse of the matrix a.
Raises
LinAlgError
If a is not square or inversion fails.
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.linalg import inv
>>> a = np.array([[1., 2.], [3., 4.]])
>>> ainv = inv(a)
>>> np.allclose(np.dot(a, ainv), np.eye(2))
True
>>> np.allclose(np.dot(ainv, a), np.eye(2))
True
733
If a is a matrix object, then the return value is a matrix as well:

>>> ainv = inv(np.matrix(a))
>>> ainv
matrix([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
Inverses of several matrices can be computed at once:

>>> a = np.array([[[1., 2.], [3., 4.]], [[1, 3], [3, 5]]])
>>> inv(a)
array([[[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]],
[[-5. , 2. ],
[ 3. , -1. ]]])
numpy.linalg.pinv(a, rcond=1e-15)
Calculate the generalized inverse of a matrix using its singular-value decomposition (SVD) and including all
large singular values.
Parameters
a : (M, N) array_like
Matrix to be pseudo-inverted.
rcond : float
Cutoff for small singular values. Singular values smaller (in modulus) than rcond *
largest_singular_value (again, in modulus) are set to zero.
Returns
B : (N, M) ndarray
The pseudo-inverse of a. If a is a matrix instance, then so is B.
Raises
LinAlgError
If the SVD computation does not converge.
Notes
The pseudo-inverse of a matrix A, denoted A+ , is defined as: the matrix that solves [the least-squares problem] Ax = b, i.e., if x
is said solution, then A+ is that matrix such that x
= A+ b.
It can be shown that if Q1 QT2 = A is the singular value decomposition of A, then A+ = Q2 + QT1 , where
Q1,2 are orthogonal matrices, is a diagonal matrix consisting of As so-called singular values, (followed,
typically, by zeros), and then + is simply the diagonal matrix consisting of the reciprocals of As singular
values (again, followed by zeros). [R40]
References
[R40]
Examples
The following example checks that a * a+ * a == a and a+ * a * a+ == a+:
>>> a = np.random.randn(9, 6)
>>> B = np.linalg.pinv(a)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(a, np.dot(B, a)))
734
Chapter 3. Routines
True
>>> np.allclose(B, np.dot(B, np.dot(a, B)))
True
numpy.linalg.tensorinv(a, ind=2)
Compute the inverse of an N-dimensional array.
The result is an inverse for a relative to the tensordot operation tensordot(a, b, ind), i. e., up to
floating-point accuracy, tensordot(tensorinv(a), a, ind) is the identity tensor for the tensordot
operation.
Parameters
a : array_like
Tensor to invert. Its shape must be square, i. e., prod(a.shape[:ind]) ==
prod(a.shape[ind:]).
ind : int, optional
Number of first indices that are involved in the inverse sum. Must be a positive integer,
default is 2.
Returns
b : ndarray
as tensordot inverse, shape a.shape[:ind] + a.shape[ind:].
Raises
LinAlgError
If a is singular or not square (in the above sense).
See Also:
tensordot, tensorsolve
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(4*6)
>>> a.shape = (4, 6, 8, 3)
>>> ainv = np.linalg.tensorinv(a, ind=2)
>>> ainv.shape
(8, 3, 4, 6)
>>> b = np.random.randn(4, 6)
>>> np.allclose(np.tensordot(ainv, b), np.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b))
True
>>> a = np.eye(4*6)
>>> a.shape = (24, 8, 3)
>>> ainv = np.linalg.tensorinv(a, ind=1)
>>> ainv.shape
(8, 3, 24)
>>> b = np.random.randn(24)
>>> np.allclose(np.tensordot(ainv, b, 1), np.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b))
True
3.17.6 Exceptions
linalg.LinAlgError
Generic Python-exception-derived object raised by linalg functions.
735
exception numpy.linalg.LinAlgError
Generic Python-exception-derived object raised by linalg functions.
General purpose exception class, derived from Pythons exception.Exception class, programmatically raised in
linalg functions when a Linear Algebra-related condition would prevent further correct execution of the function.
Parameters
None
Examples
>>> LA.inv(np.zeros((2,2)))
File "...linalg.py", line 350,
in inv return wrap(solve(a, identity(a.shape[0], dtype=a.dtype)))
File "...linalg.py", line 249,
in solve
raise LinAlgError(Singular matrix)
numpy.linalg.LinAlgError: Singular matrix
3.17.7 Linear algebra on several matrices at once

Several of the linear algebra routines listed above are able to compute results for several matrices at once, if they are
stacked into the same array.
This is indicated in the documentation via input parameter specifications such as a : (..., M, M)
array_like. This means that if for instance given an input array a.shape == (N, M, M), it is interpreted
as a stack of N matrices, each of size M-by-M. Similar specification applies to return values, for instance the
determinant has det : (...) and will in this case return an array of shape det(a).shape == (N,). This
generalizes to linear algebra operations on higher-dimensional arrays: the last 1 or 2 dimensions of a multidimensional
array are interpreted as vectors or matrices, as appropriate for each operation.
3.18 Logic functions

3.18.1 Truth value testing
all(a[, axis, out, keepdims])
any(a[, axis, out, keepdims])
Test whether all array elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
numpy.all(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Test whether all array elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Parameters
a : array_like
Axis or axes along which a logical AND reduction is performed. The default (axis =
None) is perform a logical OR over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be
negative, in which case it counts from the last to the first axis. New in version 1.7.0. If
736
Chapter 3. Routines
this is a tuple of ints, a reduction is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis
or all the axes as before.
expected output and its type is preserved (e.g., if dtype(out) is float, the result will
consist of 0.0s and 1.0s). See doc.ufuncs (Section Output arguments) for more
details.
Returns
all : ndarray, bool
A new boolean or array is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference to
out is returned.
See Also:
ndarray.all
equivalent method
any
Test whether any element along a given axis evaluates to True.
Notes
Not a Number (NaN), positive infinity and negative infinity evaluate to True because these are not equal to zero.
Examples
>>> np.all([[True,False],[True,True]])
False
>>> np.all([[True,False],[True,True]], axis=0)
>>> np.all([-1, 4, 5])
True
>>> np.all([1.0, np.nan])
True
>>> o=np.array([False])
>>> z=np.all([-1, 4, 5], out=o)
>>> id(z), id(o), z
(28293632, 28293632, array([ True], dtype=bool))
numpy.any(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Returns single boolean unless axis is not None
Parameters
a : array_like
3.18. Logic functions
737

Axis or axes along which a logical OR reduction is performed. The default (axis =
None) is perform a logical OR over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be
negative, in which case it counts from the last to the first axis. New in version 1.7.0. If
this is a tuple of ints, a reduction is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis
or all the axes as before.
expected output and its type is preserved (e.g., if it is of type float, then it will remain so,
returning 1.0 for True and 0.0 for False, regardless of the type of a). See doc.ufuncs
(Section Output arguments) for details.
Returns
any : bool or ndarray
A new boolean or ndarray is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference
to out is returned.
See Also:
ndarray.any
equivalent method
all
Test whether all elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Notes
Not a Number (NaN), positive infinity and negative infinity evaluate to True because these are not equal to zero.
Examples
>>> np.any([[True, False], [True, True]])
True
>>> np.any([[True, False], [False, False]], axis=0)
>>> np.any([-1, 0, 5])
True
>>> np.any(np.nan)
True
>>> o=np.array([False])
>>> z=np.any([-1, 4, 5], out=o)
>>> z, o
(array([ True], dtype=bool), array([ True], dtype=bool))
>>> # Check now that z is a reference to o
>>> z is o
True
>>> id(z), id(o) # identity of z and o
(191614240, 191614240)
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Chapter 3. Routines
3.18.2 Array contents

isfinite(x[, out])
isinf(x[, out])
isnan(x[, out])
isneginf(x[, y])
isposinf(x[, y])

Test element-wise for negative infinity, return result as bool array.
Test element-wise for positive infinity, return result as bool array.
numpy.isfinite(x[, out ]) = <ufunc isfinite>

The result is returned as a boolean array.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
Returns
y : ndarray, bool
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is finite; otherwise the value is False (input is either positive infinity, negative infinity or Not a
Number).
For array input, the result is a boolean array with the same dimensions as the input and
the values are True if the corresponding element of the input is finite; otherwise the
values are False (element is either positive infinity, negative infinity or Not a Number).
See Also:
isinf, isneginf, isposinf, isnan
Notes
Not a Number, positive infinity and negative infinity are considered to be non-finite.
Numpy uses the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point for Arithmetic (IEEE 754). This means that Not a
Number is not equivalent to infinity. Also that positive infinity is not equivalent to negative infinity. But infinity
is equivalent to positive infinity. Errors result if the second argument is also supplied when x is a scalar input,
or if first and second arguments have different shapes.
Examples
>>> np.isfinite(1)
True
>>> np.isfinite(0)
True
>>> np.isfinite(np.nan)
False
>>> np.isfinite(np.inf)
False
>>> np.isfinite(np.NINF)
False
739
>>> np.isfinite([np.log(-1.),1.,np.log(0)])
array([False, True, False], dtype=bool)
>>> x = np.array([-np.inf, 0., np.inf])
>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isfinite(x, y)
array([0, 1, 0])
>>> y
array([0, 1, 0])
numpy.isinf(x[, out ]) = <ufunc isinf>

Returns a boolean array of the same shape as x, True where x == +/-inf, otherwise False.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input values
An array with the same shape as x to store the result.
Returns
y : bool (scalar) or boolean ndarray
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is positive or
negative infinity; otherwise the value is False.
For array input, the result is a boolean array with the same shape as the input and the
values are True where the corresponding element of the input is positive or negative
infinity; elsewhere the values are False. If a second argument was supplied the result is
stored there. If the type of that array is a numeric type the result is represented as zeros
and ones, if the type is boolean then as False and True, respectively. The return value y
is then a reference to that array.
See Also:
isneginf, isposinf, isnan, isfinite
Notes
Numpy uses the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point for Arithmetic (IEEE 754).
Errors result if the second argument is supplied when the first argument is a scalar, or if the first and second
arguments have different shapes.
Examples
>>> np.isinf(np.inf)
True
>>> np.isinf(np.nan)
False
>>> np.isinf(np.NINF)
True
>>> np.isinf([np.inf, -np.inf, 1.0, np.nan])
array([ True, True, False, False], dtype=bool)
>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isinf(x, y)
740
Chapter 3. Routines
array([1, 0, 1])
>>> y
array([1, 0, 1])
numpy.isnan(x[, out ]) = <ufunc isnan>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
y : {ndarray, bool}
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is NaN; otherwise the value is False.
For array input, the result is a boolean array of the same dimensions as the input and the
values are True if the corresponding element of the input is NaN; otherwise the values
are False.
See Also:
isinf, isneginf, isposinf, isfinite
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity.
Examples
>>> np.isnan(np.nan)
True
>>> np.isnan(np.inf)
False
>>> np.isnan([np.log(-1.),1.,np.log(0)])
array([ True, False, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.isneginf(x, y=None)
Test element-wise for negative infinity, return result as bool array.
Parameters
x : array_like
The input array.
A boolean array with the same shape and type as x to store the result.
Returns
y : ndarray
A boolean array with the same dimensions as the input. If second argument is not supplied then a numpy boolean array is returned with values True where the corresponding
element of the input is negative infinity and values False where the element of the input
is not negative infinity.
If a second argument is supplied the result is stored there. If the type of that array is a
numeric type the result is represented as zeros and ones, if the type is boolean then as
False and True. The return value y is then a reference to that array.
741
See Also:
isinf, isposinf, isnan, isfinite
Notes
Errors result if the second argument is also supplied when x is a scalar input, or if first and second arguments
have different shapes.
Examples
>>> np.isneginf(np.NINF)
array(True, dtype=bool)
>>> np.isneginf(np.inf)
array(False, dtype=bool)
>>> np.isneginf(np.PINF)
>>> np.isneginf([-np.inf, 0., np.inf])
array([ True, False, False], dtype=bool)
>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isneginf(x, y)
array([1, 0, 0])
>>> y
array([1, 0, 0])
numpy.isposinf(x, y=None)
Test element-wise for positive infinity, return result as bool array.
Parameters
x : array_like
The input array.
A boolean array with the same shape as x to store the result.
Returns
y : ndarray
A boolean array with the same dimensions as the input. If second argument is not
supplied then a boolean array is returned with values True where the corresponding
element of the input is positive infinity and values False where the element of the input
is not positive infinity.
If a second argument is supplied the result is stored there. If the type of that array is a
numeric type the result is represented as zeros and ones, if the type is boolean then as
False and True. The return value y is then a reference to that array.
See Also:
isinf, isneginf, isfinite, isnan
Notes
Errors result if the second argument is also supplied when x is a scalar input, or if first and second arguments
have different shapes.
742
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.isposinf(np.PINF)
>>> np.isposinf(np.inf)
>>> np.isposinf(np.NINF)
>>> np.isposinf([-np.inf, 0., np.inf])
array([False, False, True], dtype=bool)
>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isposinf(x, y)
array([0, 0, 1])
>>> y
array([0, 0, 1])
3.18.3 Array type testing

iscomplex(x)
iscomplexobj(x)
isfortran(a)
isreal(x)
isrealobj(x)
isscalar(num)

Check for a complex type or an array of complex numbers.
Returns True if array is arranged in Fortran-order in memory
Return True if x is a not complex type or an array of complex numbers.
Returns True if the type of num is a scalar type.
numpy.iscomplex(x)
What is tested is whether the input has a non-zero imaginary part, not if the input type is complex.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray of bools
Output array.
See Also:
isreal
iscomplexobj
Return True if x is a complex type or an array of complex numbers.
Examples
>>> np.iscomplex([1+1j, 1+0j, 4.5, 3, 2, 2j])
array([ True, False, False, False, False, True], dtype=bool)
numpy.iscomplexobj(x)
Check for a complex type or an array of complex numbers.
743
The type of the input is checked, not the value. Even if the input has an imaginary part equal to zero,
iscomplexobj evaluates to True.
Parameters
x : any
The input can be of any type and shape.
Returns
iscomplexobj : bool
The return value, True if x is of a complex type or has at least one complex element.
See Also:
isrealobj, iscomplex
Examples
>>> np.iscomplexobj(1)
False
>>> np.iscomplexobj(1+0j)
True
>>> np.iscomplexobj([3, 1+0j, True])
True
numpy.isfortran(a)
Returns True if array is arranged in Fortran-order in memory and not C-order.
Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array.
Examples
np.array allows to specify whether the array is written in C-contiguous order (last index varies the fastest), or
FORTRAN-contiguous order in memory (first index varies the fastest).
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], order=C)
>>> a
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(a)
False
>>> b = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], order=FORTRAN)
>>> b
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(b)
True
The transpose of a C-ordered array is a FORTRAN-ordered array.

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], order=C)
>>> a
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(a)
False
>>> b = a.T
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> b
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(b)
True
C-ordered arrays evaluate as False even if they are also FORTRAN-ordered.

>>> np.isfortran(np.array([1, 2], order=FORTRAN))
False
numpy.isreal(x)
If element has complex type with zero complex part, the return value for that element is True.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray, bool
Boolean array of same shape as x.
See Also:
iscomplex
isrealobj
Return True if x is not a complex type.
Examples
>>> np.isreal([1+1j, 1+0j, 4.5, 3, 2, 2j])
array([False, True, True, True, True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.isrealobj(x)
Return True if x is a not complex type or an array of complex numbers.
The type of the input is checked, not the value. So even if the input has an imaginary part equal to zero,
isrealobj evaluates to False if the data type is complex.
Parameters
x : any
The input can be of any type and shape.
Returns
y : bool
The return value, False if x is of a complex type.
See Also:
iscomplexobj, isreal
Examples
>>> np.isrealobj(1)
True
>>> np.isrealobj(1+0j)
745
False
>>> np.isrealobj([3, 1+0j, True])
False
numpy.isscalar(num)
Returns True if the type of num is a scalar type.
Parameters
num : any
Input argument, can be of any type and shape.
Returns
val : bool
True if num is a scalar type, False if it is not.
Examples
>>> np.isscalar(3.1)
True
>>> np.isscalar([3.1])
False
>>> np.isscalar(False)
True
3.18.4 Logical operations

logical_and(x1, x2[, out])
logical_or(x1, x2[, out])
logical_not(x[, out])
logical_xor(x1, x2[, out])

numpy.logical_and(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc logical_and>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Input arrays. x1 and x2 must be of the same shape.
Returns
y : {ndarray, bool}
Boolean result with the same shape as x1 and x2 of the logical AND operation on corresponding elements of x1 and x2.
See Also:
logical_or, logical_not, logical_xor, bitwise_and
Examples
>>> np.logical_and(True, False)
False
>>> np.logical_and([True, False], [False, False])
array([False, False], dtype=bool)
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.logical_and(x>1, x<4)
array([False, False, True, True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.logical_or(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc logical_or>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Logical OR is applied to the elements of x1 and x2. They have to be of the same shape.
Returns
y : {ndarray, bool}
Boolean result with the same shape as x1 and x2 of the logical OR operation on elements
of x1 and x2.
See Also:
logical_and, logical_not, logical_xor, bitwise_or
Examples
>>> np.logical_or(True, False)
True
>>> np.logical_or([True, False], [False, False])
>>> np.logical_or(x < 1, x > 3)
array([ True, False, False, False,
True], dtype=bool)
numpy.logical_not(x[, out ]) = <ufunc logical_not>

Parameters
x : array_like
Logical NOT is applied to the elements of x.
Returns
y : bool or ndarray of bool
Boolean result with the same shape as x of the NOT operation on elements of x.
See Also:
logical_and, logical_or, logical_xor
Examples
>>> np.logical_not(3)
False
>>> np.logical_not([True, False, 0, 1])
array([False, True, True, False], dtype=bool)
>>> np.logical_not(x<3)
array([False, False, False,
True,
True], dtype=bool)
numpy.logical_xor(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc logical_xor>

747
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Logical XOR is applied to the elements of x1 and x2. They must be broadcastable to
the same shape.
Returns
y : bool or ndarray of bool
Boolean result of the logical XOR operation applied to the elements of x1 and x2; the
shape is determined by whether or not broadcasting of one or both arrays was required.
See Also:
logical_and, logical_or, logical_not, bitwise_xor
Examples
>>> np.logical_xor(True, False)
True
>>> np.logical_xor([True, True, False, False], [True, False, True, False])
array([False, True, True, False], dtype=bool)
>>> np.logical_xor(x < 1, x > 3)
array([ True, False, False, False,
True], dtype=bool)
Simple example showing support of broadcasting

>>> np.logical_xor(0, np.eye(2))
array([[ True, False],
[False, True]], dtype=bool)
3.18.5 Comparison
allclose(a, b[, rtol, atol])
isclose(a, b[, rtol, atol, equal_nan])
array_equal(a1, a2)
array_equiv(a1, a2)

Returns a boolean array where two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
True if two arrays have the same shape and elements, False otherwise.
Returns True if input arrays are shape consistent and all elements equal.
numpy.allclose(a, b, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08)

The tolerance values are positive, typically very small numbers. The relative difference (rtol * abs(b)) and the
absolute difference atol are added together to compare against the absolute difference between a and b.
If either array contains one or more NaNs, False is returned. Infs are treated as equal if they are in the same
place and of the same sign in both arrays.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
rtol : float
The relative tolerance parameter (see Notes).
atol : float
748
Chapter 3. Routines
The absolute tolerance parameter (see Notes).

Returns
allclose : bool
Returns True if the two arrays are equal within the given tolerance; False otherwise.
See Also:
isclose, all, any
Notes
If the following equation is element-wise True, then allclose returns True.
The above equation is not symmetric in a and b, so that allclose(a, b) might be different from allclose(b, a) in
some rare cases.
Examples
>>> np.allclose([1e10,1e-7], [1.00001e10,1e-8])
False
>>> np.allclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.00001e10,1e-9])
True
>>> np.allclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.0001e10,1e-9])
False
>>> np.allclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan])
False
numpy.isclose(a, b, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08, equal_nan=False)

Returns a boolean array where two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
The tolerance values are positive, typically very small numbers. The relative difference (rtol * abs(b)) and the
absolute difference atol are added together to compare against the absolute difference between a and b.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
rtol : float
The relative tolerance parameter (see Notes).
atol : float
The absolute tolerance parameter (see Notes).
equal_nan : bool
Whether to compare NaNs as equal. If True, NaNs in a will be considered equal to
NaNs in b in the output array.
Returns
y : array_like
Returns a boolean array of where a and b are equal within the given tolerance. If both a
and b are scalars, returns a single boolean value.
See Also:
allclose
749
Notes
New in version 1.7.0. For finite values, isclose uses the following equation to test whether two floating point
values are equivalent.
The above equation is not symmetric in a and b, so that isclose(a, b) might be different from isclose(b, a) in
some rare cases.
Examples
>>> np.isclose([1e10,1e-7], [1.00001e10,1e-8])
array([True, False])
>>> np.isclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.00001e10,1e-9])
array([True, True])
>>> np.isclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.0001e10,1e-9])
array([False, True])
>>> np.isclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan])
array([True, False])
>>> np.isclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan], equal_nan=True)
array([True, True])
numpy.array_equal(a1, a2)
True if two arrays have the same shape and elements, False otherwise.
Parameters
a1, a2 : array_like
Input arrays.
Returns
b : bool
Returns True if the arrays are equal.
See Also:
allclose
array_equiv
Examples
>>> np.array_equal([1, 2], [1, 2])
True
>>> np.array_equal(np.array([1, 2]), np.array([1, 2]))
True
>>> np.array_equal([1, 2], [1, 2, 3])
False
>>> np.array_equal([1, 2], [1, 4])
False
numpy.array_equiv(a1, a2)
Shape consistent means they are either the same shape, or one input array can be broadcasted to create the same
shape as the other one.
750
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
a1, a2 : array_like
Input arrays.
Returns
out : bool
True if equivalent, False otherwise.
Examples
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [1, 2])
True
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [1, 3])
False
Showing the shape equivalence:

>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [[1, 2], [1, 2]])
True
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [[1, 2, 1, 2], [1, 2, 1, 2]])
False
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [[1, 2], [1, 3]])
False
greater(x1, x2[, out])

greater_equal(x1, x2[, out])
less(x1, x2[, out])
less_equal(x1, x2[, out])
equal(x1, x2[, out])
not_equal(x1, x2[, out])

numpy.greater(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc greater>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Input arrays. If x1.shape != x2.shape, they must be broadcastable to a common
shape (which may be the shape of one or the other).
Returns
out : bool or ndarray of bool
Array of bools, or a single bool if x1 and x2 are scalars.
See Also:
greater_equal, less, less_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.greater([4,2],[2,2])
If the inputs are ndarrays, then np.greater is equivalent to >.
751
>>> a =
>>> b =
>>> a >
array([
np.array([4,2])
np.array([2,2])
b
True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.greater_equal(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc greater_equal>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Returns
See Also:
greater, less, less_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.greater_equal([4, 2, 1], [2, 2, 2])
array([ True, True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.less(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc less>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Returns
See Also:
greater, less_equal, greater_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.less([1, 2], [2, 2])
numpy.less_equal(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc less_equal>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Returns
752
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
greater, less, greater_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.less_equal([4, 2, 1], [2, 2, 2])
array([False, True, True], dtype=bool)
numpy.equal(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc equal>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Returns
See Also:
not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater, less
Examples
>>> np.equal([0, 1, 3], np.arange(3))
array([ True, True, False], dtype=bool)
What is compared are values, not types. So an int (1) and an array of length one can evaluate as True:
>>> np.equal(1, np.ones(1))
array([ True], dtype=bool)
numpy.not_equal(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc not_equal>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Input arrays.
A placeholder the same shape as x1 to store the result. See doc.ufuncs (Section
Output arguments) for more details.
Returns
not_equal : ndarray bool, scalar bool
For each element in x1, x2, return True if x1 is not equal to x2 and False otherwise.
See Also:
equal, greater, greater_equal, less, less_equal
Examples
>>> np.not_equal([1.,2.], [1., 3.])
>>> np.not_equal([1, 2], [[1, 3],[1, 4]])
[False, True]], dtype=bool)
753
3.19 Masked array operations

3.19.1 Constants
ma.MaskType
Numpys Boolean type. Character code: ?. Alias: bool8
numpy.ma.MaskType
alias of bool_
3.19.2 Creation
From existing data
ma.masked_array
ma.array(data[, dtype, copy, order, mask, ...])
ma.copy
ma.frombuffer(buffer[, dtype, count, offset])
ma.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs)
ma.MaskedArray.copy([order])

copy
Construction:
Parameters
data : array_like
Input data.
754
Chapter 3. Routines
data-type is used.
numpy.ma.copy = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820290>
copy a.copy(order=C)
Parameters
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
3.19. Masked array operations
755
numpy.ma.frombuffer(buffer, dtype=float, count=-1, offset=0) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at 0x2820dd0>

Parameters
Notes
Examples
>>> s = hello world
dtype=|S1)
numpy.ma.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820e18>
Parameters
function : callable
passed to function.
Returns
fromfunction : any
756
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
indices, meshgrid
Notes
Examples
array([[0, 1, 2],
[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
Parameters
See Also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order=F)
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
Ones and zeros
757
ma.empty(shape[, dtype, order])

ma.empty_like(a[, dtype, order, subok])
ma.masked_all(shape[, dtype])
ma.masked_all_like(arr)
ma.ones(shape[, dtype, order])
ma.zeros(shape[, dtype, order])
numpy.ma.empty(shape, dtype=float, order=C) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820cf8>
Parameters
order in memory.
See Also:
Notes
Examples
>>> np.empty([2, 2])
array([[ -9.74499359e+001,
[ 2.13182611e-314,
6.69583040e-309],
3.06959433e-309]])

array([[-1073741821, -1067949133],
[ 496041986,
19249760]])
#random
#random
numpy.ma.empty_like(a, dtype=None, order=K, subok=True) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at 0x2820d88>

Parameters
a : array_like
758
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ones_like
zeros_like
empty
ones
zeros
Notes
This function does not initialize the returned array; to do that use zeros_like or ones_like instead. It may be
marginally faster than the functions that do set the array values.
Examples
>>> a = ([1,2,3], [4,5,6])
# a is array-like
array([[-1073741821, -1073741821,
3],
#random
[
0,
0, -1073741821]])
>>> a = np.array([[1., 2., 3.],[4.,5.,6.]])
array([[ -2.00000715e+000,
1.48219694e-323, -2.00000572e+000],#random
[ 4.38791518e-305, -2.00000715e+000,
4.17269252e-309]])
numpy.ma.masked_all(shape, dtype=<type float>)

Return an empty masked array of the given shape and dtype, where all the data are masked.
Parameters
shape : tuple
Shape of the required MaskedArray.
Data type of the output.
Returns
a : MaskedArray
See Also:
759
masked_all_like
Empty masked array modelled on an existing array.
Examples
>>> ma.masked_all((3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[[ True True True]
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
fill_value=1e+20)
The dtype parameter defines the underlying data type.

>>> a = ma.masked_all((3, 3))
>>> a.dtype
dtype(float64)
>>> a = ma.masked_all((3, 3), dtype=np.int32)
>>> a.dtype
dtype(int32)
numpy.ma.masked_all_like(arr)
Return an empty masked array of the same shape and dtype as the array arr, where all the data are masked.
Parameters
arr : ndarray
An array describing the shape and dtype of the required MaskedArray.
Returns
a : MaskedArray
Raises
AttributeError
If arr doesnt have a shape attribute (i.e. not an ndarray)
See Also:
masked_all
Examples
>>> arr = np.zeros((2, 3), dtype=np.float32)
>>> arr
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
>>> ma.masked_all_like(arr)
masked_array(data =
[[-- -- --]
760
Chapter 3. Routines
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
fill_value=1e+20)
The dtype of the masked array matches the dtype of arr.

>>> arr.dtype
dtype(float32)
>>> ma.masked_all_like(arr).dtype
dtype(float32)
numpy.ma.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=C) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820ef0>
Parameters
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
zeros, ones_like
Examples
>>> np.ones(5)
array([ 1., 1.,
1.,
1.,
1.])

array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.ones((2, 1))
array([[ 1.],
[ 1.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.ones(s)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.ma.zeros(shape, dtype=float, order=C) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820f80>
Parameters
761

Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
zeros_like
ones_like
empty_like
ones
empty
Examples
>>> np.zeros(5)
array([ 0., 0.,
0.,
0.,
0.])

array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
>>> np.zeros((2, 1))
array([[ 0.],
[ 0.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.zeros(s)
array([[ 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0.]])
array([(0, 0), (0, 0)],
dtype=[(x, <i4), (y, <i4)])
3.19.3 Inspecting the array

ma.all(self[, axis, out])

762
Chapter 3. Routines

ma.any(self[, axis, out])
ma.count(a[, axis])
ma.count_masked(arr[, axis])
ma.getmask(a)
ma.getdata(a[, subok])
ma.nonzero(self)
ma.shape(obj)
ma.MaskedArray.data
Return the current data, as a view of the original
ma.MaskedArray.mask
Mask
ma.MaskedArray.recordmask
Return the mask of the records.
ma.MaskedArray.all([axis, out]) Check if all of the elements of a are true.
ma.MaskedArray.any([axis, out]) Check if any of the elements of a are true.
ma.MaskedArray.count([axis])
ma.MaskedArray.nonzero()
ma.shape(obj)
numpy.ma.all(self, axis=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2819e18>

Parameters
See Also:
all
equivalent function
Examples
True
True
numpy.ma.any(self, axis=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2819fc8>

computation.
Parameters
763
scalar.
See Also:
any
equivalent function
numpy.ma.count(a, axis=None)
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
count_masked
Examples
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3

>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
numpy.ma.count_masked(arr, axis=None)
Parameters
arr : array_like
764
Chapter 3. Routines
An array with (possibly) masked elements.

Axis along which to count. If None (default), a flattened version of the array is used.
Returns
count : int, ndarray
The total number of masked elements (axis=None) or the number of masked elements
along each slice of the given axis.
See Also:
MaskedArray.count
Count non-masked elements.
Examples
>>> a = ma.array(a)
>>> a[1, 0] = ma.masked
>>> a[1, 2] = ma.masked
>>> a[2, 1] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- 4 --]
[6 -- 8]],
mask =
[ True False True]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.count_masked(a)
3
When the axis keyword is used an array is returned.

array([1, 1, 1])
array([0, 2, 1])
numpy.ma.getmask(a)
Parameters
a : array_like
See Also:
getdata
765
getmaskarray
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmask(a)

>>> a.mask

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nomask
False
True
True
Parameters
arr : array_like
See Also:
getmask
getdata
766
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.getdata(a, subok=True)
Return the data of a (if any) as an ndarray if a is a MaskedArray, else return a as a ndarray or subclass
(depending on subok) if not.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input MaskedArray, alternatively a ndarray or a subclass thereof.
subok : bool
Whether to force the output to be a pure ndarray (False) or to return a subclass of ndarray
if appropriate (True, default).
See Also:
getmask
getmaskarray
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
767
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getdata(a)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Equivalently use the MaskedArray data attribute.

>>> a.data
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.nonzero(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x28204d0>

a[a.nonzero()]

Parameters
None
Returns
See Also:
numpy.nonzero
flatnonzero
ndarray.nonzero
count_nonzero
Examples
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
768
Chapter 3. Routines
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))

>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))

array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.ma.shape(obj)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
769
See Also:
alen
ndarray.shape
Examples
(3, 3)
>>> np.shape([[1, 2]])
(1, 2)
>>> np.shape([0])
(1,)
>>> np.shape(0)
()
>>> np.shape(a)
(2,)
>>> a.shape
(2,)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Returns
element_count : int
See Also:
shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.size
Examples
>>>
>>>
6
>>>
3
>>>
2
770
a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])
np.size(a)
np.size(a,1)
np.size(a,0)
Chapter 3. Routines
MaskedArray.data
Return the current data, as a view of the original underlying data.
MaskedArray.mask
Mask
Return the mask of the records. A record is masked when all the fields are masked.
Parameters
See Also:
all
equivalent function
Examples
True
True
computation.
Parameters
scalar.
See Also:
any
equivalent function
771
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
count_masked
Examples
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3

>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
a[a.nonzero()]

Parameters
None
Returns
772
Chapter 3. Routines

See Also:
numpy.nonzero
flatnonzero
ndarray.nonzero
count_nonzero
Examples
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))

>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))

array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
773

[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.ma.shape(obj)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
See Also:
alen
ndarray.shape
Examples
(3, 3)
>>> np.shape([[1, 2]])
(1, 2)
>>> np.shape([0])
(1,)
>>> np.shape(0)
()
>>> np.shape(a)
(2,)
>>> a.shape
(2,)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
774
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
element_count : int
See Also:
shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.shape
dimensions of array
ndarray.size
Examples
>>>
>>>
6
>>>
3
>>>
2
a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])
np.size(a)
np.size(a,1)
np.size(a,0)
3.19.4 Manipulating a MaskedArray

Changing the shape
ma.ravel(self)
ma.reshape(a, new_shape[, order])
ma.resize(x, new_shape)
ma.MaskedArray.flatten([order])
ma.MaskedArray.ravel()
ma.MaskedArray.reshape(*s, **kwargs)
ma.MaskedArray.resize(newshape[, refcheck, ...])

numpy.ma.ravel(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820680>

Returns
MaskedArray
Output
view
is
of
shape
(self.size,)
(or
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
775
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.ravel()
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
numpy.ma.reshape(a, new_shape, order=C)

Refer to MaskedArray.reshape for full documentation.
See Also:
MaskedArray.reshape
equivalent function
numpy.ma.resize(x, new_shape)
This is the masked equivalent of the numpy.resize function. The new array is filled with repeated copies of
x (in the order that the data are stored in memory). If x is masked, the new array will be masked, and the new
mask will be a repetition of the old one.
See Also:
numpy.resize
Equivalent function in the top level NumPy module.
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([[1, 2] ,[3, 4]])
>>> a[0, 1] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
>>> np.resize(a, (3, 3))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 1]])
>>> ma.resize(a, (3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 3]
[4 1 --]
[3 4 1]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False False True]
A MaskedArray is always returned, regardless of the input type.
776
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2] ,[3, 4]])

>>> ma.resize(a, (3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[1 2 3]
[4 1 2]
[3 4 1]],
mask =
False,
Parameters
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
ravel
flat
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten(F)
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
MaskedArray.ravel()
Returns
MaskedArray
Output
view
is
of
shape
(self.size,)
(or
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.ravel()
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
777
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
reshape
numpy.reshape
Notes
a.shape = s
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2],[3,4]], mask=[1,0,0,1])
>>> print x
[[-- 2]
[3 --]]
>>> x = x.reshape((4,1))
>>> print x
[[--]
[2]
[3]
[--]]

Modifying axes
ma.swapaxes
swapaxes
778
Chapter 3. Routines

ma.MaskedArray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 interchanged.
numpy.ma.swapaxes = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820998>

swapaxes a.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
See Also:
numpy.transpose
Examples
>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[0 1]
[2 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
>>> ma.transpose(x)
masked_array(data =
[[0 2]
[1 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
See Also:
numpy.swapaxes
equivalent function
779
i[0]).
Parameters
axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
Changing the number of dimensions

ma.expand_dims(x, axis)
ma.squeeze(a[, axis])
ma.MaskedArray.squeeze([axis])
780

Chapter 3. Routines

ma.dstack(tup)
ma.hstack(tup)
ma.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
ma.mr_
ma.row_stack(tup)
ma.vstack(tup)
numpy.ma.atleast_1d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x28216c8>

Parameters
Returns
ret : ndarray
necessary.
Notes
Examples
array([ 1.])
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7., 8.]])
True
>>> np.atleast_1d(1, [3, 4])
[array([1]), array([3, 4])]
numpy.ma.atleast_2d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x28217e8>

Parameters
Returns
781
Notes
Examples
array([[ 3.]])
array([[ 0., 1., 2.]])
True
>>> np.atleast_2d(1, [1, 2], [[1, 2]])
numpy.ma.atleast_3d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821878>

Parameters
Returns
Notes
Examples
array([[[ 3.]]])
(1, 3, 1)
(4, 3, 1)
True
782
Chapter 3. Routines

...
...
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1 2]]] (1, 1, 2)
numpy.ma.expand_dims(x, axis)
Expands the shape of the array by including a new axis before the one specified by the axis parameter. This
function behaves the same as numpy.expand_dims but preserves masked elements.
See Also:
numpy.expand_dims
Examples
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 4])
>>> x
>>> np.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
array([[1, 2, 4]])
>>> ma.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 4]],
mask =
The same result can be achieved using slicing syntax with np.newaxis.
>>> x[np.newaxis, :]
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 4]],
mask =
numpy.ma.squeeze(a, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
783
Returns
squeezed : ndarray
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[[0], [1], [2]]])
>>> x.shape
(1, 3, 1)
(3,)
(1, 3)
See Also:
numpy.squeeze
equivalent function
Parameters
Returns
stacked : 2-D array
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
784
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
numpy.concatenate
Examples
>>> b = ma.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b
mask = False,

processing.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
785
vstack
hstack
concatenate
Join arrays.
dsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])

by hsplit.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
dstack
concatenate
786
Chapter 3. Routines
hsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at

0x2821b00>
Please refer to the split documentation. hsplit is equivalent to split with axis=1, the array is
always split along the second axis regardless of the array dimension.
See Also:
split
Notes
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.,
3.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.,
7.],
[ 8.,
9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0.,
1.],
[ 4.,
5.],
[ 8.,
9.],
[ 12., 13.]]),
array([[ 2.,
3.],
[ 6.,
7.],
[ 10., 11.],
[ 14., 15.]])]
[array([[ 0.,
1.,
2.],
[ 4.,
5.,
6.],
[ 8.,
9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]),
array([[ 3.],
787
[ 7.],
[ 11.],
[ 15.]]),
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.]],
[[ 4., 5.]]]),
array([[[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 6., 7.]]])]
numpy.ma.mr_ = <numpy.ma.extras.mr_class object at 0x281edd0>

This is the masked array version of lib.index_tricks.RClass.
See Also:
lib.index_tricks.RClass
Examples
>>> np.ma.mr_[np.ma.array([1,2,3]), 0, 0, np.ma.array([4,5,6])]
array([1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6])
numpy.ma.row_stack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction instance at 0x2821908>

by vsplit.
Parameters
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
788
Chapter 3. Routines
concatenate
vsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])

by vsplit.
Parameters
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
concatenate
vsplit
789
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
Joining arrays
ma.dstack(tup)
ma.hstack(tup)
ma.vstack(tup)


Parameters
Returns
stacked : 2-D array
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
790
Chapter 3. Routines
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
Parameters
Returns
See Also:
numpy.concatenate
Examples
>>> b = ma.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b
mask = False,

processing.
Parameters
791
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
hstack
concatenate
Join arrays.
dsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])

by hsplit.
Parameters
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
vstack
792
Chapter 3. Routines
dstack
concatenate
hsplit
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])

by vsplit.
Parameters
but the first axis.
Returns
stacked : ndarray
See Also:
hstack
dstack
concatenate
vsplit
793
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
3.19.5 Operations on masks

Creating a mask
ma.make_mask(m[, copy, shrink, dtype])
ma.make_mask_none(newshape[, dtype])
ma.make_mask_descr(ndtype)

numpy.ma.make_mask(m, copy=False, shrink=True, dtype=<type numpy.bool_>)

Return m as a boolean mask, creating a copy if necessary or requested. The function can accept any sequence
that is convertible to integers, or nomask. Does not require that contents must be 0s and 1s, values of 0 are
interepreted as False, everything else as True.
Parameters
m : array_like
Potential mask.
Whether to return a copy of m (True) or m itself (False).
Whether to shrink m to nomask if all its values are False.
Data-type of the output mask. By default, the output mask has a dtype of MaskType
(bool). If the dtype is flexible, each field has a boolean dtype.
794
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
result : ndarray
A boolean mask derived from m.
Examples
>>> m = [True, False, True, True]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
>>> m = [1, 0, 1, 1]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
>>> m = [1, 0, 2, -3]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
Effect of the shrink parameter.

>>> m = np.zeros(4)
>>> m
array([ 0., 0., 0., 0.])
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
False
>>> ma.make_mask(m, shrink=False)
array([False, False, False, False], dtype=bool)
Using a flexible dtype.

>>> m = [1, 0, 1, 1]
>>> n = [0, 1, 0, 0]
>>> arr = []
>>> for man, mouse in zip(m, n):
...
arr.append((man, mouse))
>>> arr
[(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 0)]
>>> dtype = np.dtype({names:[man, mouse],
formats:[np.int, np.int]})
>>> arr = np.array(arr, dtype=dtype)
>>> arr
array([(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 0)],
dtype=[(man, <i4), (mouse, <i4)])
>>> ma.make_mask(arr, dtype=dtype)
array([(True, False), (False, True), (True, False), (True, False)],
dtype=[(man, |b1), (mouse, |b1)])
numpy.ma.make_mask_none(newshape, dtype=None)
This function returns a boolean ndarray with all entries False, that can be used in common mask manipulations.
If a complex dtype is specified, the type of each field is converted to a boolean type.
Parameters
newshape : tuple
A tuple indicating the shape of the mask.
795
If None, use a MaskType instance. Otherwise, use a new datatype with the same fields
as dtype, converted to boolean types.
Returns
result : ndarray
An ndarray of appropriate shape and dtype, filled with False.
See Also:
make_mask
make_mask_descr
Examples
>>> ma.make_mask_none((3,))
array([False, False, False], dtype=bool)
Defining a more complex dtype.

>>> dtype
>>> ma.make_mask_none((3,), dtype=dtype)
array([(False, False), (False, False), (False, False)],
dtype=[(foo, |b1), (bar, |b1)])

Parameters
m1, m2 : array_like
Input masks.
Defaults to False.
Returns
mask : output mask
Raises
ValueError
796
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> m1 = np.ma.make_mask([0, 1, 1, 0])
>>> m2 = np.ma.make_mask([1, 0, 0, 0])
numpy.ma.make_mask_descr(ndtype)
Returns a new dtype object, with the type of all fields in ndtype to a boolean type. Field names are not altered.
Parameters
ndtype : dtype
The dtype to convert.
Returns
result : dtype
A dtype that looks like ndtype, the type of all fields is boolean.
Examples
>>> dtype
>>> ma.make_mask_descr(dtype)
dtype([(foo, |b1), (bar, |b1)])
>>> ma.make_mask_descr(np.float32)
<type numpy.bool_>
Accessing a mask
ma.getmask(a)
ma.masked_array.mask

Mask
numpy.ma.getmask(a)
Parameters
a : array_like
See Also:
getdata
getmaskarray
797
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmask(a)

>>> a.mask

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nomask
False
True
True
Parameters
arr : array_like
See Also:
getmask
getdata
798
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)

>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
masked_array.mask
Mask
Finding masked data
ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
ma.notmasked_contiguous(a[, axis])
ma.notmasked_edges(a[, axis])
numpy.ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
Parameters
a : narray
The input array.
Returns
slice_list : list
A sorted sequence of slices (start index, end index).
See Also:
clump_unmasked
notmasked_edges,
clump_masked,
799
Notes
Examples
slice(0, 10, None)
>>> mask = (a < 3) | (a > 8) | (a == 5)
array([3, 4, 6, 7, 8])
>>> print np.ma.extras.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
None
numpy.ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
Expects a 1-D MaskedArray, returns None if all values are masked.
Parameters
arr : array_like
Input 1-D MaskedArray
Returns
edges : ndarray or None
The indices of first and last non-masked value in the array. Returns None if all values
are masked.
See Also:
flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked
Notes
Only accepts 1-D arrays.
Examples
[0,-1]
>>> mask = (a < 3) | (a > 8) | (a == 5)
array([3, 4, 6, 7, 8])
array([3, 8])
800
Chapter 3. Routines

>>> print flatnotmasked_edges(ma)
None
numpy.ma.notmasked_contiguous(a, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
Returns
endpoints : list
A list of slices (start and end indexes) of unmasked indexes in the array.
See Also:
flatnotmasked_edges, flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked
Notes
Examples
>>> mask = np.zeros_like(a)
>>> mask[1:, 1:] = 1
>>> ma = np.ma.array(a, mask=mask)
>>> np.array(ma[~ma.mask])
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 6])
>>> np.ma.extras.notmasked_contiguous(ma)
numpy.ma.notmasked_edges(a, axis=None)
If all values are masked, return None. Otherwise, return a list of two tuples, corresponding to the indices of the
first and last unmasked values respectively.
Parameters
a : array_like
The input array.
Returns
edges : ndarray or list
801
An array of start and end indexes if there are any masked data in the array. If there are
no masked data in the array, edges is a list of the first and last index.
See Also:
flatnotmasked_contiguous,
clump_masked, clump_unmasked
Examples
>>> m = np.zeros_like(a)
>>> m[1:, 1:] = 1
>>> am = np.ma.array(a, mask=m)
>>> np.array(am[~am.mask])
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 6])
>>> np.ma.extras.notmasked_edges(ma)
array([0, 6])
Modifying a mask
ma.mask_cols(a[, axis])
ma.mask_rowcols(a[, axis])
ma.mask_rows(a[, axis])
ma.harden_mask(self)
ma.soften_mask(self)
ma.MaskedArray.harden_mask()
ma.MaskedArray.soften_mask()
ma.MaskedArray.shrink_mask()
ma.MaskedArray.unshare_mask()

numpy.ma.mask_cols(a, axis=None)
See Also:
mask_rowcols
masked_where
Examples
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
802
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_cols(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 -- 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 -- 0]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)

Parameters
m1, m2 : array_like
Input masks.
Defaults to False.
Returns
mask : output mask
Raises
ValueError
Examples
>>> m1 = np.ma.make_mask([0, 1, 1, 0])
>>> m2 = np.ma.make_mask([1, 0, 0, 0])
numpy.ma.mask_rowcols(a, axis=None)
803
Mask whole rows and/or columns of a 2D array that contain masked values. The masking behavior is selected
using the axis parameter.
If axis is None, rows and columns are masked.
If axis is 0, only rows are masked.
If axis is 1 or -1, only columns are masked.
Parameters
a : array_like, MaskedArray
The array to mask. If not a MaskedArray instance (or if no array elements are masked).
The result is a MaskedArray with mask set to nomask (False). Must be a 2D array.
Axis along which to perform the operation. If None, applies to a flattened version of the
array.
Returns
a : MaskedArray
A modified version of the input array, masked depending on the value of the axis parameter.
Raises
NotImplementedError
If input array a is not 2D.
See Also:
mask_rows
mask_cols
Mask cols of a 2D array that contain masked values.
masked_where
Notes
The input arrays mask is modified by this function.
Examples
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
804
Chapter 3. Routines

[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_rowcols(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 -- 0]
[-- -- --]
[0 -- 0]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[ True True True]
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.mask_rows(a, axis=None)
See Also:
mask_rowcols
masked_where
Examples
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_rows(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[-- -- --]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[ True True True]
fill_value=999999)
805
numpy.ma.harden_mask(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820368>

See Also:
hardmask
numpy.ma.soften_mask(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x28207a0>
See Also:
hardmask
See Also:
hardmask
See Also:
hardmask
Parameters
None
Returns
None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2 ], [3, 4]], mask=[0]*4)
>>> x.mask
>>> x.shrink_mask()
>>> x.mask
False
806
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
sharedmask
3.19.6 Conversion operations

> to a masked array
ma.asarray(a[, dtype, order])
ma.asanyarray(a[, dtype])
ma.fix_invalid(a[, mask, copy, fill_value])
ma.masked_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_greater(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_greater_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_inside(x, v1, v2[, copy])
ma.masked_invalid(a[, copy])
ma.masked_less(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_less_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_not_equal(x, value[, copy])
ma.masked_object(x, value[, copy, shrink])
ma.masked_outside(x, v1, v2[, copy])
ma.masked_values(x, value[, rtol, atol, ...])
ma.masked_where(condition, a[, copy])


Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : MaskedArray
See Also:
asanyarray
807
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
If a is a subclass of MaskedArray, its class is conserved. No copy is performed if the input is already an
ndarray.
Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
out : MaskedArray
See Also:
asarray
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
808
Chapter 3. Routines

Parameters
a : array_like
is used.
Returns
b : MaskedArray
Notes
Examples
>>> x
fill_value = 1e+20)
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> fixed.data
array([ 1.00000000e+00, -1.00000000e+00,
1.00000000e+20])
>>> x.data
1.00000000e+20,

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x == value). For floating point arrays, consider
using masked_values(x, value).
See Also:
masked_where
masked_values
809
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)
True],

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x inside the interval [v1,v2] (v1 <= x <= v2). The
See Also:
810
Chapter 3. Routines
masked_where
Notes
Examples
>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
fill_value=1e+20)

fill_value=1e+20)
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = ~(np.isfinite(a)). Any pre-existing mask is
conserved. Only applies to arrays with a dtype where NaNs or infs make sense (i.e. floating point types), but
accepts any array_like object.
See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a[2] = np.NaN
>>> a[3] = np.PINF
>>> a
array([ 0.,
1., NaN, Inf,
4.])
fill_value=1e+20)

See Also:
masked_where
811
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

See Also:
masked_where
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

Parameters
x : array_like
812
Chapter 3. Routines
Array to mask
value : object
Comparison value
Returns
See Also:
masked_where
masked_equal
masked_values
Examples
>>> food = np.array([green_eggs, ham], dtype=object)
>>> # dont eat spoiled food
>>> eat = ma.masked_object(food, green_eggs)
>>> print eat
[-- ham]
>>> # plain ol ham is boring
>>> fresh_food = np.array([cheese, ham, pineapple], dtype=object)
>>> print eat

>>> eat
mask = False,
fill_value=?)

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x outside the interval [v1,v2] (x < v1)|(x > v2). The
See Also:
masked_where
813
Notes
Examples
>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
fill_value=1e+20)
True],

fill_value=1e+20)
True],

masked_equal.
Parameters
x : array_like
Array to mask.
value : float
Masking value.
Returns
See Also:
masked_where
814
Chapter 3. Routines
masked_equal
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 1.1, 2, 1.1, 3])
fill_value=1.1)

1.1
mask = False,
fill_value=1.5)
2.
1.1
3. ],
>>> x
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
fill_value=2)
fill_value=999999)
Return a as an array masked where condition is True. Any masked values of a or condition are also masked in
the output.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to mask.
copy : bool
view.
Returns
See Also:
815
masked_values
masked_equal
masked_not_equal
masked_less_equal
masked_less
masked_greater
masked_inside
masked_outside
masked_invalid
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
fill_value=999999)

>>> b = [a, b, c, d]
fill_value=N/A)

>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
816
Chapter 3. Routines
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([99, 1, 2, 3])

>>> a
fill_value=999999)
>>> b
fill_value=999999)
fill_value=999999)
> to a ndarray
ma.compress_cols(a)
ma.compress_rowcols(x[, axis])
ma.compress_rows(a)
ma.compressed(x)
ma.filled(a[, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.compressed()
ma.MaskedArray.filled([fill_value])

Suppress the rows and/or columns of a 2-D array that contain
numpy.ma.compress_cols(a)
This
is
equivalent
to
see
See Also:
numpy.ma.compress_rowcols(x, axis=None)
Suppress the rows and/or columns of a 2-D array that contain masked values.
The suppression behavior is selected with the axis parameter.
If axis is None, both rows and columns are suppressed.
If axis is 0, only rows are suppressed.
817
If axis is 1 or -1, only columns are suppressed.

Parameters
Axis along which to perform the operation. Default is None.
Returns
The compressed array.
Examples
...
[1, 0, 0],
...
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[-- 1 2]
[-- 4 5]
[6 7 8]],
mask =
[[ True False False]
[ True False False]
>>> np.ma.extras.compress_rowcols(x)
array([[7, 8]])
array([[6, 7, 8]])
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5],
[7, 8]])
numpy.ma.compress_rows(a)
This
is
equivalent
to
see
See Also:
numpy.ma.compressed(x)
This function is equivalent to calling the compressed method of a MaskedArray,
MaskedArray.compressed for details.
see
See Also:
MaskedArray.compressed
Equivalent method.
numpy.ma.filled(a, fill_value=None)
818
Chapter 3. Routines
If a is not a MaskedArray, a itself is returned. If a is a MaskedArray and fill_value is None, fill_value is

set to a.fill_value.
Parameters
a : MaskedArray or array_like
An input object.
Filling value. Default is None.
Returns
a : ndarray
The filled array.
See Also:
compressed
Examples
...
[1, 0, 0],
...
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> x.filled()
array([[999999,
1,
2],
[999999,
4,
5],
[
6,
7,
8]])
Returns
data : ndarray
Notes
Examples
>>> x.compressed()
array([0, 1])
Parameters
Returns
819
Notes
Examples
>>> x.filled()
array([1, 2, -999, 4, -999])
matrix:
>>> x.filled()
matrix([[
1, 999999],
[999999,
4]])
> to another object

ma.MaskedArray.tofile(fid[, sep, format])
ma.MaskedArray.tolist([fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.torecords()
ma.MaskedArray.tostring([fill_value, order])


Raises
NotImplementedError
Parameters
Returns
result : list
820
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> x.tolist()
>>> x.tolist(-999)
[[1, -999, 3], [-999, 5, -999], [7, -999, 9]]
Parameters
None
Returns
record : ndarray
matches self.shape.
Notes
...) will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
Parameters

821

None Same as A.
See Also:
Notes
Examples
>>> x.tostring()
Pickling and unpickling

ma.dump(a, F)
ma.dumps(a)
ma.load(F)
ma.loads(strg)

Wrapper around cPickle.load which accepts either a file-like object
numpy.ma.dump(a, F)
This is a wrapper around cPickle.dump.
Parameters
a : MaskedArray
The array to be pickled.
F : str or file-like object
The file to pickle a to. If a string, the full path to the file.
numpy.ma.dumps(a)
This is a wrapper around cPickle.dumps.
Parameters
a : MaskedArray
The array for which the string representation of the pickle is returned.
numpy.ma.load(F)
Wrapper around cPickle.load which accepts either a file-like object or a filename.
Parameters
F : str or file
The file or file name to load.
See Also:
dump
Pickle an array
822
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
This is different from numpy.load, which does not use cPickle but loads the NumPy binary .npy format.
numpy.ma.loads(strg)
The result of cPickle.loads(strg) is returned.
Parameters
strg : str
The string to load.
See Also:
dumps
Filling a masked array
ma.common_fill_value(a, b)
ma.default_fill_value(obj)
ma.set_fill_value(a, fill_value)
ma.MaskedArray.get_fill_value()
ma.MaskedArray.set_fill_value([value])
ma.MaskedArray.fill_value

Filling value.
numpy.ma.common_fill_value(a, b)
If a.fill_value == b.fill_value, return the fill value, otherwise return None.
Parameters
a, b : MaskedArray
The masked arrays for which to compare fill values.
Returns
fill_value : scalar or None
The common fill value, or None.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=3)
>>> y = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=3)
>>> np.ma.common_fill_value(x, y)
3.0
numpy.ma.default_fill_value(obj)
The default filling value depends on the datatype of the input array or the type of the input scalar:
823
datatype
bool
int
float
complex
object
string
default
True
999999
1.e20
1.e20+0j
?
N/A
Parameters
obj : ndarray, dtype or scalar
The array data-type or scalar for which the default fill value is returned.
Returns
fill_value : scalar
The default fill value.
Examples
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(1)
999999
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(np.array([1.1, 2., np.pi]))
1e+20
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(np.dtype(complex))
(1e+20+0j)
Parameters
Returns
val : scalar
Raises
TypeError
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
set_fill_value
824
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = np.int8()
-128
>>> a = np.int32()
-2147483648

-128
-inf
Parameters
Returns
val : scalar
Raises
TypeError
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
set_fill_value
Examples
>>> a = np.int8()
-128
>>> a = np.int32()
-2147483648
825

-128
-inf
numpy.ma.set_fill_value(a, fill_value)
This function changes the fill value of the masked array a in place. If a is not a masked array, the function
returns silently, without doing anything.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
fill_value : dtype
Filling value. A consistency test is performed to make sure the value is compatible with
the dtype of a.
Returns
None
Nothing returned by this function.
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
Return the default fill value for a dtype.
MaskedArray.set_fill_value
Equivalent method.
Examples
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = ma.masked_where(a < 3, a)
>>> a
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.set_fill_value(a, -999)
>>> a
fill_value=-999)
Nothing happens if a is not a masked array.

>>> a = range(5)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
826
Chapter 3. Routines

>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
Returns
fill_value : scalar
The filling value.
Examples
...
...
999999
999999
1e+20
(1e+20+0j)
-inf
Parameters
is used.
See Also:
ma.set_fill_value
Examples
>>> x.fill_value
-inf
>>> x.fill_value
3.1415926535897931
Reset to default:
>>> x.fill_value
1e+20
827
Filling value.
3.19.7 Masked arrays arithmetics

Arithmetics
ma.anom(self[, axis, dtype])
ma.anomalies(self[, axis, dtype])
ma.average(a[, axis, weights, returned])
ma.conjugate(x[, out])
ma.corrcoef(x[, y, rowvar, bias, ...])
ma.cov(x[, y, rowvar, bias, allow_masked, ddof])
ma.cumsum(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.cumprod(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.mean(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.median(a[, axis, out, overwrite_input])
ma.power(a, b[, third])
ma.prod(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.std(self[, axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ma.sum(self[, axis, dtype, out])
ma.var(self[, axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ma.MaskedArray.anom([axis, dtype])
ma.MaskedArray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.mean([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.prod([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
ma.MaskedArray.sum([axis, dtype, out])
ma.MaskedArray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof])
numpy.ma.anom(self, axis=None, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at

0x2819f38>
Parameters
array as reference.
See Also:
mean
828
Chapter 3. Routines

Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],
numpy.ma.anomalies(self, axis=None, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at

0x2819f38>
Parameters
array as reference.
See Also:
mean
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],
numpy.ma.average(a, axis=None, weights=None, returned=False)

Parameters
a : array_like
Data to be averaged. Masked entries are not taken into account in the computation.
The importance that each element has in the computation of the average. The weights
array can either be 1-D (in which case its length must be the size of a along the given
axis) or of the same shape as a. If weights=None, then all data in a are assumed to
have a weight equal to one. If weights is complex, the imaginary parts are ignored.
829
Flag indicating whether a tuple (result, sum of weights) should be returned

as output (True), or just the result (False). Default is False.
Returns
average, [sum_of_weights] : (tuple of) scalar or MaskedArray
The average along the specified axis. When returned is True, return a tuple with the
average as the first element and the sum of the weights as the second element. The
return type is np.float64 if a is of integer type, otherwise it is of the same type as a. If
returned, sum_of_weights is of the same type as average.
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1., 2., 3., 4.], mask=[False, False, True, True])
>>> np.ma.average(a, weights=[3, 1, 0, 0])
1.25
>>> x = np.ma.arange(6.).reshape(3, 2)
>>> print x
[[ 0. 1.]
[ 2. 3.]
[ 4. 5.]]
>>> avg, sumweights = np.ma.average(x, axis=0, weights=[1, 2, 3],
...
returned=True)
>>> print avg
[2.66666666667 3.66666666667]
numpy.ma.conjugate(x[, out ]) = <numpy.ma.core._MaskedUnaryOperation instance at 0x272bfc8>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input value.
Returns
y : ndarray
Examples
(1-2j)
>>> x = np.eye(2) + 1j * np.eye(2)
>>> np.conjugate(x)
array([[ 1.-1.j, 0.-0.j],
[ 0.-0.j, 1.-1.j]])
numpy.ma.corrcoef(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=False, allow_masked=True, ddof=None)

Except for the handling of missing data this function does the same as numpy.corrcoef. For more details
and examples, see numpy.corrcoef.
Parameters
x : array_like
830
Chapter 3. Routines
see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same shape as x.
Default normalization (False) is by (N-1), where N is the number of observations
given (unbiased estimate). If bias is 1, then normalization is by N. This keyword can be
If True, masked values are propagated pair-wise: if a value is masked in x, the corresponding value is masked in y. If False, raises an exception.
None.
See Also:
numpy.corrcoef
cov
numpy.ma.cov(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=False, allow_masked=True, ddof=None)
Except for the handling of missing data this function does the same as numpy.cov. For more details and
examples, see numpy.cov.
By default, masked values are recognized as such. If x and y have the same shape, a common mask is allocated:
if x[i,j] is masked, then y[i,j] will also be masked. Setting allow_masked to False will raise an exception
if values are missing in either of the input arrays.
Parameters
x : array_like
see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same form as x.
831
Default normalization (False) is by (N-1), where N is the number of observations given
(unbiased estimate). If bias is True, then normalization is by N. This keyword can be
If True, masked values are propagated pair-wise: if a value is masked in x, the corresponding value is masked in y. If False, raises a ValueError exception when some
values are missing.
None.
Raises
ValueError
Raised if some values are missing and allow_masked is False.
See Also:
numpy.cov
numpy.ma.cumsum(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance
at 0x2820200>
Parameters
first axis.
integer is used.
Returns
cumsum : ndarray.
832
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Examples
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]
numpy.ma.cumprod(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820170>

Parameters
Returns
cumprod : ndarray
Notes
numpy.ma.mean(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at
0x2820440>
Parameters
a : array_like
attempted.
833
flattened array.
Returns
See Also:
numpy.ma.mean
numpy.mean
numpy.ma.average
Weighted average.
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5
numpy.ma.median(a, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False)

Parameters
a : array_like
Axis along which the medians are computed. The default (None) is to compute the
834
Chapter 3. Routines
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. Note that, if overwrite_input is True, and
Returns
median : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference to out is returned. Return data-type is float64 for integers and floats smaller than
float64, or the input data-type, otherwise.
See Also:
mean
Notes
Given a vector V with N non masked values, the median of V is the middle value of a sorted copy of V (Vs) - i.e.
Vs[(N-1)/2], when N is odd, or {Vs[N/2 - 1] + Vs[N/2]}/2 when N is even.
Examples
1.5
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(10).reshape(2, 5), mask=[0]*6 + [1]*4)
2.5
>>> np.ma.extras.median(x, axis=-1, overwrite_input=True)
masked_array(data = [ 2. 5.],
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
numpy.ma.power(a, b, third=None)
This is the masked array version of numpy.power. For details see numpy.power.
See Also:
numpy.power
Notes
The out argument to numpy.power is not supported, third has to be None.
numpy.ma.prod(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at
0x2820560>
computation.
Parameters
array elements.
835
Returns
if specified.
See Also:
prod
equivalent function
Notes
Examples
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
2
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])
numpy.ma.std(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820878>

Parameters
a : array_like
836
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
deviation per se.
and nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.5, 0.5])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45172946707416706

0.44999999925552653
837
numpy.ma.sum(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at

0x2820908>
Parameters
Returns
to out is returned.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.sum()
25
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
<type numpy.int64>
numpy.ma.var(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at 0x2820a28>

Parameters
a : array_like
is attempted.
838
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])
839

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20405951142311096

0.20249999932997387
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.20250000000000001
Parameters
array as reference.
See Also:
mean
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.],

Parameters
840
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
cumprod : ndarray
Notes
Parameters
first axis.
integer is used.
Returns
cumsum : ndarray.
Notes
Examples
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]

841
Parameters
a : array_like
attempted.
flattened array.
Returns
See Also:
numpy.ma.mean
numpy.mean
numpy.ma.average
Weighted average.
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5

computation.
Parameters
array elements.
842
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
if specified.
See Also:
prod
equivalent function
Notes
Examples
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
2
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])

Parameters
a : array_like
843

Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
deviation per se.
and nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.5, 0.5])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45172946707416706
844
Chapter 3. Routines

0.44999999925552653

Parameters
Returns
to out is returned.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)
>>> print x
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print x.sum()
25
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
<type numpy.int64>

Parameters
a : array_like
is attempted.
845
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])
846
Chapter 3. Routines

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20405951142311096

0.20249999932997387
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.20250000000000001
Minimum/maximum
ma.argmax(a[, axis, fill_value])
ma.argmin(a[, axis, fill_value])
ma.max(obj[, axis, out, fill_value])
ma.min(obj[, axis, out, fill_value])
ma.ptp(obj[, axis, out, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.argmax([axis, fill_value, out])
ma.MaskedArray.argmin([axis, fill_value, out])
ma.MaskedArray.max([axis, out, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.min([axis, out, fill_value])
ma.MaskedArray.ptp([axis, out, fill_value])

numpy.ma.argmax(a, axis=None, fill_value=None)

numpy.ma.argmin(a, axis=None, fill_value=None)
Parameters

Returns
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
847
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])
numpy.ma.max(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)

Parameters
mum_fill_value().
Returns
amax : array_like
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
numpy.ma.min(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)
Parameters
minimum_fill_value.
Returns
amin : array_like
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
numpy.ma.ptp(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)
848
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
Returns
ptp : ndarray.
out is returned.
Parameters

Returns
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])

Parameters
849

Returns
{ndarray, scalar}
given axis.
Examples
>>> x.shape = (2,2)
>>> print x
[[-- --]
[2 3]]
[0 0]
[1 1]

Parameters
mum_fill_value().
Returns
amax : array_like
See Also:
maximum_fill_value
Parameters
850
Chapter 3. Routines
minimum_fill_value.
Returns
amin : array_like
See Also:
minimum_fill_value
Parameters
Returns
ptp : ndarray.
out is returned.
Sorting
ma.argsort(a[, axis, kind, order, fill_value])
ma.sort(a[, axis, kind, order, endwith, ...])
ma.MaskedArray.argsort([axis, kind, order, ...])
ma.MaskedArray.sort([axis, kind, order, ...])
numpy.ma.argsort(a, axis=None, kind=quicksort, order=None, fill_value=None)

fill_value.
Parameters
used.
851
Value used to fill the array before sorting. The default is the fill_value attribute of the
input array.
Sorting algorithm.
Returns
In other words,
See Also:
sort
lexsort
ndarray.sort
Inplace sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])
numpy.ma.sort(a, axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None, endwith=True, fill_value=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
852
Chapter 3. Routines

endwith.
Returns
See Also:
ndarray.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
Notes
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])
>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print a
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
[--
a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

print a
-- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> print a
[1 -- -- 3 5]

fill_value.
Parameters
used.
853

the input array.
Sorting algorithm.
Returns
In other words,
See Also:
sort
lexsort
ndarray.sort
Inplace sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
854
Chapter 3. Routines
endwith.
Returns
See Also:
ndarray.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
Notes
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])
>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print a
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
[--
a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

print a
-- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> print a
[1 -- -- 3 5]
Algebra
ma.diag(v[, k])

855

ma.dot(a, b[, strict])
ma.identity(n[, dtype])
ma.inner(a, b)
ma.innerproduct(a, b)
ma.outer(a, b)
ma.outerproduct(a, b)
ma.trace(self[, offset, axis1, axis2, ...])
ma.MaskedArray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, ...]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
numpy.ma.diag(v, k=0)
This function is the equivalent of numpy.diag that takes masked values into account, see numpy.diag for
details.
See Also:
numpy.diag
numpy.ma.dot(a, b, strict=False)
Note: Works only with 2-D arrays at the moment.
This function is the equivalent of numpy.dot that takes masked values into account, see numpy.dot for
details.
Parameters
a, b : ndarray
Inputs arrays.
strict : bool, optional
Whether masked data are propagated (True) or set to 0 (False) for the computation.
Default is False. Propagating the mask means that if a masked value appears in a row
or column, the whole row or column is considered masked.
See Also:
numpy.dot
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], mask=[[1, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]])
>>> b = ma.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]], mask=[[1, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]])
>>> np.ma.dot(a, b)
masked_array(data =
[[21 26]
[45 64]],
mask =
[[False False]
856
Chapter 3. Routines
[False False]],
>>> np.ma.dot(a, b, strict=True)
masked_array(data =
[[-- --]
[-- 64]],
mask =
[[ True True]
[ True False]],
numpy.ma.identity(n, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at 0x2820d40>

Parameters
n : int
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples
>>> np.identity(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
numpy.ma.inner(a, b)
Parameters
a, b : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
See Also:
tensordot
857
dot
einsum
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])

array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.ma.innerproduct(a, b)
Parameters
a, b : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
See Also:
tensordot
dot
858
Chapter 3. Routines
einsum
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])

array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.ma.outer(a, b)
is:
[[a0*b0
[a1*b0
[ ...
[aM*b0
a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

.
.
aM*bN ]]
Parameters
a : (M,) array_like
b : (N,) array_like
Returns
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See Also:
inner, einsum
Notes
859
References
[R48]
Examples
>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j],
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j]])
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 1.+2.j, 2.+2.j],
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+1.j, 2.+1.j],
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 1.-1.j, 2.-1.j],
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 1.-2.j, 2.-2.j]])

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
[b, bb, bbb],
numpy.ma.outerproduct(a, b)
is:
[[a0*b0
[a1*b0
[ ...
[aM*b0
a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

.
.
aM*bN ]]
Parameters
a : (M,) array_like
b : (N,) array_like
Returns
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
860
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
inner, einsum
Notes
References
[R49]
Examples
>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j],
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j]])
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 1.+2.j, 2.+2.j],
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+1.j, 2.+1.j],
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 1.-1.j, 2.-1.j],
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 1.-2.j, 2.-2.j]])

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
[b, bb, bbb],
numpy.ma.trace(self, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None) a.trace(offset=0, axis1=0,

axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod instance at
0x28209e0>
See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
861

See Also:
numpy.transpose
Examples
>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[0 1]
[2 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
>>> ma.transpose(x)
masked_array(data =
[[0 2]
[1 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],

See Also:
numpy.trace
equivalent function
i[0]).
Parameters
axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
862
Chapter 3. Routines

See Also:
ndarray.T
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
Polynomial fit
ma.vander(x[, n])
ma.polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w, cov])

numpy.ma.vander(x, n=None)
Parameters
x : array_like
1-D input array.
N : int, optional
Returns
out : ndarray
and so forth.
Notes
Masked values in the input array result in rows of zeros.
863
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])
>>> N = 3
>>> np.vander(x, N)
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])
>>> np.vander(x)
array([[ 1,
1,
1,
1],
[ 8,
4,
2,
1],
[ 27,
9,
3,
1],
[125, 25,
5,
1]])
input vector:
48.000000000000043
>>> (5-3)*(5-2)*(5-1)*(3-2)*(3-1)*(2-1)
48
numpy.ma.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, cov=False)

Parameters
per column.
deg : int
864
Chapter 3. Routines

not returned.
Returns
set are in p[:,k].
linalg.lstsq.
Warns
RankWarning
>>> import warnings
See Also:
polyval
linalg.lstsq
Notes
Any masked values in x is propagated in y, and vice-versa.
References
[R50], [R51]
Examples
>>> x = np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
>>> y = np.array([0.0, 0.8, 0.9, 0.1, -0.8, -1.0])
>>> z = np.polyfit(x, y, 3)
865
>>> z
array([ 0.08703704, -0.81349206,
1.69312169, -0.03968254])

>>> p(0.5)
0.6143849206349179
>>> p(3.5)
-0.34732142857143039
>>> p(10)
22.579365079365115

>>> p30(4)
-0.80000000000000204
>>> p30(5)
-0.99999999999999445
>>> p30(4.5)
-0.10547061179440398
Illustration:

>>> xp = np.linspace(-2, 6, 100)
>>> plt.ylim(-2,2)
(-2, 2)
>>> plt.show()
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Clipping and rounding
866
Chapter 3. Routines
ma.around
ma.clip(a, a_min, a_max[, out])
ma.round(a[, decimals, out])
ma.MaskedArray.clip(a_min, a_max[, out])
ma.MaskedArray.round([decimals, out])

numpy.ma.around = <numpy.ma.core._MaskedUnaryOperation instance at 0x2816440>

See Also:
around
equivalent function
numpy.ma.clip(a, a_min, a_max, out=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Minimum value.
shape of a.
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Examples
>>> np.clip(a, 1, 8)
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
867
array([3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, [3,4,1,1,1,4,4,4,4,4], 8)
array([3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
numpy.ma.round(a, decimals=0, out=None)

When decimals is negative, it specifies the number of positions to the left of the decimal point. The real and
imaginary parts of complex numbers are rounded separately. Nothing is done if the array is not of float type and
decimals is greater than or equal to 0.
Parameters
decimals : int
Number of decimals to round to. May be negative.
out : array_like
Existing array to use for output. If not given, returns a default copy of a.
Notes
If out is given and does not have a mask attribute, the mask of a is lost!
See Also:
numpy.clip
equivalent function
See Also:
numpy.around
equivalent function
Miscellanea
ma.allequal(a, b[, fill_value])
ma.allclose(a, b[, masked_equal, rtol, atol])
ma.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, ...)
ma.arange([start,] stop[, step,][, dtype])
ma.choose(indices, choices[, out, mode])
ma.ediff1d(arr[, to_end, to_begin])
ma.indices(dimensions[, dtype])
ma.where(condition[, x, y])
868
Return True if all entries of a and b are equal, using

Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.ma.allequal(a, b, fill_value=True)
Return True if all entries of a and b are equal, using fill_value as a truth value where either or both are masked.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
fill_value : bool, optional
Whether masked values in a or b are considered equal (True) or not (False).
Returns
y : bool
See Also:
all, any, numpy.ma.allclose
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-7, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> a
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> b = array([1e10, 1e-7, -42.0])
>>> b
array([ 1.00000000e+10,
1.00000000e-07,
>>> ma.allequal(a, b, fill_value=False)
False
>>> ma.allequal(a, b)
True
-4.20000000e+01])
numpy.ma.allclose(a, b, masked_equal=True, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08)

This function is equivalent to allclose except that masked values are treated as equal (default) or unequal,
depending on the masked_equal argument.
Parameters
a, b : array_like
masked_equal : bool, optional
Whether masked values in a and b are considered equal (True) or not (False). They are
considered equal by default.
Relative tolerance. The relative difference is equal to rtol * b. Default is 1e-5.
Absolute tolerance. The absolute difference is equal to atol. Default is 1e-8.
Returns
y : bool
869
See Also:
all, any
numpy.allclose
the non-masked allclose.
Notes
If the following equation is element-wise True, then allclose returns True:
Return True if all elements of a and b are equal subject to given tolerances.
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-7, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> a
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> b = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, -42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
False
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> b = ma.array([1.00001e10, 1e-9, -42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
True
False
Masked values are not compared directly.

>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> b = ma.array([1.00001e10, 1e-9, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
True
False
numpy.ma.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args, **kwargs)

Parameters
func1d : function
specified axis.
axis : integer
arr : ndarray
Input array.
870
Chapter 3. Routines
args : any
Returns
See Also:
apply_over_axes
Examples
>>> def my_func(a):
...
...
return (a[0] + a[-1]) * 0.5
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])
array([ 4., 5., 6.])
array([ 2., 5., 8.])
>>> b = np.array([[8,1,7], [4,3,9], [5,2,6]])
array([[1, 7, 8],
[3, 4, 9],
[2, 5, 6]])
numpy.ma.arange([start ], stop[, step ], dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma instance at

0x2820bd8>
for these cases.
Parameters
stop : number
must also be given.
dtype : dtype
871
input arguments.
Returns
arange : ndarray
See Also:
linspace
ogrid
mgrid
Examples
>>> np.arange(3)
array([0, 1, 2])
>>> np.arange(3.0)
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.arange(3,7)
array([3, 4, 5, 6])
array([3, 5])
numpy.ma.choose(indices, choices, out=None, mode=raise)

Given an array of integers and a set of n choice arrays, this method will create a new array that merges each of
the choice arrays. Where a value in a is i, the new array will have the value that choices[i] contains in the same
place.
Parameters
a : ndarray of ints
This array must contain integers in [0, n-1], where n is the number of choices.
Choice arrays. The index array and all of the choices should be broadcastable to the
same shape.
shape and dtype.
raise : raise an error
wrap : wrap around
872
Chapter 3. Routines
clip : clip to the range

Returns
See Also:
choose
equivalent function
Examples
>>> choice = np.array([[1,1,1], [2,2,2], [3,3,3]])
>>> a = np.array([2, 1, 0])
>>> np.ma.choose(a, choice)
mask = False,
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.ediff1d(arr, to_end=None, to_begin=None)

This function is the equivalent of numpy.ediff1d that takes masked values into account, see
numpy.ediff1d for details.
See Also:
numpy.ediff1d
numpy.ma.indices(dimensions, dtype=<type int>)
Parameters
Returns
grid : ndarray
tuple(dimensions).
See Also:
mgrid, meshgrid
Notes
873
Examples
>>> grid.shape
(2, 2, 3)
>>> grid[0]
# row indices
array([[0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> grid[1]
# column indices
array([[0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2]])

>>> x[row, col]
array([[0, 1, 2],
[4, 5, 6]])
x[:2, :3].
numpy.ma.where(condition, x=None, y=None)
Returns a masked array, shaped like condition, where the elements are from x when condition is True, and from
y otherwise. If neither x nor y are given, the function returns a tuple of indices where condition is True (the
result of condition.nonzero()).
Parameters
The condition to meet. For each True element, yield the corresponding element from x,
otherwise from y.
Values from which to choose. x and y need to have the same shape as condition, or be
broadcast-able to that shape.
Returns
out : MaskedArray or tuple of ndarrays
The resulting masked array if x and y were given, otherwise the result of
condition.nonzero().
See Also:
numpy.where
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(9.).reshape(3, 3), mask=[[0, 1, 0],
...
[1, 0, 1],
...
[0, 1, 0]])
>>> print x
[[0.0 -- 2.0]
[-- 4.0 --]
[6.0 -- 8.0]]
874
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.ma.where(x > 5)

# return the indices where x > 5
(array([2, 2]), array([0, 2]))
>>> print np.ma.where(x > 5, x, -3.1416)
[[-3.1416 -- -3.1416]
[-- -3.1416 --]
[6.0 -- 8.0]]
3.20 Mathematical functions

3.20.1 Trigonometric functions
sin(x[, out])
cos(x[, out])
tan(x[, out])
arcsin(x[, out])
arccos(x[, out])
arctan(x[, out])
hypot(x1, x2[, out])
arctan2(x1, x2[, out])
degrees(x[, out])
radians(x[, out])
unwrap(p[, discont, axis])
deg2rad(x[, out])
rad2deg(x[, out])

Unwrap by changing deltas between values to 2*pi complement.
numpy.sin(x[, out ]) = <ufunc sin>

Parameters
x : array_like
Angle, in radians (2 rad equals 360 degrees).
Returns
y : array_like
The sine of each element of x.
See Also:
arcsin, sinh, cos
Notes
The sine is one of the fundamental functions of trigonometry (the mathematical study of triangles). Consider
a circle of radius 1 centered on the origin. A ray comes in from the +x axis, makes an angle at the origin
(measured counter-clockwise from that axis), and departs from the origin. The y coordinate of the outgoing
rays intersection with the unit circle is the sine of that angle. It ranges from -1 for x = 3/2 to +1 for /2.
The function has zeroes where the angle is a multiple of . Sines of angles between and 2 are negative. The
numerous properties of the sine and related functions are included in any standard trigonometry text.
3.20. Mathematical functions
875
Examples
Print sine of one angle:
>>> np.sin(np.pi/2.)
1.0
Print sines of an array of angles given in degrees:

>>> np.sin(np.array((0., 30., 45., 60., 90.)) * np.pi / 180. )
array([ 0.
, 0.5
, 0.70710678, 0.8660254 , 1.
])
Plot the sine function:

>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
import matplotlib.pylab as plt

x = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, 201)
plt.plot(x, np.sin(x))
plt.xlabel(Angle [rad])
plt.ylabel(sin(x))
plt.axis(tight)
plt.show()
1.0
sin(x)
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0
Angle [rad]
numpy.cos(x[, out ]) = <ufunc cos>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array in radians.
Output array of same shape as x.
Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding cosine values.
Raises
ValueError: invalid return array shape
876
Chapter 3. Routines
if out is provided and out.shape != x.shape (See Examples)

Notes
If out is provided, the function writes the result into it, and returns a reference to out. (See Examples)
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York, NY: Dover, 1972.
Examples
>>> np.cos(np.array([0, np.pi/2, np.pi]))
array([ 1.00000000e+00,
6.12303177e-17, -1.00000000e+00])
>>>
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter
>>> out2 = np.cos([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True
>>>
>>> # Example of ValueError due to provision of shape mis-matched out
>>> np.cos(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.tan(x[, out ]) = <ufunc tan>

Equivalent to np.sin(x)/np.cos(x) element-wise.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding tangent values.
Raises
Notes
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York, NY: Dover, 1972.
Examples
>>> from math import pi
>>> np.tan(np.array([-pi,pi/2,pi]))
array([ 1.22460635e-16,
1.63317787e+16,
-1.22460635e-16])
877
>>>
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter illustrating
>>> # that what is returned is a reference to said parameter
>>> out2 = np.cos([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True
>>>
>>> np.cos(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.arcsin(x[, out ]) = <ufunc arcsin>

Parameters
x : array_like
y-coordinate on the unit circle.
Array of the same shape as x, in which to store the results. See doc.ufuncs (Section
Output arguments) for more details.
Returns
angle : ndarray
The inverse sine of each element in x, in radians and in the closed interval [-pi/2,
pi/2]. If x is a scalar, a scalar is returned, otherwise an array.
See Also:
sin, cos, arccos, tan, arctan, arctan2, emath.arcsin
Notes
arcsin is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that sin(z) = x. The
convention is to return the angle z whose real part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arcsin always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as a
real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, arcsin is a complex analytic function that has, by convention, the branch cuts [-inf,
-1] and [1, inf] and is continuous from above on the former and from below on the latter.
The inverse sine is also known as asin or sin^{-1}.
References
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 10th printing, New York: Dover,
1964, pp. 79ff. http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/
Examples
>>> np.arcsin(1)
1.5707963267948966
>>> np.arcsin(-1)
-1.5707963267948966
>>> np.arcsin(0)
0.0
878
# pi/2
# -pi/2
Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.arccos(x[, out ]) = <ufunc arccos>

The inverse of cos so that, if y = cos(x), then x = arccos(y).
Parameters
x : array_like
x-coordinate on the unit circle. For real arguments, the domain is [-1, 1].
Array of the same shape as a, to store results in. See doc.ufuncs (Section Output
arguments) for more details.
Returns
angle : ndarray
The angle of the ray intersecting the unit circle at the given x-coordinate in radians [0,
pi]. If x is a scalar then a scalar is returned, otherwise an array of the same shape as x is
returned.
See Also:
cos, arctan, arcsin, emath.arccos
Notes
arccos is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that cos(z) = x. The
convention is to return the angle z whose real part lies in [0, pi].
For real-valued input data types, arccos always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
as a real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, arccos is a complex analytic function that has branch cuts [-inf, -1] and [1, inf]
and is continuous from above on the former and from below on the latter.
The inverse cos is also known as acos or cos^-1.
References
M. Abramowitz and I.A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 10th printing, 1964, pp. 79.
http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/
Examples
We expect the arccos of 1 to be 0, and of -1 to be pi:
>>> np.arccos([1, -1])
array([ 0.
, 3.14159265])
Plot arccos:
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

x = np.linspace(-1, 1, num=100)
plt.plot(x, np.arccos(x))
plt.axis(tight)
plt.show()
879
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
numpy.arctan(x[, out ]) = <ufunc arctan>

The inverse of tan, so that if y = tan(x) then x = arctan(y).
Parameters
x : array_like
Input values. arctan is applied to each element of x.
Returns
out : ndarray
Out has the same shape as x. Its real part is in [-pi/2, pi/2] (arctan(+/-inf)
returns +/-pi/2). It is a scalar if x is a scalar.
See Also:
arctan2
The four quadrant arctan of the angle formed by (x, y) and the positive x-axis.
angle
Argument of complex values.
Notes
arctan is a multi-valued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that tan(z) = x. The
convention is to return the angle z whose real part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arctan always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
For complex-valued input, arctan is a complex analytic function that has [1j, infj] and [-1j, -infj] as branch
cuts, and is continuous from the left on the former and from the right on the latter.
The inverse tangent is also known as atan or tan^{-1}.
References
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 10th printing, New York: Dover,
1964, pp. 79. http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/
880
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
We expect the arctan of 0 to be 0, and of 1 to be pi/4:
>>> np.arctan([0, 1])
array([ 0.
, 0.78539816])
>>> np.pi/4
0.78539816339744828
Plot arctan:
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

x = np.linspace(-10, 10)
plt.plot(x, np.arctan(x))
plt.axis(tight)
plt.show()
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
10
10
numpy.hypot(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc hypot>

Equivalent to sqrt(x1**2 + x2**2), element-wise. If x1 or x2 is scalar_like (i.e., unambiguously castable to a scalar type), it is broadcast for use with each element of the other argument. (See Examples)
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Leg of the triangle(s).
Returns
z : ndarray
The hypotenuse of the triangle(s).
881
Examples
>>> np.hypot(3*np.ones((3, 3)), 4*np.ones((3, 3)))
array([[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.]])
Example showing broadcast of scalar_like argument:

>>> np.hypot(3*np.ones((3, 3)), [4])
array([[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.]])
numpy.arctan2(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc arctan2>

The quadrant (i.e., branch) is chosen so that arctan2(x1, x2) is the signed angle in radians between the
ray ending at the origin and passing through the point (1,0), and the ray ending at the origin and passing through
the point (x2, x1). (Note the role reversal: the y-coordinate is the first function parameter, the x-coordinate
is the second.) By IEEE convention, this function is defined for x2 = +/-0 and for either or both of x1 and x2 =
+/-inf (see Notes for specific values).
This function is not defined for complex-valued arguments; for the so-called argument of complex values, use
angle.
Parameters
x1 : array_like, real-valued
y-coordinates.
x2 : array_like, real-valued
x-coordinates. x2 must be broadcastable to match the shape of x1 or vice versa.
Returns
angle : ndarray
Array of angles in radians, in the range [-pi, pi].
See Also:
arctan, tan, angle
Notes
arctan2 is identical to the atan2 function of the underlying C library. The following special values are defined
in the C standard: [R6]
x1
+/- 0
+/- 0
>0
<0
+/-inf
+/-inf
x2
+0
-0
+/-inf
+/-inf
+inf
-inf
arctan2(x1,x2)
+/- 0
+/- pi
+0 / +pi
-0 / -pi
+/- (pi/4)
+/- (3*pi/4)
Note that +0 and -0 are distinct floating point numbers, as are +inf and -inf.
References
[R6]
882
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
Consider four points in different quadrants:
>>> x = np.array([-1, +1, +1, -1])
>>> y = np.array([-1, -1, +1, +1])
>>> np.arctan2(y, x) * 180 / np.pi
array([-135., -45.,
45., 135.])
Note the order of the parameters. arctan2 is defined also when x2 = 0 and at several other special points,
obtaining values in the range [-pi, pi]:
>>> np.arctan2([1., -1.], [0., 0.])
array([ 1.57079633, -1.57079633])
>>> np.arctan2([0., 0., np.inf], [+0., -0., np.inf])
array([ 0.
, 3.14159265, 0.78539816])
numpy.degrees(x[, out ]) = <ufunc degrees>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array in radians.
Returns
y : ndarray of floats
The corresponding degree values; if out was supplied this is a reference to it.
See Also:
rad2deg
equivalent function
Examples
Convert a radian array to degrees
>>> rad = np.arange(12.)*np.pi/6
>>> np.degrees(rad)
array([
0.,
30.,
60.,
90.,
270., 300., 330.])
120.,
150.,
180.,
210.,
240.,
>>> out = np.zeros((rad.shape))

>>> r = degrees(rad, out)
>>> np.all(r == out)
True
numpy.radians(x[, out ]) = <ufunc radians>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array in degrees.
883

Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding radian values.
See Also:
deg2rad
equivalent function
Examples
Convert a degree array to radians
>>> deg = np.arange(12.) * 30.
>>> np.radians(deg)
array([ 0.
, 0.52359878, 1.04719755,
2.61799388, 3.14159265, 3.66519143,
5.23598776, 5.75958653])
1.57079633,
4.1887902 ,
2.0943951 ,
4.71238898,
>>> out = np.zeros((deg.shape))

>>> ret = np.radians(deg, out)
>>> ret is out
True
numpy.unwrap(p, discont=3.141592653589793, axis=-1)

Unwrap by changing deltas between values to 2*pi complement.
Unwrap radian phase p by changing absolute jumps greater than discont to their 2*pi complement along the
given axis.
Parameters
p : array_like
Input array.
discont : float, optional
Maximum discontinuity between values, default is pi.
Axis along which unwrap will operate, default is the last axis.
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array.
See Also:
rad2deg, deg2rad
Notes
If the discontinuity in p is smaller than pi, but larger than discont, no unwrapping is done because taking the
2*pi complement would only make the discontinuity larger.
Examples
884
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> phase = np.linspace(0, np.pi, num=5)

>>> phase[3:] += np.pi
>>> phase
array([ 0.
, 0.78539816, 1.57079633, 5.49778714,
>>> np.unwrap(phase)
array([ 0.
, 0.78539816, 1.57079633, -0.78539816,
6.28318531])
0.
])
numpy.deg2rad(x[, out ]) = <ufunc deg2rad>

Parameters
x : array_like
Angles in degrees.
Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding angle in radians.
See Also:
rad2deg
unwrap
Remove large jumps in angle by wrapping.
Notes
New in version 1.3.0. deg2rad(x) is x * pi / 180.
Examples
>>> np.deg2rad(180)
3.1415926535897931
numpy.rad2deg(x[, out ]) = <ufunc rad2deg>

Parameters
x : array_like
Angle in radians.
Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding angle in degrees.
See Also:
deg2rad
unwrap
Remove large jumps in angle by wrapping.
885
Notes
New in version 1.3.0. rad2deg(x) is 180 * x / pi.
Examples
>>> np.rad2deg(np.pi/2)
90.0
3.20.2 Hyperbolic functions

sinh(x[, out])
cosh(x[, out])
tanh(x[, out])
arcsinh(x[, out])
arccosh(x[, out])
arctanh(x[, out])

numpy.sinh(x[, out ]) = <ufunc sinh>

Equivalent to 1/2 * (np.exp(x) - np.exp(-x)) or -1j * np.sin(1j*x).
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding hyperbolic sine values.
Raises
Notes
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York, NY: Dover, 1972, pg. 83.
Examples
>>> np.sinh(0)
0.0
>>> np.sinh(np.pi*1j/2)
1j
>>> np.sinh(np.pi*1j) # (exact value is 0)
1.2246063538223773e-016j
>>> # Discrepancy due to vagaries of floating point arithmetic.
886
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter

>>> out2 = np.sinh([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True
>>> np.sinh(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.cosh(x[, out ]) = <ufunc cosh>

Equivalent to 1/2 * (np.exp(x) + np.exp(-x)) and np.cos(1j*x).
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples
>>> np.cosh(0)
1.0
The hyperbolic cosine describes the shape of a hanging cable:

>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 1000)
plt.plot(x, np.cosh(x))
plt.show()
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
numpy.tanh(x[, out ]) = <ufunc tanh>

887
Equivalent to np.sinh(x)/np.cosh(x) or -1j * np.tan(1j*x).

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
y : ndarray
The corresponding hyperbolic tangent values.
Raises
Notes
References
[R246], [R247]
Examples
>>> np.tanh((0, np.pi*1j, np.pi*1j/2))
array([ 0. +0.00000000e+00j, 0. -1.22460635e-16j,
0. +1.63317787e+16j])
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter illustrating

>>> # that what is returned is a reference to said parameter
>>> out2 = np.tanh([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True
>>> np.tanh(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.arcsinh(x[, out ]) = <ufunc arcsinh>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of of the same shape as x.
888
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
arcsinh is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that sinh(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arcsinh always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
as a real number or infinity, it returns nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, arccos is a complex analytical function that has branch cuts [1j, infj] and [-1j,
-infj] and is continuous from the right on the former and from the left on the latter.
The inverse hyperbolic sine is also known as asinh or sinh^-1.
References
[R4], [R5]
Examples
>>> np.arcsinh(np.array([np.e, 10.0]))
array([ 1.72538256, 2.99822295])
numpy.arccosh(x[, out ]) = <ufunc arccosh>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Array of the same shape as x, to store results in. See doc.ufuncs (Section Output
arguments) for details.
Returns
arccosh : ndarray
Array of the same shape as x.
See Also:
cosh, arcsinh, sinh, arctanh, tanh
Notes
arccosh is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that cosh(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi, pi] and the real part in [0, inf].
For real-valued input data types, arccosh always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
For complex-valued input, arccosh is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 1] and is
continuous from above on it.
References
[R2], [R3]
Examples
>>> np.arccosh([np.e, 10.0])
array([ 1.65745445, 2.99322285])
889
>>> np.arccosh(1)
0.0
numpy.arctanh(x[, out ]) = <ufunc arctanh>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of the same shape as x.
See Also:
emath.arctanh
Notes
arctanh is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that tanh(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arctanh always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
For complex-valued input, arctanh is a complex analytical function that has branch cuts [-1, -inf] and [1, inf]
and is continuous from above on the former and from below on the latter.
The inverse hyperbolic tangent is also known as atanh or tanh^-1.
References
[R7], [R8]
Examples
>>> np.arctanh([0, -0.5])
array([ 0.
, -0.54930614])
3.20.3 Rounding
around(a[, decimals, out])
round_(a[, decimals, out])
rint(x[, out])
fix(x[, y])
floor(x[, out])
ceil(x[, out])
trunc(x[, out])
Evenly round to the given number of decimals.

Round to nearest integer towards zero.
numpy.around(a, decimals=0, out=None)

Evenly round to the given number of decimals.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
890
Chapter 3. Routines
decimals : int, optional

Number of decimal places to round to (default: 0). If decimals is negative, it specifies
the number of positions to the left of the decimal point.
Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape as
the expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if necessary. See
doc.ufuncs (Section Output arguments) for details.
Returns
rounded_array : ndarray
An array of the same type as a, containing the rounded values. Unless out was specified,
a new array is created. A reference to the result is returned.
The real and imaginary parts of complex numbers are rounded separately. The result of
rounding a float is a float.
See Also:
ndarray.round
equivalent method
ceil, fix, floor, rint, trunc
Notes
For values exactly halfway between rounded decimal values, Numpy rounds to the nearest even value. Thus
1.5 and 2.5 round to 2.0, -0.5 and 0.5 round to 0.0, etc. Results may also be surprising due to the inexact
representation of decimal fractions in the IEEE floating point standard [R9] and errors introduced when scaling
by powers of ten.
References
[R9], [R10]
Examples
>>> np.around([0.37, 1.64])
array([ 0., 2.])
>>> np.around([0.37, 1.64], decimals=1)
array([ 0.4, 1.6])
>>> np.around([.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5]) # rounds to nearest even value
array([ 0., 2., 2., 4., 4.])
>>> np.around([1,2,3,11], decimals=1) # ndarray of ints is returned
array([ 1, 2, 3, 11])
>>> np.around([1,2,3,11], decimals=-1)
array([ 0, 0, 0, 10])
numpy.round_(a, decimals=0, out=None)

See Also:
around
equivalent function
891
numpy.rint(x[, out ]) = <ufunc rint>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : {ndarray, scalar}
Output array is same shape and type as x.
See Also:
ceil, floor, trunc
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])
>>> np.rint(a)
array([-2., -2., -0., 0., 2., 2., 2.])
numpy.fix(x, y=None)
Round to nearest integer towards zero.
Round an array of floats element-wise to nearest integer towards zero. The rounded values are returned as floats.
Parameters
x : array_like
An array of floats to be rounded
y : ndarray, optional
Output array
Returns
out : ndarray of floats
The array of rounded numbers
See Also:
trunc, floor, ceil
around
Round to given number of decimals
Examples
>>> np.fix(3.14)
3.0
>>> np.fix(3)
3.0
>>> np.fix([2.1, 2.9, -2.1, -2.9])
array([ 2., 2., -2., -2.])
numpy.floor(x[, out ]) = <ufunc floor>

The floor of the scalar x is the largest integer i, such that i <= x. It is often denoted as bxc.
Parameters
x : array_like
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Chapter 3. Routines
Input data.
Returns
y : {ndarray, scalar}
The floor of each element in x.
See Also:
ceil, trunc, rint
Notes
Some spreadsheet programs calculate the floor-towards-zero, in other words floor(-2.5) == -2.
NumPy instead uses the definition of floor where floor(-2.5) == -3.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])
>>> np.floor(a)
array([-2., -2., -1., 0., 1., 1., 2.])
numpy.ceil(x[, out ]) = <ufunc ceil>

The ceil of the scalar x is the smallest integer i, such that i >= x. It is often denoted as dxe.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input data.
Returns
The ceiling of each element in x, with float dtype.
See Also:
floor, trunc, rint
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])
>>> np.ceil(a)
array([-1., -1., -0., 1., 2., 2., 2.])
numpy.trunc(x[, out ]) = <ufunc trunc>

The truncated value of the scalar x is the nearest integer i which is closer to zero than x is. In short, the fractional
part of the signed number x is discarded.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input data.
Returns
The truncated value of each element in x.
893
See Also:
ceil, floor, rint
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])
>>> np.trunc(a)
array([-1., -1., -0., 0., 1., 1., 2.])
3.20.4 Sums, products, differences

prod(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims])
sum(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims])
nansum(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims])
cumprod(a[, axis, dtype, out])
cumsum(a[, axis, dtype, out])
diff(a[, n, axis])
ediff1d(ary[, to_end, to_begin])
gradient(f, *varargs)
cross(a, b[, axisa, axisb, axisc, axis])
trapz(y[, x, dx, axis])
Return the product of array elements over a given axis.

Sum of array elements over a given axis.
Return the sum of array elements over a given axis treating Not a
Return the cumulative product of elements along a given axis.
Return the cumulative sum of the elements along a given axis.
Calculate the n-th order discrete difference along given axis.
The differences between consecutive elements of an array.
Return the gradient of an N-dimensional array.
Return the cross product of two (arrays of) vectors.
Integrate along the given axis using the composite trapezoidal rule.
numpy.prod(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the product of array elements over a given axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Axis or axes along which a product is performed. The default (axis = None) is perform
a product over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be negative, in which case
it counts from the last to the first axis. New in version 1.7.0. If this is a tuple of ints, a
product is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis or all the axes as before.
The data-type of the returned array, as well as of the accumulator in which the elements
are multiplied. By default, if a is of integer type, dtype is the default platform integer.
(Note: if the type of a is unsigned, then so is dtype.) Otherwise, the dtype is the same
as that of a.
expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if necessary.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
product_along_axis : ndarray, see dtype parameter above.
An array shaped as a but with the specified axis removed. Returns a reference to out if
specified.
See Also:
ndarray.prod
equivalent method
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
Arithmetic is modular when using integer types, and no error is raised on overflow. That means that, on a 32-bit
platform:
>>> x = np.array([536870910, 536870910, 536870910, 536870910])
>>> np.prod(x) #random
16
Examples
By default, calculate the product of all elements:
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
Even when the input array is two-dimensional:

>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
But we can also specify the axis over which to multiply:

>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)
array([ 2., 12.])
If the type of x is unsigned, then the output type is the unsigned platform integer:
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.uint8)
>>> np.prod(x).dtype == np.uint
True
If x is of a signed integer type, then the output type is the default platform integer:
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
>>> np.prod(x).dtype == np.int
True
numpy.sum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Sum of array elements over a given axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Elements to sum.
895
Axis or axes along which a sum is performed. The default (axis = None) is perform a
sum over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be negative, in which case it
counts from the last to the first axis. New in version 1.7.0. If this is a tuple of ints, a
sum is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis or all the axes as before.
The type of the returned array and of the accumulator in which the elements are
summed. By default, the dtype of a is used. An exception is when a has an integer
type with less precision than the default platform integer. In that case, the default platform integer is used instead.
Array into which the output is placed. By default, a new array is created. If out is
given, it must be of the appropriate shape (the shape of a with axis removed, i.e.,
numpy.delete(a.shape, axis)). Its type is preserved. See doc.ufuncs
(Section Output arguments) for more details.
Returns
sum_along_axis : ndarray
An array with the same shape as a, with the specified axis removed. If a is a 0-d array,
or if axis is None, a scalar is returned. If an output array is specified, a reference to out
is returned.
See Also:
ndarray.sum
Equivalent method.
cumsum
Cumulative sum of array elements.
trapz
Integration of array values using the composite trapezoidal rule.
mean, average
Notes
Examples
>>> np.sum([0.5, 1.5])
2.0
>>> np.sum([0.5, 0.7, 0.2, 1.5], dtype=np.int32)
1
>>> np.sum([[0, 1], [0, 5]])
6
>>> np.sum([[0, 1], [0, 5]], axis=0)
array([0, 6])
>>> np.sum([[0, 1], [0, 5]], axis=1)
array([1, 5])
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Chapter 3. Routines
If the accumulator is too small, overflow occurs:

>>> np.ones(128, dtype=np.int8).sum(dtype=np.int8)
-128
numpy.nansum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=0)

Return the sum of array elements over a given axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as zero.
FutureWarning: In Numpy versions <= 1.8 Nan is returned for slices that are all-NaN or empty. In later versions
zero will be returned.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing numbers whose sum is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion is
attempted.
Axis along which the sum is computed. The default is to compute the sum of the
flattened array.
The type of the returned array and of the accumulator in which the elements are
summed. By default, the dtype of a is used. An exception is when a has an integer
type with less precision than the platform (u)intp. In that case, the default will be either
(u)int32 or (u)int64 depending on whether the platform is 32 or 64 bits. For inexact
inputs, dtype must be inexact. New in version 1.8.0.
Alternate output array in which to place the result. The default is None. If provided, it
must have the same shape as the expected output, but the type will be cast if necessary.
See doc.ufuncs for details. The casting of NaN to integer can yield unexpected
results. New in version 1.8.0.
If True, the axes which are reduced are left in the result as dimensions with size one.
With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original arr. New in
version 1.8.0.
Returns
y : ndarray or numpy scalar
See Also:
numpy.sum
Sum across array propagating NaNs.
isnan
Show which elements are NaN.
isfinite
Show which elements are not NaN or +/-inf.
Notes
If both positive and negative infinity are present, the sum will be Not A Number (NaN).
Numpy integer arithmetic is modular. If the size of a sum exceeds the size of an integer accumulator, its value
will wrap around and the result will be incorrect. Specifying dtype=double can alleviate that problem.
897
Examples
>>> np.nansum(1)
1
>>> np.nansum([1])
1
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan])
1.0
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [1, np.nan]])
>>> np.nansum(a)
3.0
>>> np.nansum(a, axis=0)
array([ 2., 1.])
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan, np.inf])
inf
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan, np.NINF])
-inf
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan, np.inf, -np.inf]) # both +/- infinity present
nan
numpy.cumprod(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative product of elements along a given axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Axis along which the cumulative product is computed. By default the input is flattened.
Type of the returned array, as well as of the accumulator in which the elements are
multiplied. If dtype is not specified, it defaults to the dtype of a, unless a has an integer
dtype with a precision less than that of the default platform integer. In that case, the
default platform integer is used instead.
buffer length as the expected output but the type of the resulting values will be cast if
necessary.
Returns
cumprod : ndarray
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> np.cumprod(a) # intermediate results 1, 1*2
...
# total product 1*2*3 = 6
array([1, 2, 6])
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.cumprod(a, dtype=float) # specify type of output
array([
1.,
2.,
6.,
24., 120., 720.])
The cumulative product for each column (i.e., over the rows) of a:
>>> np.cumprod(a, axis=0)
array([[ 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 10, 18]])
The cumulative product for each row (i.e. over the columns) of a:
>>> np.cumprod(a,axis=1)
array([[ 1,
2,
6],
[ 4, 20, 120]])
numpy.cumsum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative sum of the elements along a given axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Axis along which the cumulative sum is computed. The default (None) is to compute
the cumsum over the flattened array.
integer is used.
Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape
and buffer length as the expected output but the type will be cast if necessary. See
doc.ufuncs (Section Output arguments) for more details.
Returns
cumsum_along_axis : ndarray.
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference to out is returned. The result has the same size as a, and the same shape as a if
axis is not None or a is a 1-d array.
See Also:
sum
Sum array elements.
trapz
Integration of array values using the composite trapezoidal rule.
899
diff
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])
>>> a
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.cumsum(a)
array([ 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21])
>>> np.cumsum(a, dtype=float)
# specifies type of output value(s)
array([ 1.,
3.,
6., 10., 15., 21.])
>>> np.cumsum(a,axis=0)
array([[1, 2, 3],
[5, 7, 9]])
>>> np.cumsum(a,axis=1)
array([[ 1, 3, 6],
[ 4, 9, 15]])
# sum over rows for each of the 3 columns
# sum over columns for each of the 2 rows
numpy.diff(a, n=1, axis=-1)

The first order difference is given by out[n] = a[n+1] - a[n] along the given axis, higher order differences are calculated by using diff recursively.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array
n : int, optional
The number of times values are differenced.
The axis along which the difference is taken, default is the last axis.
Returns
diff : ndarray
The n order differences. The shape of the output is the same as a except along axis
where the dimension is smaller by n.
See Also:
gradient, ediff1d, cumsum
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 4, 7, 0])
>>> np.diff(x)
array([ 1, 2, 3, -7])
>>> np.diff(x, n=2)
array([ 1,
1, -10])
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> x = np.array([[1, 3, 6, 10], [0, 5, 6, 8]])

>>> np.diff(x)
array([[2, 3, 4],
[5, 1, 2]])
>>> np.diff(x, axis=0)
array([[-1, 2, 0, -2]])
numpy.ediff1d(ary, to_end=None, to_begin=None)

The differences between consecutive elements of an array.
Parameters
ary : array_like
If necessary, will be flattened before the differences are taken.
to_end : array_like, optional
Number(s) to append at the end of the returned differences.
to_begin : array_like, optional
Number(s) to prepend at the beginning of the returned differences.
Returns
ediff1d : ndarray
The differences. Loosely, this is ary.flat[1:]
- ary.flat[:-1].
See Also:
diff, gradient
Notes
When applied to masked arrays, this function drops the mask information if the to_begin and/or to_end parameters are used.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 4, 7, 0])
>>> np.ediff1d(x)
array([ 1, 2, 3, -7])
>>> np.ediff1d(x, to_begin=-99, to_end=np.array([88, 99]))
array([-99,
1,
2,
3, -7, 88, 99])
The returned array is always 1D.

>>> y = [[1, 2, 4], [1, 6, 24]]
>>> np.ediff1d(y)
array([ 1, 2, -3, 5, 18])
numpy.gradient(f, *varargs)
Return the gradient of an N-dimensional array.
The gradient is computed using central differences in the interior and first differences at the boundaries. The
returned gradient hence has the same shape as the input array.
Parameters
f : array_like
An N-dimensional array containing samples of a scalar function.
*varargs : scalars
901
0, 1, or N scalars specifying the sample distances in each direction, that is: dx, dy, dz,
... The default distance is 1.
Returns
gradient : ndarray
N arrays of the same shape as f giving the derivative of f with respect to each dimension.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16], dtype=np.float)
>>> np.gradient(x)
array([ 1. , 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5. ])
>>> np.gradient(x, 2)
array([ 0.5 , 0.75, 1.25, 1.75, 2.25, 2.5 ])
>>> np.gradient(np.array([[1, 2, 6], [3, 4, 5]], dtype=np.float))
[array([[ 2., 2., -1.],
[ 2., 2., -1.]]),
array([[ 1. , 2.5, 4. ],
[ 1. , 1. , 1. ]])]
numpy.cross(a, b, axisa=-1, axisb=-1, axisc=-1, axis=None)

Return the cross product of two (arrays of) vectors.
The cross product of a and b in R3 is a vector perpendicular to both a and b. If a and b are arrays of vectors,
the vectors are defined by the last axis of a and b by default, and these axes can have dimensions 2 or 3. Where
the dimension of either a or b is 2, the third component of the input vector is assumed to be zero and the cross
product calculated accordingly. In cases where both input vectors have dimension 2, the z-component of the
cross product is returned.
Parameters
a : array_like
Components of the first vector(s).
b : array_like
Components of the second vector(s).
axisa : int, optional
Axis of a that defines the vector(s). By default, the last axis.
axisb : int, optional
Axis of b that defines the vector(s). By default, the last axis.
axisc : int, optional
Axis of c containing the cross product vector(s). By default, the last axis.
If defined, the axis of a, b and c that defines the vector(s) and cross product(s). Overrides
axisa, axisb and axisc.
Returns
c : ndarray
Vector cross product(s).
Raises
ValueError
902
Chapter 3. Routines
When the dimension of the vector(s) in a and/or b does not equal 2 or 3.

See Also:
inner
Inner product
outer
Outer product.
ix_
Construct index arrays.
Examples
Vector cross-product.
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([-3, 6, -3])
One vector with dimension 2.

>>> x = [1, 2]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([12, -6, -3])
Equivalently:
>>> x = [1, 2, 0]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([12, -6, -3])
Both vectors with dimension 2.

>>> x = [1,2]
>>> y = [4,5]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
-3
Multiple vector cross-products. Note that the direction of the cross product vector is defined by the right-hand
rule.
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])
>>> y = np.array([[4,5,6], [1,2,3]])
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([[-3, 6, -3],
[ 3, -6, 3]])
The orientation of c can be changed using the axisc keyword.

>>> np.cross(x, y, axisc=0)
array([[-3, 3],
[ 6, -6],
[-3, 3]])
Change the vector definition of x and y using axisa and axisb.
903
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7, 8, 9]])

>>> y = np.array([[7, 8, 9], [4,5,6], [1,2,3]])
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([[ -6, 12, -6],
[ 0,
0,
0],
[ 6, -12,
6]])
>>> np.cross(x, y, axisa=0, axisb=0)
array([[-24, 48, -24],
[-30, 60, -30],
[-36, 72, -36]])
numpy.trapz(y, x=None, dx=1.0, axis=-1)

Integrate along the given axis using the composite trapezoidal rule.
Integrate y (x) along given axis.
Parameters
y : array_like
Input array to integrate.
x : array_like, optional
If x is None, then spacing between all y elements is dx.
dx : scalar, optional
If x is None, spacing given by dx is assumed. Default is 1.
Specify the axis.
Returns
trapz : float
Definite integral as approximated by trapezoidal rule.
See Also:
sum, cumsum
Notes
Image [R249] illustrates trapezoidal rule y-axis locations of points will be taken from y array, by default x-axis
distances between points will be 1.0, alternatively they can be provided with x array or with dx scalar. Return
value will be equal to combined area under the red lines.
References
[R248], [R249]
Examples
>>> np.trapz([1,2,3])
4.0
>>> np.trapz([1,2,3], x=[4,6,8])
8.0
>>> np.trapz([1,2,3], dx=2)
8.0
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
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Chapter 3. Routines
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.trapz(a, axis=0)
array([ 1.5, 2.5, 3.5])
>>> np.trapz(a, axis=1)
array([ 2., 8.])
3.20.5 Exponents and logarithms

exp(x[, out])
expm1(x[, out])
exp2(x[, out])
log(x[, out])
log10(x[, out])
log2(x[, out])
log1p(x[, out])
logaddexp(x1, x2[, out])
logaddexp2(x1, x2[, out])

numpy.exp(x[, out ]) = <ufunc exp>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array, element-wise exponential of x.
See Also:
expm1
exp2
Calculate 2**x for all elements in the array.
Notes
The irrational number e is also known as Eulers number. It is approximately 2.718281, and is the base of the
natural logarithm, ln (this means that, if x = ln y = loge y, then ex = y. For real input, exp(x) is always
positive.
For complex arguments, x = a + ib, we can write ex = ea eib . The first term, ea , is already known (it is
the real argument, described above). The second term, eib , is cos b + i sin b, a function with magnitude 1 and a
periodic phase.
References
[R18], [R19]
Examples
Plot the magnitude and phase of exp(x) in the complex plane:
905

>>> x = np.linspace(-2*np.pi, 2*np.pi, 100)
>>> xx = x + 1j * x[:, np.newaxis] # a + ib over complex plane
>>> out = np.exp(xx)
>>> plt.subplot(121)
>>> plt.imshow(np.abs(out),
...
extent=[-2*np.pi, 2*np.pi, -2*np.pi, 2*np.pi])
>>> plt.title(Magnitude of exp(x))
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
>>>
plt.subplot(122)
plt.imshow(np.angle(out),
extent=[-2*np.pi, 2*np.pi, -2*np.pi, 2*np.pi])
plt.title(Phase (angle) of exp(x))
plt.show()
Magnitude of exp(x)
6
4
2 0
Phase (angle) of exp(x)
2 0
numpy.expm1(x[, out ]) = <ufunc expm1>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
Returns
out : ndarray
Element-wise exponential minus one: out = exp(x) - 1.
See Also:
log1p
log(1 + x), the inverse of expm1.
Notes
This function provides greater precision than exp(x) - 1 for small values of x.
906
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
The true value of exp(1e-10) - 1 is 1.00000000005e-10 to about 32 significant digits. This example
shows the superiority of expm1 in this case.
>>> np.expm1(1e-10)
1.00000000005e-10
>>> np.exp(1e-10) - 1
1.000000082740371e-10
numpy.exp2(x[, out ]) = <ufunc exp2>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
Array to insert results into.
Returns
out : ndarray
Element-wise 2 to the power x.
See Also:
power
Notes
Examples
>>> np.exp2([2, 3])
array([ 4., 8.])
numpy.log(x[, out ]) = <ufunc log>

The natural logarithm log is the inverse of the exponential function, so that log(exp(x)) = x. The natural
logarithm is logarithm in base e.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input value.
Returns
y : ndarray
The natural logarithm of x, element-wise.
See Also:
log10, log2, log1p, emath.log
Notes
Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that exp(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi, pi].
907
For real-valued input data types, log always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as a
For complex-valued input, log is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 0] and is continuous
from above on it. log handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number, conforming
to the C99 standard.
References
[R42], [R43]
Examples
>>> np.log([1, np.e, np.e**2, 0])
array([ 0.,
1.,
2., -Inf])
numpy.log10(x[, out ]) = <ufunc log10>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
Returns
y : ndarray
The logarithm to the base 10 of x, element-wise. NaNs are returned where x is negative.
See Also:
emath.log10
Notes
Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that 10**z = x. The
For real-valued input data types, log10 always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as
a real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, log10 is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 0] and is continuous from above on it. log10 handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number,
conforming to the C99 standard.
References
[R44], [R45]
Examples
>>> np.log10([1e-15, -3.])
array([-15., NaN])
numpy.log2(x[, out ]) = <ufunc log2>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
y : ndarray
See Also:
log, log10, log1p, emath.log2
Notes
New in version 1.3.0. Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that
2**z = x. The convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi, pi].
For real-valued input data types, log2 always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as a
For complex-valued input, log2 is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 0] and is continuous
from above on it. log2 handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number, conforming
to the C99 standard.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 2**4])
>>> np.log2(x)
array([-Inf,
0.,
1.,
4.])
>>> xi = np.array([0+1.j, 1, 2+0.j, 4.j])
>>> np.log2(xi)
array([ 0.+2.26618007j, 0.+0.j
, 1.+0.j
2.+2.26618007j])
numpy.log1p(x[, out ]) = <ufunc log1p>

Calculates log(1 + x).
Parameters
x : array_like
Input values.
Returns
y : ndarray
Natural logarithm of 1 + x, element-wise.
See Also:
expm1
exp(x) - 1, the inverse of log1p.
Notes
For real-valued input, log1p is accurate also for x so small that 1 + x == 1 in floating-point accuracy.
Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that exp(z) = 1 + x. The
For real-valued input data types, log1p always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as
a real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
909
For complex-valued input, log1p is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, -1] and is continuous from above on it. log1p handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number,
conforming to the C99 standard.
References
[R46], [R47]
Examples
>>> np.log1p(1e-99)
1e-99
>>> np.log(1 + 1e-99)
0.0
numpy.logaddexp(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc logaddexp>

Calculates log(exp(x1) + exp(x2)). This function is useful in statistics where the calculated probabilities of events may be so small as to exceed the range of normal floating point numbers. In such cases the
logarithm of the calculated probability is stored. This function allows adding probabilities stored in such a
fashion.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Input values.
Returns
result : ndarray
Logarithm of exp(x1) + exp(x2).
See Also:
logaddexp2
Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of inputs in base 2.
Notes
Examples
>>> prob1 = np.log(1e-50)
>>> prob2 = np.log(2.5e-50)
>>> prob12 = np.logaddexp(prob1, prob2)
>>> prob12
-113.87649168120691
>>> np.exp(prob12)
3.5000000000000057e-50
numpy.logaddexp2(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc logaddexp2>

Calculates log2(2**x1 + 2**x2). This function is useful in machine learning when the calculated probabilities of events may be so small as to exceed the range of normal floating point numbers. In such cases the
base-2 logarithm of the calculated probability can be used instead. This function allows adding probabilities
stored in such a fashion.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
910
Chapter 3. Routines
Input values.
Array to store results in.
Returns
result : ndarray
Base-2 logarithm of 2**x1 + 2**x2.
See Also:
logaddexp
Notes
Examples
>>> prob1 = np.log2(1e-50)
>>> prob2 = np.log2(2.5e-50)
>>> prob12 = np.logaddexp2(prob1, prob2)
>>> prob1, prob2, prob12
(-166.09640474436813, -164.77447664948076, -164.28904982231052)
>>> 2**prob12
3.4999999999999914e-50
3.20.6 Other special functions

i0(x)
sinc(x)

Return the sinc function.
numpy.i0(x)
Usually denoted I0 . This function does broadcast, but will not up-cast int dtype arguments unless accompanied by at least one float or complex dtype argument (see Raises below).
Parameters
x : array_like, dtype float or complex
Argument of the Bessel function.
Returns
out : ndarray, shape = x.shape, dtype = x.dtype
The modified Bessel function evaluated at each of the elements of x.
Raises
TypeError: array cannot be safely cast to required type
If argument consists exclusively of int dtypes.
See Also:
scipy.special.iv, scipy.special.ive
911
Notes
We use the algorithm published by Clenshaw [R29] and referenced by Abramowitz and Stegun [R30], for which
the function domain is partitioned into the two intervals [0,8] and (8,inf), and Chebyshev polynomial expansions
are employed in each interval. Relative error on the domain [0,30] using IEEE arithmetic is documented [R31]
as having a peak of 5.8e-16 with an rms of 1.4e-16 (n = 30000).
References
[R29], [R30], [R31]
Examples
>>> np.i0([0.])
array(1.0)
>>> np.i0([0., 1. + 2j])
array([ 1.00000000+0.j
0.18785373+0.64616944j])
numpy.sinc(x)
Return the sinc function.
The sinc function is sin(x)/(x).
Parameters
x : ndarray
Array (possibly multi-dimensional) of values for which to to calculate sinc(x).
Returns
out : ndarray
sinc(x), which has the same shape as the input.
Notes
sinc(0) is the limit value 1.
The name sinc is short for sine cardinal or sinus cardinalis.
The sinc function is used in various signal processing applications, including in anti-aliasing, in the construction
of a Lanczos resampling filter, and in interpolation.
For bandlimited interpolation of discrete-time signals, the ideal interpolation kernel is proportional to the sinc
function.
References
[R244], [R245]
Examples
>>> x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 41)
>>> np.sinc(x)
array([ -3.89804309e-17, -4.92362781e-02,
-8.90384387e-02, -5.84680802e-02,
6.68206631e-02,
1.16434881e-01,
8.50444803e-02, -3.89804309e-17,
-1.89206682e-01, -2.16236208e-01,
3.89804309e-17,
2.33872321e-01,
7.56826729e-01,
9.35489284e-01,
9.35489284e-01,
7.56826729e-01,
2.33872321e-01,
3.89804309e-17,
912
-8.40918587e-02,
3.89804309e-17,
1.26137788e-01,
-1.03943254e-01,
-1.55914881e-01,
5.04551152e-01,
1.00000000e+00,
5.04551152e-01,
-1.55914881e-01,
Chapter 3. Routines
-2.16236208e-01,
-3.89804309e-17,
1.16434881e-01,
-5.84680802e-02,
-4.92362781e-02,
-1.89206682e-01, -1.03943254e-01,
8.50444803e-02,
1.26137788e-01,
6.68206631e-02,
3.89804309e-17,
-8.90384387e-02, -8.40918587e-02,
-3.89804309e-17])
>>> plt.plot(x, np.sinc(x))

>>> plt.title("Sinc Function")
<matplotlib.text.Text object at 0x...>
>>> plt.ylabel("Amplitude")
>>> plt.xlabel("X")
>>> plt.show()
It works in 2-D as well:

>>> x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 401)
>>> xx = np.outer(x, x)
>>> plt.imshow(np.sinc(xx))
3.20.7 Floating point routines

signbit(x[, out])
copysign(x1, x2[, out])
frexp(x[, out1, out2])
ldexp(x1, x2[, out])

numpy.signbit(x[, out ]) = <ufunc signbit>

Parameters
x : array_like
The input value(s).
Returns
result : ndarray of bool
Output array, or reference to out if that was supplied.
Examples
>>> np.signbit(-1.2)
True
>>> np.signbit(np.array([1, -2.3, 2.1]))
array([False, True, False], dtype=bool)
numpy.copysign(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc copysign>

913
If both arguments are arrays or sequences, they have to be of the same length. If x2 is a scalar, its sign will be
copied to all elements of x1.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Values to change the sign of.
x2 : array_like
The sign of x2 is copied to x1.
Returns
out : array_like
The values of x1 with the sign of x2.
Examples
>>> np.copysign(1.3, -1)
-1.3
>>> 1/np.copysign(0, 1)
inf
>>> 1/np.copysign(0, -1)
-inf
>>> np.copysign([-1, 0, 1], -1.1)
array([-1., -0., -1.])
>>> np.copysign([-1, 0, 1], np.arange(3)-1)
array([-1., 0., 1.])
numpy.frexp(x[, out1, out2 ]) = <ufunc frexp>

Returns (mantissa, exponent), where x = mantissa * 2**exponent. The mantissa is lies in the open interval(-1,
1), while the twos exponent is a signed integer.
Parameters
x : array_like
Array of numbers to be decomposed.
out1: ndarray, optional
Output array for the mantissa. Must have the same shape as x.
out2: ndarray, optional
Output array for the exponent. Must have the same shape as x.
Returns
(mantissa, exponent) : tuple of ndarrays, (float, int)
mantissa is a float array with values between -1 and 1. exponent is an int array which
represents the exponent of 2.
See Also:
ldexp
Compute y = x1 * 2**x2, the inverse of frexp.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Complex dtypes are not supported, they will raise a TypeError.
Examples
>>> y1, y2 = np.frexp(x)
>>> y1
array([ 0.
, 0.5 , 0.5 , 0.75 , 0.5 ,
0.5 ])
>>> y2
array([0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
>>> y1 * 2**y2
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7.,
0.625,
0.75 ,
0.875,
8.])
numpy.ldexp(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc ldexp>

The mantissas x1 and twos exponents x2 are used to construct floating point numbers x1 * 2**x2.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Array of multipliers.
Array of twos exponents.
Output array for the result.
Returns
y : ndarray or scalar
The result of x1 * 2**x2.
See Also:
frexp
Return (y1, y2) from x = y1 * 2**y2, inverse to ldexp.
Notes
Complex dtypes are not supported, they will raise a TypeError.
ldexp is useful as the inverse of frexp, if used by itself it is more clear to simply use the expression x1 *
2**x2.
Examples
>>> np.ldexp(5, np.arange(4))
array([ 5., 10., 20., 40.], dtype=float32)
>>> np.ldexp(*np.frexp(x))
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.,
4.,
5.])
915
3.20.8 Arithmetic operations
916
Chapter 3. Routines
add(x1, x2[, out])

reciprocal(x[, out])
negative(x[, out])
multiply(x1, x2[, out])
divide(x1, x2[, out])
power(x1, x2[, out])
subtract(x1, x2[, out])
true_divide(x1, x2[, out])
floor_divide(x1, x2[, out])
fmod(x1, x2[, out])
mod(x1, x2[, out])
modf(x[, out1, out2])
remainder(x1, x2[, out])

numpy.add(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc add>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
The arrays to be added. If x1.shape != x2.shape, they must be broadcastable to
a common shape (which may be the shape of one or the other).
Returns
add : ndarray or scalar
The sum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 + x2 in terms of array broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.add(1.0, 4.0)
5.0
>>> x1 = np.arange(9.0).reshape((3, 3))
>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.add(x1, x2)
array([[ 0.,
2.,
4.],
[ 3.,
5.,
7.],
[ 6.,
8., 10.]])
numpy.reciprocal(x[, out ]) = <ufunc reciprocal>

Calculates 1/x.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
y : ndarray
Return array.
917
Notes
Note: This function is not designed to work with integers.
For integer arguments with absolute value larger than 1 the result is always zero because of the way Python
handles integer division. For integer zero the result is an overflow.
Examples
>>> np.reciprocal(2.)
0.5
>>> np.reciprocal([1, 2., 3.33])
array([ 1.
, 0.5
, 0.3003003])
numpy.negative(x[, out ]) = <ufunc negative>

Parameters
x : array_like or scalar
Input array.
Returns
y : ndarray or scalar
Returned array or scalar: y = -x.
Examples
>>> np.negative([1.,-1.])
array([-1., 1.])
numpy.multiply(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc multiply>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
Input arrays to be multiplied.
Returns
y : ndarray
The product of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 * x2 in terms of array broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.multiply(2.0, 4.0)
8.0
>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.multiply(x1, x2)
array([[ 0.,
1.,
4.],
[ 0.,
4., 10.],
[ 0.,
7., 16.]])
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.divide(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc divide>

Parameters
x1 : array_like
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.
Returns
The quotient x1/x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See Also:
seterr
Set whether to raise or warn on overflow, underflow and division by zero.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 / x2 in terms of array-broadcasting.
Behavior on division by zero can be changed using seterr.
When both x1 and x2 are of an integer type, divide will return integers and throw away the fractional part.
Moreover, division by zero always yields zero in integer arithmetic.
Examples
>>> np.divide(2.0, 4.0)
0.5
>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.divide(x1, x2)
array([[ NaN, 1. , 1. ],
[ Inf, 4. , 2.5],
[ Inf, 7. , 4. ]])
Note the behavior with integer types:

>>> np.divide(2, 4)
0
>>> np.divide(2, 4.)
0.5
Division by zero always yields zero in integer arithmetic, and does not raise an exception or a warning:
>>> np.divide(np.array([0, 1], dtype=int), np.array([0, 0], dtype=int))
array([0, 0])
Division by zero can, however, be caught using seterr:
919
>>> old_err_state = np.seterr(divide=raise)

>>> np.divide(1, 0)
FloatingPointError: divide by zero encountered in divide
>>> ignored_states = np.seterr(**old_err_state)
>>> np.divide(1, 0)
0
numpy.power(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc power>

Raise each base in x1 to the positionally-corresponding power in x2. x1 and x2 must be broadcastable to the
same shape.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
The bases.
x2 : array_like
The exponents.
Returns
y : ndarray
The bases in x1 raised to the exponents in x2.
Examples
Cube each element in a list.
>>> x1 = range(6)
>>> x1
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.power(x1, 3)
array([ 0,
1,
8,
27,
64, 125])
Raise the bases to different exponents.

>>> x2 = [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0]
>>> np.power(x1, x2)
array([ 0.,
1.,
8., 27., 16.,
5.])
The effect of broadcasting.

>>> x2 = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1], [1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]])
>>> x2
array([[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1],
[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.power(x1, x2)
array([[ 0, 1, 8, 27, 16, 5],
[ 0, 1, 8, 27, 16, 5]])
numpy.subtract(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc subtract>

Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
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Chapter 3. Routines
The arrays to be subtracted from each other.

Returns
y : ndarray
The difference of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 - x2 in terms of array broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.subtract(1.0, 4.0)
-3.0
>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.subtract(x1, x2)
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 3., 3., 3.],
[ 6., 6., 6.]])
numpy.true_divide(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc true_divide>

Instead of the Python traditional floor division, this returns a true division. True division adjusts the output
type to present the best answer, regardless of input types.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Result is scalar if both inputs are scalar, ndarray otherwise.
Notes
The floor division operator // was added in Python 2.2 making // and / equivalent operators. The default floor
division operation of / can be replaced by true division with from __future__ import division.
In Python 3.0, // is the floor division operator and / the true division operator. The true_divide(x1,
x2) function is equivalent to true division in Python.
Examples
>>> np.true_divide(x, 4)
array([ 0. , 0.25, 0.5 ,
0.75,
1.
])
>>> x/4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> x//4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
921
>>> from __future__ import division

>>> x/4
array([ 0. , 0.25, 0.5 , 0.75, 1.
>>> x//4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
])
numpy.floor_divide(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc floor_divide>

Parameters
x1 : array_like
Numerator.
x2 : array_like
Denominator.
Returns
y : ndarray
y = floor(x1/x2)
See Also:
divide
Standard division.
floor
Round a number to the nearest integer toward minus infinity.
ceil
Round a number to the nearest integer toward infinity.
Examples
>>> np.floor_divide(7,3)
2
>>> np.floor_divide([1., 2., 3., 4.], 2.5)
array([ 0., 0., 1., 1.])
numpy.fmod(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc fmod>

This is the NumPy implementation of the C library function fmod, the remainder has the same sign as the
dividend x1. It is equivalent to the Matlab(TM) rem function and should not be confused with the Python
modulus operator x1 % x2.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Dividend.
x2 : array_like
Divisor.
Returns
y : array_like
The remainder of the division of x1 by x2.
See Also:
922
Chapter 3. Routines
remainder
Equivalent to the Python % operator.
divide
Notes
The result of the modulo operation for negative dividend and divisors is bound by conventions. For fmod, the
sign of result is the sign of the dividend, while for remainder the sign of the result is the sign of the divisor.
The fmod function is equivalent to the Matlab(TM) rem function.
Examples
>>> np.fmod([-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3], 2)
array([-1, 0, -1, 1, 0, 1])
>>> np.remainder([-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3], 2)
array([1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1])
>>> np.fmod([5, 3], [2, 2.])
array([ 1., 1.])
>>> a = np.arange(-3, 3).reshape(3, 2)
>>> a
array([[-3, -2],
[-1, 0],
[ 1, 2]])
>>> np.fmod(a, [2,2])
array([[-1, 0],
[-1, 0],
[ 1, 0]])
numpy.mod(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc remainder>

Computes x1 - floor(x1 / x2) * x2, the result has the same sign as the divisor x2. It is equivalent to
the Python modulus operator x1 % x2 and should not be confused with the Matlab(TM) rem function.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.
Returns
y : ndarray
The remainder of the quotient x1/x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2
are scalars.
See Also:
fmod
Equivalent of the Matlab(TM) rem function.
divide, floor
923
Notes
Returns 0 when x2 is 0 and both x1 and x2 are (arrays of) integers.
Examples
>>> np.remainder([4, 7], [2, 3])
array([0, 1])
>>> np.remainder(np.arange(7), 5)
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1])
numpy.modf(x[, out1, out2 ]) = <ufunc modf>

The fractional and integral parts are negative if the given number is negative.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
y1 : ndarray
Fractional part of x.
y2 : ndarray
Integral part of x.
Notes
For integer input the return values are floats.
Examples
>>> np.modf([0, 3.5])
(array([ 0. , 0.5]), array([ 0.,
>>> np.modf(-0.5)
(-0.5, -0)
3.]))
numpy.remainder(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc remainder>

Computes x1 - floor(x1 / x2) * x2, the result has the same sign as the divisor x2. It is equivalent to
the Python modulus operator x1 % x2 and should not be confused with the Matlab(TM) rem function.
Parameters
x1 : array_like
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.
Returns
y : ndarray
924
Chapter 3. Routines
The remainder of the quotient x1/x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2
are scalars.
See Also:
fmod
Equivalent of the Matlab(TM) rem function.
divide, floor
Notes
Returns 0 when x2 is 0 and both x1 and x2 are (arrays of) integers.
Examples
>>> np.remainder([4, 7], [2, 3])
array([0, 1])
>>> np.remainder(np.arange(7), 5)
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1])
3.20.9 Handling complex numbers

angle(z[, deg])
real(val)
imag(val)
conj(x[, out])
Return the angle of the complex argument.

Return the real part of the elements of the array.
Return the imaginary part of the elements of the array.
numpy.angle(z, deg=0)
Return the angle of the complex argument.
Parameters
z : array_like
A complex number or sequence of complex numbers.
deg : bool, optional
Return angle in degrees if True, radians if False (default).
Returns
angle : {ndarray, scalar}
The counterclockwise angle from the positive real axis on the complex plane, with dtype
as numpy.float64.
See Also:
arctan2, absolute
Examples
>>> np.angle([1.0, 1.0j, 1+1j])
array([ 0.
, 1.57079633,
>>> np.angle(1+1j, deg=True)
45.0
# in radians
0.78539816])
# in degrees
925
numpy.real(val)
Return the real part of the elements of the array.
Parameters
val : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array. If val is real, the type of val is used for the output. If val has complex
elements, the returned type is float.
See Also:
real_if_close, imag, angle
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1+2j, 3+4j, 5+6j])
>>> a.real
array([ 1., 3., 5.])
>>> a.real = 9
>>> a
array([ 9.+2.j, 9.+4.j, 9.+6.j])
>>> a.real = np.array([9, 8, 7])
>>> a
array([ 9.+2.j, 8.+4.j, 7.+6.j])
numpy.imag(val)
Return the imaginary part of the elements of the array.
Parameters
val : array_like
Input array.
Returns
out : ndarray
Output array. If val is real, the type of val is used for the output. If val has complex
elements, the returned type is float.
See Also:
real, angle, real_if_close
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1+2j, 3+4j, 5+6j])
>>> a.imag
array([ 2., 4., 6.])
>>> a.imag = np.array([8, 10, 12])
>>> a
array([ 1. +8.j, 3.+10.j, 5.+12.j])
numpy.conj(x[, out ]) = <ufunc conjugate>

Parameters
x : array_like
926
Chapter 3. Routines
Input value.
Returns
y : ndarray
Examples
(1-2j)
>>> x = np.eye(2) + 1j * np.eye(2)
>>> np.conjugate(x)
array([[ 1.-1.j, 0.-0.j],
[ 0.-0.j, 1.-1.j]])
3.20.10 Miscellaneous
convolve(a, v[, mode])
clip(a, a_min, a_max[, out])
sqrt(x[, out])
square(x[, out])
absolute(x[, out])
fabs(x[, out])
sign(x[, out])
maximum(x1, x2[, out])
minimum(x1, x2[, out])
fmax(x1, x2[, out])
fmin(x1, x2[, out])
nan_to_num(x)
real_if_close(a[, tol])
interp(x, xp, fp[, left, right])
Returns the discrete, linear convolution of two one-dimensional sequences.

Compute the absolute values element-wise.
Replace nan with zero and inf with finite numbers.
If complex input returns a real array if complex parts are close to zero.
One-dimensional linear interpolation.
numpy.convolve(a, v, mode=full)
Returns the discrete, linear convolution of two one-dimensional sequences.
The convolution operator is often seen in signal processing, where it models the effect of a linear time-invariant
system on a signal [R17]. In probability theory, the sum of two independent random variables is distributed
according to the convolution of their individual distributions.
Parameters
a : (N,) array_like
First one-dimensional input array.
v : (M,) array_like
Second one-dimensional input array.
mode : {full, valid, same}, optional
full:
By default, mode is full. This returns the convolution at each point of overlap, with
an output shape of (N+M-1,). At the end-points of the convolution, the signals do not
overlap completely, and boundary effects may be seen.
927
same:
Mode same returns output of length max(M, N). Boundary effects are still visible.
valid:
Mode valid returns output of length max(M, N) - min(M, N) + 1. The convolution product is only given for points where the signals overlap completely. Values
outside the signal boundary have no effect.
Returns
out : ndarray
Discrete, linear convolution of a and v.
See Also:
scipy.signal.fftconvolve
Convolve two arrays using the Fast Fourier Transform.
scipy.linalg.toeplitz
Used to construct the convolution operator.
Notes
The discrete convolution operation is defined as
(f g)[n] =
f [m]g[n m]
m=
It can be shown that a convolution x(t) y(t) in time/space is equivalent to the multiplication X(f )Y (f ) in the
Fourier domain, after appropriate padding (padding is necessary to prevent circular convolution). Since multiplication is more efficient (faster) than convolution, the function scipy.signal.fftconvolve exploits
the FFT to calculate the convolution of large data-sets.
References
[R17]
Examples
Note how the convolution operator flips the second array before sliding the two across one another:
>>> np.convolve([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 0.5])
array([ 0. , 1. , 2.5, 4. , 1.5])
Only return the middle values of the convolution. Contains boundary effects, where zeros are taken into account:
>>> np.convolve([1,2,3],[0,1,0.5], same)
array([ 1. , 2.5, 4. ])
The two arrays are of the same length, so there is only one position where they completely overlap:
>>> np.convolve([1,2,3],[0,1,0.5], valid)
array([ 2.5])
numpy.clip(a, a_min, a_max, out=None)

928
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
a : array_like
Minimum value.
shape of a.
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Examples
>>> np.clip(a, 1, 8)
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
array([3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, [3,4,1,1,1,4,4,4,4,4], 8)
array([3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
numpy.sqrt(x[, out ]) = <ufunc sqrt>

Parameters
x : array_like
The values whose square-roots are required.
Alternate array object in which to put the result; if provided, it must have the same
shape as x
Returns
y : ndarray
An array of the same shape as x, containing the positive square-root of each element in
x. If any element in x is complex, a complex array is returned (and the square-roots of
929
negative reals are calculated). If all of the elements in x are real, so is y, with negative
elements returning nan. If out was provided, y is a reference to it.
See Also:
lib.scimath.sqrt
A version which returns complex numbers when given negative reals.
Notes
sqrt hasconsistent with common conventionas its branch cut the real interval [-inf, 0), and is continuous
from above on it. A branch cut is a curve in the complex plane across which a given complex function fails to
be continuous.
Examples
>>> np.sqrt([1,4,9])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> np.sqrt([4, -1, -3+4J])
array([ 2.+0.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+2.j])
>>> np.sqrt([4, -1, numpy.inf])
array([ 2., NaN, Inf])
numpy.square(x[, out ]) = <ufunc square>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input data.
Returns
out : ndarray
Element-wise x*x, of the same shape and dtype as x. Returns scalar if x is a scalar.
See Also:
numpy.linalg.matrix_power, sqrt, power
Examples
>>> np.square([-1j, 1])
array([-1.-0.j, 1.+0.j])
numpy.absolute(x[, out ]) = <ufunc absolute>

Parameters
x : array_like
Input array.
Returns
absolute : ndarray
An ndarray containing theabsolute value of each element in x. For complex input, a +
ib, the absolute value is a2 + b2 .
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> x = np.array([-1.2, 1.2])
>>> np.absolute(x)
array([ 1.2, 1.2])
>>> np.absolute(1.2 + 1j)
1.5620499351813308
Plot the function over [-10, 10]:

>>> x = np.linspace(start=-10, stop=10, num=101)
>>> plt.plot(x, np.absolute(x))
>>> plt.show()
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
10
Plot the function over the complex plane:

>>> xx = x + 1j * x[:, np.newaxis]
>>> plt.imshow(np.abs(xx), extent=[-10, 10, -10, 10])
>>> plt.show()
931
10
5
0
5
10
10
10
numpy.fabs(x[, out ]) = <ufunc fabs>

Compute the absolute values element-wise.
This function returns the absolute values (positive magnitude) of the data in x. Complex values are not handled,
use absolute to find the absolute values of complex data.
Parameters
x : array_like
The array of numbers for which the absolute values are required. If x is a scalar, the
result y will also be a scalar.
Returns
The absolute values of x, the returned values are always floats.
See Also:
absolute
Absolute values including complex types.
Examples
>>> np.fabs(-1)
1.0
>>> np.fabs([-1.2, 1.2])
array([ 1.2, 1.2])
numpy.sign(x[, out ]) = <ufunc sign>

The sign function returns -1 if x < 0, 0 if x==0, 1 if x > 0.
Parameters
x : array_like
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Chapter 3. Routines
Input values.
Returns
y : ndarray
The sign of x.
Examples
>>> np.sign([-5., 4.5])
array([-1., 1.])
>>> np.sign(0)
0
numpy.maximum(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc maximum>

Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise maxima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then that element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned. The latter
distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary parts being
a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are propagated.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape, or
shapes that can be broadcast to a single shape.
Returns
The maximum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See Also:
minimum
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.
fmax
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.
amax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
fmin, amin, nanmin
Notes
The maximum is equivalent to np.where(x1 >= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2 are nans, but it is
faster and does proper broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.maximum([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])
array([2, 5, 4])
>>> np.maximum(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2]) # broadcasting
array([[ 1. , 2. ],
[ 0.5, 2. ]])
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>>> np.maximum([np.nan, 0, np.nan], [0, np.nan, np.nan])

array([ NaN, NaN, NaN])
>>> np.maximum(np.Inf, 1)
inf
numpy.minimum(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc minimum>

Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise minima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then that element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned. The latter
distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary parts being
a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are propagated.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape, or
shapes that can be broadcast to a single shape.
Returns
The minimum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See Also:
maximum
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.
fmin
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.
amin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
fmax, amax, nanmax
Notes
The minimum is equivalent to np.where(x1 <= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2 are NaNs, but it
is faster and does proper broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.minimum([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])
array([1, 3, 2])
>>> np.minimum(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2]) # broadcasting
array([[ 0.5, 0. ],
[ 0. , 1. ]])
>>> np.minimum([np.nan, 0, np.nan],[0, np.nan, np.nan])
array([ NaN, NaN, NaN])
>>> np.minimum(-np.Inf, 1)
-inf
numpy.fmax(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc fmax>

934
Chapter 3. Routines
Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise maxima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then the non-nan element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned.
The latter distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary
parts being a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are ignored when possible.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape.
Returns
See Also:
fmin
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.
maximum
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.
amax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
minimum, amin, nanmin
Notes
New in version 1.3.0. The fmax is equivalent to np.where(x1 >= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2
are NaNs, but it is faster and does proper broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.fmax([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])
array([ 2., 5., 4.])
>>> np.fmax(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2])
array([[ 1. , 2. ],
[ 0.5, 2. ]])
>>> np.fmax([np.nan, 0, np.nan],[0, np.nan, np.nan])
array([ 0.,
0., NaN])
numpy.fmin(x1, x2[, out ]) = <ufunc fmin>

Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise minima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then the non-nan element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned.
The latter distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary
parts being a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are ignored when possible.
Parameters
x1, x2 : array_like
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape.
935
Returns
See Also:
fmax
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.
minimum
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.
amin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
maximum, amax, nanmax
Notes
New in version 1.3.0. The fmin is equivalent to np.where(x1 <= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2
are NaNs, but it is faster and does proper broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.fmin([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])
array([2, 5, 4])
>>> np.fmin(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2])
array([[ 1. , 2. ],
[ 0.5, 2. ]])
>>> np.fmin([np.nan, 0, np.nan],[0, np.nan, np.nan])
array([ 0.,
0., NaN])
numpy.nan_to_num(x)
Replace nan with zero and inf with finite numbers.
Returns an array or scalar replacing Not a Number (NaN) with zero, (positive) infinity with a very large number
and negative infinity with a very small (or negative) number.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input data.
Returns
Array with the same shape as x and dtype of the element in x with the greatest precision.
NaN is replaced by zero, and infinity (-infinity) is replaced by the largest (smallest or
most negative) floating point value that fits in the output dtype. All finite numbers are
upcast to the output dtype (default float64).
See Also:
isinf
Shows which elements are negative or negative infinity.
936
Chapter 3. Routines
isneginf
Shows which elements are negative infinity.
isposinf
Shows which elements are positive infinity.
isnan
Shows which elements are Not a Number (NaN).
isfinite
Shows which elements are finite (not NaN, not infinity)
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity.
Examples
>>> np.set_printoptions(precision=8)
>>> x = np.array([np.inf, -np.inf, np.nan, -128, 128])
>>> np.nan_to_num(x)
array([ 1.79769313e+308, -1.79769313e+308,
0.00000000e+000,
-1.28000000e+002,
1.28000000e+002])
numpy.real_if_close(a, tol=100)
If complex input returns a real array if complex parts are close to zero.
Close to zero is defined as tol * (machine epsilon of the type for a).
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
tol : float
Tolerance in machine epsilons for the complex part of the elements in the array.
Returns
out : ndarray
If a is real, the type of a is used for the output. If a has complex elements, the returned
type is float.
See Also:
real, imag, angle
Notes
Machine epsilon varies from machine to machine and between data types but Python floats on most platforms
have a machine epsilon equal to 2.2204460492503131e-16. You can use np.finfo(np.float).eps to print out the
machine epsilon for floats.
Examples
>>> np.finfo(np.float).eps
2.2204460492503131e-16
>>> np.real_if_close([2.1 + 4e-14j], tol=1000)
array([ 2.1])
937
>>> np.real_if_close([2.1 + 4e-13j], tol=1000)

array([ 2.1 +4.00000000e-13j])
numpy.interp(x, xp, fp, left=None, right=None)

One-dimensional linear interpolation.
Returns the one-dimensional piecewise linear interpolant to a function with given values at discrete data-points.
Parameters
x : array_like
The x-coordinates of the interpolated values.
xp : 1-D sequence of floats
The x-coordinates of the data points, must be increasing.
fp : 1-D sequence of floats
The y-coordinates of the data points, same length as xp.
left : float, optional
Value to return for x < xp[0], default is fp[0].
right : float, optional
Value to return for x > xp[-1], defaults is fp[-1].
Returns
y : {float, ndarray}
The interpolated values, same shape as x.
Raises
ValueError
If xp and fp have different length
Notes
Does not check that the x-coordinate sequence xp is increasing. If xp is not increasing, the results are nonsense.
A simple check for increasing is:
np.all(np.diff(xp) > 0)
Examples
>>> xp = [1, 2, 3]
>>> fp = [3, 2, 0]
>>> np.interp(2.5, xp, fp)
1.0
>>> np.interp([0, 1, 1.5, 2.72, 3.14], xp, fp)
array([ 3. , 3. , 2.5 , 0.56, 0. ])
>>> UNDEF = -99.0
>>> np.interp(3.14, xp, fp, right=UNDEF)
-99.0
Plot an interpolant to the sine function:

>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
938
x = np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 10)

y = np.sin(x)
xvals = np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 50)
yinterp = np.interp(xvals, x, y)
Chapter 3. Routines

>>> plt.plot(x, y, o)
>>> plt.plot(xvals, yinterp, -x)
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
3.21 Matrix library (numpy.matlib)

This module contains all functions in the numpy namespace, with the following replacement functions that return
matrices instead of ndarrays.
Functions that are also in the numpy namespace and return matrices
mat(data[, dtype])
matrix

Returns a matrix from an array-like object, or from a string of data.
Replacement functions in matlib

empty(shape[, dtype, order])
zeros(shape[, dtype, order])
ones(shape[, dtype, order])
eye(n[, M, k, dtype])
identity(n[, dtype])
repmat(a, m, n)
rand(*args)
randn(*args)
Return a new matrix of given shape and type, without initializing entries.
Return a matrix of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
Matrix of ones.
Return a matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Returns the square identity matrix of given size.
Repeat a 0-D to 2-D array or matrix MxN times.
Return a matrix of random values with given shape.
Return a random matrix with data from the standard normal distribution.
numpy.matlib.empty(shape, dtype=None, order=C)

Return a new matrix of given shape and type, without initializing entries.
3.21. Matrix library (numpy.matlib)
939
Parameters
Shape of the empty matrix.
order in memory.
See Also:
empty_like, zeros
Notes
empty, unlike zeros, does not set the matrix values to zero, and may therefore be marginally faster. On the
Examples
>>> import numpy.matlib
>>> np.matlib.empty((2, 2))
# filled with random data
matrix([[ 6.76425276e-320,
9.79033856e-307],
[ 7.39337286e-309,
3.22135945e-309]])
#random
>>> np.matlib.empty((2, 2), dtype=int)
matrix([[ 6600475,
0],
[ 6586976, 22740995]])
#random
numpy.matlib.zeros(shape, dtype=None, order=C)

Return a matrix of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
Parameters
Shape of the matrix
The desired data-type for the matrix, default is float.
Whether to store the result in C- or Fortran-contiguous order, default is C.
Returns
out : matrix
Zero matrix of given shape, dtype, and order.
See Also:
numpy.zeros
Equivalent array function.
matlib.ones
Return a matrix of ones.
Notes
If shape has length one i.e. (N,), or is a scalar N, out becomes a single row matrix of shape (1,N).
940
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.matlib.zeros((2, 3))
matrix([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
>>> np.matlib.zeros(2)
matrix([[ 0., 0.]])
numpy.matlib.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=C)

Matrix of ones.
Return a matrix of given shape and type, filled with ones.
Parameters
shape : {sequence of ints, int}
Shape of the matrix
The desired data-type for the matrix, default is np.float64.
Whether to store matrix in C- or Fortran-contiguous order, default is C.
Returns
out : matrix
Matrix of ones of given shape, dtype, and order.
See Also:
ones
Array of ones.
matlib.zeros
Zero matrix.
Notes
If shape has length one i.e. (N,), or is a scalar N, out becomes a single row matrix of shape (1,N).
Examples
>>> np.matlib.ones((2,3))
matrix([[ 1., 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1., 1.]])
>>> np.matlib.ones(2)
matrix([[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.matlib.eye(n, M=None, k=0, dtype=<type float>)

Return a matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Parameters
n : int
Number of rows in the output.
M : int, optional
941
Number of columns in the output, defaults to n.

k : int, optional
Index of the diagonal: 0 refers to the main diagonal, a positive value refers to an upper
diagonal, and a negative value to a lower diagonal.
Data-type of the returned matrix.
Returns
I : matrix
A n x M matrix where all elements are equal to zero, except for the k-th diagonal, whose
values are equal to one.
See Also:
numpy.eye
identity
Square identity matrix.
Examples
>>> np.matlib.eye(3, k=1, dtype=float)
matrix([[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
numpy.matlib.identity(n, dtype=None)
Returns the square identity matrix of given size.
Parameters
n : int
Size of the returned identity matrix.
Returns
out : matrix
n x n matrix with its main diagonal set to one, and all other elements zero.
See Also:
numpy.identity
matlib.eye
More general matrix identity function.
Examples
>>> np.matlib.identity(3, dtype=int)
matrix([[1, 0, 0],
942
Chapter 3. Routines
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 1]])
numpy.matlib.repmat(a, m, n)
Repeat a 0-D to 2-D array or matrix MxN times.
Parameters
a : array_like
The array or matrix to be repeated.
m, n : int
The number of times a is repeated along the first and second axes.
Returns
out : ndarray
The result of repeating a.
Examples
>>> a0 = np.array(1)
>>> np.matlib.repmat(a0, 2, 3)
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> a1 = np.arange(4)
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3]])
>>> a2 = np.asmatrix(np.arange(6).reshape(2, 3))
matrix([[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5],
[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5]])
numpy.matlib.rand(*args)
Return a matrix of random values with given shape.
Create a matrix of the given shape and propagate it with random samples from a uniform distribution over [0,
1).
Parameters
*args : Arguments
Shape of the output. If given as N integers, each integer specifies the size of one dimension. If given as a tuple, this tuple gives the complete shape.
Returns
out : ndarray
The matrix of random values with shape given by *args.
See Also:
randn, numpy.random.rand
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Examples
>>> np.matlib.rand(2, 3)
matrix([[ 0.68340382, 0.67926887,
[ 0.00793551, 0.20468222,
>>> np.matlib.rand((2, 3))
matrix([[ 0.84682055, 0.73626594,
[ 0.85429008, 0.3294825 ,
0.83271405],
0.95253525]])
#random
0.11308016],
0.89139555]])
#random
If the first argument is a tuple, other arguments are ignored:

>>> np.matlib.rand((2, 3), 4)
matrix([[ 0.46898646, 0.15163588,
[ 0.59208621, 0.09561818,
0.95188261],
0.00583606]])
#random
numpy.matlib.randn(*args)
Return a random matrix with data from the standard normal distribution.
randn generates a matrix filled with random floats sampled from a univariate normal (Gaussian) distribution
of mean 0 and variance 1.
Parameters
*args : Arguments
Shape of the output. If given as N integers, each integer specifies the size of one dimension. If given as a tuple, this tuple gives the complete shape.
Returns
Z : matrix of floats
A matrix of floating-point samples drawn from the standard normal distribution.
See Also:
rand, random.randn
Notes
For random samples from N (, 2 ), use:
sigma * np.matlib.randn(...)
+ mu
Examples
>>> np.matlib.randn(1)
matrix([[-0.09542833]])
>>> np.matlib.randn(1, 2, 3)
matrix([[ 0.16198284, 0.0194571 ,
[-0.7509172 , 1.61055
,
#random
0.18312985],
0.45298599]])
#random
Two-by-four matrix of samples from N (3, 6.25):

>>> 2.5 * np.matlib.randn((2, 4)) + 3
matrix([[ 4.74085004, 8.89381862, 4.09042411,
[ 7.52373709, 5.07933944, -2.64043543,
944
4.83721922],
0.45610557]])
#random
Chapter 3. Routines
3.22 Numarray compatibility (numpy.numarray)

3.23 Old Numeric compatibility (numpy.oldnumeric)
Dont add these to the __all__ variable though
3.24 Miscellaneous routines

3.24.1 Buffer objects
getbuffer(obj [,offset[, size]])
newbuffer(size)
Create a buffer object from the given object referencing a slice of length size starting at offset.
Return a new uninitialized buffer object.
numpy.getbuffer(obj[, offset[, size ]])

Create a buffer object from the given object referencing a slice of length size starting at offset.
Default is the entire buffer. A read-write buffer is attempted followed by a read-only buffer.
Parameters
obj : object
size : int, optional
Returns
buffer_obj : buffer
Examples
>>> buf = np.getbuffer(np.ones(5), 1, 3)
>>> len(buf)
3
>>> buf[0]
\x00
>>> buf
<read-write buffer for 0x8af1e70, size 3, offset 1 at 0x8ba4ec0>
numpy.newbuffer(size)
Return a new uninitialized buffer object.
Parameters
size : int
Size in bytes of returned buffer object.
Returns
newbuffer : buffer object
Returned, uninitialized buffer object of size bytes.
3.24.2 Performance tuning
3.24. Miscellaneous routines
945
Change dot, vdot, and inner to use accelerated BLAS functions.

Restore dot, vdot, and innerproduct to the default non-BLAS
Return the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.
alterdot
restoredot
setbufsize(size)
getbufsize()
numpy.alterdot()
Change dot, vdot, and inner to use accelerated BLAS functions.
Typically, as a user of Numpy, you do not explicitly call this function. If Numpy is built with an accelerated
BLAS, this function is automatically called when Numpy is imported.
When Numpy is built with an accelerated BLAS like ATLAS, these functions are replaced to make use of the
faster implementations. The faster implementations only affect float32, float64, complex64, and complex128
arrays. Furthermore, the BLAS API only includes matrix-matrix, matrix-vector, and vector-vector products.
Products of arrays with larger dimensionalities use the built in functions and are not accelerated.
See Also:
restoredot
restoredot undoes the effects of alterdot.
numpy.restoredot()
Restore dot, vdot, and innerproduct to the default non-BLAS implementations.
Typically, the user will only need to call this when troubleshooting and installation problem, reproducing the
conditions of a build without an accelerated BLAS, or when being very careful about benchmarking linear
algebra operations.
See Also:
alterdot
restoredot undoes the effects of alterdot.
numpy.setbufsize(size)
Parameters
size : int
Size of buffer.
numpy.getbufsize()
Return the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.
Returns
getbufsize : int
Size of ufunc buffer in bytes.
3.25 Padding Arrays

pad(array, pad_width[, mode])
946
Pads an array.
Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.pad(array, pad_width, mode=None, **kwargs)

Pads an array.
Parameters
array : array_like of rank N
Input array
pad_width : {sequence, int}
Number of values padded to the edges of each axis. ((before_1, after_1), ... (before_N,
after_N)) unique pad widths for each axis. ((before, after),) yields same before and after
pad for each axis. (pad,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = pad width for all axes.
mode : {str, function}
One of the following string values or a user supplied function.
constant Pads with a constant value. edge Pads with the edge values of array. linear_ramp Pads with the linear ramp between end_value and the
array edge value.
maximum Pads with the maximum value of all or part of the
vector along each axis.
mean Pads with the mean value of all or part of the
median Pads with the median value of all or part of the
minimum Pads with the minimum value of all or part of the
reflect Pads with the reflection of the vector mirrored on
the first and last values of the vector along each axis.
symmetric Pads with the reflection of the vector mirrored
along the edge of the array.
wrap Pads with the wrap of the vector along the axis.
The first values are used to pad the end and the end values are used to pad the beginning.
<function> Padding function, see Notes.
stat_length : {sequence, int}, optional
Used in maximum, mean, median, and minimum. Number of values at edge of
each axis used to calculate the statistic value.
((before_1, after_1), ... (before_N, after_N)) unique statistic lengths for each axis.
((before, after),) yields same before and after statistic lengths for each axis.
(stat_length,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = statistic length for all axes.
Default is None, to use the entire axis.
constant_values : {sequence, int}, optional
Used in constant. The values to set the padded values for each axis.
((before_1, after_1), ... (before_N, after_N)) unique pad constants for each axis.
3.25. Padding Arrays
947
((before, after),) yields same before and after constants for each axis.
(constant,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = constant for all axes.
Default is 0.
end_values : {sequence, int}, optional
Used in linear_ramp. The values used for the ending value of the linear_ramp and that
will form the edge of the padded array.
((before_1, after_1), ... (before_N, after_N)) unique end values for each axis.
((before, after),) yields same before and after end values for each axis.
(constant,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = end value for all axes.
Default is 0.
reflect_type : str {even, odd}, optional
Used in reflect, and symmetric. The even style is the default with an unaltered
reflection around the edge value. For the odd style, the extented part of the array is
created by subtracting the reflected values from two times the edge value.
Returns
pad : ndarray
Padded array of rank equal to array with shape increased according to pad_width.
Notes
New in version 1.7.0. For an array with rank greater than 1, some of the padding of later axes is calculated from
padding of previous axes. This is easiest to think about with a rank 2 array where the corners of the padded
array are calculated by using padded values from the first axis.
The padding function, if used, should return a rank 1 array equal in length to the vector argument with padded
values replaced. It has the following signature:
padding_func(vector, iaxis_pad_width, iaxis, **kwargs)
where
vector
[ndarray] A rank 1 array already padded with zeros. Padded values are vector[:pad_tuple[0]]
and vector[-pad_tuple[1]:].
iaxis_pad_width
[tuple] A 2-tuple of ints, iaxis_pad_width[0] represents the number of values padded at the
beginning of vector where iaxis_pad_width[1] represents the number of values padded at the
end of vector.
iaxis
[int] The axis currently being calculated.
kwargs
[misc] Any keyword arguments the function requires.
Examples
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), constant, constant_values=(4,6))
array([4, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6])
948
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), edge)

array([1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), linear_ramp, end_values=(5,-4))
array([ 5, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, -1, -4])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,), maximum)
array([5, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,), mean)
array([3, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 3])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,), median)
array([3, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 3])
>>> a = [[1,2], [3,4]]
>>> np.lib.pad(a, ((3,
array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 1,
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1,
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1,
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1,
[3, 3, 3, 4, 3,
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1,
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1,
2), (2, 3)), minimum)

1, 1],
1, 1],
1, 1],
1, 1],
3, 3],
1, 1],
1, 1]])
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), reflect)
array([3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), reflect, reflect_type=odd)
array([-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), symmetric)
array([2, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 3])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), symmetric, reflect_type=odd)
array([0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7])
>>> np.lib.pad(a, (2,3), wrap)
array([4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3])
>>> def padwithtens(vector, pad_width, iaxis, kwargs):
...
vector[:pad_width[0]] = 10
...
vector[-pad_width[1]:] = 10
...
return vector
>>> a = a.reshape((2,3))
>>> np.lib.pad(a, 2, padwithtens)
array([[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 0, 1, 2, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 3, 4, 5, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10]])
3.25. Padding Arrays
949
3.26 Polynomials
Polynomials in NumPy can be created, manipulated, and even fitted using the Using the Convenience Classes of the
numpy.polynomial package, introduced in NumPy 1.4.
Prior to NumPy 1.4, numpy.poly1d was the class of choice and it is still available in order to maintain backward
compatibility. However, the newer Polynomial package is more complete than numpy.poly1d and its convenience
classes are better behaved in the numpy environment. Therefore Polynomial is recommended for new coding.
3.26.1 Transition notice

The various routines in the Polynomial package all deal with series whose coefficients go from degree zero upward,
which is the reverse order of the Poly1d convention. The easy way to remember this is that indexes correspond to
degree, i.e., coef[i] is the coefficient of the term of degree i.
Polynomial Package
Using the Convenience Classes
The convenience classes provided by the polynomial package are:
Name
Polynomial
Chebyshev
Legendre
Laguerre
Hermite
HermiteE
Provides
Power series
Chebyshev series
Legendre series
Laguerre series
Hermite series
HermiteE series
The series in this context are finite sums of the corresponding polynomial basis functions multiplied by coefficients.
For instance, a power series looks like
p(x) = 1 + 2x + 3x2
and has coefficients [1, 2, 3]. The Chebyshev series with the same coefficients looks like
p(x) = 1T0 (x) + 2T1 (x) + 3T2 (x)
and more generally

p(x) =
n
X
ci Ti (x)
i=0
where in this case the Tn are the Chebyshev functions of degree n, but could just as easily be the basis functions of
any of the other classes. The convention for all the classes is that the coefficient c[i] goes with the basis function of
degree i.
All of the classes have the same methods, and especially they implement the Python numeric operators +, -, *, //, %,
divmod, **, ==, and !=. The last two can be a bit problematic due to floating point roundoff errors. We now give a
quick demonstration of the various operations using Numpy version 1.7.0.
950
Chapter 3. Routines
Basics First we need a polynomial class and a polynomial instance to play with. The classes can be imported directly
from the polynomial package or from the module of the relevant type. Here we import from the package and use the
conventional Polynomial class because of its familiarity:
>>> from numpy.polynomial import Polynomial as P
>>> p = P([1,2,3])
>>> p
Polynomial([ 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
Note that there are three parts to the long version of the printout. The first is the coefficients, the second is the domain,
and the third is the window:
>>> p.coef
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> p.domain
array([-1., 1.])
>>> p.window
array([-1., 1.])
Printing a polynomial yields a shorter form without the domain and window:
>>> print p
poly([ 1. 2.
3.])
We will deal with the domain and window when we get to fitting, for the moment we ignore them and run through the
basic algebraic and arithmetic operations.
Addition and Subtraction:
>>> p + p
Polynomial([ 2., 4., 6.], [-1., 1.], [-1.,
>>> p - p
Polynomial([ 0.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
1.])
Multiplication:
>>> p * p
Polynomial([
1.,
4.,
10.,
12.,
9.], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
1.,
4.,
10.,
12.,
9.], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
Powers:
>>> p**2
Polynomial([
Division:
Floor division, //, is the division operator for the polynomial classes, polynomials are treated like integers in this
regard. For Python versions < 3.x the / operator maps to //, as it does for Python, for later versions the / will only
work for division by scalars. At some point it will be deprecated:
>>> p // P([-1, 1])
Polynomial([ 5., 3.], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
Remainder:
>>> p % P([-1, 1])
Polynomial([ 6.], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
Divmod:
3.26. Polynomials
951
>>> quo, rem = divmod(p, P([-1, 1]))

>>> quo
Polynomial([ 5., 3.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
>>> rem
Polynomial([ 6.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
Evaluation:
>>> p(x)
array([ 1.,
6., 17., 34., 57.])
>>> p(x)
array([[ 1.,
6.],
[ 17., 34.],
[ 57., 86.]])
Substitution:
Substitute a polynomial for x and expand the result. Here we substitute p in itself leading to a new polynomial of
degree 4 after expansion. If the polynomials are regarded as functions this is composition of functions:
>>> p(p)
Polynomial([
6.,
16.,
36.,
36.,
27.], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
Roots:
>>> p.roots()
array([-0.33333333-0.47140452j, -0.33333333+0.47140452j])
It isnt always convenient to explicitly use Polynomial instances, so tuples, lists, arrays, and scalars are automatically
cast in the arithmetic operations:
>>> p + [1, 2, 3]
Polynomial([ 2., 4., 6.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
>>> [1, 2, 3] * p
Polynomial([ 1.,
4., 10., 12.,
9.], [-1., 1.], [-1.,
>>> p / 2
Polynomial([ 0.5, 1. , 1.5], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
1.])
Polynomials that differ in domain, window, or class cant be mixed in arithmetic:

>>> from numpy.polynomial import Chebyshev as T
>>> p + P([1], domain=[0,1])
File "<string>", line 213, in __add__
TypeError: Domains differ
>>> p + P([1], window=[0,1])
TypeError: Windows differ
>>> p + T([1])
TypeError: Polynomial types differ
952
Chapter 3. Routines
But different types can be used for substitution. In fact, this is how conversion of Polynomial classes among themselves
is done for type, domain, and window casting:
>>> p(T([0, 1]))
Chebyshev([ 2.5,
2. ,
1.5], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
Which gives the polynomial p in Chebyshev form. This works because T1 (x) = x and substituting x for x doesnt
change the original polynomial. However, all the multiplications and divisions will be done using Chebyshev series,
hence the type of the result.
Calculus Polynomial instances can be integrated and differentiated.:
>>> p = P([2, 6])
>>> p.integ()
Polynomial([ 0., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p.integ(2)
Polynomial([ 0., 0., 1., 1.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
The first example integrates p once, the second example integrates it twice. By default, the lower bound of the
integration and the integration constant are 0, but both can be specified.:
>>> p.integ(lbnd=-1)
Polynomial([-1., 2., 3.], [-1.,
>>> p.integ(lbnd=-1, k=1)
Polynomial([ 0., 2., 3.], [-1.,
1.], [-1.,
1.])
1.], [-1.,
1.])
In the first case the lower bound of the integration is set to -1 and the integration constant is 0. In the second the
constant of integration is set to 1 as well. Differentiation is simpler since the only option is the number times the
polynomial is differentiated:
>>> p = P([1, 2, 3])
>>> p.deriv(1)
Polynomial([ 2., 6.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p.deriv(2)
Polynomial([ 6.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
Other Polynomial Constructors Constructing polynomials by specifying coefficients is just one way of obtaining
a polynomial instance, they may also be created by specifying their roots, by conversion from other polynomial types,
and by least squares fits. Fitting is discussed in its own section, the other methods are demonstrated below:
>>> p = P.fromroots([1, 2, 3])
>>> p
Polynomial([ -6., 11., -6.,
1.], [-1., 1.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p.convert(kind=T)
Chebyshev([ -9. , 11.75, -3. ,
0.25], [-1., 1.], [-1.,
1.])
The convert method can also convert domain and window:

>>> p.convert(kind=T, domain=[0, 1])
Chebyshev([-2.4375 , 2.96875, -0.5625 , 0.03125], [ 0., 1.], [-1.,
>>> p.convert(kind=P, domain=[0, 1])
Polynomial([-1.875, 2.875, -1.125, 0.125], [ 0., 1.], [-1., 1.])
1.])
In numpy versions >= 1.7.0 the basis and cast class methods are also available. The cast method works like the convert
method while the basis method returns the basis polynomial of given degree:
3.26. Polynomials
953
>>> P.basis(3)
Polynomial([ 0., 0., 0.,
>>> T.cast(p)
Chebyshev([ -9. , 11.75,
1.], [-1.,
-3.
1.], [-1.,
0.25], [-1.,
1.])
1.], [-1.,
1.])
Conversions between types can be useful, but it is not recommended for routine use. The loss of numerical precision
in passing from a Chebyshev series of degree 50 to a Polynomial series of the same degree can make the results of
numerical evaluation essentially random.
Fitting Fitting is the reason that the domain and window attributes are part of the convenience classes. To illustrate
the problem, the values of the Chebyshev polynomials up to degree 5 are plotted below.
>>> x = np.linspace(-1, 1, 100)
>>> for i in range(6): ax = plt.plot(x, T.basis(i)(x), lw=2, label="T_%d"%i)
...
>>> plt.legend(loc="upper left")
<matplotlib.legend.Legend object at 0x3b3ee10>
>>> plt.show()
1.0
T_0
T_1
T_2
T_3
T_4
T_5
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
In the range -1 <= x <= 1 they are nice, equiripple functions lying between +/- 1. The same plots over the range -2 <=
x <= 2 look very different:
>>> x = np.linspace(-2, 2, 100)
>>> for i in range(6): ax = plt.plot(x, T.basis(i)(x), lw=2, label="T_%d"%i)
...
>>> plt.legend(loc="lower right")
<matplotlib.legend.Legend object at 0x3b3ee10>
>>> plt.show()
954
Chapter 3. Routines
400
300
200
100
0
T_0
T_1
T_2
T_3
T_4
T_5
100
200
300
400
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
As can be seen, the good parts have shrunk to insignificance. In using Chebyshev polynomials for fitting we want
to use the region where x is between -1 and 1 and that is what the window specifies. However, it is unlikely that the
data to be fit has all its data points in that interval, so we use domain to specify the interval where the data points lie.
When the fit is done, the domain is first mapped to the window by a linear transformation and the usual least squares
fit is done using the mapped data points. The window and domain of the fit are part of the returned series and are
automatically used when computing values, derivatives, and such. If they arent specified in the call the fitting routine
will use the default window and the smallest domain that holds all the data points. This is illustrated below for a fit to
a noisy sine curve.
>>> np.random.seed(11)
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 20)
>>> y = np.sin(x) + np.random.normal(scale=.1, size=x.shape)
>>> p = T.fit(x, y, 5)
>>> plt.plot(x, y, o)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x2136c10>]
>>> xx, yy = p.linspace()
>>> plt.plot(xx, yy, lw=2)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x1cf2890>]
>>> p.domain
array([ 0.
, 6.28318531])
>>> p.window
array([-1., 1.])
>>> plt.show()
3.26. Polynomials
955
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Polynomial Module (numpy.polynomial.polynomial)

New in version 1.4.0. This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Polynomial series, including a Polynomial class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information
on how this module represents and works with such polynomials is in the docstring for its parent sub-package,
numpy.polynomial).
Polynomial(coef[, domain, window])
A Polynomial series class.
Polynomial Class
class numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial(coef, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
A Polynomial series class.
Polynomial instances provide the standard Python numerical methods +, -, *, //, %, divmod, **, and
() as well as the listed methods.
Parameters
coef : array_like
Polynomial coefficients, in increasing order. For example, (1, 2, 3) implies P_0
+ 2P_1 + 3P_2 where the P_i are a graded polynomial basis.
domain : (2,) array_like, optional
Domain to use. The interval [domain[0], domain[1]] is mapped to the interval
[window[0], window[1]] by shifting and scaling. The default value is [-1,1].
window : (2,) array_like, optional
Window, see domain for its use. The default value is [-1,1]. .. versionadded:: 1.6.0
Notes
It is important to specify the domain in many cases, for instance in fitting data, because many of the important
properties of the polynomial basis only hold in a specified interval and consequently the data must be mapped
into that interval in order to benefit.
956
Chapter 3. Routines
Attributes
coef
domain
window
((N,) ndarray) Polynomial coefficients, from low to high.

((2,) ndarray) Domain that is mapped to window.
((2,) ndarray) Window that domain is mapped to.
Methods
__call__(arg)
basis(deg[, domain, window])
cast(series[, domain, window])
convert([domain, kind, window])
copy()
cutdeg(deg)
degree()
deriv([m])
fit(x, y, deg[, domain, rcond, full, w, window])
fromroots(roots[, domain, window])
has_samecoef(other)
has_samedomain(other)
has_sametype(other)
has_samewindow(other)
identity([domain, window])
integ([m, k, lbnd])
linspace([n, domain])
mapparms()
roots()
trim([tol])
truncate(size)
Polynomial polynomial of degree deg.

Convert instance to equivalent Polynomial series.
Convert to different class and/or domain.
Return a copy.
Truncate series to the given degree.
The degree of the series.
Differentiate.
Least squares fit to data.
Return Polynomial instance with specified roots.
Check if coefficients match.
Check if domains match.
Check if types match.
Check if windows match.
Identity function.
Integrate.
Return x,y values at equally spaced points in domain.
Return the mapping parameters.
Return list of roots.
Remove small leading coefficients
Truncate series to length size.
Polynomial.__call__(arg)
static Polynomial.basis(deg, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Polynomial polynomial of degree deg.
Returns an instance of the Polynomial polynomial of degree d.
Parameters
deg : int
Degree of the Polynomial polynomial. Must be >= 0.
domain : array_like
The resulting array must be of the form [beg, end], where beg and end are the
endpoints of the domain.
window : array_like
The resulting array must be if the form [beg, end], where beg and end are the
endpoints of the window.
Returns
p : Polynomial instance
3.26. Polynomials
957
Notes
static Polynomial.cast(series, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Convert instance to equivalent Polynomial series.
The series is expected to be an instance of some polynomial series of one of the types supported by by the
numpy.polynomial module, but could be some other class that supports the convert method.
Parameters
series : series
The instance series to be converted.
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Polynomial instance
A Polynomial series equal to the poly series.
See Also:
convert
Notes
Polynomial.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)
Parameters
domain : array_like, optional
The domain of the converted series. If the value is None, the default domain of kind is
used.
kind : class, optional
The polynomial series type class to which the current instance should be converted. If
kind is None, then the class of the current instance is used.
window : array_like, optional
The window of the converted series. If the value is None, the default window of kind is
used.
Returns
new_series_instance : kind
The returned class can be of different type than the current instance and/or have a different domain.
958
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Conversion between domains and class types can result in numerically ill defined series.
Polynomial.copy()
Return a copy.
Return a copy of the current Polynomial instance.
Returns
new_instance : Polynomial
Copy of current instance.
Polynomial.cutdeg(deg)
Reduce the degree of the Polynomial series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater
than the current degree a copy of the current series is returned. This can be useful in least squares where
the coefficients of the high degree terms may be very small.
Parameters
deg : non-negative int
The series is reduced to degree deg by discarding the high order terms. The value of deg
must be a non-negative integer.
Returns
New instance of Polynomial with reduced degree.
Notes
Polynomial.degree()
Notes
Polynomial.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Return an instance of Polynomial that is the derivative of the current series. Refer to polyder for full
documentation.
Parameters
m : non-negative int
The number of integrations to perform.
Returns
derivative : Polynomial
The derivative of the series using the same domain.
See Also:
polyder
similar function.
3.26. Polynomials
959
polyint
similar function for integration.
static Polynomial.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=[-1,
1])
Return a Polynomial instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. Unlike polyfit,
the domain of the returned instance can be specified and this will often result in a superior fit with less
chance of ill conditioning. Support for NA was added in version 1.7.0. See polyfit for full documentation of the implementation.
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Degree of the fitting polynomial.
domain : {None, [beg, end], []}, optional
Domain to use for the returned Polynomial instance. If None, then a minimal domain
that covers the points x is chosen. If [] the default domain [-1,1] is used. The default
value is [-1,1] in numpy 1.4.x and None in later versions. The [] value was added in
numpy 1.5.0.
Weights. If not None the contribution of each point (x[i],y[i]) to the fit is
weighted by w[i]. Ideally the weights are chosen so that the errors of the products
w[i]*y[i] all have the same variance. The default value is None. .. versionadded::
1.5.0
window : {[beg, end]}, optional
Window to use for the returned Polynomial instance. The default value is [-1,1] ..
versionadded:: 1.6.0
Returns
least_squares_fit : instance of Polynomial
The Polynomial instance is the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified
in the call.
960
Chapter 3. Routines
[residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond] : only if full = True

Residuals of the least squares fit, the effective rank of the scaled Vandermonde matrix and its singular values, and the specified value of rcond. For more details, see
linalg.lstsq.
See Also:
polyfit
similar function
static Polynomial.fromroots(roots, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Return Polynomial instance with specified roots.
Returns an instance of Polynomial representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x r[n-1]), where r is the list of roots.
Parameters
roots : array_like
List of roots.
domain : {array_like, None}, optional
Domain for the resulting instance of Polynomial. If none the domain is the interval from
the smallest root to the largest. The default is [-1,1].
Window for the resulting instance of Polynomial. The default value is [-1,1].
Returns
object : Polynomial instance
Series with the specified roots.
See Also:
polyfromroots
equivalent function
Polynomial.has_samecoef(other)
Parameters
other : class instance
The other class must have the coef attribute.
Returns
bool : boolean
True if the coefficients are the same, False otherwise.
Notes
Polynomial.has_samedomain(other)
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
961
The other class must have the domain attribute.

Returns
bool : boolean
True if the domains are the same, False otherwise.
Notes
Polynomial.has_sametype(other)
Parameters
other : object
Class instance.
Returns
bool : boolean
True if other is same class as self
Notes
Polynomial.has_samewindow(other)
Parameters
The other class must have the window attribute.
Returns
bool : boolean
True if the windows are the same, False otherwise.
Notes
static Polynomial.identity(domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Identity function.
If p is the returned Polynomial object, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
Parameters
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
identity : Polynomial instance
962
Chapter 3. Routines
Polynomial.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)

Integrate.
Return an instance of Polynomial that is the definite integral of the current series. Refer to polyint for
full documentation.
Parameters
k : array_like
Integration constants. The first constant is applied to the first integration, the second to
the second, and so on. The list of values must less than or equal to m in length and any
missing values are set to zero.
lbnd : Scalar
The lower bound of the definite integral.
Returns
integral : Polynomial
The integral of the series using the same domain.
See Also:
polyint
similar function.
polyder
similar function for derivative.
Polynomial.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
Returns x, y values at n linearly spaced points across domain. Here y is the value of the polynomial at the
points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the Polynomial instance. This method is intended
mostly as a plotting aid.
Parameters
n : int, optional
Number of point pairs to return. The default value is 100.
domain : {None, array_like}
If not None, the specified domain is used instead of that of the calling instance. It should
be of the form [beg,end]. The default is None.
Returns
x, y : ndarrays
x is equal to linspace(self.domain[0], self.domain[1], n) y is the polynomial evaluated
at x.
Polynomial.mapparms()
The returned values define a linear map off + scl*x that is applied to the input arguments before the
series is evaluated. The map depends on the domain and window; if the current domain is equal to
3.26. Polynomials
963
the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the Polynomial instance are to be
used by themselves outside this class, then the linear function must be substituted for the x in the standard
representation of the base polynomials.
Returns
off, scl : floats or complex
The mapping function is defined by off + scl*x.
Notes
If the current domain is the interval [l_1, r_1] and the window is [l_2, r_2], then the linear
mapping function L is defined by the equations:
L(l_1) = l_2
L(r_1) = r_2
Polynomial.roots()
Return ndarray of roots for this series. See polyroots for full documentation. Note that the accuracy of
the roots is likely to decrease the further outside the domain they lie.
See Also:
polyroots
similar function
polyfromroots
function to go generate series from roots.
Polynomial.trim(tol=0)
Remove leading coefficients until a coefficient is reached whose absolute value greater than tol or the
beginning of the series is reached. If all the coefficients would be removed the series is set to [0]. A new
Polynomial instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters
tol : non-negative number.
All trailing coefficients less than tol will be removed.
Returns
Contains the new set of coefficients.
Polynomial.truncate(size)
Reduce the Polynomial series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be
a positive integer. This can be useful in least squares where the coefficients of the high degree terms may
be very small.
Parameters
size : positive int
The series is reduced to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of
size must be a positive integer.
Returns
964
Chapter 3. Routines
New instance of Polynomial with truncated coefficients.
polyval(x, c[, tensor])

polyval2d(x, y, c)
polyval3d(x, y, z, c)
polygrid2d(x, y, c)
polygrid3d(x, y, z, c)
polyroots(c)
polyfromroots(roots)
Evaluate a polynomial at points x.

Evaluate a 2-D polynomial at points (x, y).
Evaluate a 3-D polynomial at points (x, y, z).
Evaluate a 2-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x and y.
Evaluate a 3-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x, y and z.
Compute the roots of a polynomial.
Generate a monic polynomial with given roots.
Basics
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a polynomial at points x.
If c is of length n + 1, this function returns the value
p(x) = c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn
The parameter x is converted to an array only if it is a tuple or a list, otherwise it is treated as a scalar. In
either case, either x or its elements must support multiplication and addition both with themselves and with the
elements of c.
If c is a 1-D array, then p(x) will have the same shape as x. If c is multidimensional, then the shape of the result
depends on the value of tensor. If tensor is true the shape will be c.shape[1:] + x.shape. If tensor is false the
shape will be c.shape[1:]. Note that scalars have shape (,).
Trailing zeros in the coefficients will be used in the evaluation, so they should be avoided if efficiency is a
concern.
Parameters
x : array_like, compatible object
If x is a list or tuple, it is converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is left unchanged and
treated as a scalar. In either case, x or its elements must support addition and multiplication with with themselves and with the elements of c.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficients for terms of degree n are contained
in c[n]. If c is multidimensional the remaining indices enumerate multiple polynomials.
In the two dimensional case the coefficients may be thought of as stored in the columns
of c.
tensor : boolean, optional
If True, the shape of the coefficient array is extended with ones on the right, one for each
dimension of x. Scalars have dimension 0 for this action. The result is that every column
of coefficients in c is evaluated for every element of x. If False, x is broadcast over the
columns of c for the evaluation. This keyword is useful when c is multidimensional.
The default value is True. New in version 1.7.0.
Returns
values : ndarray, compatible object
The shape of the returned array is described above.
3.26. Polynomials
965
See Also:
polyval2d, polygrid2d, polyval3d, polygrid3d
Notes
The evaluation uses Horners method.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.polynomial import polyval
>>> polyval(1, [1,2,3])
6.0
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> polyval(a, [1,2,3])
array([[ 1.,
6.],
[ 17., 34.]])
>>> coef = np.arange(4).reshape(2,2) # multidimensional coefficients
>>> coef
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> polyval([1,2], coef, tensor=True)
array([[ 2., 4.],
[ 4., 7.]])
>>> polyval([1,2], coef, tensor=False)
array([ 2., 7.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D polynomial at points (x, y).
This function returns the value
p(x, y) =
ci,j xi y j
i,j
The parameters x and y are converted to arrays only if they are tuples or a lists, otherwise they are treated as a
scalars and they must have the same shape after conversion. In either case, either x and y or their elements must
support multiplication and addition both with themselves and with the elements of c.
If c has fewer than two dimensions, ones are implicitly appended to its shape to make it 2-D. The shape of the
result will be c.shape[2:] + x.shape.
Parameters
x, y : array_like, compatible objects
The two dimensional series is evaluated at the points (x, y), where x and y must have the
same shape. If x or y is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is
left unchanged and, if it isnt an ndarray, it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j is
contained in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than two the remaining indices enumerate
multiple sets of coefficients.
Returns
966
Chapter 3. Routines
The values of the two dimensional polynomial at points formed with pairs of corresponding values from x and y.
See Also:
polyval, polygrid2d, polyval3d, polygrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D polynomial at points (x, y, z).
This function returns the values:
p(x, y, z) =
ci,j,k xi y j z k
i,j,k
The parameters x, y, and z are converted to arrays only if they are tuples or a lists, otherwise they are treated as
a scalars and they must have the same shape after conversion. In either case, either x, y, and z or their elements
must support multiplication and addition both with themselves and with the elements of c.
If c has fewer than 3 dimensions, ones are implicitly appended to its shape to make it 3-D. The shape of the
Parameters
x, y, z : array_like, compatible object
The three dimensional series is evaluated at the points (x, y, z), where x, y, and z must
have the same shape. If any of x, y, or z is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an
ndarray, otherwise it is left unchanged and if it isnt an ndarray it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j,k
is contained in c[i,j,k]. If c has dimension greater than 3 the remaining indices
enumerate multiple sets of coefficients.
Returns
The values of the multidimensional polynomial on points formed with triples of corresponding values from x, y, and z.
See Also:
polyval, polyval2d, polygrid2d, polygrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polygrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x and y.
p(a, b) =
ci,j ai bj
i,j
where the points (a, b) consist of all pairs formed by taking a from x and b from y. The resulting points form a
grid with x in the first dimension and y in the second.
3.26. Polynomials
967
The parameters x and y are converted to arrays only if they are tuples or a lists, otherwise they are treated as
a scalars. In either case, either x and y or their elements must support multiplication and addition both with
themselves and with the elements of c.
result will be c.shape[2:] + x.shape + y.shape.
Parameters
The two dimensional series is evaluated at the points in the Cartesian product of x and y.
If x or y is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is left unchanged
and, if it isnt an ndarray, it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficients for terms of degree i,j are contained
in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than two the remaining indices enumerate multiple sets of coefficients.
Returns
The values of the two dimensional polynomial at points in the Cartesian product of x
and y.
See Also:
polyval, polyval2d, polyval3d, polygrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polygrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x, y and z.
p(a, b, c) =
ci,j,k ai bj ck
i,j,k
where the points (a, b, c) consist of all triples formed by taking a from x, b from y, and c from z. The resulting
points form a grid with x in the first dimension, y in the second, and z in the third.
a scalars. In either case, either x, y, and z or their elements must support multiplication and addition both with
If c has fewer than three dimensions, ones are implicitly appended to its shape to make it 3-D. The shape of the
result will be c.shape[3:] + x.shape + y.shape + z.shape.
Parameters
x, y, z : array_like, compatible objects
The three dimensional series is evaluated at the points in the Cartesian product of x, y,
and z. If x,y, or z is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is left
unchanged and, if it isnt an ndarray, it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
968
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
and y.
See Also:
polyval, polyval2d, polygrid2d, polyval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyroots(c)
Compute the roots of a polynomial.
Return the roots (a.k.a. zeros) of the polynomial
p(x) =
c[i] xi .
Parameters
c : 1-D array_like
1-D array of polynomial coefficients.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of the roots of the polynomial. If all the roots are real, then out is also real,
otherwise it is complex.
See Also:
chebroots
Notes
The root estimates are obtained as the eigenvalues of the companion matrix, Roots far from the origin of the
complex plane may have large errors due to the numerical instability of the power series for such values. Roots
with multiplicity greater than 1 will also show larger errors as the value of the series near such points is relatively
insensitive to errors in the roots. Isolated roots near the origin can be improved by a few iterations of Newtons
method.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.polynomial as poly
>>> poly.polyroots(poly.polyfromroots((-1,0,1)))
array([-1., 0., 1.])
>>> poly.polyroots(poly.polyfromroots((-1,0,1))).dtype
dtype(float64)
>>> j = complex(0,1)
>>> poly.polyroots(poly.polyfromroots((-j,0,j)))
array([ 0.00000000e+00+0.j,
0.00000000e+00+1.j,
2.77555756e-17-1.j])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyfromroots(roots)
Generate a monic polynomial with given roots.
Return the coefficients of the polynomial
p(x) = (x r0 ) (x r1 ) ... (x rn ),
3.26. Polynomials
969
where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear in roots n times.
For instance, if 2 is a root of multiplicity three and 3 is a root of multiplicity 2, then roots looks something like
[2, 2, 2, 3, 3]. The roots can appear in any order.
If the returned coefficients are c, then
p(x) = c0 + c1 x + ... + xn
The coefficient of the last term is 1 for monic polynomials in this form.
Parameters
roots : array_like
Sequence containing the roots.
Returns
out : ndarray
1-D array of the polynomials coefficients If all the roots are real, then out is also real,
otherwise it is complex. (see Examples below).
See Also:
chebfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots
Notes
The coefficients are determined by multiplying together linear factors of the form (x - r_i), i.e.
p(x) = (x r0 )(x r1 )...(x rn )
where n == len(roots) - 1; note that this implies that 1 is always returned for an .
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial as P
>>> P.polyfromroots((-1,0,1)) # x(x - 1)(x + 1) = x^3 - x
array([ 0., -1., 0., 1.])
>>> P.polyfromroots((-j,j)) # complex returned, though values are real
array([ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j])
polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w])

polyvander(x, deg)
polyvander2d(x, y, deg)
polyvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
Least-squares fit of a polynomial to data.

Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
Fitting
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)
Least-squares fit of a polynomial to data.
Return the coefficients of a polynomial of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given at
points x. If y is 1-D the returned coefficients will also be 1-D. If y is 2-D multiple fits are done, one for each
column of y, and the resulting coefficients are stored in the corresponding columns of a 2-D return. The fitted
970
Chapter 3. Routines
polynomial(s) are in the form

p(x) = c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn ,
where n is deg.
Since numpy version 1.7.0, polyfit also supports NA. If any of the elements of x, y, or w are NA, then the
corresponding rows of the linear least squares problem (see Notes) are set to 0. If y is 2-D, then an NA in any
row of y invalidates that whole row.
Parameters
x-coordinates of the M sample (data) points (x[i], y[i]).
y-coordinates of the sample points. Several sets of sample points sharing the same xcoordinates can be (independently) fit with one call to polyfit by passing in for y a
2-D array that contains one data set per column.
deg : int
Degree of the polynomial(s) to be fit.
Relative condition number of the fit. Singular values smaller than rcond, relative to the
largest singular value, will be ignored. The default value is len(x)*eps, where eps
is the relative precision of the platforms float type, about 2e-16 in most cases.
Switch determining the nature of the return value. When False (the default) just the
coefficients are returned; when True, diagnostic information from the singular value
decomposition (used to solve the fits matrix equation) is also returned.
Weights. If not None, the contribution of each point (x[i],y[i]) to the fit is
w[i]*y[i] all have the same variance. The default value is None. New in version
1.5.0.
Returns
coef : ndarray, shape (deg + 1,) or (deg + 1, K)
Polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients in
column k of coef represent the polynomial fit to the data in ys k-th column.
[residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond] : present when full == True
Sum of the squared residuals (SSR) of the least-squares fit; the effective rank of the
scaled Vandermonde matrix; its singular values; and the specified value of rcond. For
more information, see linalg.lstsq.
Raises
RankWarning
Raised if the matrix in the least-squares fit is rank deficient. The warning is only raised
if full == False. The warnings can be turned off by:
3.26. Polynomials
971
>>> import warnings

>>> warnings.simplefilter(ignore, RankWarning)
See Also:
chebfit, legfit, lagfit, hermfit, hermefit
polyval
Evaluates a polynomial.
polyvander
Vandermonde matrix for powers.
linalg.lstsq
Computes a least-squares fit from the matrix.
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the polynomial p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
X
E=
wj2 |yj p(xj )|2 ,
j
where the wj are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up the (typically) over-determined matrix
equation:
V (x) c = w y,
where V is the weighted pseudo Vandermonde matrix of x, c are the coefficients to be solved for, w are the
weights, and y are the observed values. This equation is then solved using the singular value decomposition of
V.
If some of the singular values of V are so small that they are neglected (and full == False), a RankWarning will
be raised. This means that the coefficient values may be poorly determined. Fitting to a lower order polynomial
will usually get rid of the warning (but may not be what you want, of course; if you have independent reason(s)
for choosing the degree which isnt working, you may have to: a) reconsider those reasons, and/or b) reconsider
the quality of your data). The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the resulting
fit may be spurious and have large contributions from roundoff error.
Polynomial fits using double precision tend to fail at about (polynomial) degree 20. Fits using Chebyshev or
Legendre series are generally better conditioned, but much can still depend on the distribution of the sample
points and the smoothness of the data. If the quality of the fit is inadequate, splines may be a good alternative.
Examples
>>> from numpy import polynomial as P
>>> x = np.linspace(-1,1,51) # x "data": [-1, -0.96, ..., 0.96, 1]
>>> y = x**3 - x + np.random.randn(len(x)) # x^3 - x + N(0,1) "noise"
>>> c, stats = P.polyfit(x,y,3,full=True)
>>> c # c[0], c[2] should be approx. 0, c[1] approx. -1, c[3] approx. 1
array([ 0.01909725, -1.30598256, -0.00577963, 1.02644286])
>>> stats # note the large SSR, explaining the rather poor results
[array([ 38.06116253]), 4, array([ 1.38446749, 1.32119158, 0.50443316,
0.28853036]), 1.1324274851176597e-014]
972
Chapter 3. Routines
Same thing without the added noise

>>> y = x**3 - x
>>> c, stats = P.polyfit(x,y,3,full=True)
>>> c # c[0], c[2] should be "very close to 0", c[1] ~= -1, c[3] ~= 1
array([ -1.73362882e-17, -1.00000000e+00, -2.67471909e-16,
1.00000000e+00])
>>> stats # note the minuscule SSR
[array([ 7.46346754e-31]), 4, array([ 1.38446749, 1.32119158,
0.50443316, 0.28853036]), 1.1324274851176597e-014]
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvander(x, deg)
Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
Returns the Vandermonde matrix of degree deg and sample points x. The Vandermonde matrix is defined by
V [..., i] = xi ,
where 0 <= i <= deg. The leading indices of V index the elements of x and the last index is the power of x.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the matrix V = polyvander(x, n), then
np.dot(V, c) and polyval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of polynomials of the same degree and sample points.
Parameters
x : array_like
Array of points. The dtype is converted to float64 or complex128 depending on whether
any of the elements are complex. If x is scalar it is converted to a 1-D array.
deg : int
Degree of the resulting matrix.
Returns
vander : ndarray.
The Vandermonde matrix. The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape + (deg +
1,), where the last index is the power of x. The dtype will be the same as the converted
x.
See Also:
polyvander2d, polyvander3d
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvander2d(x, y, deg)
Returns the pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of degrees deg and sample points (x, y). The pseudo-Vandermonde
matrix is defined by
V [..., deg[1] i + j] = xi y j ,
where 0 <= i <= deg[0] and 0 <= j <= deg[1]. The leading indices of V index the points (x, y) and the last
index encodes the powers of x and y.
If V = polyvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
2-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1) in the order
c00 , c01 , c02 ..., c10 , c11 , c12 ...
3.26. Polynomials
973
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and polyval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D polynomials of the same
degrees and sample points.
Parameters
x, y : array_like
Arrays of point coordinates, all of the same shape. The dtypes will be converted to
either float64 or complex128 depending on whether any of the elements are complex.
Scalars are converted to 1-D arrays.
deg : list of ints
List of maximum degrees of the form [x_deg, y_deg].
Returns
vander2d : ndarray
The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape + (order,), where order =
(deg[0] + 1) (deg([1] + 1). The dtype will be the same as the converted x and y.
See Also:
polyvander, polyvander3d., polyval3d
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
Returns the pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of degrees deg and sample points (x, y, z). If l, m, n are the given
degrees in x, y, z, then The pseudo-Vandermonde matrix is defined by
V [..., (m + 1)(n + 1)i + (n + 1)j + k] = xi y j z k ,
where 0 <= i <= l, 0 <= j <= m, and 0 <= j <= n. The leading indices of V index the points (x, y, z) and the
last index encodes the powers of x, y, and z.
If V = polyvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
elements of a 3-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1, zdeg + 1) in the order
c000 , c001 , c002 , ..., c010 , c011 , c012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and polyval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D polynomials of the
same degrees and sample points.
Parameters
x, y, z : array_like
deg : list of ints
List of maximum degrees of the form [x_deg, y_deg, z_deg].
Returns
vander3d : ndarray
(deg[0] + 1) (deg([1] + 1) (deg[2] + 1). The dtype will be the same as the converted x, y, and z.
974
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
polyvander, polyvander3d., polyval3d
Notes
polyder(c[, m, scl, axis])
polyint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis])
Differentiate a polynomial.
Integrate a polynomial.
Calculus
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)
Differentiate a polynomial.
Returns the polynomial coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied
by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coefficients
from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2 while
[[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1 + 1*x + 2*y + 2*x*y if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of polynomial coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond
to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding index.
m : int, optional
Number of derivatives taken, must be non-negative. (Default: 1)
scl : scalar, optional
Each differentiation is multiplied by scl. The end result is multiplication by scl**m.
This is for use in a linear change of variable. (Default: 1)
Axis over which the derivative is taken. (Default: 0). New in version 1.7.0.
Returns
der : ndarray
Polynomial coefficients of the derivative.
See Also:
polyint
Examples
>>> c = (1,2,3,4) # 1 + 2x + 3x**2 + 4x**3
>>> P.polyder(c) # (d/dx)(c) = 2 + 6x + 12x**2
array([ 2.,
6., 12.])
>>> P.polyder(c,3) # (d**3/dx**3)(c) = 24
array([ 24.])
>>> P.polyder(c,scl=-1) # (d/d(-x))(c) = -2 - 6x - 12x**2
array([ -2., -6., -12.])
>>> P.polyder(c,2,-1) # (d**2/d(-x)**2)(c) = 6 + 24x
array([ 6., 24.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a polynomial.
3.26. Polynomials
975
Returns the polynomial coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the resulting
series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use in a linear
change of variable. (Buyer beware: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want scl to be the
reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The argument c is an
array of coefficients, from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x
+ 3*x**2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1 + 1*x + 2*y + 2*x*y if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of polynomial coefficients, ordered from low to high.
m : int, optional
Order of integration, must be positive. (Default: 1)
k : {[], list, scalar}, optional
Integration constant(s). The value of the first integral at zero is the first value in the
list, the value of the second integral at zero is the second value, etc. If k == [] (the
default), all constants are set to zero. If m == 1, a single scalar can be given instead of
a list.
lbnd : scalar, optional
The lower bound of the integral. (Default: 0)
Following each integration the result is multiplied by scl before the integration constant
is added. (Default: 1)
Axis over which the integral is taken. (Default: 0). New in version 1.7.0.
Returns
S : ndarray
Coefficient array of the integral.
Raises
ValueError
If m < 1, len(k) > m.
See Also:
polyder
Notes
Note that the result of each integration is multiplied by scl. Why is this important to note? Say one is making a
linear change of variable u = ax + b in an integral relative to x. Then .. math::dx = du/a, so one will need to set
scl equal to 1/a - perhaps not what one would have first thought.
Examples
>>> c = (1,2,3)
>>> P.polyint(c) # should return array([0, 1, 1, 1])
array([ 0., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> P.polyint(c,3) # should return array([0, 0, 0, 1/6, 1/12, 1/20])
array([ 0.
, 0.
, 0.
, 0.16666667, 0.08333333,
976
Chapter 3. Routines
0.05
])
>>> P.polyint(c,k=3) # should return array([3, 1, 1, 1])
array([ 3., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> P.polyint(c,lbnd=-2) # should return array([6, 1, 1, 1])
array([ 6., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> P.polyint(c,scl=-2) # should return array([0, -2, -2, -2])
array([ 0., -2., -2., -2.])
polyadd(c1, c2)
polysub(c1, c2)
polymul(c1, c2)
polymulx(c)
polydiv(c1, c2)
polypow(c, pow[, maxpower])
Add one polynomial to another.

Subtract one polynomial from another.
Multiply one polynomial by another.
Multiply a polynomial by x.
Divide one polynomial by another.
Raise a polynomial to a power.
Algebra
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyadd(c1, c2)
Add one polynomial to another.
Returns the sum of two polynomials c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients from lowest order
term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
The coefficient array representing their sum.
See Also:
polysub, polymul, polydiv, polypow
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> sum = P.polyadd(c1,c2); sum
array([ 4., 4., 4.])
>>> P.polyval(2, sum) # 4 + 4(2) + 4(2**2)
28.0
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polysub(c1, c2)
Subtract one polynomial from another.
Returns the difference of two polynomials c1 - c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients from lowest
order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
3.26. Polynomials
977
Of coefficients representing their difference.

See Also:
polyadd, polymul, polydiv, polypow
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> P.polysub(c1,c2)
array([-2., 0., 2.])
>>> P.polysub(c2,c1) # -P.polysub(c1,c2)
array([ 2., 0., -2.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polymul(c1, c2)
Multiply one polynomial by another.
Returns the product of two polynomials c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest order
term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of coefficients representing a polynomial, relative to the standard basis,
and ordered from lowest order term to highest.
Returns
out : ndarray
Of the coefficients of their product.
See Also:
polyadd, polysub, polydiv, polypow
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> P.polymul(c1,c2)
array([ 3.,
8., 14.,
8.,
3.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polymulx(c)
Multiply a polynomial by x.
Multiply the polynomial c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array representing the result of the multiplication.
Notes
978
Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polydiv(c1, c2)
Divide one polynomial by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two polynomials c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients,
from lowest order term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
[quo, rem] : ndarrays
Of coefficient series representing the quotient and remainder.
See Also:
polyadd, polysub, polymul, polypow
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> P.polydiv(c1,c2)
(array([ 3.]), array([-8., -4.]))
>>> P.polydiv(c2,c1)
(array([ 0.33333333]), array([ 2.66666667,
1.33333333]))
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polypow(c, pow, maxpower=None)

Raise a polynomial to a power.
Returns the polynomial c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered from
low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of array of series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
pow : integer
Power to which the series will be raised
maxpower : integer, optional
Maximum power allowed. This is mainly to limit growth of the series to unmanageable
size. Default is 16
Returns
coef : ndarray
Power series of power.
See Also:
polyadd, polysub, polymul, polydiv
polycompanion(c)
polydomain
polyzero
Return the companion matrix of c.
3.26. Polynomials
979

polyone
polyx
polytrim(c[, tol])
Remove small trailing coefficients from a polynomial.
polyline(off, scl)
Returns an array representing a linear polynomial.
Miscellaneous
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polycompanion(c)
The companion matrix for power series cannot be made symmetric by scaling the basis, so this function differs
from those for the orthogonal polynomials.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns
mat : ndarray
Companion matrix of dimensions (deg, deg).
Notes
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polydomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyx = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polytrim(c, tol=0)
Small means small in absolute value and is controlled by the parameter tol; trailing means highest order
coefficient(s), e.g., in [0, 1, 1, 0, 0] (which represents 0 + x + x**2 + 0*x**3 + 0*x**4)
both the 3-rd and 4-th order coefficients would be trimmed.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-d array of coefficients, ordered from lowest order to highest.
tol : number, optional
Trailing (i.e., highest order) elements with absolute value less than or equal to tol (default value is zero) are removed.
Returns
trimmed : ndarray
1-d array with trailing zeros removed. If the resulting series would be empty, a series
containing a single zero is returned.
980
Chapter 3. Routines
Raises
ValueError
If tol < 0
See Also:
trimseq
Examples
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,1e-3,0,1e-5,0,0),1e-3) # item == tol is trimmed
array([ 0.])
>>> i = complex(0,1) # works for complex
>>> P.trimcoef((3e-4,1e-3*(1-i),5e-4,2e-5*(1+i)), 1e-3)
array([ 0.0003+0.j
, 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyline(off, scl)
Returns an array representing a linear polynomial.
Parameters
off, scl : scalars
The y-intercept and slope of the line, respectively.
Returns
y : ndarray
This modules representation of the linear polynomial off + scl*x.
See Also:
chebline
Examples
>>> P.polyline(1,-1)
array([ 1, -1])
>>> P.polyval(1, P.polyline(1,-1)) # should be 0
0.0
Chebyshev Module (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev)

New in version 1.4.0. This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Chebyshev series, including a Chebyshev class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information
numpy.polynomial).
Chebyshev(coef[, domain, window])
A Chebyshev series class.
Chebyshev Class
class numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev(coef, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
A Chebyshev series class.
Chebyshev instances provide the standard Python numerical methods +, -, *, //, %, divmod, **, and
3.26. Polynomials
981
Parameters
coef : array_like
Chebyshev coefficients, in increasing order. For example, (1, 2, 3) implies P_0
+ 2P_1 + 3P_2 where the P_i are a graded polynomial basis.
Notes
Attributes
coef
domain
window
((N,) ndarray) Chebyshev coefficients, from low to high.

Methods
__call__(arg)
copy()
cutdeg(deg)
degree()
deriv([m])
has_samecoef(other)
has_sametype(other)
integ([m, k, lbnd])
mapparms()
roots()
trim([tol])
truncate(size)
Chebyshev polynomial of degree deg.

Convert instance to equivalent Chebyshev series.
Return a copy.
Differentiate.
Return Chebyshev instance with specified roots.
Identity function.
Integrate.
Chebyshev.__call__(arg)
static Chebyshev.basis(deg, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Chebyshev polynomial of degree deg.
982
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns an instance of the Chebyshev polynomial of degree d.

Parameters
deg : int
Degree of the Chebyshev polynomial. Must be >= 0.
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Chebyshev instance
Notes
static Chebyshev.cast(series, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Convert instance to equivalent Chebyshev series.
Parameters
series : series
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Chebyshev instance
A Chebyshev series equal to the poly series.
See Also:
convert
Notes
Chebyshev.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
983
used.
used.
Returns
Notes
Chebyshev.copy()
Return a copy.
Return a copy of the current Chebyshev instance.
Returns
new_instance : Chebyshev
Chebyshev.cutdeg(deg)
Reduce the degree of the Chebyshev series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater than
the current degree a copy of the current series is returned. This can be useful in least squares where the
coefficients of the high degree terms may be very small.
Parameters
Returns
New instance of Chebyshev with reduced degree.
Notes
Chebyshev.degree()
Notes
Chebyshev.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
984
Chapter 3. Routines
Return an instance of Chebyshev that is the derivative of the current series. Refer to chebder for full
documentation.
Parameters
Returns
derivative : Chebyshev
See Also:
chebder
similar function.
chebint
static Chebyshev.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=[-1, 1])
Return a Chebyshev instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. Unlike chebfit, the
domain of the returned instance can be specified and this will often result in a superior fit with less chance
of ill conditioning. Support for NA was added in version 1.7.0. See chebfit for full documentation of
the implementation.
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Domain to use for the returned Chebyshev instance. If None, then a minimal domain
that covers the points x is chosen. If [] the default domain [-1,1] is used. The default
numpy 1.5.0.
3.26. Polynomials
985
1.5.0
Window to use for the returned Chebyshev instance. The default value is [-1,1] ..
Returns
least_squares_fit : instance of Chebyshev
The Chebyshev instance is the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified
in the call.
linalg.lstsq.
See Also:
chebfit
similar function
static Chebyshev.fromroots(roots, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Return Chebyshev instance with specified roots.
Returns an instance of Chebyshev representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x r[n-1]), where r is the list of roots.
Parameters
roots : array_like
List of roots.
Domain for the resulting instance of Chebyshev. If none the domain is the interval from
Window for the resulting instance of Chebyshev. The default value is [-1,1].
Returns
object : Chebyshev instance
See Also:
chebfromroots
equivalent function
Chebyshev.has_samecoef(other)
Parameters
986
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Chebyshev.has_samedomain(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Chebyshev.has_sametype(other)
Parameters
other : object
Class instance.
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Chebyshev.has_samewindow(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
static Chebyshev.identity(domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Identity function.
If p is the returned Chebyshev object, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
3.26. Polynomials
987
Parameters
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
identity : Chebyshev instance
Chebyshev.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
Return an instance of Chebyshev that is the definite integral of the current series. Refer to chebint for
full documentation.
Parameters
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
Returns
integral : Chebyshev
See Also:
chebint
similar function.
chebder
Chebyshev.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
Returns x, y values at n linearly spaced points across domain. Here y is the value of the polynomial at the
points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the Chebyshev instance. This method is intended
Parameters
n : int, optional
988
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
x, y : ndarrays
at x.
Chebyshev.mapparms()
the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the Chebyshev instance are to be
Returns
Notes
L(l_1) = l_2
L(r_1) = r_2
Chebyshev.roots()
Return ndarray of roots for this series. See chebroots for full documentation. Note that the accuracy of
See Also:
chebroots
similar function
chebfromroots
Chebyshev.trim(tol=0)
Chebyshev instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters
Returns
3.26. Polynomials
989
Chebyshev.truncate(size)
Reduce the Chebyshev series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be
be very small.
Parameters
size : positive int
Returns
New instance of Chebyshev with truncated coefficients.
chebval(x, c[, tensor])

chebval2d(x, y, c)
chebval3d(x, y, z, c)
chebgrid2d(x, y, c)
chebgrid3d(x, y, z, c)
chebroots(c)
chebfromroots(roots)
Evaluate a Chebyshev series at points x.

Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y).
Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y, z).
Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
Compute the roots of a Chebyshev series.
Generate a Chebyshev series with given roots.
Basics
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a Chebyshev series at points x.
If c is of length n + 1, this function returns the value:
p(x) = c0 T0 (x) + c1 T1 (x) + ... + cn Tn (x)
elements of c.
concern.
Parameters
c : array_like
of c.
990
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
values : ndarray, algebra_like
The shape of the return value is described above.
See Also:
chebval2d, chebgrid2d, chebval3d, chebgrid3d
Notes
The evaluation uses Clenshaw recursion, aka synthetic division.
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y).
p(x, y) =
ci,j Ti (x) Tj (y)
i,j
If c is a 1-D array a one is implicitly appended to its shape to make it 2-D. The shape of the result will be
c.shape[2:] + x.shape.
Parameters
left unchanged and if it isnt an ndarray it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j is contained in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than 2 the remaining indices enumerate
Returns
The values of the two dimensional Chebyshev series at points formed from pairs of
corresponding values from x and y.
See Also:
chebval, chebgrid2d, chebval3d, chebgrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y, z).
3.26. Polynomials
991

p(x, y, z) =
ci,j,k Ti (x) Tj (y) Tk (z)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
chebval, chebval2d, chebgrid2d, chebgrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebgrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
p(a, b) =
ci,j Ti (a) Tj (b),
i,j
Parameters
992
Chapter 3. Routines
c : array_like
Returns
The values of the two dimensional Chebyshev series at points in the Cartesian product
of x and y.
See Also:
chebval, chebval2d, chebval3d, chebgrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebgrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
p(a, b, c) =
ci,j,k Ti (a) Tj (b) Tk (c)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
and y.
See Also:
chebval, chebval2d, chebgrid2d, chebval3d
3.26. Polynomials
993
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Chebyshev series.
p(x) =
c[i] Ti (x).
Parameters
c : 1-D array_like
1-D array of coefficients.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of the roots of the series. If all the roots are real, then out is also real, otherwise
it is complex.
See Also:
polyroots, legroots, lagroots, hermroots, hermeroots
Notes
complex plane may have large errors due to the numerical instability of the series for such values. Roots with
multiplicity greater than 1 will also show larger errors as the value of the series near such points is relatively
method.
The Chebyshev series basis polynomials arent powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.chebyshev as cheb
>>> cheb.chebroots((-1, 1,-1, 1)) # T3 - T2 + T1 - T0 has real roots
array([ -5.00000000e-01,
2.60860684e-17,
1.00000000e+00])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebfromroots(roots)
Generate a Chebyshev series with given roots.
The function returns the coefficients of the polynomial
p(x) = (x r0 ) (x r1 ) ... (x rn ),
in Chebyshev form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must
appear in roots n times. For instance, if 2 is a root of multiplicity three and 3 is a root of multiplicity 2, then
roots looks something like [2, 2, 2, 3, 3]. The roots can appear in any order.
p(x) = c0 + c1 T1 (x) + ... + cn Tn (x)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Chebyshev form.
994
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
roots : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
1-D array of coefficients. If all roots are real then out is a real array, if some of the roots
are complex, then out is complex even if all the coefficients in the result are real (see
Examples below).
See Also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.chebyshev as C
>>> C.chebfromroots((-1,0,1)) # x^3 - x relative to the standard basis
array([ 0. , -0.25, 0. , 0.25])
>>> C.chebfromroots((-j,j)) # x^2 + 1 relative to the standard basis
array([ 1.5+0.j, 0.0+0.j, 0.5+0.j])
chebfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w])

chebvander(x, deg)
chebvander2d(x, y, deg)
chebvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
Least squares fit of Chebyshev series to data.

Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
Fitting
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)
Least squares fit of Chebyshev series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Legendre series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
at points x. If y is 1-D the returned coefficients will also be 1-D. If y is 2-D multiple fits are done, one for each
p(x) = c0 + c1 T1 (x) + ... + cn Tn (x),
where n is deg.
Since numpy version 1.7.0, chebfit also supports NA. If any of the elements of x, y, or w are NA, then the
Parameters
per column.
3.26. Polynomials
995
deg : int
Degree of the fitting series
1.5.0.
Returns
coef : ndarray, shape (M,) or (M, K)
Chebyshev coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the
data in column k of y are in column k.
[residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond] : present when full = True
Residuals of the least-squares fit, the effective rank of the scaled Vandermonde matrix and its singular values, and the specified value of rcond. For more details, see
linalg.lstsq.
Warns
RankWarning
only raised if full = False. The warnings can be turned off by
>>> import warnings
See Also:
polyfit, legfit, lagfit, hermfit, hermefit
chebval
Evaluates a Chebyshev series.
chebvander
Vandermonde matrix of Chebyshev series.
chebweight
Chebyshev weight function.
linalg.lstsq
996
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Chebyshev series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
X
E=
wj2 |yj p(xj )|2 ,
j
where wj are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up as the (typically) overdetermined matrix equation
V (x) c = w y,
V.
If some of the singular values of V are so small that they are neglected, then a RankWarning will be issued. This
means that the coefficient values may be poorly determined. Using a lower order fit will usually get rid of the
warning. The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the resulting fit may be
spurious and have large contributions from roundoff error.
Fits using Chebyshev series are usually better conditioned than fits using power series, but much can depend on
the distribution of the sample points and the smoothness of the data. If the quality of the fit is inadequate splines
may be a good alternative.
References
[R58]
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebvander(x, deg)
Returns the pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of degree deg and sample points x. The pseudo-Vandermonde matrix
is defined by
V [..., i] = Ti (x),
where 0 <= i <= deg. The leading indices of V index the elements of x and the last index is the degree of the
Chebyshev polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the matrix V = chebvander(x, n), then
np.dot(V, c) and chebval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Chebyshev series of the same degree and sample
points.
Parameters
x : array_like
deg : int
Returns
vander : ndarray
The pseudo Vandermonde matrix. The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape +
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Chebyshev
polynomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.
3.26. Polynomials
997
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebvander2d(x, y, deg)
V [..., deg[1] i + j] = Ti (x) Tj (y),
index encodes the degrees of the Chebyshev polynomials.
If V = chebvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
c00 , c01 , c02 ..., c10 , c11 , c12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and chebval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Chebyshev series of the
Parameters
x, y : array_like
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander2d : ndarray
See Also:
chebvander, chebvander3d., chebval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
V [..., (m + 1)(n + 1)i + (n + 1)j + k] = Ti (x) Tj (y) Tk (z),
last index encodes the degrees of the Chebyshev polynomials.
If V = chebvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
c000 , c001 , c002 , ..., c010 , c011 , c012 , ...
998
Chapter 3. Routines
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and chebval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Chebyshev series
of the same degrees and sample points.
Parameters
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander3d : ndarray
See Also:
chebvander, chebvander3d., chebval3d
Notes
chebder(c[, m, scl, axis])
chebint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis])
Differentiate a Chebyshev series.

Integrate a Chebyshev series.
Calculus
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)
Differentiate a Chebyshev series.
Returns the Chebyshev series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c
is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
1*T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*T_0(x)*T_0(y) + 1*T_1(x)*T_0(y)
+ 2*T_0(x)*T_1(y) + 2*T_1(x)*T_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Chebyshev series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
3.26. Polynomials
999
Returns
der : ndarray
Chebyshev series of the derivative.
See Also:
chebint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a C-series needs to be reprojected onto the C-series basis set. Thus,
typically, the result of this function is unintuitive, albeit correct; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial import chebyshev as C
>>> c = (1,2,3,4)
>>> C.chebder(c)
array([ 14., 12., 24.])
>>> C.chebder(c,3)
array([ 96.])
>>> C.chebder(c,scl=-1)
array([-14., -12., -24.])
>>> C.chebder(c,2,-1)
array([ 12., 96.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Chebyshev series.
Returns the Chebyshev series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the
resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use
in a linear change of variable. (Buyer beware: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want
scl to be the reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The
argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*T_0(x)*T_0(y) + 1*T_1(x)*T_0(y) +
2*T_0(x)*T_1(y) + 2*T_1(x)*T_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Chebyshev series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
Integration constant(s). The value of the first integral at zero is the first value in the
list, the value of the second integral at zero is the second value, etc. If k == [] (the
a list.
1000
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
S : ndarray
C-series coefficients of the integral.
Raises
ValueError
If
m < 1,
len(k) > m,
np.isscalar(lbnd) == False,
np.isscalar(scl) == False.
or
See Also:
chebder
Notes
scl equal to 1/a- perhaps not what one would have first thought.
Also note that, in general, the result of integrating a C-series needs to be reprojected onto the C-series basis
set. Thus, typically, the result of this function is unintuitive, albeit correct; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> c = (1,2,3)
>>> C.chebint(c)
array([ 0.5, -0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> C.chebint(c,3)
array([ 0.03125
, -0.1875
, 0.04166667, -0.05208333,
0.00625
])
>>> C.chebint(c, k=3)
array([ 3.5, -0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> C.chebint(c,lbnd=-2)
array([ 8.5, -0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> C.chebint(c,scl=-2)
array([-1., 1., -1., -1.])
chebadd(c1, c2)
chebsub(c1, c2)
chebmul(c1, c2)
chebmulx(c)
chebdiv(c1, c2)
chebpow(c, pow[, maxpower])
0.01041667,
Add one Chebyshev series to another.

Subtract one Chebyshev series from another.
Multiply one Chebyshev series by another.
Multiply a Chebyshev series by x.
Divide one Chebyshev series by another.
Raise a Chebyshev series to a power.
Algebra
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebadd(c1, c2)
Add one Chebyshev series to another.
Returns the sum of two Chebyshev series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from
lowest order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
1001
c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array representing the Chebyshev series of their sum.
See Also:
chebsub, chebmul, chebdiv, chebpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Chebyshev series is a Chebyshev series (without having
to reproject the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of standard polynomials, is simply
component-wise.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebadd(c1,c2)
array([ 4., 4., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Chebyshev series from another.
Returns the difference of two Chebyshev series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order
term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Chebyshev series coefficients representing their difference.
See Also:
chebadd, chebmul, chebdiv, chebpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Chebyshev series is a Chebyshev series (without
having to reproject the result onto the basis set) so subtraction, just like that of standard polynomials, is
simply component-wise.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebsub(c1,c2)
array([-2., 0., 2.])
>>> C.chebsub(c2,c1) # -C.chebsub(c1,c2)
array([ 2., 0., -2.])
1002
Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Chebyshev series by another.
Returns the product of two Chebyshev series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
order term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Chebyshev series coefficients representing their product.
See Also:
chebadd, chebsub, chebdiv, chebpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Chebyshev polynomial
basis set. Thus, to express the product as a C-series, it is typically necessary to reproject the product onto said
basis set, which typically produces unintuitive live (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebmul(c1,c2) # multiplication requires "reprojection"
array([ 6.5, 12. , 12. ,
4. ,
1.5])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebmulx(c)
Multiply a Chebyshev series by x.
Multiply the polynomial c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Chebyshev series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Chebyshev series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients from lowest order term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
3.26. Polynomials
1003
Returns
Of Chebyshev series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See Also:
chebadd, chebsub, chebmul, chebpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one C-series by another results in quotient and remainder terms that are
not in the Chebyshev polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as C-series, it is typically necessary
to reproject the results onto said basis set, which typically produces unintuitive (but correct) results; see
Examples section below.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebdiv(c1,c2) # quotient "intuitive," remainder not
(array([ 3.]), array([-8., -4.]))
>>> c2 = (0,1,2,3)
>>> C.chebdiv(c2,c1) # neither "intuitive"
(array([ 0., 2.]), array([-2., -4.]))
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Chebyshev series to a power.
Returns the Chebyshev series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered
from low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high.
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Returns
coef : ndarray
Chebyshev series of power.
See Also:
chebadd, chebsub, chebmul, chebdiv
chebgauss(deg)
chebweight(x)
Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature.
The weight function of the Chebyshev polynomials.
Quadrature
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebgauss(deg)
1004
Chapter 3. Routines
Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature. These sample points and weights
will correctly
integrate polynomials of degree 2deg1 or less over the interval [1, 1] with the weight function
f (x) = 1/ 1 x2 .
Parameters
deg : int
Number of sample points and weights. It must be >= 1.
Returns
x : ndarray
1-D ndarray containing the sample points.
y : ndarray
1-D ndarray containing the weights.
Notes
New in version 1.7.0. The results have only been tested up to degree 100, higher degrees may be problematic.
For Gauss-Chebyshev there are closed form solutions for the sample points and weights. If n = deg, then
xi = cos((2i 1)/(2n))
wi = /n
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebweight(x)
The weight function of the Chebyshev polynomials.
The weight function is 1/ 1 x2 and the interval of integration is [1, 1]. The Chebyshev polynomials are
orthogonal, but not normalized, with respect to this weight function.
Parameters
x : array_like
Values at which the weight function will be computed.
Returns
w : ndarray
The weight function at x.
Notes
chebcompanion(c)
chebdomain
chebzero
chebone
chebx
chebtrim(c[, tol])
chebline(off, scl)
cheb2poly(c)
poly2cheb(pol)
3.26. Polynomials
Return the scaled companion matrix of c.

Chebyshev series whose graph is a straight line.
Convert a Chebyshev series to a polynomial.
Convert a polynomial to a Chebyshev series.
1005
Miscellaneous
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebcompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is aa Chebyshev basis
polynomial. This provides better eigenvalue estimates than the unscaled case and for basis polynomials the
eigenvalues are guaranteed to be real if numpy.linalg.eigvalsh is used to obtain them.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns
mat : ndarray
Scaled companion matrix of dimensions (deg, deg).
Notes
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebdomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebx = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebtrim(c, tol=0)
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
trimmed : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
If tol < 0
See Also:
trimseq
1006
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j
, 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebline(off, scl)
Chebyshev series whose graph is a straight line.
Parameters
off, scl : scalars
The specified line is given by off + scl*x.
Returns
y : ndarray
This modules representation of the Chebyshev series for off + scl*x.
See Also:
polyline
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.chebyshev as C
>>> C.chebline(3,2)
array([3, 2])
>>> C.chebval(-3, C.chebline(3,2)) # should be -3
-3.0
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.cheb2poly(c)
Convert a Chebyshev series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Chebyshev series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to
an array of the coefficients of the equivalent polynomial (relative to the standard basis) ordered from lowest
to highest degree.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array containing the Chebyshev series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term
to highest.
Returns
pol : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent polynomial (relative to the standard basis) ordered from lowest order term to highest.
See Also:
poly2cheb
Notes
The easy way to do conversions between polynomial basis sets is to use the convert method of a class instance.
3.26. Polynomials
1007
Examples
>>> c = P.Chebyshev(range(4))
>>> c
Chebyshev([ 0., 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p = c.convert(kind=P.Polynomial)
>>> p
Polynomial([ -2., -8.,
4., 12.], [-1., 1.])
>>> P.cheb2poly(range(4))
array([ -2., -8.,
4., 12.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.poly2cheb(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Chebyshev series.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a polynomial (relative to the standard basis) ordered from
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Chebyshev series, ordered from lowest
to highest degree.
Parameters
pol : array_like
1-D array containing the polynomial coefficients
Returns
c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Chebyshev series.
See Also:
cheb2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> p = P.Polynomial(range(4))
>>> p
Polynomial([ 0., 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.])
>>> c = p.convert(kind=P.Chebyshev)
>>> c
Chebyshev([ 1. , 3.25, 1. , 0.75], [-1.,
>>> P.poly2cheb(range(4))
array([ 1. , 3.25, 1. , 0.75])
1.])
Legendre Module (numpy.polynomial.legendre)

New in version 1.6.0. This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Legendre series, including a Legendre class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information
numpy.polynomial).
Legendre(coef[, domain, window])
A Legendre series class.
Legendre Class
1008
Chapter 3. Routines
class numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre(coef, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])

A Legendre series class.
Legendre instances provide the standard Python numerical methods +, -, *, //, %, divmod, **, and
Parameters
coef : array_like
Legendre coefficients, in increasing order. For example, (1, 2, 3) implies P_0 +
2P_1 + 3P_2 where the P_i are a graded polynomial basis.
Notes
Attributes
coef
domain
window
((N,) ndarray) Legendre coefficients, from low to high.

Methods
__call__(arg)
copy()
cutdeg(deg)
degree()
deriv([m])
has_samecoef(other)
has_sametype(other)
integ([m, k, lbnd])
mapparms()
roots()
trim([tol])
truncate(size)
3.26. Polynomials
Legendre polynomial of degree deg.

Convert instance to equivalent Legendre series.
Return a copy.
Differentiate.
Return Legendre instance with specified roots.
Identity function.
Integrate.
1009
Legendre.__call__(arg)
static Legendre.basis(deg, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Legendre polynomial of degree deg.
Returns an instance of the Legendre polynomial of degree d.
Parameters
deg : int
Degree of the Legendre polynomial. Must be >= 0.
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Legendre instance
Notes
static Legendre.cast(series, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Convert instance to equivalent Legendre series.
Parameters
series : series
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Legendre instance
A Legendre series equal to the poly series.
See Also:
convert
1010
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Legendre.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)
Parameters
used.
used.
Returns
Notes
Legendre.copy()
Return a copy.
Return a copy of the current Legendre instance.
Returns
new_instance : Legendre
Legendre.cutdeg(deg)
Reduce the degree of the Legendre series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater than
Parameters
Returns
New instance of Legendre with reduced degree.
3.26. Polynomials
1011
Notes
Legendre.degree()
Notes
Legendre.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Return an instance of Legendre that is the derivative of the current series. Refer to legder for full
documentation.
Parameters
Returns
derivative : Legendre
See Also:
legder
similar function.
legint
static Legendre.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=[-1, 1])
Return a Legendre instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. Unlike legfit, the
of ill conditioning. Support for NA was added in version 1.7.0. See legfit for full documentation of the
implementation.
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Domain to use for the returned Legendre instance. If None, then a minimal domain that
covers the points x is chosen. If [] the default domain [-1,1] is used. The default
numpy 1.5.0.
1012
Chapter 3. Routines

1.5.0
Window to use for the returned Legendre instance. The default value is [-1,1] ..
Returns
least_squares_fit : instance of Legendre
The Legendre instance is the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified in
the call.
linalg.lstsq.
See Also:
legfit
similar function
static Legendre.fromroots(roots, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Return Legendre instance with specified roots.
Returns an instance of Legendre representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x r[n-1]), where r is the list of roots.
Parameters
roots : array_like
List of roots.
Domain for the resulting instance of Legendre. If none the domain is the interval from
Window for the resulting instance of Legendre. The default value is [-1,1].
Returns
object : Legendre instance
3.26. Polynomials
1013

See Also:
legfromroots
equivalent function
Legendre.has_samecoef(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Legendre.has_samedomain(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Legendre.has_sametype(other)
Parameters
other : object
Class instance.
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Legendre.has_samewindow(other)
Parameters
1014
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
static Legendre.identity(domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Identity function.
If p is the returned Legendre object, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
Parameters
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
identity : Legendre instance
Legendre.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
Return an instance of Legendre that is the definite integral of the current series. Refer to legint for full
documentation.
Parameters
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
Returns
integral : Legendre
See Also:
legint
similar function.
legder
Legendre.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
3.26. Polynomials
1015
Returns x, y values at n linearly spaced points across domain. Here y is the value of the polynomial at
the points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the Legendre instance. This method is intended
Parameters
n : int, optional
Returns
x, y : ndarrays
at x.
Legendre.mapparms()
the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the Legendre instance are to be
Returns
Notes
L(l_1) = l_2
L(r_1) = r_2
Legendre.roots()
Return ndarray of roots for this series. See legroots for full documentation. Note that the accuracy of
See Also:
legroots
similar function
legfromroots
Legendre.trim(tol=0)
1016
Chapter 3. Routines
Legendre instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters
Returns
Legendre.truncate(size)
Reduce the Legendre series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be
be very small.
Parameters
size : positive int
Returns
New instance of Legendre with truncated coefficients.
legval(x, c[, tensor])

legval2d(x, y, c)
legval3d(x, y, z, c)
leggrid2d(x, y, c)
leggrid3d(x, y, z, c)
legroots(c)
legfromroots(roots)
Evaluate a Legendre series at points x.

Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series at points (x, y).
Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series at points (x, y, z).
Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
Compute the roots of a Legendre series.
Generate a Legendre series with given roots.
Basics
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a Legendre series at points x.
p(x) = c0 L0 (x) + c1 L1 (x) + ... + cn Ln (x)
elements of c.
concern.
3.26. Polynomials
1017
Parameters
c : array_like
of c.
Returns
See Also:
legval2d, leggrid2d, legval3d, leggrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series at points (x, y).
p(x, y) =
ci,j Li (x) Lj (y)
i,j
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j is contained in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than two the remaining indices enumerate
1018
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
The values of the two dimensional Legendre series at points formed from pairs of corresponding values from x and y.
See Also:
legval, leggrid2d, legval3d, leggrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series at points (x, y, z).
p(x, y, z) =
ci,j,k Li (x) Lj (y) Lk (z)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
legval, legval2d, leggrid2d, leggrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.leggrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
p(a, b) =
ci,j Li (a) Lj (b)
i,j
3.26. Polynomials
1019
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
of x and y.
See Also:
legval, legval2d, legval3d, leggrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.leggrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
p(a, b, c) =
ci,j,k Li (a) Lj (b) Lk (c)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
1020
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
and y.
See Also:
legval, legval2d, leggrid2d, legval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Legendre series.
p(x) =
c[i] Li (x).
Parameters
c : 1-D array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
it is complex.
See Also:
polyroots, chebroots, lagroots, hermroots, hermeroots
Notes
method.
The Legendre series basis polynomials arent powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.legendre as leg
>>> leg.legroots((1, 2, 3, 4)) # 4L_3 + 3L_2 + 2L_1 + 1L_0 has only real roots
array([-0.85099543, -0.11407192, 0.51506735])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legfromroots(roots)
Generate a Legendre series with given roots.
p(x) = (x r0 ) (x r1 ) ... (x rn ),
3.26. Polynomials
1021
in Legendre form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
in roots n times. For instance, if 2 is a root of multiplicity three and 3 is a root of multiplicity 2, then roots looks
something like [2, 2, 2, 3, 3]. The roots can appear in any order.
p(x) = c0 + c1 L1 (x) + ... + cn Ln (x)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Legendre form.
Parameters
roots : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples below).
See Also:
polyfromroots, chebfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.legendre as L
>>> L.legfromroots((-1,0,1)) # x^3 - x relative to the standard basis
array([ 0. , -0.4, 0. , 0.4])
>>> L.legfromroots((-j,j)) # x^2 + 1 relative to the standard basis
array([ 1.33333333+0.j, 0.00000000+0.j, 0.66666667+0.j])
legfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w])

legvander(x, deg)
legvander2d(x, y, deg)
legvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
Least squares fit of Legendre series to data.

Fitting
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)
Least squares fit of Legendre series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Legendre series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
p(x) = c0 + c1 L1 (x) + ... + cn Ln (x),
where n is deg.
Since numpy version 1.7.0, legfit also supports NA. If any of the elements of x, y, or w are NA, then the
1022
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
1.5.0.
Returns
Legendre coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the
linalg.lstsq.
Warns
RankWarning
>>> import warnings
See Also:
chebfit, polyfit, lagfit, hermfit, hermefit
legval
Evaluates a Legendre series.
legvander
Vandermonde matrix of Legendre series.
3.26. Polynomials
1023
legweight
Legendre weight function (= 1).
linalg.lstsq
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Legendre series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
X
E=
wj2 |yj p(xj )|2 ,
j
where wj are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up as the (typically) overdetermined matrix equation
V (x) c = w y,
V.
Fits using Legendre series are usually better conditioned than fits using power series, but much can depend on
the distribution of the sample points and the smoothness of the data. If the quality of the fit is inadequate splines
may be a good alternative.
References
[R62]
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legvander(x, deg)
is defined by
V [..., i] = Li (x)
Legendre polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = legvander(x, n), then
np.dot(V, c) and legval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Legendre series of the same degree and sample points.
Parameters
x : array_like
1024
Chapter 3. Routines
deg : int
Returns
vander : ndarray
The pseudo-Vandermonde matrix. The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape +
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Legendre polynomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legvander2d(x, y, deg)
V [..., deg[1] i + j] = Li (x) Lj (y),
index encodes the degrees of the Legendre polynomials.
If V = legvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
c00 , c01 , c02 ..., c10 , c11 , c12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and legval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Legendre series of the
Parameters
x, y : array_like
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander2d : ndarray
See Also:
legvander, legvander3d., legval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
V [..., (m + 1)(n + 1)i + (n + 1)j + k] = Li (x) Lj (y) Lk (z),
3.26. Polynomials
1025
last index encodes the degrees of the Legendre polynomials.
If V = legvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
c000 , c001 , c002 , ..., c010 , c011 , c012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and legval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Legendre series of
the same degrees and sample points.
Parameters
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander3d : ndarray
See Also:
legvander, legvander3d., legval3d
Notes
legder(c[, m, scl, axis])
legint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis])
Differentiate a Legendre series.

Integrate a Legendre series.
Calculus
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)
Differentiate a Legendre series.
Returns the Legendre series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2
while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) + 2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) +
2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Legendre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
1026
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
der : ndarray
Legendre series of the derivative.
See Also:
legint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Legendre series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
Thus the result of this function may be unintuitive, albeit correct; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial import legendre as L
>>> c = (1,2,3,4)
>>> L.legder(c)
array([ 6.,
9., 20.])
>>> L.legder(c, 3)
array([ 60.])
>>> L.legder(c, scl=-1)
array([ -6., -9., -20.])
>>> L.legder(c, 2,-1)
array([ 9., 60.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Legendre series.
Returns the Legendre series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use in a
linear change of variable. (Buyer beware: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want scl to
be the reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) +
2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) + 2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Legendre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
Integration constant(s). The value of the first integral at lbnd is the first value in the
list, the value of the second integral at lbnd is the second value, etc. If k == [] (the
a list.
3.26. Polynomials
1027

Returns
S : ndarray
Legendre series coefficient array of the integral.
Raises
ValueError
If
m < 0,
len(k) > m,
or
See Also:
legder
Notes
Examples
>>> c = (1,2,3)
>>> L.legint(c)
array([ 0.33333333, 0.4
, 0.66666667, 0.6
])
>>> L.legint(c, 3)
array([ 1.66666667e-02, -1.78571429e-02,
4.76190476e-02,
-1.73472348e-18,
1.90476190e-02,
9.52380952e-03])
>>> L.legint(c, k=3)
array([ 3.33333333, 0.4
, 0.66666667, 0.6
])
>>> L.legint(c, lbnd=-2)
array([ 7.33333333, 0.4
, 0.66666667, 0.6
])
>>> L.legint(c, scl=2)
array([ 0.66666667, 0.8
, 1.33333333, 1.2
])
legadd(c1, c2)
legsub(c1, c2)
legmul(c1, c2)
legmulx(c)
legdiv(c1, c2)
legpow(c, pow[, maxpower])
1028
Add one Legendre series to another.

Subtract one Legendre series from another.
Multiply one Legendre series by another.
Multiply a Legendre series by x.
Divide one Legendre series by another.
Raise a Legendre series to a power.
Chapter 3. Routines
Algebra
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legadd(c1, c2)
Add one Legendre series to another.
Returns the sum of two Legendre series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from
lowest order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array representing the Legendre series of their sum.
See Also:
legsub, legmul, legdiv, legpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Legendre series is a Legendre series (without having to reproject the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of standard polynomials, is simply componentwise.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> L.legadd(c1,c2)
array([ 4., 4., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Legendre series from another.
Returns the difference of two Legendre series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Legendre series coefficients representing their difference.
See Also:
legadd, legmul, legdiv, legpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Legendre series is a Legendre series (without having
to reproject the result onto the basis set) so subtraction, just like that of standard polynomials, is simply
component-wise.
3.26. Polynomials
1029
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> L.legsub(c1,c2)
array([-2., 0., 2.])
>>> L.legsub(c2,c1) # -C.legsub(c1,c2)
array([ 2., 0., -2.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Legendre series by another.
Returns the product of two Legendre series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
order term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Legendre series coefficients representing their product.
See Also:
legadd, legsub, legdiv, legpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Legendre polynomial
basis set. Thus, to express the product as a Legendre series, it is necessary to reproject the product onto said
basis set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2)
>>> P.legmul(c1,c2) # multiplication requires "reprojection"
array([ 4.33333333, 10.4
, 11.66666667,
3.6
])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legmulx(c)
Multiply a Legendre series by x.
Multiply the Legendre series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Legendre polynomials in the form
xPi (x) = ((i + 1) Pi+1 (x) + i Pi1 (x))/(2i + 1)
1030
Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Legendre series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Legendre series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
from lowest order term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
quo, rem : ndarrays
Of Legendre series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See Also:
legadd, legsub, legmul, legpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Legendre series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Legendre polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Legendre series, it is
necessary to reproject the results onto the Legendre basis set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct)
results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> L.legdiv(c1,c2) # quotient "intuitive," remainder not
(array([ 3.]), array([-8., -4.]))
>>> c2 = (0,1,2,3)
>>> L.legdiv(c2,c1) # neither "intuitive"
(array([-0.07407407, 1.66666667]), array([-1.03703704, -2.51851852]))
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Legendre series to a power.
Returns the Legendre series c raised to the power pow. The arguement c is a sequence of coefficients ordered
from low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Returns
coef : ndarray
Legendre series of power.
3.26. Polynomials
1031
See Also:
legadd, legsub, legmul, legdiv
leggauss(deg)
legweight(x)
Gauss-Legendre quadrature.
Weight function of the Legendre polynomials.
Quadrature
numpy.polynomial.legendre.leggauss(deg)
Gauss-Legendre quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Legendre quadrature. These sample points and weights will
correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2 deg 1 or less over the interval [1, 1] with the weight function
f (x) = 1.
Parameters
deg : int
Returns
x : ndarray
y : ndarray
Notes
The results have only been tested up to degree 100, higher degrees may be problematic. The weights are
determined by using the fact that
wk = c/(L0n (xk ) Ln1 (xk ))
where c is a constant independent of k and xk is the kth root of Ln , and then scaling the results to get the right
value when integrating 1.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legweight(x)
Weight function of the Legendre polynomials.
The weight function is 1 and the interval of integration is [1, 1]. The Legendre polynomials are orthogonal,
but not normalized, with respect to this weight function.
Parameters
x : array_like
Returns
w : ndarray
Notes
legcompanion(c)
1032

Chapter 3. Routines

legdomain
legzero
legone
legx
legtrim(c[, tol])
legline(off, scl)
Legendre series whose graph is a straight line.
leg2poly(c)
Convert a Legendre series to a polynomial.
poly2leg(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Legendre series.
Miscellaneous
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legcompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is an Legendre basis
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns
mat : ndarray
Notes
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legdomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legx = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legtrim(c, tol=0)
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
trimmed : ndarray
3.26. Polynomials
1033
Raises
ValueError
If tol < 0
See Also:
trimseq
Examples
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j
, 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legline(off, scl)
Legendre series whose graph is a straight line.
Parameters
off, scl : scalars
Returns
y : ndarray
This modules representation of the Legendre series for off + scl*x.
See Also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.legendre as L
>>> L.legline(3,2)
array([3, 2])
>>> L.legval(-3, L.legline(3,2)) # should be -3
-3.0
numpy.polynomial.legendre.leg2poly(c)
Convert a Legendre series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Legendre series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
array of the coefficients of the equivalent polynomial (relative to the standard basis) ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array containing the Legendre series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term
to highest.
Returns
pol : ndarray
1034
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
poly2leg
Notes
Examples
>>> c = P.Legendre(range(4))
>>> c
Legendre([ 0., 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p = c.convert(kind=P.Polynomial)
>>> p
Polynomial([-1. , -3.5, 3. , 7.5], [-1.,
>>> P.leg2poly(range(4))
array([-1. , -3.5, 3. , 7.5])
1.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.poly2leg(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Legendre series.
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Legendre series, ordered from lowest
to highest degree.
Parameters
pol : array_like
Returns
c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Legendre series.
See Also:
leg2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> p = P.Polynomial(np.arange(4))
>>> p
Polynomial([ 0., 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.])
>>> c = P.Legendre(P.poly2leg(p.coef))
>>> c
Legendre([ 1. , 3.25, 1. , 0.75], [-1.,
1.])
Laguerre Module (numpy.polynomial.laguerre)

New in version 1.6.0. This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Laguerre series, including a Laguerre class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information
3.26. Polynomials
1035
numpy.polynomial).
Laguerre(coef[, domain, window])
A Laguerre series class.
Laguerre Class
class numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre(coef, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
A Laguerre series class.
Laguerre instances provide the standard Python numerical methods +, -, *, //, %, divmod, **, and
Parameters
coef : array_like
Laguerre coefficients, in increasing order. For example, (1, 2, 3) implies P_0 +
Notes
Attributes
coef
domain
window
((N,) ndarray) Laguerre coefficients, from low to high.

Methods
__call__(arg)
copy()
cutdeg(deg)
degree()
deriv([m])
has_samecoef(other)
has_sametype(other)
1036
Laguerre polynomial of degree deg.

Convert instance to equivalent Laguerre series.
Return a copy.
Differentiate.
Return Laguerre instance with specified roots.
Chapter 3. Routines

Identity function.
integ([m, k, lbnd])
Integrate.
mapparms()
roots()
trim([tol])
truncate(size)
Laguerre.__call__(arg)
static Laguerre.basis(deg, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Laguerre polynomial of degree deg.
Returns an instance of the Laguerre polynomial of degree d.
Parameters
deg : int
Degree of the Laguerre polynomial. Must be >= 0.
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Laguerre instance
Notes
static Laguerre.cast(series, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Convert instance to equivalent Laguerre series.
Parameters
series : series
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Laguerre instance
3.26. Polynomials
1037
A Laguerre series equal to the poly series.

See Also:
convert
Notes
Laguerre.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)
Parameters
used.
used.
Returns
Notes
Laguerre.copy()
Return a copy.
Return a copy of the current Laguerre instance.
Returns
new_instance : Laguerre
Laguerre.cutdeg(deg)
Reduce the degree of the Laguerre series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater than
Parameters
Returns
New instance of Laguerre with reduced degree.
1038
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Laguerre.degree()
Notes
Laguerre.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Return an instance of Laguerre that is the derivative of the current series. Refer to lagder for full
documentation.
Parameters
Returns
derivative : Laguerre
See Also:
lagder
similar function.
lagint
static Laguerre.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=[-1, 1])
Return a Laguerre instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. Unlike lagfit, the
of ill conditioning. Support for NA was added in version 1.7.0. See lagfit for full documentation of the
implementation.
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Domain to use for the returned Laguerre instance. If None, then a minimal domain that
numpy 1.5.0.
3.26. Polynomials
1039

1.5.0
Window to use for the returned Laguerre instance. The default value is [-1,1] ..
Returns
least_squares_fit : instance of Laguerre
The Laguerre instance is the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified in
the call.
linalg.lstsq.
See Also:
lagfit
similar function
static Laguerre.fromroots(roots, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Return Laguerre instance with specified roots.
Returns an instance of Laguerre representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x r[n-1]), where r is the list of roots.
Parameters
roots : array_like
List of roots.
Domain for the resulting instance of Laguerre. If none the domain is the interval from
Window for the resulting instance of Laguerre. The default value is [-1,1].
Returns
object : Laguerre instance
1040
Chapter 3. Routines

See Also:
lagfromroots
equivalent function
Laguerre.has_samecoef(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Laguerre.has_samedomain(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Laguerre.has_sametype(other)
Parameters
other : object
Class instance.
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Laguerre.has_samewindow(other)
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
1041
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
static Laguerre.identity(domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Identity function.
If p is the returned Laguerre object, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
Parameters
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
identity : Laguerre instance
Laguerre.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
Return an instance of Laguerre that is the definite integral of the current series. Refer to lagint for full
documentation.
Parameters
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
Returns
integral : Laguerre
See Also:
lagint
similar function.
lagder
Laguerre.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
1042
Chapter 3. Routines
the points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the Laguerre instance. This method is intended
Parameters
n : int, optional
Returns
x, y : ndarrays
at x.
Laguerre.mapparms()
the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the Laguerre instance are to be
Returns
Notes
L(l_1) = l_2
L(r_1) = r_2
Laguerre.roots()
Return ndarray of roots for this series. See lagroots for full documentation. Note that the accuracy of
See Also:
lagroots
similar function
lagfromroots
Laguerre.trim(tol=0)
3.26. Polynomials
1043
Laguerre instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters
Returns
Laguerre.truncate(size)
Reduce the Laguerre series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be a
positive integer. This can be useful in least squares where the coefficients of the high degree terms may be
very small.
Parameters
size : positive int
Returns
New instance of Laguerre with truncated coefficients.
lagval(x, c[, tensor])

lagval2d(x, y, c)
lagval3d(x, y, z, c)
laggrid2d(x, y, c)
laggrid3d(x, y, z, c)
lagroots(c)
lagfromroots(roots)
Evaluate a Laguerre series at points x.

Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series at points (x, y).
Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series at points (x, y, z).
Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
Compute the roots of a Laguerre series.
Generate a Laguerre series with given roots.
Basics
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a Laguerre series at points x.
p(x) = c0 L0 (x) + c1 L1 (x) + ... + cn Ln (x)
elements of c.
concern.
1044
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
c : array_like
of c.
Returns
See Also:
lagval2d, laggrid2d, lagval3d, laggrid3d
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagval
>>> coef = [1,2,3]
>>> lagval(1, coef)
-0.5
>>> lagval([[1,2],[3,4]], coef)
array([[-0.5, -4. ],
[-4.5, -2. ]])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series at points (x, y).
p(x, y) =
ci,j Li (x) Lj (y)
i,j
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
1045
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
lagval, laggrid2d, lagval3d, laggrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series at points (x, y, z).
p(x, y, z) =
ci,j,k Li (x) Lj (y) Lk (z)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
The values of the multidimension polynomial on points formed with triples of corresponding values from x, y, and z.
See Also:
lagval, lagval2d, laggrid2d, laggrid3d
1046
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.laggrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
p(a, b) =
ci,j Li (a) Lj (b)
i,j
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
of x and y.
See Also:
lagval, lagval2d, lagval3d, laggrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.laggrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
p(a, b, c) =
ci,j,k Li (a) Lj (b) Lk (c)
i,j,k
3.26. Polynomials
1047
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
and y.
See Also:
lagval, lagval2d, laggrid2d, lagval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Laguerre series.
p(x) =
c[i] Li (x).
Parameters
c : 1-D array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
it is complex.
See Also:
polyroots, legroots, chebroots, hermroots, hermeroots
Notes
method.
The Laguerre series basis polynomials arent powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
1048
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagroots, lagfromroots

>>> coef = lagfromroots([0, 1, 2])
>>> coef
array([ 2., -8., 12., -6.])
>>> lagroots(coef)
array([ -4.44089210e-16,
1.00000000e+00,
2.00000000e+00])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagfromroots(roots)
Generate a Laguerre series with given roots.
p(x) = (x r0 ) (x r1 ) ... (x rn ),
in Laguerre form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
p(x) = c0 + c1 L1 (x) + ... + cn Ln (x)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Laguerre form.
Parameters
roots : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples below).
See Also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, chebfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagfromroots, lagval
>>> coef = lagfromroots((-1, 0, 1))
>>> lagval((-1, 0, 1), coef)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
>>> coef = lagfromroots((-1j, 1j))
>>> lagval((-1j, 1j), coef)
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
lagfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w])

lagvander(x, deg)
lagvander2d(x, y, deg)
lagvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
3.26. Polynomials
Least squares fit of Laguerre series to data.

1049
Fitting
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)
Least squares fit of Laguerre series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Laguerre series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
p(x) = c0 + c1 L1 (x) + ... + cn Ln (x),
where n is deg.
Since numpy version 1.7.0, lagfit also supports NA. If any of the elements of x, y, or w are NA, then the
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
w[i]*y[i] all have the same variance. The default value is None.
Returns
Laguerre coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the
linalg.lstsq.
1050
Chapter 3. Routines
Warns
RankWarning
>>> import warnings
See Also:
chebfit, legfit, polyfit, hermfit, hermefit
lagval
Evaluates a Laguerre series.
lagvander
pseudo Vandermonde matrix of Laguerre series.
lagweight
Laguerre weight function.
linalg.lstsq
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Laguerre series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
X
E=
wj2 |yj p(xj )|2 ,
j
where the wj are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up as the (typically) overdetermined matrix
equation
V (x) c = w y,
V.
Fits using Laguerre series are probably most useful when the data can be approximated by sqrt(w(x)) *
p(x), where w(x) is the Laguerre weight. In that case the weight sqrt(w(x[i]) should be used together
with data values y[i]/sqrt(w(x[i]). The weight function is available as lagweight.
References
[R61]
3.26. Polynomials
1051
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagfit, lagval
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 10)
>>> err = np.random.randn(len(x))/10
>>> y = lagval(x, [1, 2, 3]) + err
>>> lagfit(x, y, 2)
array([ 0.96971004, 2.00193749, 3.00288744])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagvander(x, deg)
is defined by
V [..., i] = Li (x)
Laguerre polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = lagvander(x, n), then
np.dot(V, c) and lagval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Laguerre series of the same degree and sample points.
Parameters
x : array_like
deg : int
Returns
vander : ndarray
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Laguerre polynomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagvander
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2])
>>> lagvander(x, 3)
array([[ 1.
, 1.
, 1.
, 1.
],
[ 1.
, 0.
, -0.5
, -0.66666667],
[ 1.
, -1.
, -1.
, -0.33333333]])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagvander2d(x, y, deg)
V [..., deg[1] i + j] = Li (x) Lj (y),
index encodes the degrees of the Laguerre polynomials.
1052
Chapter 3. Routines
If V = lagvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a

c00 , c01 , c02 ..., c10 , c11 , c12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and lagval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Laguerre series of the
Parameters
x, y : array_like
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander2d : ndarray
See Also:
lagvander, lagvander3d., lagval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
V [..., (m + 1)(n + 1)i + (n + 1)j + k] = Li (x) Lj (y) Lk (z),
last index encodes the degrees of the Laguerre polynomials.
If V = lagvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
c000 , c001 , c002 , ..., c010 , c011 , c012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and lagval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Laguerre series of
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
1053
deg : list of ints

Returns
vander3d : ndarray
See Also:
lagvander, lagvander3d., lagval3d
Notes
lagder(c[, m, scl, axis])
lagint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis])
Differentiate a Laguerre series.

Integrate a Laguerre series.
Calculus
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)
Differentiate a Laguerre series.
Returns the Laguerre series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2
while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) + 2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) +
2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Laguerre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
Returns
der : ndarray
Laguerre series of the derivative.
See Also:
lagint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Laguerre series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
1054
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagder
>>> lagder([ 1., 1., 1., -3.])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> lagder([ 1., 0., 0., -4., 3.], m=2)
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Laguerre series.
Returns the Laguerre series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use in a
L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) +
2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) + 2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Laguerre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
a list.
Returns
S : ndarray
Laguerre series coefficients of the integral.
Raises
ValueError
If
m < 0,
len(k) > m,
or
See Also:
lagder
3.26. Polynomials
1055
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagint
>>> lagint([1,2,3])
array([ 1., 1., 1., -3.])
>>> lagint([1,2,3], m=2)
array([ 1., 0., 0., -4., 3.])
>>> lagint([1,2,3], k=1)
array([ 2., 1., 1., -3.])
>>> lagint([1,2,3], lbnd=-1)
array([ 11.5,
1. ,
1. , -3. ])
>>> lagint([1,2], m=2, k=[1,2], lbnd=-1)
array([ 11.16666667, -5.
, -3.
,
lagadd(c1, c2)
lagsub(c1, c2)
lagmul(c1, c2)
lagmulx(c)
lagdiv(c1, c2)
lagpow(c, pow[, maxpower])
2.
])
Add one Laguerre series to another.

Subtract one Laguerre series from another.
Multiply one Laguerre series by another.
Multiply a Laguerre series by x.
Divide one Laguerre series by another.
Raise a Laguerre series to a power.
Algebra
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagadd(c1, c2)
Add one Laguerre series to another.
Returns the sum of two Laguerre series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from
lowest order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array representing the Laguerre series of their sum.
See Also:
lagsub, lagmul, lagdiv, lagpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Laguerre series is a Laguerre series (without having to reproject the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of standard polynomials, is simply componentwise.
1056
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagadd
>>> lagadd([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
array([ 2., 4., 6., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Laguerre series from another.
Returns the difference of two Laguerre series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Laguerre series coefficients representing their difference.
See Also:
lagadd, lagmul, lagdiv, lagpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Laguerre series is a Laguerre series (without having
component-wise.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagsub
>>> lagsub([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
array([ 0., 0., 0., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Laguerre series by another.
Returns the product of two Laguerre series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Laguerre series coefficients representing their product.
See Also:
lagadd, lagsub, lagdiv, lagpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Laguerre polynomial
basis set. Thus, to express the product as a Laguerre series, it is necessary to reproject the product onto said
basis set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
3.26. Polynomials
1057
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagmul
>>> lagmul([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2])
array([ 8., -13., 38., -51., 36.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagmulx(c)
Multiply a Laguerre series by x.
Multiply the Laguerre series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Laguerre polynomials in the form
xP_i(x) = (-(i + 1)*P_{i + 1}(x) + (2i + 1)P_{i}(x) - iP_{i - 1}(x))

Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagmulx
>>> lagmulx([1, 2, 3])
array([ -1., -1., 11., -9.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Laguerre series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Laguerre series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
Of Laguerre series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See Also:
lagadd, lagsub, lagmul, lagpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Laguerre series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Laguerre polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Laguerre series, it is
necessary to reproject the results onto the Laguerre basis set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct)
results; see Examples section below.
1058
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagdiv
>>> lagdiv([ 8., -13., 38., -51., 36.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 0.]))
>>> lagdiv([ 9., -12., 38., -51., 36.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 1., 1.]))
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Laguerre series to a power.
Returns the Laguerre series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered
from low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Returns
coef : ndarray
Laguerre series of power.
See Also:
lagadd, lagsub, lagmul, lagdiv
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagpow
>>> lagpow([1, 2, 3], 2)
array([ 14., -16., 56., -72., 54.])
laggauss(deg)
lagweight(x)
Gauss-Laguerre quadrature.
Weight function of the Laguerre polynomials.
Quadrature
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.laggauss(deg)
Gauss-Laguerre quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Laguerre quadrature. These sample points and weights will
correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2 deg 1 or less over the interval [0, inf] with the weight function
f (x) = exp(x).
Parameters
deg : int
Returns
x : ndarray
3.26. Polynomials
1059

y : ndarray
Notes
The results have only been tested up to degree 100 higher degrees may be problematic. The weights are determined by using the fact that
wk = c/(L0n (xk ) Ln1 (xk ))
where c is a constant independent of k and xk is the kth root of Ln , and then scaling the results to get the right
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagweight(x)
Weight function of the Laguerre polynomials.
The weight function is exp(x) and the interval of integration is [0, inf]. The Laguerre polynomials are orthogonal, but not normalized, with respect to this weight function.
Parameters
x : array_like
Returns
w : ndarray
Notes
lagcompanion(c)
lagdomain
lagzero
lagone
lagx
lagtrim(c[, tol])
lagline(off, scl)
lag2poly(c)
poly2lag(pol)

Laguerre series whose graph is a straight line.
Convert a Laguerre series to a polynomial.
Convert a polynomial to a Laguerre series.
Miscellaneous
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagcompanion(c)
The usual companion matrix of the Laguerre polynomials is already symmetric when c is a basis Laguerre
polynomial, so no scaling is applied.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns
mat : ndarray
Companion matrix of dimensions (deg, deg).
1060
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagdomain = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagx = array([ 1, -1])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagtrim(c, tol=0)
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
trimmed : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
If tol < 0
See Also:
trimseq
Examples
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j
, 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagline(off, scl)
Laguerre series whose graph is a straight line.
Parameters
off, scl : scalars
3.26. Polynomials
1061
Returns
y : ndarray
This modules representation of the Laguerre series for off + scl*x.
See Also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagline, lagval
>>> lagval(0,lagline(3, 2))
3.0
>>> lagval(1,lagline(3, 2))
5.0
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lag2poly(c)
Convert a Laguerre series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Laguerre series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
highest degree.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array containing the Laguerre series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term to
highest.
Returns
pol : ndarray
See Also:
poly2lag
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lag2poly
>>> lag2poly([ 23., -63., 58., -18.])
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.poly2lag(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Laguerre series.
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Laguerre series, ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Parameters
pol : array_like
Returns
c : ndarray
1062
Chapter 3. Routines
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Laguerre series.

See Also:
lag2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import poly2lag
>>> poly2lag(np.arange(4))
array([ 23., -63., 58., -18.])
Hermite Module, Physicists (numpy.polynomial.hermite)

New in version 1.6.0. This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Hermite series, including a Hermite class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information
numpy.polynomial).
Hermite(coef[, domain, window])
A Hermite series class.
Hermite Class
class numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite(coef, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
A Hermite series class.
Hermite instances provide the standard Python numerical methods +, -, *, //, %, divmod, **, and ()
as well as the listed methods.
Parameters
coef : array_like
Hermite coefficients, in increasing order. For example, (1, 2, 3) implies P_0 +
Notes
Attributes
coef
domain
window
((N,) ndarray) Hermite coefficients, from low to high.

3.26. Polynomials
1063
Methods
__call__(arg)
copy()
cutdeg(deg)
degree()
deriv([m])
has_samecoef(other)
has_sametype(other)
integ([m, k, lbnd])
mapparms()
roots()
trim([tol])
truncate(size)
Hermite polynomial of degree deg.

Convert instance to equivalent Hermite series.
Return a copy.
Differentiate.
Return Hermite instance with specified roots.
Identity function.
Integrate.
Hermite.__call__(arg)
static Hermite.basis(deg, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Hermite polynomial of degree deg.
Returns an instance of the Hermite polynomial of degree d.
Parameters
deg : int
Degree of the Hermite polynomial. Must be >= 0.
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Hermite instance
Notes
static Hermite.cast(series, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Convert instance to equivalent Hermite series.
1064
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
series : series
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : Hermite instance
A Hermite series equal to the poly series.
See Also:
convert
Notes
Hermite.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)
Parameters
used.
used.
Returns
Notes
Hermite.copy()
Return a copy.
Return a copy of the current Hermite instance.
3.26. Polynomials
1065
Returns
new_instance : Hermite
Hermite.cutdeg(deg)
Reduce the degree of the Hermite series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater than
Parameters
Returns
New instance of Hermite with reduced degree.
Notes
Hermite.degree()
Notes
Hermite.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Return an instance of Hermite that is the derivative of the current series. Refer to hermder for full
documentation.
Parameters
Returns
derivative : Hermite
See Also:
hermder
similar function.
hermint
static Hermite.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=[-1, 1])
Return a Hermite instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. Unlike hermfit, the
1066
Chapter 3. Routines
of ill conditioning. Support for NA was added in version 1.7.0. See hermfit for full documentation of
the implementation.
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Domain to use for the returned Hermite instance. If None, then a minimal domain that
numpy 1.5.0.
1.5.0
Window to use for the returned Hermite instance. The default value is [-1,1] .. versionadded:: 1.6.0
Returns
least_squares_fit : instance of Hermite
The Hermite instance is the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified in
the call.
linalg.lstsq.
See Also:
3.26. Polynomials
1067
hermfit
similar function
static Hermite.fromroots(roots, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Return Hermite instance with specified roots.
Returns an instance of Hermite representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x r[n-1]), where r is the list of roots.
Parameters
roots : array_like
List of roots.
Domain for the resulting instance of Hermite. If none the domain is the interval from
Window for the resulting instance of Hermite. The default value is [-1,1].
Returns
object : Hermite instance
See Also:
hermfromroots
equivalent function
Hermite.has_samecoef(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Hermite.has_samedomain(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
1068
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Hermite.has_sametype(other)
Parameters
other : object
Class instance.
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
Hermite.has_samewindow(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
static Hermite.identity(domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Identity function.
If p is the returned Hermite object, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
Parameters
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
identity : Hermite instance
Hermite.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
Return an instance of Hermite that is the definite integral of the current series. Refer to hermint for full
documentation.
Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
1069

k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
Returns
integral : Hermite
See Also:
hermint
similar function.
hermder
Hermite.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
the points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the Hermite instance. This method is intended
Parameters
n : int, optional
Returns
x, y : ndarrays
at x.
Hermite.mapparms()
the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the Hermite instance are to be used
by themselves outside this class, then the linear function must be substituted for the x in the standard
Returns
1070
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
L(l_1) = l_2
L(r_1) = r_2
Hermite.roots()
Return ndarray of roots for this series. See hermroots for full documentation. Note that the accuracy of
See Also:
hermroots
similar function
hermfromroots
Hermite.trim(tol=0)
Hermite instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters
Returns
Hermite.truncate(size)
Reduce the Hermite series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be a
positive integer. This can be useful in least squares where the coefficients of the high degree terms may be
very small.
Parameters
size : positive int
Returns
New instance of Hermite with truncated coefficients.
hermval(x, c[, tensor])

hermval2d(x, y, c)
hermval3d(x, y, z, c)
3.26. Polynomials
Evaluate an Hermite series at points x.

Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series at points (x, y).
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series at points (x, y, z).
1071

hermgrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
hermgrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
hermroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Hermite series.
hermfromroots(roots) Generate a Hermite series with given roots.
Basics
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate an Hermite series at points x.
p(x) = c0 H0 (x) + c1 H1 (x) + ... + cn Hn (x)
elements of c.
concern.
Parameters
c : array_like
of c.
Returns
See Also:
hermval2d, hermgrid2d, hermval3d, hermgrid3d
Notes
1072
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermval
>>> coef = [1,2,3]
>>> hermval(1, coef)
11.0
>>> hermval([[1,2],[3,4]], coef)
array([[ 11.,
51.],
[ 115., 203.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series at points (x, y).
p(x, y) =
ci,j Hi (x) Hj (y)
i,j
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
hermval, hermgrid2d, hermval3d, hermgrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series at points (x, y, z).
p(x, y, z) =
ci,j,k Hi (x) Hj (y) Hk (z)
i,j,k
3.26. Polynomials
1073
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
hermval, hermval2d, hermgrid2d, hermgrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermgrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
p(a, b) =
ci,j Hi (a) Hj (b)
i,j
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
1074
Chapter 3. Routines
and y.
See Also:
hermval, hermval2d, hermval3d, hermgrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermgrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
p(a, b, c) =
ci,j,k Hi (a) Hj (b) Hk (c)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
and y.
See Also:
hermval, hermval2d, hermgrid2d, hermval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Hermite series.
p(x) =
c[i] Hi (x).
3.26. Polynomials
1075
Parameters
c : 1-D array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
it is complex.
See Also:
polyroots, legroots, lagroots, chebroots, hermeroots
Notes
method.
The Hermite series basis polynomials arent powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermroots, hermfromroots
>>> coef = hermfromroots([-1, 0, 1])
>>> coef
array([ 0.
, 0.25 , 0.
, 0.125])
>>> hermroots(coef)
array([ -1.00000000e+00, -1.38777878e-17,
1.00000000e+00])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermfromroots(roots)
Generate a Hermite series with given roots.
p(x) = (x r0 ) (x r1 ) ... (x rn ),
in Hermite form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
p(x) = c0 + c1 H1 (x) + ... + cn Hn (x)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Hermite form.
Parameters
roots : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
1076
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples below).
See Also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, chebfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermfromroots, hermval
>>> coef = hermfromroots((-1, 0, 1))
>>> hermval((-1, 0, 1), coef)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
>>> coef = hermfromroots((-1j, 1j))
>>> hermval((-1j, 1j), coef)
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
hermfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w])

hermvander(x, deg)
hermvander2d(x, y, deg)
hermvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
Least squares fit of Hermite series to data.

Fitting
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)
Return the coefficients of a Hermite series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
p(x) = c0 + c1 H1 (x) + ... + cn Hn (x),
where n is deg.
Since numpy version 1.7.0, hermfit also supports NA. If any of the elements of x, y, or w are NA, then the
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
3.26. Polynomials
1077
Returns
Hermite coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the data
in column k of y are in column k.
linalg.lstsq.
Warns
RankWarning
>>> import warnings
See Also:
chebfit, legfit, lagfit, polyfit, hermefit
hermval
Evaluates a Hermite series.
hermvander
Vandermonde matrix of Hermite series.
hermweight
Hermite weight function
linalg.lstsq
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Hermite series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
X
E=
wj2 |yj p(xj )|2 ,
j
1078
Chapter 3. Routines
where the wj are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up the (typically) overdetermined matrix
equation
V (x) c = w y,
weights, y are the observed values. This equation is then solved using the singular value decomposition of V.
Fits using Hermite series are probably most useful when the data can be approximated by sqrt(w(x)) *
p(x), where w(x) is the Hermite weight. In that case the weight sqrt(w(x[i]) should be used together
with data values y[i]/sqrt(w(x[i]). The weight function is available as hermweight.
References
[R59]
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermfit, hermval
>>> x = np.linspace(-10, 10)
>>> y = hermval(x, [1, 2, 3]) + err
>>> hermfit(x, y, 2)
array([ 0.97902637, 1.99849131, 3.00006
])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermvander(x, deg)
is defined by
V [..., i] = Hi (x),
Hermite polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = hermvander(x, n), then
np.dot(V, c) and hermval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for
least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Hermite series of the same degree and sample
points.
Parameters
x : array_like
deg : int
Returns
vander : ndarray
3.26. Polynomials
1079

(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Hermite polynomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermvander
>>> x = np.array([-1, 0, 1])
>>> hermvander(x, 3)
array([[ 1., -2., 2., 4.],
[ 1., 0., -2., -0.],
[ 1., 2., 2., -4.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermvander2d(x, y, deg)
V [..., deg[1] i + j] = Hi (x) Hj (y),
index encodes the degrees of the Hermite polynomials.
If V = hermvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
c00 , c01 , c02 ..., c10 , c11 , c12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Hermite series of the same
degrees and sample points.
Parameters
x, y : array_like
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander2d : ndarray
See Also:
hermvander, hermvander3d., hermval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
1080
Chapter 3. Routines
V [..., (m + 1)(n + 1)i + (n + 1)j + k] = Hi (x) Hj (y) Hk (z),
last index encodes the degrees of the Hermite polynomials.
If V = hermvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
c000 , c001 , c002 , ..., c010 , c011 , c012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Hermite series of
Parameters
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander3d : ndarray
See Also:
hermvander, hermvander3d., hermval3d
Notes
hermder(c[, m, scl, axis])
hermint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis])
Differentiate a Hermite series.

Integrate a Hermite series.
Calculus
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)
Differentiate a Hermite series.
Returns the Hermite series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*H_0 + 2*H_1 + 3*H_2
while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*H_0(x)*H_0(y) + 1*H_1(x)*H_0(y) + 2*H_0(x)*H_1(y) +
2*H_1(x)*H_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
3.26. Polynomials
1081
Array of Hermite series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
Returns
der : ndarray
Hermite series of the derivative.
See Also:
hermint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Hermite series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermder
>>> hermder([ 1. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> hermder([-0.5, 1./2., 1./8., 1./12., 1./16.], m=2)
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Hermite series.
Returns the Hermite series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use in a
H_0 + 2*H_1 + 3*H_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*H_0(x)*H_0(y) + 1*H_1(x)*H_0(y) +
2*H_0(x)*H_1(y) + 2*H_1(x)*H_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Hermite series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
1082
Chapter 3. Routines
a list.
Returns
S : ndarray
Hermite series coefficients of the integral.
Raises
ValueError
If
m < 0,
len(k) > m,
or
See Also:
hermder
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermint
>>> hermint([1,2,3]) # integrate once, value 0 at 0.
array([ 1. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], m=2) # integrate twice, value & deriv 0 at 0
array([-0.5
, 0.5
, 0.125
, 0.08333333, 0.0625
>>> hermint([1,2,3], k=1) # integrate once, value 1 at 0.
array([ 2. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], lbnd=-1) # integrate once, value 0 at -1
array([-2. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], m=2, k=[1,2], lbnd=-1)
array([ 1.66666667, -0.5
, 0.125
, 0.08333333, 0.0625
hermadd(c1, c2)
hermsub(c1, c2)
hermmul(c1, c2)
hermmulx(c)
3.26. Polynomials
])
])
Add one Hermite series to another.

Subtract one Hermite series from another.
Multiply one Hermite series by another.
Multiply a Hermite series by x.
1083

hermdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Hermite series by another.
hermpow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a Hermite series to a power.
Algebra
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermadd(c1, c2)
Returns the sum of two Hermite series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from lowest
order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of Hermite series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array representing the Hermite series of their sum.
See Also:
hermsub, hermmul, hermdiv, hermpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having to reproject the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of standard polynomials, is simply componentwise.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermadd
>>> hermadd([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
array([ 2., 4., 6., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermsub(c1, c2)
Returns the difference of two Hermite series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their difference.
See Also:
hermadd, hermmul, hermdiv, hermpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having
component-wise.
1084
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermsub
>>> hermsub([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
array([ 0., 0., 0., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermmul(c1, c2)
Returns the product of two Hermite series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their product.
See Also:
hermadd, hermsub, hermdiv, hermpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis
set. Thus, to express the product as a Hermite series, it is necessary to reproject the product onto said basis
set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermmul
>>> hermmul([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2])
array([ 52., 29., 52.,
7.,
6.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermmulx(c)
Multiply the Hermite series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Hermite series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Returns
out : ndarray
Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Hermite polynomials in the form
xP_i(x) = (P_{i + 1}(x)/2 + i*P_{i - 1}(x))
3.26. Polynomials
1085
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermmulx
>>> hermmulx([1, 2, 3])
array([ 2. , 6.5, 1. , 1.5])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermdiv(c1, c2)
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Hermite series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
Of Hermite series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See Also:
hermadd, hermsub, hermmul, hermpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Hermite series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Hermite series, it is necessary
to reproject the results onto the Hermite basis set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct) results; see
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermdiv
>>> hermdiv([ 52., 29., 52.,
7.,
6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 0.]))
>>> hermdiv([ 54., 31., 52.,
7.,
6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 2., 2.]))
>>> hermdiv([ 53., 30., 52.,
7.,
6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 1., 1.]))
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Hermite series to a power.
Returns the Hermite series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered from
low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c : array_like
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
1086
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
coef : ndarray
Hermite series of power.
See Also:
hermadd, hermsub, hermmul, hermdiv
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermpow
>>> hermpow([1, 2, 3], 2)
array([ 81., 52., 82., 12.,
9.])
hermgauss(deg)
hermweight(x)
Gauss-Hermite quadrature.
Weight function of the Hermite polynomials.
Quadrature
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermgauss(deg)
Gauss-Hermite quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Hermite quadrature. These sample points and weights will
correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2deg 1 or less over the interval [ inf, inf] with the weight function
f (x) = exp(x2 ).
Parameters
deg : int
Returns
x : ndarray
y : ndarray
Notes
wk = c/(Hn0 (xk ) Hn1 (xk ))
where c is a constant independent of k and xk is the kth root of Hn , and then scaling the results to get the right
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermweight(x)
Weight function of the Hermite polynomials.
The weight function is exp(x2 ) and the interval of integration is [ inf, inf]. the Hermite polynomials are
Parameters
x : array_like
3.26. Polynomials
1087
Returns
w : ndarray
Notes
hermcompanion(c)
hermdomain
hermzero
hermone
hermx
hermtrim(c[, tol])
hermline(off, scl)
herm2poly(c)
poly2herm(pol)

Hermite series whose graph is a straight line.
Convert a Hermite series to a polynomial.
Convert a polynomial to a Hermite series.
Miscellaneous
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermcompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is an Hermite basis polynomial. This provides better eigenvalue estimates than the unscaled case and for basis polynomials the eigenvalues
are guaranteed to be real if numpy.linalg.eigvalsh is used to obtain them.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of Hermite series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns
mat : ndarray
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermdomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermx = array([ 0. , 0.5])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermtrim(c, tol=0)
Parameters
c : array_like
1088
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
trimmed : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
If tol < 0
See Also:
trimseq
Examples
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j
, 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermline(off, scl)
Parameters
off, scl : scalars
Returns
y : ndarray
This modules representation of the Hermite series for off + scl*x.
See Also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermline, hermval
>>> hermval(0,hermline(3, 2))
3.0
>>> hermval(1,hermline(3, 2))
5.0
numpy.polynomial.hermite.herm2poly(c)
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Hermite series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
highest degree.
3.26. Polynomials
1089
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array containing the Hermite series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term to
highest.
Returns
pol : ndarray
See Also:
poly2herm
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import herm2poly
>>> herm2poly([ 1.
, 2.75 , 0.5 , 0.375])
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.poly2herm(pol)
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series, ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Parameters
pol : array_like
Returns
c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series.
See Also:
herm2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import poly2herme
>>> poly2herm(np.arange(4))
array([ 1.
, 2.75 , 0.5 , 0.375])
HermiteE Module, Probabilists (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e)

New in version 1.6.0. This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with HermiteE series, including a HermiteE class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information
numpy.polynomial).
1090
Chapter 3. Routines
HermiteE(coef[, domain, window])
A HermiteE series class.
HermiteE Class
class numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE(coef, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
A HermiteE series class.
HermiteE instances provide the standard Python numerical methods +, -, *, //, %, divmod, **, and
Parameters
coef : array_like
HermiteE coefficients, in increasing order. For example, (1, 2, 3) implies P_0 +
Notes
Attributes
coef
domain
window
((N,) ndarray) HermiteE coefficients, from low to high.

Methods
__call__(arg)
copy()
cutdeg(deg)
degree()
deriv([m])
has_samecoef(other)
has_sametype(other)
integ([m, k, lbnd])
3.26. Polynomials
HermiteE polynomial of degree deg.

Convert instance to equivalent HermiteE series.
Return a copy.
Differentiate.
Return HermiteE instance with specified roots.
Identity function.
Integrate.
1091
mapparms()
roots()
trim([tol])
truncate(size)

HermiteE.__call__(arg)
static HermiteE.basis(deg, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
HermiteE polynomial of degree deg.
Returns an instance of the HermiteE polynomial of degree d.
Parameters
deg : int
Degree of the HermiteE polynomial. Must be >= 0.
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : HermiteE instance
Notes
static HermiteE.cast(series, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Convert instance to equivalent HermiteE series.
Parameters
series : series
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
p : HermiteE instance
A HermiteE series equal to the poly series.
1092
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
convert
Notes
HermiteE.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)
Parameters
used.
used.
Returns
Notes
HermiteE.copy()
Return a copy.
Return a copy of the current HermiteE instance.
Returns
new_instance : HermiteE
HermiteE.cutdeg(deg)
Reduce the degree of the HermiteE series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater than
Parameters
Returns
New instance of HermiteE with reduced degree.
3.26. Polynomials
1093
Notes
HermiteE.degree()
Notes
HermiteE.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Return an instance of HermiteE that is the derivative of the current series. Refer to hermeder for full
documentation.
Parameters
Returns
derivative : HermiteE
See Also:
hermeder
similar function.
hermeint
static HermiteE.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=[-1, 1])
Return a HermiteE instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. Unlike hermefit, the
of ill conditioning. Support for NA was added in version 1.7.0. See hermefit for full documentation of
the implementation.
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Domain to use for the returned HermiteE instance. If None, then a minimal domain that
numpy 1.5.0.
1094
Chapter 3. Routines

1.5.0
Window to use for the returned HermiteE instance. The default value is [-1,1] ..
Returns
least_squares_fit : instance of HermiteE
The HermiteE instance is the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified
in the call.
linalg.lstsq.
See Also:
hermefit
similar function
static HermiteE.fromroots(roots, domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Return HermiteE instance with specified roots.
Returns an instance of HermiteE representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x r[n-1]), where r is the list of roots.
Parameters
roots : array_like
List of roots.
Domain for the resulting instance of HermiteE. If none the domain is the interval from
Window for the resulting instance of HermiteE. The default value is [-1,1].
Returns
object : HermiteE instance
3.26. Polynomials
1095

See Also:
hermefromroots
equivalent function
HermiteE.has_samecoef(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
HermiteE.has_samedomain(other)
Parameters
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
HermiteE.has_sametype(other)
Parameters
other : object
Class instance.
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
HermiteE.has_samewindow(other)
Parameters
1096
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
bool : boolean
Notes
static HermiteE.identity(domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Identity function.
If p is the returned HermiteE object, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
Parameters
domain : array_like
window : array_like
Returns
identity : HermiteE instance
HermiteE.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
Return an instance of HermiteE that is the definite integral of the current series. Refer to hermeint for
full documentation.
Parameters
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
Returns
integral : HermiteE
See Also:
hermeint
similar function.
hermeder
HermiteE.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
3.26. Polynomials
1097
the points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the HermiteE instance. This method is intended
Parameters
n : int, optional
Returns
x, y : ndarrays
at x.
HermiteE.mapparms()
the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the HermiteE instance are to be
Returns
Notes
L(l_1) = l_2
L(r_1) = r_2
HermiteE.roots()
Return ndarray of roots for this series. See hermeroots for full documentation. Note that the accuracy
of the roots is likely to decrease the further outside the domain they lie.
See Also:
hermeroots
similar function
hermefromroots
HermiteE.trim(tol=0)
1098
Chapter 3. Routines
HermiteE instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters
Returns
HermiteE.truncate(size)
Reduce the HermiteE series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be
be very small.
Parameters
size : positive int
Returns
New instance of HermiteE with truncated coefficients.
hermeval(x, c[, tensor])

hermeval2d(x, y, c)
hermeval3d(x, y, z, c)
hermegrid2d(x, y, c)
hermegrid3d(x, y, z, c)
hermeroots(c)
hermefromroots(roots)
Evaluate an HermiteE series at points x.

Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series at points (x, y).
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite_e series at points (x, y, z).
Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
Evaluate a 3-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
Compute the roots of a HermiteE series.
Generate a HermiteE series with given roots.
Basics
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate an HermiteE series at points x.
p(x) = c0 He0 (x) + c1 He1 (x) + ... + cn Hen (x)
elements of c.
concern.
3.26. Polynomials
1099
Parameters
c : array_like
of c.
Returns
See Also:
hermeval2d, hermegrid2d, hermeval3d, hermegrid3d
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeval
>>> coef = [1,2,3]
>>> hermeval(1, coef)
3.0
>>> hermeval([[1,2],[3,4]], coef)
array([[ 3., 14.],
[ 31., 54.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series at points (x, y).
p(x, y) =
ci,j Hei (x) Hej (y)
i,j
Parameters
1100
Chapter 3. Routines
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
hermeval, hermegrid2d, hermeval3d, hermegrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite_e series at points (x, y, z).
p(x, y, z) =
ci,j,k Hei (x) Hej (y) Hek (z)
i,j,k
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
See Also:
hermeval, hermeval2d, hermegrid2d, hermegrid3d
3.26. Polynomials
1101
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermegrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
p(a, b) =
ci,j Hi (a) Hj (b)
i,j
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
and y.
See Also:
hermeval, hermeval2d, hermeval3d, hermegrid3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermegrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
p(a, b, c) =
ci,j,k Hei (a) Hej (b) Hek (c)
i,j,k
1102
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
and y.
See Also:
hermeval, hermeval2d, hermegrid2d, hermeval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeroots(c)
Compute the roots of a HermiteE series.
p(x) =
c[i] Hei (x).
Parameters
c : 1-D array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
it is complex.
See Also:
polyroots, legroots, lagroots, hermroots, chebroots
Notes
method.
The HermiteE series basis polynomials arent powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
3.26. Polynomials
1103
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeroots, hermefromroots

>>> coef = hermefromroots([-1, 0, 1])
>>> coef
array([ 0., 2., 0., 1.])
>>> hermeroots(coef)
array([-1., 0., 1.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermefromroots(roots)
Generate a HermiteE series with given roots.
p(x) = (x r0 ) (x r1 ) ... (x rn ),
in HermiteE form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
p(x) = c0 + c1 He1 (x) + ... + cn Hen (x)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in HermiteE form.
Parameters
roots : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Examples below).
See Also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, chebfromroots.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermefromroots, hermeval
>>> coef = hermefromroots((-1, 0, 1))
>>> hermeval((-1, 0, 1), coef)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
>>> coef = hermefromroots((-1j, 1j))
>>> hermeval((-1j, 1j), coef)
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
hermefit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w])

hermevander(x, deg)
hermevander2d(x, y, deg)
hermevander3d(x, y, z, deg)
1104

Chapter 3. Routines
Fitting
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermefit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)
Return the coefficients of a HermiteE series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
p(x) = c0 + c1 He1 (x) + ... + cn Hen (x),
where n is deg.
Since numpy version 1.7.0, hermefit also supports NA. If any of the elements of x, y, or w are NA, then the
Parameters
per column.
deg : int
Returns
Hermite coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the data
in column k of y are in column k.
linalg.lstsq.
3.26. Polynomials
1105
Warns
RankWarning
>>> import warnings
See Also:
chebfit, legfit, polyfit, hermfit, polyfit
hermeval
Evaluates a Hermite series.
hermevander
pseudo Vandermonde matrix of Hermite series.
hermeweight
HermiteE weight function.
linalg.lstsq
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the HermiteE series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
X
E=
wj2 |yj p(xj )|2 ,
j
where the wj are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up the (typically) overdetermined matrix
equation
V (x) c = w y,
where V is the pseudo Vandermonde matrix of x, the elements of c are the coefficients to be solved for, and the
elements of y are the observed values. This equation is then solved using the singular value decomposition of V.
Fits using HermiteE series are probably most useful when the data can be approximated by sqrt(w(x)) *
p(x), where w(x) is the HermiteE weight. In that case the weight sqrt(w(x[i]) should be used together
with data values y[i]/sqrt(w(x[i]). The weight function is available as hermeweight.
References
[R60]
Examples
1106
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermefik, hermeval

>>> x = np.linspace(-10, 10)
>>> y = hermeval(x, [1, 2, 3]) + err
>>> hermefit(x, y, 2)
array([ 1.01690445, 1.99951418, 2.99948696])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermevander(x, deg)
is defined by
V [..., i] = Hei (x),
HermiteE polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = hermevander(x, n), then
np.dot(V, c) and hermeval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for
least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of HermiteE series of the same degree and sample
points.
Parameters
x : array_like
deg : int
Returns
vander : ndarray
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding HermiteE polynomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermevander
>>> x = np.array([-1, 0, 1])
>>> hermevander(x, 3)
array([[ 1., -1., 0., 2.],
[ 1., 0., -1., -0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., -2.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermevander2d(x, y, deg)
V [..., deg[1] i + j] = Hei (x) Hej (y),
index encodes the degrees of the HermiteE polynomials.
3.26. Polynomials
1107
If V = hermevander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of

a 2-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1) in the order
c00 , c01 , c02 ..., c10 , c11 , c12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermeval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D HermiteE series of
Parameters
x, y : array_like
deg : list of ints
Returns
vander2d : ndarray
See Also:
hermevander, hermevander3d., hermeval3d
Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermevander3d(x, y, z, deg)
degrees in x, y, z, then Hehe pseudo-Vandermonde matrix is defined by
V [..., (m + 1)(n + 1)i + (n + 1)j + k] = Hei (x) Hej (y) Hek (z),
last index encodes the degrees of the HermiteE polynomials.
If V = hermevander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to
the elements of a 3-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1, zdeg + 1) in the order
c000 , c001 , c002 , ..., c010 , c011 , c012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermeval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D HermiteE series of
Parameters
1108
Chapter 3. Routines
deg : list of ints

Returns
vander3d : ndarray
See Also:
hermevander, hermevander3d., hermeval3d
Notes
hermeder(c[, m, scl, axis])
hermeint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis])
Differentiate a Hermite_e series.

Integrate a Hermite_e series.
Calculus
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)
Differentiate a Hermite_e series.
Returns the series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*He_0 +
2*He_1 + 3*He_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*He_0(x)*He_0(y) + 1*He_1(x)*He_0(y) +
2*He_0(x)*He_1(y) + 2*He_1(x)*He_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Hermite_e series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
Returns
der : ndarray
Hermite series of the derivative.
See Also:
hermeint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Hermite series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
3.26. Polynomials
1109
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeder
>>> hermeder([ 1., 1., 1., 1.])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> hermeder([-0.25, 1., 1./2., 1./3., 1./4 ], m=2)
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Hermite_e series.
Returns the Hermite_e series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the
resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use
in a linear change of variable. (Buyer beware: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want
scl to be the reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The
argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
H_0 + 2*H_1 + 3*H_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*H_0(x)*H_0(y) + 1*H_1(x)*H_0(y) +
2*H_0(x)*H_1(y) + 2*H_1(x)*H_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Parameters
c : array_like
Array of Hermite_e series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional
a list.
Returns
S : ndarray
Hermite_e series coefficients of the integral.
Raises
ValueError
If
m < 0,
len(k) > m,
or
See Also:
hermeder
1110
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeint
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3]) # integrate once, value 0 at 0.
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], m=2) # integrate twice, value & deriv 0 at 0
array([-0.25
, 1.
, 0.5
, 0.33333333, 0.25
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], k=1) # integrate once, value 1 at 0.
array([ 2., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], lbnd=-1) # integrate once, value 0 at -1
array([-1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], m=2, k=[1, 2], lbnd=-1)
array([ 1.83333333, 0.
, 0.5
, 0.33333333, 0.25
hermeadd(c1, c2)
hermesub(c1, c2)
hermemul(c1, c2)
hermemulx(c)
hermediv(c1, c2)
hermepow(c, pow[, maxpower])
])
])

Algebra
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeadd(c1, c2)
Returns the sum of two Hermite series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from lowest
order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Array representing the Hermite series of their sum.
See Also:
hermesub, hermemul, hermediv, hermepow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having to reproject the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of standard polynomials, is simply componentwise.
3.26. Polynomials
1111
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeadd
>>> hermeadd([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
array([ 2., 4., 6., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermesub(c1, c2)
Returns the difference of two Hermite series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their difference.
See Also:
hermeadd, hermemul, hermediv, hermepow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having
component-wise.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermesub
>>> hermesub([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
array([ 0., 0., 0., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermemul(c1, c2)
Returns the product of two Hermite series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their product.
See Also:
hermeadd, hermesub, hermediv, hermepow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis
set. Thus, to express the product as a Hermite series, it is necessary to reproject the product onto said basis
set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
1112
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermemul
>>> hermemul([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2])
array([ 14., 15., 28.,
7.,
6.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermemulx(c)
Multiply the Hermite series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
out : ndarray
Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Hermite polynomials in the form
xP_i(x) = (P_{i + 1}(x) + iP_{i - 1}(x)))

Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermemulx
>>> hermemulx([1, 2, 3])
array([ 2., 7., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermediv(c1, c2)
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Hermite series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
Parameters
c1, c2 : array_like
Returns
Of Hermite series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See Also:
hermeadd, hermesub, hermemul, hermepow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Hermite series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Hermite series, it is necessary
to reproject the results onto the Hermite basis set, which may produce unintuitive (but correct) results; see
3.26. Polynomials
1113
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermediv
>>> hermediv([ 14., 15., 28.,
7.,
6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 0.]))
>>> hermediv([ 15., 17., 28.,
7.,
6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 1., 2.]))
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermepow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Returns the Hermite series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered from
low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Parameters
c : array_like
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Returns
coef : ndarray
Hermite series of power.
See Also:
hermeadd, hermesub, hermemul, hermediv
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermepow
>>> hermepow([1, 2, 3], 2)
array([ 23., 28., 46., 12.,
9.])
hermegauss(deg)
hermeweight(x)
Gauss-HermiteE quadrature.
Weight function of the Hermite_e polynomials.
Quadrature
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermegauss(deg)
Gauss-HermiteE quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-HermiteE quadrature. These sample points and weights
will correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2 deg 1 or less over the interval [ inf, inf] with the weight
function f (x) = exp(x2 /2).
Parameters
deg : int
Returns
x : ndarray
1114
Chapter 3. Routines

y : ndarray
Notes
wk = c/(He0n (xk ) Hen1 (xk ))
where c is a constant independent of k and xk is the kth root of Hen , and then scaling the results to get the
right value when integrating 1.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeweight(x)
Weight function of the Hermite_e polynomials.
The weight function is exp(x2 /2) and the interval of integration is [ inf, inf]. the HermiteE polynomials are
Parameters
x : array_like
Returns
w : ndarray
Notes
hermecompanion(c)
hermedomain
hermezero
hermeone
hermex
hermetrim(c[, tol])
hermeline(off, scl)
herme2poly(c)
poly2herme(pol)

Miscellaneous
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermecompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is an HermiteE basis
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array of HermiteE series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns
mat : ndarray
3.26. Polynomials
1115

Notes
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermedomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermezero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermex = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermetrim(c, tol=0)
Parameters
c : array_like
Returns
trimmed : ndarray
Raises
ValueError
If tol < 0
See Also:
trimseq
Examples
>>> P.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j
, 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeline(off, scl)
Parameters
off, scl : scalars
1116
Chapter 3. Routines

Returns
y : ndarray
This modules representation of the Hermite series for off + scl*x.
See Also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
3.0
>>>
5.0
from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeline

from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeline, hermeval
hermeval(0,hermeline(3, 2))
hermeval(1,hermeline(3, 2))
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.herme2poly(c)
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Hermite series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
highest degree.
Parameters
c : array_like
1-D array containing the Hermite series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term to
highest.
Returns
pol : ndarray
See Also:
poly2herme
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import herme2poly
>>> herme2poly([ 2., 10.,
2.,
3.])
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.poly2herme(pol)
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series, ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Parameters
pol : array_like
3.26. Polynomials
1117
Returns
c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series.
See Also:
herme2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import poly2herme
>>> poly2herme(np.arange(4))
array([ 2., 10.,
2.,
3.])
Poly1d
Basics
poly1d(c_or_r[, r, variable])
polyval(p, x)
poly(seq_of_zeros)
roots(p)
A one-dimensional polynomial class.

Evaluate a polynomial at specific values.
Find the coefficients of a polynomial with the given sequence of roots.
Return the roots of a polynomial with coefficients given in p.
class numpy.poly1d(c_or_r, r=0, variable=None)

A convenience class, used to encapsulate natural operations on polynomials so that said operations may take
on their customary form in code (see Examples).
Parameters
c_or_r : array_like
The polynomials coefficients, in decreasing powers, or if the value of the second parameter is True, the polynomials roots (values where the polynomial evaluates to 0). For
example, poly1d([1, 2, 3]) returns an object that represents x2 +2x+3, whereas
poly1d([1, 2, 3], True) returns one that represents (x 1)(x 2)(x 3) =
x3 6x2 + 11x 6.
r : bool, optional
If True, c_or_r specifies the polynomials roots; the default is False.
variable : str, optional
Changes the variable used when printing p from x to variable (see Examples).
Examples
Construct the polynomial x2 + 2x + 3:
>>> p = np.poly1d([1, 2, 3])
>>> print np.poly1d(p)
2
1 x + 2 x + 3
1118
Chapter 3. Routines
Evaluate the polynomial at x = 0.5:

>>> p(0.5)
4.25
Find the roots:

>>> p.r
array([-1.+1.41421356j, -1.-1.41421356j])
>>> p(p.r)
array([ -4.44089210e-16+0.j, -4.44089210e-16+0.j])
These numbers in the previous line represent (0, 0) to machine precision

Show the coefficients:
>>> p.c
array([1, 2, 3])
Display the order (the leading zero-coefficients are removed):

>>> p.order
2
Show the coefficient of the k-th power in the polynomial (which is equivalent to p.c[-(i+1)]):
>>> p[1]
2
Polynomials can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (returns quotient and remainder):
>>> p * p
poly1d([ 1,
4, 10, 12,
>>> (p**3 + 4) / p
(poly1d([ 1.,
4.,
9])
10.,
12.,
9.]), poly1d([ 4.]))
asarray(p) gives the coefficient array, so polynomials can be used in all functions that accept arrays:
>>> p**2 # square of polynomial
poly1d([ 1, 4, 10, 12, 9])
>>> np.square(p) # square of individual coefficients
array([1, 4, 9])
The variable used in the string representation of p can be modified, using the variable parameter:
>>> p = np.poly1d([1,2,3], variable=z)
>>> print p
2
1 z + 2 z + 3
Construct a polynomial from its roots:

>>> np.poly1d([1, 2], True)
poly1d([ 1, -3, 2])
This is the same polynomial as obtained by:

>>> np.poly1d([1, -1]) * np.poly1d([1, -2])
poly1d([ 1, -3, 2])
3.26. Polynomials
1119
Attributes
coeffs
order
variable
Methods
__call__(val)
deriv([m])
integ([m, k])
Return a derivative of this polynomial.

Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of this polynomial.
poly1d.__call__(val)
poly1d.deriv(m=1)
Return a derivative of this polynomial.
Refer to polyder for full documentation.
See Also:
polyder
equivalent function
poly1d.integ(m=1, k=0)
Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of this polynomial.
Refer to polyint for full documentation.
See Also:
polyint
equivalent function
numpy.polyval(p, x)
Evaluate a polynomial at specific values.
If p is of length N, this function returns the value:
p[0]*x**(N-1) + p[1]*x**(N-2) + ...
+ p[N-2]*x + p[N-1]
If x is a sequence, then p(x) is returned for each element of x. If x is another polynomial then the composite
polynomial p(x(t)) is returned.
Parameters
p : array_like or poly1d object
1D array of polynomial coefficients (including coefficients equal to zero) from highest
degree to the constant term, or an instance of poly1d.
x : array_like or poly1d object
A number, a 1D array of numbers, or an instance of poly1d, at which to evaluate p.
Returns
values : ndarray or poly1d
1120
Chapter 3. Routines
If x is a poly1d instance, the result is the composition of the two polynomials, i.e., x
is substituted in p and the simplified result is returned. In addition, the type of x array_like or poly1d - governs the type of the output: x array_like => values array_like,
x a poly1d object => values is also.
See Also:
poly1d
A polynomial class.
Notes
Horners scheme [R63] is used to evaluate the polynomial. Even so, for polynomials of high degree the values
may be inaccurate due to rounding errors. Use carefully.
References
[R63]
Examples
>>> np.polyval([3,0,1], 5) # 3 * 5**2 + 0 * 5**1 + 1
76
>>> np.polyval([3,0,1], np.poly1d(5))
poly1d([ 76.])
>>> np.polyval(np.poly1d([3,0,1]), 5)
76
>>> np.polyval(np.poly1d([3,0,1]), np.poly1d(5))
poly1d([ 76.])
numpy.poly(seq_of_zeros)
Find the coefficients of a polynomial with the given sequence of roots.
Returns the coefficients of the polynomial whose leading coefficient is one for the given sequence of zeros
(multiple roots must be included in the sequence as many times as their multiplicity; see Examples). A square
matrix (or array, which will be treated as a matrix) can also be given, in which case the coefficients of the
characteristic polynomial of the matrix are returned.
Parameters
seq_of_zeros : array_like, shape (N,) or (N, N)
A sequence of polynomial roots, or a square array or matrix object.
Returns
c : ndarray
1D array of polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest degree:
c[0] * x**(N) + c[1] * x**(N-1) + ...
where c[0] always equals 1.
+ c[N-1] * x + c[N]
Raises
ValueError
If input is the wrong shape (the input must be a 1-D or square 2-D array).
See Also:
polyval
Evaluate a polynomial at a point.
3.26. Polynomials
1121
roots
Return the roots of a polynomial.
polyfit
poly1d
Notes
Specifying the roots of a polynomial still leaves one degree of freedom, typically represented by an undetermined
leading coefficient. [R54] In the case of this function, that coefficient - the first one in the returned array - is
always taken as one. (If for some reason you have one other point, the only automatic way presently to leverage
that information is to use polyfit.)
The characteristic polynomial, pa (t), of an n-by-n matrix A is given by
pa (t) = det(t I A),
where I is the n-by-n identity matrix. [R55]
References
[R54], [R55]
Examples
Given a sequence of a polynomials zeros:
>>> np.poly((0, 0, 0)) # Multiple root example
array([1, 0, 0, 0])
The line above represents z**3 + 0*z**2 + 0*z + 0.

>>> np.poly((-1./2, 0, 1./2))
array([ 1. , 0. , -0.25, 0.
])
The line above represents z**3 - z/4

>>> np.poly((np.random.random(1.)[0], 0, np.random.random(1.)[0]))
array([ 1.
, -0.77086955, 0.08618131, 0.
]) #random
Given a square array object:

>>> P = np.array([[0, 1./3], [-1./2, 0]])
>>> np.poly(P)
array([ 1.
, 0.
, 0.16666667])
Or a square matrix object:

>>> np.poly(np.matrix(P))
array([ 1.
, 0.
0.16666667])
Note how in all cases the leading coefficient is always 1.

numpy.roots(p)
Return the roots of a polynomial with coefficients given in p.
The values in the rank-1 array p are coefficients of a polynomial. If the length of p is n+1 then the polynomial
is described by:
1122
Chapter 3. Routines
p[0] * x**n + p[1] * x**(n-1) + ... + p[n-1]*x + p[n]
Parameters
p : array_like
Rank-1 array of polynomial coefficients.
Returns
out : ndarray
An array containing the complex roots of the polynomial.
Raises
ValueError
When p cannot be converted to a rank-1 array.
See Also:
poly
Find the coefficients of a polynomial with a given sequence of roots.
polyval
Evaluate a polynomial at a point.
polyfit
poly1d
Notes
The algorithm relies on computing the eigenvalues of the companion matrix [R241].
References
[R241]
Examples
>>> coeff = [3.2, 2, 1]
>>> np.roots(coeff)
array([-0.3125+0.46351241j, -0.3125-0.46351241j])
Fitting
polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w, cov])
numpy.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, cov=False)

Parameters
3.26. Polynomials
1123

per column.
deg : int
not returned.
Returns
set are in p[:,k].
linalg.lstsq.
Warns
RankWarning
>>> import warnings
See Also:
polyval
1124
Chapter 3. Routines
linalg.lstsq
Notes
The solution minimizes the squared error
E=
k
X
|p(xj ) yj |2
j=0
in the equations:
x[0]**n * p[n] + ... + x[0] * p[1] + p[0] = y[0]
x[1]**n * p[n] + ... + x[1] * p[1] + p[0] = y[1]
...
x[k]**n * p[n] + ... + x[k] * p[1] + p[0] = y[k]
The coefficient matrix of the coefficients p is a Vandermonde matrix.

polyfit issues a RankWarning when the least-squares fit is badly conditioned. This implies that the best
fit is not well-defined due to numerical error. The results may be improved by lowering the polynomial degree
or by replacing x by x - x.mean(). The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the
resulting fit may be spurious: including contributions from the small singular values can add numerical noise to
the result.
Note that fitting polynomial coefficients is inherently badly conditioned when the degree of the polynomial is
large or the interval of sample points is badly centered. The quality of the fit should always be checked in these
cases. When polynomial fits are not satisfactory, splines may be a good alternative.
References
[R56], [R57]
Examples
>>> x =
>>> y =
>>> z =
>>> z
array([
np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])

np.array([0.0, 0.8, 0.9, 0.1, -0.8, -1.0])
np.polyfit(x, y, 3)
0.08703704, -0.81349206,
1.69312169, -0.03968254])

>>> p(0.5)
0.6143849206349179
>>> p(3.5)
-0.34732142857143039
>>> p(10)
22.579365079365115

>>> p30(4)
3.26. Polynomials
1125
-0.80000000000000204
>>> p30(5)
-0.99999999999999445
>>> p30(4.5)
-0.10547061179440398
Illustration:

>>> xp = np.linspace(-2, 6, 100)
>>> plt.ylim(-2,2)
(-2, 2)
>>> plt.show()
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Calculus
polyder(p[, m])
polyint(p[, m, k])
Return the derivative of the specified order of a polynomial.

Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of a polynomial.
numpy.polyder(p, m=1)
Return the derivative of the specified order of a polynomial.
Parameters
p : poly1d or sequence
Polynomial to differentiate. A sequence is interpreted as polynomial coefficients, see
poly1d.
m : int, optional
Order of differentiation (default: 1)
Returns
der : poly1d
A new polynomial representing the derivative.
1126
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
polyint
Anti-derivative of a polynomial.
poly1d
Class for one-dimensional polynomials.
Examples
The derivative of the polynomial x3 + x2 + x1 + 1 is:
>>> p = np.poly1d([1,1,1,1])
>>> p2 = np.polyder(p)
>>> p2
poly1d([3, 2, 1])
which evaluates to:

>>> p2(2.)
17.0
We can verify this, approximating the derivative with (f(x + h) - f(x))/h:

>>> (p(2. + 0.001) - p(2.)) / 0.001
17.007000999997857
The fourth-order derivative of a 3rd-order polynomial is zero:

>>> np.polyder(p, 2)
poly1d([6, 2])
poly1d([6])
poly1d([ 0.])
numpy.polyint(p, m=1, k=None)

Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of a polynomial.
m
d
The returned order m antiderivative P of polynomial p satisfies dx
m P (x) = p(x) and is defined up to m - 1
integration constants k. The constants determine the low-order polynomial part
km1 0
k0
x + ... +
xm1
0!
(m 1)!
of P so that P (j) (0) = kmj1 .

Parameters
p : {array_like, poly1d}
Polynomial to differentiate. A sequence is interpreted as polynomial coefficients, see
poly1d.
m : int, optional
Order of the antiderivative. (Default: 1)
k : {None, list of m scalars, scalar}, optional
Integration constants. They are given in the order of integration: those corresponding
to highest-order terms come first.
3.26. Polynomials
1127
If None (default), all constants are assumed to be zero. If m = 1, a single scalar can be
given instead of a list.
See Also:
polyder
derivative of a polynomial
poly1d.integ
equivalent method
Examples
The defining property of the antiderivative:
>>> p = np.poly1d([1,1,1])
>>> P = np.polyint(p)
>>> P
poly1d([ 0.33333333, 0.5
>>> np.polyder(P) == p
True
1.
0.
])
The integration constants default to zero, but can be specified:

>>> P = np.polyint(p, 3)
>>> P(0)
0.0
>>> np.polyder(P)(0)
0.0
>>> np.polyder(P, 2)(0)
0.0
>>> P = np.polyint(p, 3, k=[6,5,3])
>>> P
poly1d([ 0.01666667, 0.04166667, 0.16666667,
3. ,
5. ,
3. ])
Note that 3 = 6 / 2!, and that the constants are given in the order of integrations. Constant of the highest-order
polynomial term comes first:
6.0
5.0
>>> P(0)
3.0
Arithmetic
polyadd(a1, a2)
polydiv(u, v)
polymul(a1, a2)
polysub(a1, a2)
Find the sum of two polynomials.

Returns the quotient and remainder of polynomial division.
Find the product of two polynomials.
Difference (subtraction) of two polynomials.
numpy.polyadd(a1, a2)
Find the sum of two polynomials.
Returns the polynomial resulting from the sum of two input polynomials. Each input must be either a poly1d
object or a 1D sequence of polynomial coefficients, from highest to lowest degree.
Parameters
1128
Chapter 3. Routines
a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d object

Input polynomials.
Returns
out : ndarray or poly1d object
The sum of the inputs. If either input is a poly1d object, then the output is also a poly1d
object. Otherwise, it is a 1D array of polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest
degree.
See Also:
poly1d
poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polysub, polyval
Examples
>>> np.polyadd([1, 2], [9, 5, 4])
array([9, 6, 6])
Using poly1d objects:

>>> p1 = np.poly1d([1, 2])
>>> p2 = np.poly1d([9, 5, 4])
>>> print p1
1 x + 2
>>> print p2
2
9 x + 5 x + 4
>>> print np.polyadd(p1, p2)
2
9 x + 6 x + 6
numpy.polydiv(u, v)
Returns the quotient and remainder of polynomial division.
The input arrays are the coefficients (including any coefficients equal to zero) of the numerator (dividend) and
denominator (divisor) polynomials, respectively.
Parameters
u : array_like or poly1d
Dividend polynomials coefficients.
v : array_like or poly1d
Divisor polynomials coefficients.
Returns
q : ndarray
Coefficients, including those equal to zero, of the quotient.
r : ndarray
Coefficients, including those equal to zero, of the remainder.
See Also:
poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polymul, polysub, polyval
3.26. Polynomials
1129
Notes
Both u and v must be 0-d or 1-d (ndim = 0 or 1), but u.ndim need not equal v.ndim. In other words, all four
possible combinations - u.ndim = v.ndim = 0, u.ndim = v.ndim = 1, u.ndim = 1, v.ndim
= 0, and u.ndim = 0, v.ndim = 1 - work.
Examples
3x2 + 5x + 2
= 1.5x + 1.75, remainder0.25
2x + 1
>>> x = np.array([3.0, 5.0, 2.0])

>>> y = np.array([2.0, 1.0])
>>> np.polydiv(x, y)
(array([ 1.5 , 1.75]), array([ 0.25]))
numpy.polymul(a1, a2)
Find the product of two polynomials.
Finds the polynomial resulting from the multiplication of the two input polynomials. Each input must be either
a poly1d object or a 1D sequence of polynomial coefficients, from highest to lowest degree.
Parameters
a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d object
Input polynomials.
Returns
out : ndarray or poly1d object
The polynomial resulting from the multiplication of the inputs. If either inputs is a
poly1d object, then the output is also a poly1d object. Otherwise, it is a 1D array of
polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest degree.
See Also:
poly1d
poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polysub, polyval
Examples
>>> np.polymul([1, 2, 3], [9, 5, 1])
array([ 9, 23, 38, 17, 3])
Using poly1d objects:

>>> p1 = np.poly1d([1, 2, 3])
>>> p2 = np.poly1d([9, 5, 1])
>>> print p1
2
1 x + 2 x + 3
>>> print p2
2
9 x + 5 x + 1
>>> print np.polymul(p1, p2)
1130
Chapter 3. Routines
4
3
2
9 x + 23 x + 38 x + 17 x + 3
numpy.polysub(a1, a2)
Difference (subtraction) of two polynomials.
Given two polynomials a1 and a2, returns a1 - a2. a1 and a2 can be either array_like sequences of the
polynomials coefficients (including coefficients equal to zero), or poly1d objects.
Parameters
a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d
Minuend and subtrahend polynomials, respectively.
Returns
out : ndarray or poly1d
Array or poly1d object of the difference polynomials coefficients.
See Also:
polyval, polydiv, polymul, polyadd
Examples
(2x2 + 10x 2) (3x2 + 10x 4) = (x2 + 2)
>>> np.polysub([2, 10, -2], [3, 10, -4])

array([-1, 0, 2])
Warnings
RankWarning
Issued by polyfit when the Vandermonde matrix is rank deficient.
exception numpy.RankWarning
Issued by polyfit when the Vandermonde matrix is rank deficient.
For more information, a way to suppress the warning, and an example of RankWarning being issued, see
polyfit.
3.27 Random sampling (numpy.random)

3.27.1 Simple random data
rand(d0, d1, ..., dn)
randn(d0, d1, ..., dn)
randint(low[, high, size])
random_integers(low[, high, size])
random_sample([size])
random([size])
Random values in a given shape.

Return a sample (or samples) from the standard normal distribution.
Return random integers from low (inclusive) to high (exclusive).
Return random integers between low and high, inclusive.
Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
3.27. Random sampling (numpy.random)
1131
ranf([size])
sample([size])
choice(a[, size, replace, p])
bytes(length)

Generates a random sample from a given 1-D array
Return random bytes.
numpy.random.rand(d0, d1, ..., dn)

Create an array of the given shape and propagate it with random samples from a uniform distribution over [0,
1).
Parameters
d0, d1, ..., dn : int, optional
The dimensions of the returned array, should all be positive. If no argument is given a
single Python float is returned.
Returns
out : ndarray, shape (d0, d1, ..., dn)
Random values.
See Also:
random
Notes
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a shape-tuple as the first argument, refer to
np.random.random_sample .
Examples
>>> np.random.rand(3,2)
array([[ 0.14022471, 0.96360618], #random
[ 0.37601032, 0.25528411], #random
[ 0.49313049, 0.94909878]]) #random
numpy.random.randn(d0, d1, ..., dn)

If positive, int_like or int-convertible arguments are provided, randn generates an array of shape (d0, d1,
..., dn), filled with random floats sampled from a univariate normal (Gaussian) distribution of mean 0 and
variance 1 (if any of the di are floats, they are first converted to integers by truncation). A single float randomly
sampled from the distribution is returned if no argument is provided.
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a tuple as the first argument, use
numpy.random.standard_normal instead.
Parameters
The dimensions of the returned array, should be all positive. If no argument is given a
Returns
Z : ndarray or float
A (d0, d1, ..., dn)-shaped array of floating-point samples from the standard
normal distribution, or a single such float if no parameters were supplied.
1132
Chapter 3. Routines
See Also:
random.standard_normal
Similar, but takes a tuple as its argument.
Notes
sigma * np.random.randn(...)
+ mu
Examples
>>> np.random.randn()
2.1923875335537315 #random
Two-by-four array of samples from N(3, 6.25):

>>> 2.5 * np.random.randn(2, 4) + 3
array([[-4.49401501, 4.00950034, -1.81814867,
[ 0.39924804, 4.68456316, 4.99394529,
7.29718677], #random
4.84057254]]) #random
numpy.random.randint(low, high=None, size=None)

Return random integers from the discrete uniform distribution in the half-open interval [low, high). If high
is None (the default), then results are from [0, low).
Parameters
low : int
Lowest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (unless high=None, in
which case this parameter is the highest such integer).
high : int, optional
If provided, one above the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see
above for behavior if high=None).
size : int or tuple of ints, optional
Output shape. Default is None, in which case a single int is returned.
Returns
out : int or ndarray of ints
size-shaped array of random integers from the appropriate distribution, or a single such
random int if size not provided.
See Also:
random.random_integers
similar to randint, only for the closed interval [low, high], and 1 is the lowest value if high is omitted.
In particular, this other one is the one to use to generate uniformly distributed discrete non-integers.
Examples
>>> np.random.randint(2,
array([1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1,
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
size=10)
0, 0, 1, 0])
size=10)
0, 0, 0, 0])
1133
Generate a 2 x 4 array of ints between 0 and 4, inclusive:

>>> np.random.randint(5, size=(2, 4))
array([[4, 0, 2, 1],
[3, 2, 2, 0]])
numpy.random.random_integers(low, high=None, size=None)

Return random integers from the discrete uniform distribution in the closed interval [low, high]. If high is
None (the default), then results are from [1, low].
Parameters
low : int
If provided, the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see above for
behavior if high=None).
Returns
See Also:
random.randint
Similar to random_integers, only for the half-open interval [low, high), and 0 is the lowest value if
high is omitted.
Notes
To sample from N evenly spaced floating-point numbers between a and b, use:
a + (b - a) * (np.random.random_integers(N) - 1) / (N - 1.)
Examples
>>> np.random.random_integers(5)
4
>>> type(np.random.random_integers(5))
<type int>
>>> np.random.random_integers(5, size=(3.,2.))
array([[5, 4],
[3, 3],
[4, 5]])
Choose five random numbers from the set of five evenly-spaced numbers between 0 and 2.5, inclusive (i.e., from
the set 0, 5/8, 10/8, 15/8, 20/8):
>>> 2.5 * (np.random.random_integers(5, size=(5,)) - 1) / 4.
array([ 0.625, 1.25 , 0.625, 0.625, 2.5 ])
1134
Chapter 3. Routines
Roll two six sided dice 1000 times and sum the results:
>>> d1 = np.random.random_integers(1, 6, 1000)
>>> dsums = d1 + d2
Display results as a histogram:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(dsums, 11, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
10
12
numpy.random.random_sample(size=None)
Results are from the continuous uniform distribution over the stated interval. To sample U nif [a, b), b > a
multiply the output of random_sample by (b-a) and add a:
(b - a) * random_sample() + a
Parameters
Defines the shape of the returned array of random floats. If None (the default), returns
a single float.
Returns
out : float or ndarray of floats
Array of random floats of shape size (unless size=None, in which case a single float
is returned).
Examples
>>> np.random.random_sample()
0.47108547995356098
>>> type(np.random.random_sample())
<type float>
>>> np.random.random_sample((5,))
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 ,
0.11659149,
0.54323428])
1135
Three-by-two array of random numbers from [-5, 0):

>>> 5 * np.random.random_sample((3, 2)) - 5
array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.random(size=None)
Parameters
a single float.
Returns
is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type float>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 ,
0.11659149,
0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.ranf(size=None)
Parameters
a single float.
Returns
1136
Chapter 3. Routines
is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type float>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 ,
0.11659149,
0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.sample(size=None)
Parameters
a single float.
Returns
is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type float>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 ,
0.11659149,
0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.choice(a, size=None, replace=True, p=None)

1137
Parameters
a : 1-D array-like or int
If an ndarray, a random sample is generated from its elements. If an int, the random
sample is generated as if a was np.arange(n)
Output shape. Default is None, in which case a single value is returned.
replace : boolean, optional
Whether the sample is with or without replacement
p : 1-D array-like, optional
The probabilities associated with each entry in a. If not given the sample assumes a
uniform distribtion over all entries in a.
Returns
samples : 1-D ndarray, shape (size,)
The generated random samples
Raises
ValueError
If a is an int and less than zero, if a or p are not 1-dimensional, if a is an array-like
of size 0, if p is not a vector of probabilities, if a and p have different lengths, or if
replace=False and the sample size is greater than the population size
See Also:
randint, shuffle, permutation
Examples
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3)
array([0, 3, 4])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.randint(0,5,3)
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:

>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])
array([3, 3, 0])
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:

>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False)
array([3,1,0])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.shuffle(np.arange(5))[:3]
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:

>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])
array([2, 3, 0])
Any of the above can be repeated with an arbitrary array-like instead of just integers. For instance:
1138
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> aa_milne_arr = [pooh, rabbit, piglet, Christopher]

>>> np.random.choice(aa_milne_arr, 5, p=[0.5, 0.1, 0.1, 0.3])
array([pooh, pooh, pooh, Christopher, piglet],
dtype=|S11)
numpy.random.bytes(length)
Parameters
length : int
Number of random bytes.
Returns
out : str
String of length length.
Examples
>>> np.random.bytes(10)
eh\x85\x022SZ\xbf\xa4 #random
3.27.2 Permutations
shuffle(x)
permutation(x)
Modify a sequence in-place by shuffling its contents.

Randomly permute a sequence, or return a permuted range.
numpy.random.shuffle(x)
Parameters
x : array_like
The array or list to be shuffled.
Returns
None
Examples
>>> arr = np.arange(10)
>>> np.random.shuffle(arr)
>>> arr
[1 7 5 2 9 4 3 6 0 8]
This function only shuffles the array along the first index of a multi-dimensional array:
>>> arr = np.arange(9).reshape((3, 3))
>>> arr
array([[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2]])
numpy.random.permutation(x)
1139
If x is a multi-dimensional array, it is only shuffled along its first index.

Parameters
x : int or array_like
If x is an integer, randomly permute np.arange(x). If x is an array, make a copy
and shuffle the elements randomly.
Returns
out : ndarray
Permuted sequence or array range.
Examples
>>> np.random.permutation(10)
array([1, 7, 4, 3, 0, 9, 2, 5, 8, 6])
>>> np.random.permutation([1, 4, 9, 12, 15])
array([15, 1, 9, 4, 12])
>>> np.random.permutation(arr)
array([[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
3.27.3 Distributions
beta(a, b[, size])
binomial(n, p[, size])
chisquare(df[, size])
dirichlet(alpha[, size])
exponential([scale, size])
f(dfnum, dfden[, size])
gamma(shape[, scale, size])
geometric(p[, size])
gumbel([loc, scale, size])
hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample[, size])
laplace([loc, scale, size])
logistic([loc, scale, size])
lognormal([mean, sigma, size])
logseries(p[, size])
multinomial(n, pvals[, size])
multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size])
negative_binomial(n, p[, size])
noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc[, size])
noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc[, size])
normal([loc, scale, size])
pareto(a[, size])
poisson([lam, size])
power(a[, size])
rayleigh([scale, size])
1140
The Beta distribution over [0, 1].

Draw samples from a binomial distribution.
Draw samples from a chi-square distribution.
Draw samples from the Dirichlet distribution.
Exponential distribution.
Draw samples from a F distribution.
Draw samples from a Gamma distribution.
Draw samples from the geometric distribution.
Gumbel distribution.
Draw samples from a Hypergeometric distribution.
Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential distribution with
Draw samples from a Logistic distribution.
Return samples drawn from a log-normal distribution.
Draw samples from a Logarithmic Series distribution.
Draw samples from a multinomial distribution.
Draw random samples from a multivariate normal distribution.
Draw samples from a negative_binomial distribution.
Draw samples from a noncentral chi-square distribution.
Draw samples from the noncentral F distribution.
Draw random samples from a normal (Gaussian) distribution.
Draw samples from a Pareto II or Lomax distribution with specified shape.
Draw samples from a Poisson distribution.
Draws samples in [0, 1] from a power distribution with positive exponent a - 1.
Draw samples from a Rayleigh distribution.
Chapter 3. Routines

Standard Cauchy distribution with mode = 0.
Draw samples from the standard exponential distribution.
Draw samples from a Standard Gamma distribution.
Returns samples from a Standard Normal distribution (mean=0, stdev=1).
Standard Students t distribution with df degrees of freedom.
Draw samples from the triangular distribution.
Draw samples from a uniform distribution.
Draw samples from a von Mises distribution.
Draw samples from a Wald, or Inverse Gaussian, distribution.
Weibull distribution.
Draw samples from a Zipf distribution.
standard_cauchy([size])
standard_exponential([size])
standard_gamma(shape[, size])
standard_normal([size])
standard_t(df[, size])
triangular(left, mode, right[, size])
uniform([low, high, size])
vonmises(mu, kappa[, size])
wald(mean, scale[, size])
weibull(a[, size])
zipf(a[, size])
numpy.random.beta(a, b, size=None)
The Beta distribution is a special case of the Dirichlet distribution, and is related to the Gamma distribution. It
has the probability distribution function
f (x; a, b) =
1
x1 (1 x)1 ,
B(, )
where the normalisation, B, is the beta function,

Z
B(, ) =
t1 (1 t)1 dt.
It is often seen in Bayesian inference and order statistics.

Parameters
a : float
Alpha, non-negative.
b : float
Beta, non-negative.
size : tuple of ints, optional
The number of samples to draw. The output is packed according to the size given.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of the given shape, containing values drawn from a Beta distribution.
numpy.random.binomial(n, p, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability of success
where n an integer >= 0 and p is in the interval [0,1]. (n may be input as a float, but it is truncated to an integer
in use)
Parameters
n : float (but truncated to an integer)
parameter, >= 0.
1141
p : float
parameter, >= 0 and <=1.
size : {tuple, int}
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then m * n * k samples are
drawn.
Returns
samples : {ndarray, scalar}
where the values are all integers in [0, n].
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.binom
probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Binomial distribution is

n N
P (N ) =
p (1 p)nN ,
N
where n is the number of trials, p is the probability of success, and N is the number of successes.
When estimating the standard error of a proportion in a population by using a random sample, the normal
distribution works well unless the product p*n <=5, where p = population proportion estimate, and n = number
of samples, in which case the binomial distribution is used instead. For example, a sample of 15 people shows
4 who are left handed, and 11 who are right handed. Then p = 4/15 = 27%. 0.27*15 = 4, so the binomial
distribution should be used in this case.
References
[R182], [R183], [R184], [R185], [R186]
Examples
Draw samples from the distribution:
>>> n, p = 10, .5 # number of trials, probability of each trial
>>> s = np.random.binomial(n, p, 1000)
# result of flipping a coin 10 times, tested 1000 times.
A real world example. A company drills 9 wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability of
success of 0.1. All nine wells fail. What is the probability of that happening?
Lets do 20,000 trials of the model, and count the number that generate zero positive results.
>>> sum(np.random.binomial(9,0.1,20000)==0)/20000.
answer = 0.38885, or 38%.
numpy.random.chisquare(df, size=None)
When df independent random variables, each with standard normal distributions (mean 0, variance 1), are
squared and summed, the resulting distribution is chi-square (see Notes). This distribution is often used in
hypothesis testing.
1142
Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
df : int
Number of degrees of freedom.
size : tuple of ints, int, optional
Size of the returned array. By default, a scalar is returned.
Returns
output : ndarray
Samples drawn from the distribution, packed in a size-shaped array.
Raises
ValueError
When df <= 0 or when an inappropriate size (e.g. size=-1) is given.
Notes
The variable obtained by summing the squares of df independent, standard normally distributed random variables:
Q=
df
X
Xi2
i=0
is chi-square distributed, denoted

Q 2k .
The probability density function of the chi-squared distribution is

p(x) =
(1/2)k/2 k/21 x/2

x
e
,
(k/2)
where is the gamma function,

Z
(x) =
tx1 et dt.
References
NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods
Examples
>>> np.random.chisquare(2,4)
array([ 1.89920014, 9.00867716,
3.13710533,
5.62318272])
numpy.random.dirichlet(alpha, size=None)
Draw size samples of dimension k from a Dirichlet distribution. A Dirichlet-distributed random variable can be
seen as a multivariate generalization of a Beta distribution. Dirichlet pdf is the conjugate prior of a multinomial
in Bayesian inference.
1143
Parameters
alpha : array
Parameter of the distribution (k dimension for sample of dimension k).
size : array
Number of samples to draw.
Returns
samples : ndarray,
The drawn samples, of shape (alpha.ndim, size).
Notes
k
Y
i 1
x
i
i=1
Uses the following property for computation: for each dimension, draw a random sample y_i from a standard
gamma generator of shape alpha_i, then X = Pk1 y (y1 , . . . , yn ) is Dirichlet distributed.
i=1
References
[R187], [R188]
Examples
Taking an example cited in Wikipedia, this distribution can be used if one wanted to cut strings (each of initial
length 1.0) into K pieces with different lengths, where each piece had, on average, a designated average length,
but allowing some variation in the relative sizes of the pieces.
>>> s = np.random.dirichlet((10, 5, 3), 20).transpose()
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.barh(range(20), s[0])
plt.barh(range(20), s[1], left=s[0], color=g)
plt.barh(range(20), s[2], left=s[0]+s[1], color=r)
plt.title("Lengths of Strings")
numpy.random.exponential(scale=1.0, size=None)
Its probability density function is
f (x;
1
1
x
) = exp( ),
for x > 0 and 0 elsewhere. is the scale parameter, which is the inverse of the rate parameter = 1/. The
rate parameter is an alternative, widely used parameterization of the exponential distribution [R191].
The exponential distribution is a continuous analogue of the geometric distribution. It describes many common
situations, such as the size of raindrops measured over many rainstorms [R189], or the time between page
requests to Wikipedia [R190].
Parameters
scale : float
The scale parameter, = 1/.
1144
Chapter 3. Routines
size : tuple of ints

Number of samples to draw. The output is shaped according to size.
References
[R189], [R190], [R191]
numpy.random.f(dfnum, dfden, size=None)
Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numerator)
and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters should be greater than zero.
The random variate of the F distribution (also known as the Fisher distribution) is a continuous probability
distribution that arises in ANOVA tests, and is the ratio of two chi-square variates.
Parameters
dfnum : float
Degrees of freedom in numerator. Should be greater than zero.
dfden : float
Degrees of freedom in denominator. Should be greater than zero.
size : {tuple, int}, optional
drawn. By default only one sample is returned.
Returns
Samples from the Fisher distribution.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.f
Notes
The F statistic is used to compare in-group variances to between-group variances. Calculating the distribution
depends on the sampling, and so it is a function of the respective degrees of freedom in the problem. The
variable dfnum is the number of samples minus one, the between-groups degrees of freedom, while dfden is the
within-groups degrees of freedom, the sum of the number of samples in each group minus the number of groups.
References
[R192], [R193]
Examples
An example from Glantz[1], pp 47-40. Two groups, children of diabetics (25 people) and children from people
without diabetes (25 controls). Fasting blood glucose was measured, case group had a mean value of 86.1,
controls had a mean value of 82.2. Standard deviations were 2.09 and 2.49 respectively. Are these data consistent
with the null hypothesis that the parents diabetic status does not affect their childrens blood glucose levels?
Calculating the F statistic from the data gives a value of 36.01.
1145
>>> dfnum = 1. # between group degrees of freedom

>>> dfden = 48. # within groups degrees of freedom
>>> s = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000)
The lower bound for the top 1% of the samples is :

>>> sort(s)[-10]
7.61988120985
So there is about a 1% chance that the F statistic will exceed 7.62, the measured value is 36, so the null hypothesis
is rejected at the 1% level.
numpy.random.gamma(shape, scale=1.0, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated k)
and scale (sometimes designated theta), where both parameters are > 0.
Parameters
shape : scalar > 0
The shape of the gamma distribution.
scale : scalar > 0, optional
The scale of the gamma distribution. Default is equal to 1.
size : shape_tuple, optional
drawn.
Returns
Returns one sample unless size parameter is specified.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.gamma
Notes
The probability density for the Gamma distribution is
p(x) = xk1
ex/
,
k (k)
where k is the shape and the scale, and is the Gamma function.
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises naturally
in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
References
[R194], [R195]
1146
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 2. # mean and dispersion
>>> s = np.random.gamma(shape, scale, 1000)
Display the histogram of the samples, along with the probability density function:
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
>>>

import scipy.special as sps
count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 50, normed=True)
y = bins**(shape-1)*(np.exp(-bins/scale) /
(sps.gamma(shape)*scale**shape))
plt.plot(bins, y, linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
10
12
14
16
18
numpy.random.geometric(p, size=None)
Bernoulli trials are experiments with one of two outcomes: success or failure (an example of such an experiment
is flipping a coin). The geometric distribution models the number of trials that must be run in order to achieve
success. It is therefore supported on the positive integers, k = 1, 2, ....
The probability mass function of the geometric distribution is
f (k) = (1 p)k1 p
where p is the probability of success of an individual trial.

Parameters
p : float
The probability of success of an individual trial.
Number of values to draw from the distribution. The output is shaped according to size.
Returns
out : ndarray
1147
Samples from the geometric distribution, shaped according to size.

Examples
Draw ten thousand values from the geometric distribution, with the probability of an individual success equal to
0.35:
>>> z = np.random.geometric(p=0.35, size=10000)
How many trials succeeded after a single run?

>>> (z == 1).sum() / 10000.
0.34889999999999999 #random
numpy.random.gumbel(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution with specified location and scale. For more information on the
Gumbel distribution, see Notes and References below.
Parameters
loc : float
The location of the mode of the distribution.
scale : float
The scale parameter of the distribution.
drawn.
Returns
out : ndarray
The samples
See Also:
scipy.stats.gumbel_l, scipy.stats.gumbel_r
scipy.stats.genextreme
probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function, etc. for each of the above
weibull
Notes
The Gumbel (or Smallest Extreme Value (SEV) or the Smallest Extreme Value Type I) distribution is one of a
class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in modeling extreme value problems. The Gumbel
is a special case of the Extreme Value Type I distribution for maximums from distributions with exponentiallike tails.
The probability density for the Gumbel distribution is
p(x) =
e(x)/ e(x)/
e
,
where is the mode, a location parameter, and is the scale parameter.
1148
Chapter 3. Routines
The Gumbel (named for German mathematician Emil Julius Gumbel) was used very early in the hydrology
literature, for modeling the occurrence of flood events. It is also used for modeling maximum wind speed and
rainfall rates. It is a fat-tailed distribution - the probability of an event in the tail of the distribution is larger
than if one used a Gaussian, hence the surprisingly frequent occurrence of 100-year floods. Floods were initially
modeled as a Gaussian process, which underestimated the frequency of extreme events.
It is one of a class of extreme value distributions, the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions, which
also includes the Weibull and Frechet.
The function has a mean of + 0.57721 and a variance of
2 2
6 .
References
Gumbel, E. J., Statistics of Extremes, New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.
Reiss, R.-D. and Thomas, M., Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values from Insurance, Finance, Hydrology and
Other Fields, Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2001.
Examples
>>> mu, beta = 0, 0.1 # location and scale
>>> s = np.random.gumbel(mu, beta, 1000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
>>>

plt.plot(bins, (1/beta)*np.exp(-(bins - mu)/beta)
* np.exp( -np.exp( -(bins - mu) /beta) ),
linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Show how an extreme value distribution can arise from a Gaussian process and compare to a Gaussian:
>>> means = []
>>> maxima = []
>>> for i in range(0,1000) :
...
a = np.random.normal(mu, beta, 1000)
1149
...
...
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
>>>
...
...
>>>
means.append(a.mean())
maxima.append(a.max())
count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(maxima, 30, normed=True)
beta = np.std(maxima)*np.pi/np.sqrt(6)
mu = np.mean(maxima) - 0.57721*beta
* np.exp(-np.exp(-(bins - mu)/beta)),
plt.plot(bins, 1/(beta * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi))
* np.exp(-(bins - mu)**2 / (2 * beta**2)),
linewidth=2, color=g)
plt.show()
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
numpy.random.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample, size=None)

Samples are drawn from a Hypergeometric distribution with specified parameters, ngood (ways to make a good
selection), nbad (ways to make a bad selection), and nsample = number of items sampled, which is less than or
equal to the sum ngood + nbad.
Parameters
ngood : int or array_like
Number of ways to make a good selection. Must be nonnegative.
nbad : int or array_like
Number of ways to make a bad selection. Must be nonnegative.
nsample : int or array_like
Number of items sampled. Must be at least 1 and at most ngood + nbad.
size : int or tuple of int
drawn.
Returns
samples : ndarray or scalar
1150
Chapter 3. Routines
The values are all integers in [0, n].

See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.hypergeom
Notes
The probability density for the Hypergeometric distribution is

m N m
P (x) =
nx

N
n
where 0 x m and n + m N x n
for P(x) the probability of x successes, n = ngood, m = nbad, and N = number of samples.
Consider an urn with black and white marbles in it, ngood of them black and nbad are white. If you draw
nsample balls without replacement, then the Hypergeometric distribution describes the distribution of black
balls in the drawn sample.
Note that this distribution is very similar to the Binomial distribution, except that in this case, samples are drawn
without replacement, whereas in the Binomial case samples are drawn with replacement (or the sample space is
infinite). As the sample space becomes large, this distribution approaches the Binomial.
References
[R196], [R197], [R198]
Examples
>>> ngood, nbad, nsamp = 100, 2, 10
# number of good, number of bad, and number of samples
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsamp, 1000)
>>> hist(s)
#
note that it is very unlikely to grab both bad items
Suppose you have an urn with 15 white and 15 black marbles. If you pull 15 marbles at random, how likely is
it that 12 or more of them are one color?
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(15, 15, 15, 100000)
>>> sum(s>=12)/100000. + sum(s<=3)/100000.
#
answer = 0.003 ... pretty unlikely!
numpy.random.laplace(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential distribution with specified location (or mean) and scale
(decay).
The Laplace distribution is similar to the Gaussian/normal distribution, but is sharper at the peak and has fatter
tails. It represents the difference between two independent, identically distributed exponential random variables.
Parameters
loc : float
The position, , of the distribution peak.
scale : float
1151
, the exponential decay.

Notes
It has the probability density function

|x |
1
exp
.
f (x; , ) =
2
The first law of Laplace, from 1774, states that the frequency of an error can be expressed as an exponential
function of the absolute magnitude of the error, which leads to the Laplace distribution. For many problems
in Economics and Health sciences, this distribution seems to model the data better than the standard Gaussian
distribution
References
[R199], [R200], [R201], [R202]
Examples
Draw samples from the distribution
>>> loc, scale = 0., 1.
>>> s = np.random.laplace(loc, scale, 1000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

x = np.arange(-8., 8., .01)
pdf = np.exp(-abs(x-loc/scale))/(2.*scale)
plt.plot(x, pdf)
Plot Gaussian for comparison:

>>> g = (1/(scale * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
...
np.exp( - (x - loc)**2 / (2 * scale**2) ))
>>> plt.plot(x,g)
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0.1
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.random.logistic(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Samples are drawn from a Logistic distribution with specified parameters, loc (location or mean, also median),
and scale (>0).
Parameters
loc : float
scale : float > 0.
size : {tuple, int}
drawn.
Returns
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.logistic
Notes
The probability density for the Logistic distribution is
P (x) = P (x) =
e(x)/s
,
s(1 + e(x)/s )2
where = location and s = scale.

The Logistic distribution is used in Extreme Value problems where it can act as a mixture of Gumbel distributions, in Epidemiology, and by the World Chess Federation (FIDE) where it is used in the Elo ranking system,
assuming the performance of each player is a logistically distributed random variable.
References
[R203], [R204], [R205]
Examples
>>> loc, scale = 10, 1
>>> s = np.random.logistic(loc, scale, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, bins=50)
# plot against distribution

>>>
...
>>>
...
>>>
def logist(x, loc, scale):

return exp((loc-x)/scale)/(scale*(1+exp((loc-x)/scale))**2)
plt.plot(bins, logist(bins, loc, scale)*count.max()/\
logist(bins, loc, scale).max())
plt.show()
1153
numpy.random.lognormal(mean=0.0, sigma=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a log-normal distribution with specified mean, standard deviation, and array shape. Note
that the mean and standard deviation are not the values for the distribution itself, but of the underlying normal
distribution it is derived from.
Parameters
mean : float
Mean value of the underlying normal distribution
sigma : float, > 0.
Standard deviation of the underlying normal distribution
drawn.
Returns
samples : ndarray or float
The desired samples. An array of the same shape as size if given, if size is None a float
is returned.
See Also:
scipy.stats.lognorm
probability density function, distribution, cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
A variable x has a log-normal distribution if log(x) is normally distributed. The probability density function for
the log-normal distribution is:
p(x) =
(ln(x))2
1
e( 22 )
x 2
where is the mean and is the standard deviation of the normally distributed logarithm of the variable. A
log-normal distribution results if a random variable is the product of a large number of independent, identicallydistributed variables in the same way that a normal distribution results if the variable is the sum of a large number
of independent, identically-distributed variables.
References
Limpert, E., Stahel, W. A., and Abbt, M., Log-normal Distributions across the Sciences: Keys and Clues,
BioScience, Vol. 51, No. 5, May, 2001. http://stat.ethz.ch/~stahel/lognormal/bioscience.pdf
Reiss, R.D. and Thomas, M., Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values, Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2001, pp. 31-32.
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 3., 1. # mean and standard deviation
>>> s = np.random.lognormal(mu, sigma, 1000)
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Chapter 3. Routines

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True, align=mid)
>>> x = np.linspace(min(bins), max(bins), 10000)
>>> pdf = (np.exp(-(np.log(x) - mu)**2 / (2 * sigma**2))
...
/ (x * sigma * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)))
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, linewidth=2, color=r)
>>> plt.axis(tight)
>>> plt.show()
Demonstrate that taking the products of random samples from a uniform distribution can be fit well by a lognormal probability density function.
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
# Generate a thousand samples: each is the product of 100 random

# values, drawn from a normal distribution.
b = []
for i in range(1000):
a = 10. + np.random.random(100)
b.append(np.product(a))
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
b = np.array(b) / np.min(b) # scale values to be positive

count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(b, 100, normed=True, align=center)
sigma = np.std(np.log(b))
mu = np.mean(np.log(b))

...
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, color=r, linewidth=2)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.logseries(p, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Log Series distribution with specified parameter, p (probability, 0 < p < 1).
Parameters
loc : float
scale : float > 0.
size : {tuple, int}
drawn.
Returns
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.logser
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Notes
The probability density for the Log Series distribution is
P (k) =
pk
,
k ln(1 p)
where p = probability.
The Log Series distribution is frequently used to represent species richness and occurrence, first proposed by
Fisher, Corbet, and Williams in 1943 [2]. It may also be used to model the numbers of occupants seen in cars
[3].
References
[R206], [R207], [R208], [R209]
Examples
>>> a = .6
>>> s = np.random.logseries(a, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s)

>>> def logseries(k, p):
...
return -p**k/(k*log(1-p))
>>> plt.plot(bins, logseries(bins, a)*count.max()/
logseries(bins, a).max(), r)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.multinomial(n, pvals, size=None)

The multinomial distribution is a multivariate generalisation of the binomial distribution. Take an experiment
with one of p possible outcomes. An example of such an experiment is throwing a dice, where the outcome
can be 1 through 6. Each sample drawn from the distribution represents n such experiments. Its values, X_i =
[X_0, X_1, ..., X_p], represent the number of times the outcome was i.
Parameters
n : int
Number of experiments.
pvals : sequence of floats, length p
Probabilities of each of the p different outcomes. These should sum to 1 (however,
the last element is always assumed to account for the remaining probability, as long as
sum(pvals[:-1]) <= 1).
Given a size of (M, N, K), then M*N*K samples are drawn, and the output shape
becomes (M, N, K, p), since each sample has shape (p,).
Examples
Throw a dice 20 times:
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> np.random.multinomial(20, [1/6.]*6, size=1)

array([[4, 1, 7, 5, 2, 1]])
It landed 4 times on 1, once on 2, etc.

Now, throw the dice 20 times, and 20 times again:
array([[3, 4, 3, 3, 4, 3],
[2, 4, 3, 4, 0, 7]])
For the first run, we threw 3 times 1, 4 times 2, etc. For the second, we threw 2 times 1, 4 times 2, etc.
A loaded dice is more likely to land on number 6:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1/7.]*5)
array([13, 16, 13, 16, 42])
numpy.random.multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size ])

The multivariate normal, multinormal or Gaussian distribution is a generalization of the one-dimensional normal
distribution to higher dimensions. Such a distribution is specified by its mean and covariance matrix. These parameters are analogous to the mean (average or center) and variance (standard deviation, or width, squared)
of the one-dimensional normal distribution.
Parameters
mean : 1-D array_like, of length N
Mean of the N-dimensional distribution.
cov : 2-D array_like, of shape (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. Must be symmetric and positive semi-definite for
physically meaningful results.
Given a shape of, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated, and packed in
an m-by-n-by-k arrangement. Because each sample is N-dimensional, the output shape
is (m,n,k,N). If no shape is specified, a single (N-D) sample is returned.
Returns
out : ndarray
The drawn samples, of shape size, if that was provided. If not, the shape is (N,).
In other words, each entry out[i,j,...,:] is an N-dimensional value drawn from
the distribution.
Notes
The mean is a coordinate in N-dimensional space, which represents the location where samples are most likely
to be generated. This is analogous to the peak of the bell curve for the one-dimensional or univariate normal
distribution.
Covariance indicates the level to which two variables vary together. From the multivariate normal distribution,
we draw N-dimensional samples, X = [x1 , x2 , ...xN ]. The covariance matrix element Cij is the covariance of
xi and xj . The element Cii is the variance of xi (i.e. its spread).
Instead of specifying the full covariance matrix, popular approximations include:
Spherical covariance (cov is a multiple of the identity matrix)
1157
Diagonal covariance (cov has non-negative elements, and only on the diagonal)
This geometrical property can be seen in two dimensions by plotting generated data-points:
>>> mean = [0,0]
>>> cov = [[1,0],[0,100]] # diagonal covariance, points lie on x or y-axis
>>> x,y = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean,cov,5000).T
>>> plt.plot(x,y,x); plt.axis(equal); plt.show()
Note that the covariance matrix must be non-negative definite.

References
Papoulis, A., Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
Duda, R. O., Hart, P. E., and Stork, D. G., Pattern Classification, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2001.
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
(3,
mean = (1,2)
cov = [[1,0],[1,0]]
x = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean,cov,(3,3))
x.shape
3, 2)
The following is probably true, given that 0.6 is roughly twice the standard deviation:
>>> print list( (x[0,0,:] - mean) < 0.6 )
[True, True]
numpy.random.negative_binomial(n, p, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a negative_Binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability
of success where n is an integer > 0 and p is in the interval [0, 1].
Parameters
n : int
Parameter, > 0.
p : float
Parameter, >= 0 and <=1.
size : int or tuple of ints
drawn.
Returns
samples : int or ndarray of ints
Drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density for the Negative Binomial distribution is

N +n1 n
P (N ; n, p) =
p (1 p)N ,
n1
1158
Chapter 3. Routines
where n 1 is the number of successes, p is the probability of success, and N + n 1 is the number of trials.
The negative binomial distribution gives the probability of n-1 successes and N failures in N+n-1 trials, and
success on the (N+n)th trial.
If one throws a die repeatedly until the third time a 1 appears, then the probability distribution of the number
of non-1s that appear before the third 1 is a negative binomial distribution.
References
[R210], [R211]
Examples
A real world example. A company drills wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability
of success of 0.1. What is the probability of having one success for each successive well, that is what is the
probability of a single success after drilling 5 wells, after 6 wells, etc.?
>>> s = np.random.negative_binomial(1, 0.1, 100000)
>>> for i in range(1, 11):
...
probability = sum(s<i) / 100000.
...
print i, "wells drilled, probability of one success =", probability
numpy.random.noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc, size=None)

The noncentral 2 distribution is a generalisation of the 2 distribution.
Parameters
df : int
Degrees of freedom, should be >= 1.
nonc : float
Non-centrality, should be > 0.
Shape of the output.
Notes
The probability density function for the noncentral Chi-square distribution is
P (x; df, nonc) =
X
enonc/2 (nonc/2)i
i=0
i!
PYdf +2i (x),
where Yq is the Chi-square with q degrees of freedom.

In Delhi (2007), it is noted that the noncentral chi-square is useful in bombing and coverage problems, the
probability of killing the point target given by the noncentral chi-squared distribution.
References
[R212], [R213]
1159
Examples
Draw values from the distribution and plot the histogram
>>> values = plt.hist(np.random.noncentral_chisquare(3, 20, 100000),
...
bins=200, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
10
20
30
40
50
70
60
80
Draw values from a noncentral chisquare with very small noncentrality, and compare to a chisquare.
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
...
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
values = plt.hist(np.random.noncentral_chisquare(3, .0000001, 100000),
bins=np.arange(0., 25, .1), normed=True)
values2 = plt.hist(np.random.chisquare(3, 100000),
plt.plot(values[1][0:-1], values[0]-values2[0], ob)
plt.show()
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0.05
0.00
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15
20
25
Chapter 3. Routines
Demonstrate how large values of non-centrality lead to a more symmetric distribution.

>>> plt.figure()
...
>>> plt.show()
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0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
numpy.random.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, size=None)

Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numerator)
and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters > 1. nonc is the non-centrality parameter.
Parameters
dfnum : int
Parameter, should be > 1.
dfden : int
nonc : float
Parameter, should be >= 0.
drawn.
Returns
samples : scalar or ndarray
Drawn samples.
Notes
When calculating the power of an experiment (power = probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when a
specific alternative is true) the non-central F statistic becomes important. When the null hypothesis is true, the
F statistic follows a central F distribution. When the null hypothesis is not true, then it follows a non-central F
statistic.
1161
References
Weisstein, Eric W. Noncentral F-Distribution.
From MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NoncentralF-Distribution.html
Wikipedia, Noncentral F distribution, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_F-distribution
Examples
In a study, testing for a specific alternative to the null hypothesis requires use of the Noncentral F distribution.
We need to calculate the area in the tail of the distribution that exceeds the value of the F distribution for the null
hypothesis. Well plot the two probability distributions for comparison.
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
dfnum = 3 # between group deg of freedom

dfden = 20 # within groups degrees of freedom
nonc = 3.0
nc_vals = np.random.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, 1000000)
NF = np.histogram(nc_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
c_vals = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000000)
F = np.histogram(c_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
plt.plot(F[1][1:], F[0])
plt.plot(NF[1][1:], NF[0])
plt.show()
numpy.random.normal(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

The probability density function of the normal distribution, first derived by De Moivre and 200 years later by
both Gauss and Laplace independently [R215], is often called the bell curve because of its characteristic shape
(see the example below).
The normal distributions occurs often in nature. For example, it describes the commonly occurring distribution
of samples influenced by a large number of tiny, random disturbances, each with its own unique distribution
[R215].
Parameters
loc : float
Mean (centre) of the distribution.
scale : float
Standard deviation (spread or width) of the distribution.
drawn.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.norm
Notes
The probability density for the Gaussian distribution is
p(x) =
1162
1
2 2
(x)2
2 2
Chapter 3. Routines
where is the mean and the standard deviation. The square of the standard deviation, 2 , is called the
variance.
The function has its peak at the mean, and its spread increases with the standard deviation (the function
reaches 0.607 times its maximum at x + and x [R215]). This implies that numpy.random.normal is
more likely to return samples lying close to the mean, rather than those far away.
References
[R214], [R215]
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 0, 0.1 # mean and standard deviation
>>> s = np.random.normal(mu, sigma, 1000)
Verify the mean and the variance:

>>> abs(mu - np.mean(s)) < 0.01
True
>>> abs(sigma - np.std(s, ddof=1)) < 0.01
True
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
>>>

plt.plot(bins, 1/(sigma * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
np.exp( - (bins - mu)**2 / (2 * sigma**2) ),
plt.show()
5
4
3
2
1
0
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0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
numpy.random.pareto(a, size=None)
The Lomax or Pareto II distribution is a shifted Pareto distribution. The classical Pareto distribution can be
obtained from the Lomax distribution by adding the location parameter m, see below. The smallest value of
1163
the Lomax distribution is zero while for the classical Pareto distribution it is m, where the standard Pareto
distribution has location m=1. Lomax can also be considered as a simplified version of the Generalized Pareto
distribution (available in SciPy), with the scale set to one and the location set to zero.
The Pareto distribution must be greater than zero, and is unbounded above. It is also known as the 80-20 rule.
In this distribution, 80 percent of the weights are in the lowest 20 percent of the range, while the other 20 percent
fill the remaining 80 percent of the range.
Parameters
shape : float, > 0.
Shape of the distribution.
drawn.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.lomax.pdf
scipy.stats.distributions.genpareto.pdf
Notes
The probability density for the Pareto distribution is
p(x) =
ama
xa+1
where a is the shape and m the location

The Pareto distribution, named after the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, is a power law probability distribution
useful in many real world problems. Outside the field of economics it is generally referred to as the Bradford
distribution. Pareto developed the distribution to describe the distribution of wealth in an economy. It has
also found use in insurance, web page access statistics, oil field sizes, and many other problems, including the
download frequency for projects in Sourceforge [1]. It is one of the so-called fat-tailed distributions.
References
[R216], [R217], [R218], [R219]
Examples
>>> a, m = 3., 1. # shape and mode
>>> s = np.random.pareto(a, 1000) + m
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
1164

count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True, align=center)
fit = a*m**a/bins**(a+1)
plt.plot(bins, max(count)*fit/max(fit),linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.random.poisson(lam=1.0, size=None)
The Poisson distribution is the limit of the Binomial distribution for large N.
Parameters
lam : float
Expectation of interval, should be >= 0.
drawn.
Notes
The Poisson distribution
f (k; ) =
k e
k!
For events with an expected separation the Poisson distribution f (k; ) describes the probability of k events
occurring within the observed interval .
Because the output is limited to the range of the C long type, a ValueError is raised when lam is within 10 sigma
of the maximum representable value.
References
[R220], [R221]
Examples
>>> s = np.random.poisson(5, 10000)
Display histogram of the sample:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 14, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
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18
numpy.random.power(a, size=None)
Also known as the power function distribution.
Parameters
a : float
parameter, > 0
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then
m * n * k samples are drawn.
Returns
The returned samples lie in [0, 1].
Raises
ValueError
If a<1.
Notes
The probability density function is
P (x; a) = axa1 , 0 x 1, a > 0.
The power function distribution is just the inverse of the Pareto distribution. It may also be seen as a special
case of the Beta distribution.
It is used, for example, in modeling the over-reporting of insurance claims.
References
[R222], [R223]
1166
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> samples = 1000
>>> s = np.random.power(a, samples)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, bins=30)
x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
y = a*x**(a-1.)
normed_y = samples*np.diff(bins)[0]*y
plt.plot(x, normed_y)
plt.show()
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Compare the power function distribution to the inverse of the Pareto.

>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
from scipy import stats

rvs = np.random.power(5, 1000000)
rvsp = np.random.pareto(5, 1000000)
xx = np.linspace(0,1,100)
powpdf = stats.powerlaw.pdf(xx,5)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
plt.hist(rvs, bins=50, normed=True)
plt.plot(xx,powpdf,r-)
plt.title(np.random.power(5))
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
plt.hist(1./(1.+rvsp), bins=50, normed=True)
plt.title(inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5))
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.hist(1./(1.+rvsp), bins=50, normed=True)
>>> plt.plot(xx,powpdf,r-)
1167
>>> plt.title(inverse of stats.pareto(5))
np.random.power(5)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.8
1.0
inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5)
5
4
3
2
1
0
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Chapter 3. Routines
inverse of stats.pareto(5)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
numpy.random.rayleigh(scale=1.0, size=None)
The and Weibull distributions are generalizations of the Rayleigh.
Parameters
scale : scalar
Scale, also equals the mode. Should be >= 0.
Shape of the output. Default is None, in which case a single value is returned.
Notes
The probability density function for the Rayleigh distribution is
P (x; scale) =
x2
x
e 2scale2
2
scale
The Rayleigh distribution arises if the wind speed and wind direction are both gaussian variables, then the
vector wind velocity forms a Rayleigh distribution. The Rayleigh distribution is used to model the expected
output from wind turbines.
References
[R224], [R225]
Examples
>>> values = hist(np.random.rayleigh(3, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
Wave heights tend to follow a Rayleigh distribution. If the mean wave height is 1 meter, what fraction of waves
are likely to be larger than 3 meters?
>>> meanvalue = 1
>>> modevalue = np.sqrt(2 / np.pi) * meanvalue
>>> s = np.random.rayleigh(modevalue, 1000000)
1169
The percentage of waves larger than 3 meters is:

>>> 100.*sum(s>3)/1000000.
0.087300000000000003
numpy.random.standard_cauchy(size=None)
Also known as the Lorentz distribution.
Parameters
Returns
The drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density function for the full Cauchy distribution is
P (x; x0 , ) =
1

0 2
1 + ( xx
)
and the Standard Cauchy distribution just sets x0 = 0 and = 1

The Cauchy distribution arises in the solution to the driven harmonic oscillator problem, and also describes
spectral line broadening. It also describes the distribution of values at which a line tilted at a random angle will
cut the x axis.
When studying hypothesis tests that assume normality, seeing how the tests perform on data from a Cauchy
distribution is a good indicator of their sensitivity to a heavy-tailed distribution, since the Cauchy looks very
much like a Gaussian distribution, but with heavier tails.
References
[R227], [R228], [R229]
Examples
Draw samples and plot the distribution:
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
s = np.random.standard_cauchy(1000000)
s = s[(s>-25) & (s<25)] # truncate distribution so it plots well
plt.hist(s, bins=100)
plt.show()
numpy.random.standard_exponential(size=None)
standard_exponential is identical to the exponential distribution with a scale parameter of 1.
Parameters
Returns
out : float or ndarray
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Chapter 3. Routines
Drawn samples.
Examples
Output a 3x8000 array:
>>> n = np.random.standard_exponential((3, 8000))
numpy.random.standard_gamma(shape, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated k)
and scale=1.
Parameters
shape : float
drawn.
Returns
The drawn samples.
See Also:
Notes
p(x) = xk1
ex/
,
k (k)
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises naturally
in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
References
[R230], [R231]
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 1. # mean and width
>>> s = np.random.standard_gamma(shape, 1000000)
1171
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
>>>

y = bins**(shape-1) * ((np.exp(-bins/scale))/ \
(sps.gamma(shape) * scale**shape))
plt.show()
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16
18
numpy.random.standard_normal(size=None)
Parameters
Returns
Drawn samples.
Examples
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(8000)
>>> s
array([ 0.6888893 , 0.78096262, -0.89086505, ...,
-0.38672696, -0.4685006 ])
>>> s.shape
(8000,)
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(size=(3, 4, 2))
>>> s.shape
(3, 4, 2)
0.49876311, #random
#random
numpy.random.standard_t(df, size=None)
A special case of the hyperbolic distribution. As df gets large, the result resembles that of the standard normal
distribution (standard_normal).
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
df : int
Degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
Returns
Drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density function for the t distribution is
( df2+1 )
x2 (df +1)/2
1+
P (x, df ) =
df
df
df ( 2 )
The t test is based on an assumption that the data come from a Normal distribution. The t test provides a way to
test whether the sample mean (that is the mean calculated from the data) is a good estimate of the true mean.
The derivation of the t-distribution was forst published in 1908 by William Gisset while working for the Guinness Brewery in Dublin. Due to proprietary issues, he had to publish under a pseudonym, and so he used the
name Student.
References
[R232], [R233]
Examples
From Dalgaard page 83 [R232], suppose the daily energy intake for 11 women in Kj is:
>>> intake = np.array([5260., 5470, 5640, 6180, 6390, 6515, 6805, 7515, \
...
7515, 8230, 8770])
Does their energy intake deviate systematically from the recommended value of 7725 kJ?
We have 10 degrees of freedom, so is the sample mean within 95% of the recommended value?
>>> s = np.random.standard_t(10, size=100000)
>>> np.mean(intake)
6753.636363636364
>>> intake.std(ddof=1)
1142.1232221373727
Calculate the t statistic, setting the ddof parameter to the unbiased value so the divisor in the standard deviation
will be degrees of freedom, N-1.
>>> t = (np.mean(intake)-7725)/(intake.std(ddof=1)/np.sqrt(len(intake)))
>>> h = plt.hist(s, bins=100, normed=True)
For a one-sided t-test, how far out in the distribution does the t statistic appear?
>>> >>> np.sum(s<t) / float(len(s))
0.0090699999999999999 #random
So the p-value is about 0.009, which says the null hypothesis has a probability of about 99% of being true.
1173
numpy.random.triangular(left, mode, right, size=None)

The triangular distribution is a continuous probability distribution with lower limit left, peak at mode, and upper
limit right. Unlike the other distributions, these parameters directly define the shape of the pdf.
Parameters
left : scalar
Lower limit.
mode : scalar
The value where the peak of the distribution occurs. The value should fulfill the condition left <= mode <= right.
right : scalar
Upper limit, should be larger than left.
Returns
The returned samples all lie in the interval [left, right].
Notes
The probability density function for the Triangular distribution is
2(xl)
(rl)(ml) for l x m,
2(mx)
P (x; l, m, r) = (rl)(rm)
for m x r,
0
otherwise.
The triangular distribution is often used in ill-defined problems where the underlying distribution is not known,
but some knowledge of the limits and mode exists. Often it is used in simulations.
References
[R234]
Examples
Draw values from the distribution and plot the histogram:
>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.triangular(-3, 0, 8, 100000), bins=200,
...
normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
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numpy.random.uniform(low=0.0, high=1.0, size=1)

Samples are uniformly distributed over the half-open interval [low, high) (includes low, but excludes high).
In other words, any value within the given interval is equally likely to be drawn by uniform.
Parameters
low : float, optional
Lower boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be greater than or
equal to low. The default value is 0.
high : float
Upper boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be less than high. The
default value is 1.0.
Shape of output. If the given size is, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated.
If no shape is specified, a single sample is returned.
Returns
out : ndarray
Drawn samples, with shape size.
See Also:
randint
Discrete uniform distribution, yielding integers.
random_integers
Discrete uniform distribution over the closed interval [low, high].
random_sample
Floats uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
random
Alias for random_sample.
1175
rand
Convenience function that accepts dimensions as input, e.g., rand(2,2) would generate a 2-by-2 array
of floats, uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
Notes
The probability density function of the uniform distribution is
p(x) =
1
ba
anywhere within the interval [a, b), and zero elsewhere.

Examples
>>> s = np.random.uniform(-1,0,1000)
All values are within the given interval:

>>> np.all(s >= -1)
True
>>> np.all(s < 0)
True
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

plt.plot(bins, np.ones_like(bins), linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
1.2
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numpy.random.vonmises(mu, kappa, size=None)

Samples are drawn from a von Mises distribution with specified mode (mu) and dispersion (kappa), on the
interval [-pi, pi].
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Chapter 3. Routines
The von Mises distribution (also known as the circular normal distribution) is a continuous probability distribution on the unit circle. It may be thought of as the circular analogue of the normal distribution.
Parameters
mu : float
Mode (center) of the distribution.
kappa : float
Dispersion of the distribution, has to be >=0.
drawn.
Returns
The returned samples, which are in the interval [-pi, pi].
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.vonmises
probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the von Mises distribution is
p(x) =
ecos(x)
,
2I0 ()
where is the mode and the dispersion, and I0 () is the modified Bessel function of order 0.
The von Mises is named for Richard Edler von Mises, who was born in Austria-Hungary, in what is now the
Ukraine. He fled to the United States in 1939 and became a professor at Harvard. He worked in probability
theory, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, and philosophy of science.
References
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (ed.), Handbook of Mathematical Functions, New York: Dover, 1965.
von Mises, R., Mathematical Theory of Probability and Statistics, New York: Academic Press, 1964.
Examples
>>> mu, kappa = 0.0, 4.0 # mean and dispersion
>>> s = np.random.vonmises(mu, kappa, 1000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

x = np.arange(-np.pi, np.pi, 2*np.pi/50.)
y = -np.exp(kappa*np.cos(x-mu))/(2*np.pi*sps.jn(0,kappa))
plt.plot(x, y/max(y), linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
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numpy.random.wald(mean, scale, size=None)

As the scale approaches infinity, the distribution becomes more like a Gaussian.
Some references claim that the Wald is an Inverse Gaussian with mean=1, but this is by no means universal.
The Inverse Gaussian distribution was first studied in relationship to Brownian motion. In 1956 M.C.K. Tweedie
used the name Inverse Gaussian because there is an inverse relationship between the time to cover a unit distance
and distance covered in unit time.
Parameters
mean : scalar
Distribution mean, should be > 0.
scale : scalar
Scale parameter, should be >= 0.
Returns
Drawn sample, all greater than zero.
Notes
The probability density function for the Wald distribution is
r
2
scale scale(xmean)
2mean2 x
P (x; mean, scale) =
e
2x3
As noted above the Inverse Gaussian distribution first arise from attempts to model Brownian Motion. It is also a
competitor to the Weibull for use in reliability modeling and modeling stock returns and interest rate processes.
References
[R235], [R236], [R237]
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.wald(3, 2, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
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0.30
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10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
numpy.random.weibull(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a 1-parameter Weibull distribution with the given shape parameter a.
X = (ln(U ))1/a
Here, U is drawn from the uniform distribution over (0,1].

The more common 2-parameter Weibull, including a scale parameter is just X = (ln(U ))1/a .
Parameters
a : float
drawn.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.weibull_max, scipy.stats.distributions.weibull_min,
scipy.stats.distributions.genextreme, gumbel
Notes
The Weibull (or Type III asymptotic extreme value distribution for smallest values, SEV Type III, or RosinRammler distribution) is one of a class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in modeling
extreme value problems. This class includes the Gumbel and Frechet distributions.
1179
The probability density for the Weibull distribution is

p(x) =
a x a1 (x/)a
( )
e
,

where a is the shape and the scale.

1/a
The function has its peak (the mode) at ( a1
.
a )
When a = 1, the Weibull distribution reduces to the exponential distribution.

References
[R238], [R239], [R240]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> s = np.random.weibull(a, 1000)
>>> x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
>>> def weib(x,n,a):
...
return (a / n) * (x / n)**(a - 1) * np.exp(-(x / n)**a)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(np.random.weibull(5.,1000))

x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
scale = count.max()/weib(x, 1., 5.).max()
plt.plot(x, weib(x, 1., 5.)*scale)
plt.show()
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
numpy.random.zipf(a, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Zipf distribution with specified parameter a > 1.
1180
Chapter 3. Routines
The Zipf distribution (also known as the zeta distribution) is a continuous probability distribution that satisfies
Zipfs law: the frequency of an item is inversely proportional to its rank in a frequency table.
Parameters
a : float > 1
Distribution parameter.
size : int or tuple of int, optional
drawn; a single integer is equivalent in its result to providing a mono-tuple, i.e., a 1-D
array of length size is returned. The default is None, in which case a single scalar is
returned.
Returns
The returned samples are greater than or equal to one.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.zipf
Notes
The probability density for the Zipf distribution is
p(x) =
xa
,
(a)
where is the Riemann Zeta function.

It is named for the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf, who noted that the frequency of any word in a
sample of a language is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table.
References
Zipf, G. K., Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language, Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Univ. Press, 1932.
Examples
>>> a = 2. # parameter
>>> s = np.random.zipf(a, 1000)
>>> import scipy.special as sps
Truncate s values at 50 so plot is interesting
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s[s<50], 50, normed=True)
>>> x = np.arange(1., 50.)
>>> y = x**(-a)/sps.zetac(a)
>>> plt.plot(x, y/max(y), linewidth=2, color=r)
>>> plt.show()
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20
30
40
50
3.27.4 Random generator

RandomState
seed([seed])
get_state()
set_state(state)
Container for the Mersenne Twister pseudo-random number generator.

Seed the generator.
Return a tuple representing the internal state of the generator.
Set the internal state of the generator from a tuple.
class numpy.random.RandomState
Container for the Mersenne Twister pseudo-random number generator.
RandomState exposes a number of methods for generating random numbers drawn from a variety of probability distributions. In addition to the distribution-specific arguments, each method takes a keyword argument
size that defaults to None. If size is None, then a single value is generated and returned. If size is an integer,
then a 1-D array filled with generated values is returned. If size is a tuple, then an array with that shape is filled
and returned.
Parameters
seed : {None, int, array_like}, optional
Random seed initializing the pseudo-random number generator. Can be an integer, an
array (or other sequence) of integers of any length, or None (the default). If seed
is None, then RandomState will try to read data from /dev/urandom (or the
Windows analogue) if available or seed from the clock otherwise.
Notes
The Python stdlib module random also contains a Mersenne Twister pseudo-random number generator with
a number of methods that are similar to the ones available in RandomState. RandomState, besides being
NumPy-aware, has the advantage that it provides a much larger number of probability distributions to choose
from.
Methods
beta(a, b[, size])

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Chapter 3. Routines

binomial(n, p[, size])
bytes(length)
chisquare(df[, size])
choice(a[, size, replace, p])
dirichlet(alpha[, size])
exponential([scale, size])
f(dfnum, dfden[, size])
gamma(shape[, scale, size])
geometric(p[, size])
get_state()
gumbel([loc, scale, size])
hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample[, size]) Draw samples from a Hypergeometric distribution.
laplace([loc, scale, size])
Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential distribution with
logistic([loc, scale, size])
lognormal([mean, sigma, size])
logseries(p[, size])
multinomial(n, pvals[, size])
multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size])
negative_binomial(n, p[, size])
noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc[, size])
noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc[, size])
normal([loc, scale, size])
pareto(a[, size])
permutation(x)
poisson([lam, size])
power(a[, size])
rand(d0, d1, ..., dn)
randint(low[, high, size])
randn(d0, d1, ..., dn)
random_integers(low[, high, size])
random_sample([size])
rayleigh([scale, size])
seed([seed])
Seed the generator.
set_state(state)
shuffle(x)
standard_cauchy([size])
standard_exponential([size])
standard_gamma(shape[, size])
standard_normal([size])
standard_t(df[, size])
tomaxint([size])
Random integers between 0 and sys.maxint, inclusive.
triangular(left, mode, right[, size])
uniform([low, high, size])
vonmises(mu, kappa[, size])
wald(mean, scale[, size])
weibull(a[, size])
zipf(a[, size])
RandomState.beta(a, b, size=None)
1183
The Beta distribution is a special case of the Dirichlet distribution, and is related to the Gamma distribution.
It has the probability distribution function
f (x; a, b) =
1
x1 (1 x)1 ,
B(, )
where the normalisation, B, is the beta function,

Z
B(, ) =
t1 (1 t)1 dt.
It is often seen in Bayesian inference and order statistics.

Parameters
a : float
Alpha, non-negative.
b : float
Beta, non-negative.
size : tuple of ints, optional
The number of samples to draw. The output is packed according to the size given.
Returns
out : ndarray
Array of the given shape, containing values drawn from a Beta distribution.
RandomState.binomial(n, p, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability of
success where n an integer >= 0 and p is in the interval [0,1]. (n may be input as a float, but it is truncated
to an integer in use)
Parameters
n : float (but truncated to an integer)
parameter, >= 0.
p : float
parameter, >= 0 and <=1.
size : {tuple, int}
drawn.
Returns
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.binom
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
The probability density for the Binomial distribution is

n N
P (N ) =
p (1 p)nN ,
N
where n is the number of trials, p is the probability of success, and N is the number of successes.
When estimating the standard error of a proportion in a population by using a random sample, the normal
distribution works well unless the product p*n <=5, where p = population proportion estimate, and n =
number of samples, in which case the binomial distribution is used instead. For example, a sample of 15
people shows 4 who are left handed, and 11 who are right handed. Then p = 4/15 = 27%. 0.27*15 = 4, so
the binomial distribution should be used in this case.
References
[R123], [R124], [R125], [R126], [R127]
Examples
>>> n, p = 10, .5 # number of trials, probability of each trial
>>> s = np.random.binomial(n, p, 1000)
# result of flipping a coin 10 times, tested 1000 times.
A real world example. A company drills 9 wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability
of success of 0.1. All nine wells fail. What is the probability of that happening?
Lets do 20,000 trials of the model, and count the number that generate zero positive results.
>>> sum(np.random.binomial(9,0.1,20000)==0)/20000.
answer = 0.38885, or 38%.
RandomState.bytes(length)
Parameters
length : int
Number of random bytes.
Returns
out : str
String of length length.
Examples
>>> np.random.bytes(10)
eh\x85\x022SZ\xbf\xa4 #random
RandomState.chisquare(df, size=None)
When df independent random variables, each with standard normal distributions (mean 0, variance 1), are
squared and summed, the resulting distribution is chi-square (see Notes). This distribution is often used in
hypothesis testing.
Parameters
df : int
1185
Number of degrees of freedom.

Size of the returned array. By default, a scalar is returned.
Returns
output : ndarray
Samples drawn from the distribution, packed in a size-shaped array.
Raises
ValueError
When df <= 0 or when an inappropriate size (e.g. size=-1) is given.
Notes
The variable obtained by summing the squares of df independent, standard normally distributed random
variables:
Q=
df
X
Xi2
i=0
is chi-square distributed, denoted

Q 2k .
The probability density function of the chi-squared distribution is

p(x) =
(1/2)k/2 k/21 x/2

x
e
,
(k/2)
where is the gamma function,

Z
(x) =
tx1 et dt.
References
NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods
Examples
>>> np.random.chisquare(2,4)
array([ 1.89920014, 9.00867716,
3.13710533,
5.62318272])
RandomState.choice(a, size=None, replace=True, p=None)

Parameters
a : 1-D array-like or int
1186
Chapter 3. Routines
If an ndarray, a random sample is generated from its elements. If an int, the random
sample is generated as if a was np.arange(n)
replace : boolean, optional
Whether the sample is with or without replacement
p : 1-D array-like, optional
The probabilities associated with each entry in a. If not given the sample assumes a
uniform distribtion over all entries in a.
Returns
samples : 1-D ndarray, shape (size,)
The generated random samples
Raises
ValueError
If a is an int and less than zero, if a or p are not 1-dimensional, if a is an array-like
of size 0, if p is not a vector of probabilities, if a and p have different lengths, or if
replace=False and the sample size is greater than the population size
See Also:
randint, shuffle, permutation
Examples
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3)
array([0, 3, 4])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.randint(0,5,3)
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:

>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])
array([3, 3, 0])
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:

>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False)
array([3,1,0])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.shuffle(np.arange(5))[:3]
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:

>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])
array([2, 3, 0])
Any of the above can be repeated with an arbitrary array-like instead of just integers. For instance:
>>> aa_milne_arr = [pooh, rabbit, piglet, Christopher]
>>> np.random.choice(aa_milne_arr, 5, p=[0.5, 0.1, 0.1, 0.3])
array([pooh, pooh, pooh, Christopher, piglet],
dtype=|S11)
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RandomState.dirichlet(alpha, size=None)
Draw size samples of dimension k from a Dirichlet distribution. A Dirichlet-distributed random variable
can be seen as a multivariate generalization of a Beta distribution. Dirichlet pdf is the conjugate prior of a
multinomial in Bayesian inference.
Parameters
alpha : array
Parameter of the distribution (k dimension for sample of dimension k).
size : array
Number of samples to draw.
Returns
samples : ndarray,
The drawn samples, of shape (alpha.ndim, size).
Notes
k
Y
xii 1
i=1
Uses the following property for computation: for each dimension, draw a random sample y_i from a
standard gamma generator of shape alpha_i, then X = Pk1 y (y1 , . . . , yn ) is Dirichlet distributed.
i=1
References
[R128], [R129]
Examples
Taking an example cited in Wikipedia, this distribution can be used if one wanted to cut strings (each of
initial length 1.0) into K pieces with different lengths, where each piece had, on average, a designated
average length, but allowing some variation in the relative sizes of the pieces.
>>> s = np.random.dirichlet((10, 5, 3), 20).transpose()
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.barh(range(20), s[0])
plt.barh(range(20), s[1], left=s[0], color=g)
plt.barh(range(20), s[2], left=s[0]+s[1], color=r)
plt.title("Lengths of Strings")
RandomState.exponential(scale=1.0, size=None)
Its probability density function is
f (x;
1
1
x
) = exp( ),
for x > 0 and 0 elsewhere. is the scale parameter, which is the inverse of the rate parameter = 1/.
The rate parameter is an alternative, widely used parameterization of the exponential distribution [R132].
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Chapter 3. Routines
The exponential distribution is a continuous analogue of the geometric distribution. It describes many
common situations, such as the size of raindrops measured over many rainstorms [R130], or the time
between page requests to Wikipedia [R131].
Parameters
scale : float
The scale parameter, = 1/.
Number of samples to draw. The output is shaped according to size.
References
[R130], [R131], [R132]
RandomState.f(dfnum, dfden, size=None)
Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numerator) and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters should be greater than
zero.
The random variate of the F distribution (also known as the Fisher distribution) is a continuous probability
distribution that arises in ANOVA tests, and is the ratio of two chi-square variates.
Parameters
dfnum : float
Degrees of freedom in numerator. Should be greater than zero.
dfden : float
Degrees of freedom in denominator. Should be greater than zero.
size : {tuple, int}, optional
drawn. By default only one sample is returned.
Returns
Samples from the Fisher distribution.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.f
Notes
The F statistic is used to compare in-group variances to between-group variances. Calculating the distribution depends on the sampling, and so it is a function of the respective degrees of freedom in the problem.
The variable dfnum is the number of samples minus one, the between-groups degrees of freedom, while
dfden is the within-groups degrees of freedom, the sum of the number of samples in each group minus the
number of groups.
References
[R133], [R134]
1189
Examples
An example from Glantz[1], pp 47-40. Two groups, children of diabetics (25 people) and children from
people without diabetes (25 controls). Fasting blood glucose was measured, case group had a mean value
of 86.1, controls had a mean value of 82.2. Standard deviations were 2.09 and 2.49 respectively. Are
these data consistent with the null hypothesis that the parents diabetic status does not affect their childrens
blood glucose levels? Calculating the F statistic from the data gives a value of 36.01.
>>> dfnum = 1. # between group degrees of freedom
>>> dfden = 48. # within groups degrees of freedom
>>> s = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000)
The lower bound for the top 1% of the samples is :

>>> sort(s)[-10]
7.61988120985
So there is about a 1% chance that the F statistic will exceed 7.62, the measured value is 36, so the null
hypothesis is rejected at the 1% level.
RandomState.gamma(shape, scale=1.0, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated
k) and scale (sometimes designated theta), where both parameters are > 0.
Parameters
shape : scalar > 0
The shape of the gamma distribution.
scale : scalar > 0, optional
The scale of the gamma distribution. Default is equal to 1.
size : shape_tuple, optional
drawn.
Returns
Returns one sample unless size parameter is specified.
See Also:
Notes
p(x) = xk1
ex/
,
k (k)
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises
naturally in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
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Chapter 3. Routines
References
[R135], [R136]
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 2. # mean and dispersion
>>> s = np.random.gamma(shape, scale, 1000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
>>>

y = bins**(shape-1)*(np.exp(-bins/scale) /
(sps.gamma(shape)*scale**shape))
plt.show()
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12
14
16
18
RandomState.geometric(p, size=None)
Bernoulli trials are experiments with one of two outcomes: success or failure (an example of such an
experiment is flipping a coin). The geometric distribution models the number of trials that must be run in
order to achieve success. It is therefore supported on the positive integers, k = 1, 2, ....
The probability mass function of the geometric distribution is
f (k) = (1 p)k1 p
where p is the probability of success of an individual trial.

Parameters
p : float
The probability of success of an individual trial.
1191
Number of values to draw from the distribution. The output is shaped according to size.
Returns
out : ndarray
Samples from the geometric distribution, shaped according to size.
Examples
Draw ten thousand values from the geometric distribution, with the probability of an individual success
equal to 0.35:
>>> z = np.random.geometric(p=0.35, size=10000)
How many trials succeeded after a single run?

>>> (z == 1).sum() / 10000.
0.34889999999999999 #random
RandomState.get_state()
For more details, see set_state.
Returns
out : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The returned tuple has the following items:
1. the string MT19937.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integer keys.
3. an integer pos.
4. an integer has_gauss.
5. a float cached_gaussian.
See Also:
set_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If
the internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
RandomState.gumbel(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution with specified location and scale. For more information on the
Gumbel distribution, see Notes and References below.
Parameters
loc : float
The location of the mode of the distribution.
scale : float
The scale parameter of the distribution.
drawn.
1192
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
out : ndarray
The samples
See Also:
scipy.stats.gumbel_l, scipy.stats.gumbel_r
scipy.stats.genextreme
probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function, etc. for each of the above
weibull
Notes
The Gumbel (or Smallest Extreme Value (SEV) or the Smallest Extreme Value Type I) distribution is one
of a class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in modeling extreme value problems.
The Gumbel is a special case of the Extreme Value Type I distribution for maximums from distributions
with exponential-like tails.
The probability density for the Gumbel distribution is
p(x) =
e(x)/ e(x)/
e
,
where is the mode, a location parameter, and is the scale parameter.

The Gumbel (named for German mathematician Emil Julius Gumbel) was used very early in the hydrology
literature, for modeling the occurrence of flood events. It is also used for modeling maximum wind speed
and rainfall rates. It is a fat-tailed distribution - the probability of an event in the tail of the distribution is
larger than if one used a Gaussian, hence the surprisingly frequent occurrence of 100-year floods. Floods
were initially modeled as a Gaussian process, which underestimated the frequency of extreme events.
It is one of a class of extreme value distributions, the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions,
which also includes the Weibull and Frechet.
The function has a mean of + 0.57721 and a variance of
2 2
6 .
References
Gumbel, E. J., Statistics of Extremes, New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.
Reiss, R.-D. and Thomas, M., Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values from Insurance, Finance, Hydrology
and Other Fields, Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2001.
Examples
>>> mu, beta = 0, 0.1 # location and scale
>>> s = np.random.gumbel(mu, beta, 1000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
>>>

* np.exp( -np.exp( -(bins - mu) /beta) ),
plt.show()
1193
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Show how an extreme value distribution can arise from a Gaussian process and compare to a Gaussian:
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
...
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
>>>
...
...
>>>
means = []
maxima = []
for i in range(0,1000) :
a = np.random.normal(mu, beta, 1000)
means.append(a.mean())
maxima.append(a.max())
count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(maxima, 30, normed=True)
beta = np.std(maxima)*np.pi/np.sqrt(6)
mu = np.mean(maxima) - 0.57721*beta
* np.exp(-np.exp(-(bins - mu)/beta)),
plt.plot(bins, 1/(beta * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi))
* np.exp(-(bins - mu)**2 / (2 * beta**2)),
linewidth=2, color=g)
plt.show()
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.20
1194
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
Chapter 3. Routines
RandomState.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample, size=None)

Samples are drawn from a Hypergeometric distribution with specified parameters, ngood (ways to make a
good selection), nbad (ways to make a bad selection), and nsample = number of items sampled, which is
less than or equal to the sum ngood + nbad.
Parameters
ngood : int or array_like
Number of ways to make a good selection. Must be nonnegative.
nbad : int or array_like
Number of ways to make a bad selection. Must be nonnegative.
nsample : int or array_like
Number of items sampled. Must be at least 1 and at most ngood + nbad.
drawn.
Returns
The values are all integers in [0, n].
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.hypergeom
Notes
The probability density for the Hypergeometric distribution is

m N m
P (x) =
nx

N
n
where 0 x m and n + m N x n
for P(x) the probability of x successes, n = ngood, m = nbad, and N = number of samples.
Consider an urn with black and white marbles in it, ngood of them black and nbad are white. If you
draw nsample balls without replacement, then the Hypergeometric distribution describes the distribution
of black balls in the drawn sample.
Note that this distribution is very similar to the Binomial distribution, except that in this case, samples
are drawn without replacement, whereas in the Binomial case samples are drawn with replacement (or the
sample space is infinite). As the sample space becomes large, this distribution approaches the Binomial.
References
[R137], [R138], [R139]
1195
Examples
>>> ngood, nbad, nsamp = 100, 2, 10
# number of good, number of bad, and number of samples
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsamp, 1000)
>>> hist(s)
#
note that it is very unlikely to grab both bad items
Suppose you have an urn with 15 white and 15 black marbles. If you pull 15 marbles at random, how
likely is it that 12 or more of them are one color?
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(15, 15, 15, 100000)
>>> sum(s>=12)/100000. + sum(s<=3)/100000.
#
answer = 0.003 ... pretty unlikely!
RandomState.laplace(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential distribution with specified location (or mean) and
scale (decay).
The Laplace distribution is similar to the Gaussian/normal distribution, but is sharper at the peak and
has fatter tails. It represents the difference between two independent, identically distributed exponential
random variables.
Parameters
loc : float
The position, , of the distribution peak.
scale : float
, the exponential decay.
Notes
It has the probability density function

1
|x |
f (x; , ) =
exp
.
2
The first law of Laplace, from 1774, states that the frequency of an error can be expressed as an exponential
function of the absolute magnitude of the error, which leads to the Laplace distribution. For many problems in Economics and Health sciences, this distribution seems to model the data better than the standard
Gaussian distribution
References
[R140], [R141], [R142], [R143]
Examples
Draw samples from the distribution
>>> loc, scale = 0., 1.
>>> s = np.random.laplace(loc, scale, 1000)
1196
Chapter 3. Routines
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

x = np.arange(-8., 8., .01)
pdf = np.exp(-abs(x-loc/scale))/(2.*scale)
plt.plot(x, pdf)
Plot Gaussian for comparison:

>>> g = (1/(scale * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
...
np.exp( - (x - loc)**2 / (2 * scale**2) ))
>>> plt.plot(x,g)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
RandomState.logistic(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Samples are drawn from a Logistic distribution with specified parameters, loc (location or mean, also
median), and scale (>0).
Parameters
loc : float
scale : float > 0.
size : {tuple, int}
drawn.
Returns
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.logistic
1197
Notes
The probability density for the Logistic distribution is
P (x) = P (x) =
e(x)/s
,
s(1 + e(x)/s )2
where = location and s = scale.

The Logistic distribution is used in Extreme Value problems where it can act as a mixture of Gumbel
distributions, in Epidemiology, and by the World Chess Federation (FIDE) where it is used in the Elo
ranking system, assuming the performance of each player is a logistically distributed random variable.
References
[R144], [R145], [R146]
Examples
>>> loc, scale = 10, 1
>>> s = np.random.logistic(loc, scale, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, bins=50)

>>>
...
>>>
...
>>>
def logist(x, loc, scale):

return exp((loc-x)/scale)/(scale*(1+exp((loc-x)/scale))**2)
plt.plot(bins, logist(bins, loc, scale)*count.max()/\
logist(bins, loc, scale).max())
plt.show()
RandomState.lognormal(mean=0.0, sigma=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a log-normal distribution with specified mean, standard deviation, and array shape.
Note that the mean and standard deviation are not the values for the distribution itself, but of the underlying
normal distribution it is derived from.
Parameters
mean : float
Mean value of the underlying normal distribution
sigma : float, > 0.
Standard deviation of the underlying normal distribution
drawn.
Returns
samples : ndarray or float
The desired samples. An array of the same shape as size if given, if size is None a float
is returned.
See Also:
1198
Chapter 3. Routines
scipy.stats.lognorm
probability density function, distribution, cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
A variable x has a log-normal distribution if log(x) is normally distributed. The probability density function
for the log-normal distribution is:
p(x) =
x 2
e(
(ln(x))2
2 2
where is the mean and is the standard deviation of the normally distributed logarithm of the variable.
A log-normal distribution results if a random variable is the product of a large number of independent,
identically-distributed variables in the same way that a normal distribution results if the variable is the sum
of a large number of independent, identically-distributed variables.
References
Limpert, E., Stahel, W. A., and Abbt, M., Log-normal Distributions across the Sciences: Keys and Clues,
BioScience, Vol. 51, No. 5, May, 2001. http://stat.ethz.ch/~stahel/lognormal/bioscience.pdf
Reiss, R.D. and Thomas, M., Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values, Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2001, pp.
31-32.
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 3., 1. # mean and standard deviation
>>> s = np.random.lognormal(mu, sigma, 1000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True, align=mid)
...
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, linewidth=2, color=r)
>>> plt.axis(tight)
>>> plt.show()
Demonstrate that taking the products of random samples from a uniform distribution can be fit well by a
log-normal probability density function.
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
# Generate a thousand samples: each is the product of 100 random

# values, drawn from a normal distribution.
b = []
for i in range(1000):
a = 10. + np.random.random(100)
b.append(np.product(a))
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
b = np.array(b) / np.min(b) # scale values to be positive

count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(b, 100, normed=True, align=center)
sigma = np.std(np.log(b))
mu = np.mean(np.log(b))
1199

...
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, color=r, linewidth=2)
>>> plt.show()
RandomState.logseries(p, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Log Series distribution with specified parameter, p (probability, 0 < p < 1).
Parameters
loc : float
scale : float > 0.
size : {tuple, int}
drawn.
Returns
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.logser
Notes
The probability density for the Log Series distribution is
P (k) =
pk
,
k ln(1 p)
where p = probability.
The Log Series distribution is frequently used to represent species richness and occurrence, first proposed
by Fisher, Corbet, and Williams in 1943 [2]. It may also be used to model the numbers of occupants seen
in cars [3].
References
[R147], [R148], [R149], [R150]
Examples
>>> a = .6
>>> s = np.random.logseries(a, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s)
1200
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> def logseries(k, p):

...
return -p**k/(k*log(1-p))
>>> plt.plot(bins, logseries(bins, a)*count.max()/
logseries(bins, a).max(), r)
>>> plt.show()
RandomState.multinomial(n, pvals, size=None)

The multinomial distribution is a multivariate generalisation of the binomial distribution. Take an experiment with one of p possible outcomes. An example of such an experiment is throwing a dice, where the
outcome can be 1 through 6. Each sample drawn from the distribution represents n such experiments. Its
values, X_i = [X_0, X_1, ..., X_p], represent the number of times the outcome was i.
Parameters
n : int
Number of experiments.
pvals : sequence of floats, length p
Probabilities of each of the p different outcomes. These should sum to 1 (however,
the last element is always assumed to account for the remaining probability, as long as
sum(pvals[:-1]) <= 1).
Given a size of (M, N, K), then M*N*K samples are drawn, and the output shape
becomes (M, N, K, p), since each sample has shape (p,).
Examples
Throw a dice 20 times:
array([[4, 1, 7, 5, 2, 1]])
It landed 4 times on 1, once on 2, etc.

Now, throw the dice 20 times, and 20 times again:
array([[3, 4, 3, 3, 4, 3],
[2, 4, 3, 4, 0, 7]])
For the first run, we threw 3 times 1, 4 times 2, etc. For the second, we threw 2 times 1, 4 times 2, etc.
A loaded dice is more likely to land on number 6:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1/7.]*5)
array([13, 16, 13, 16, 42])
RandomState.multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size ])

The multivariate normal, multinormal or Gaussian distribution is a generalization of the one-dimensional
normal distribution to higher dimensions. Such a distribution is specified by its mean and covariance
matrix. These parameters are analogous to the mean (average or center) and variance (standard deviation,
or width, squared) of the one-dimensional normal distribution.
Parameters
mean : 1-D array_like, of length N
1201
Mean of the N-dimensional distribution.

cov : 2-D array_like, of shape (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. Must be symmetric and positive semi-definite for
physically meaningful results.
Given a shape of, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated, and packed in
an m-by-n-by-k arrangement. Because each sample is N-dimensional, the output shape
is (m,n,k,N). If no shape is specified, a single (N-D) sample is returned.
Returns
out : ndarray
The drawn samples, of shape size, if that was provided. If not, the shape is (N,).
In other words, each entry out[i,j,...,:] is an N-dimensional value drawn from
the distribution.
Notes
The mean is a coordinate in N-dimensional space, which represents the location where samples are most
likely to be generated. This is analogous to the peak of the bell curve for the one-dimensional or univariate
normal distribution.
Covariance indicates the level to which two variables vary together. From the multivariate normal distribution, we draw N-dimensional samples, X = [x1 , x2 , ...xN ]. The covariance matrix element Cij is the
covariance of xi and xj . The element Cii is the variance of xi (i.e. its spread).
Instead of specifying the full covariance matrix, popular approximations include:
Spherical covariance (cov is a multiple of the identity matrix)
Diagonal covariance (cov has non-negative elements, and only on the diagonal)
This geometrical property can be seen in two dimensions by plotting generated data-points:
>>> mean = [0,0]
>>> cov = [[1,0],[0,100]] # diagonal covariance, points lie on x or y-axis
>>> x,y = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean,cov,5000).T
>>> plt.plot(x,y,x); plt.axis(equal); plt.show()
Note that the covariance matrix must be non-negative definite.

References
Papoulis, A., Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill,
1991.
Duda, R. O., Hart, P. E., and Stork, D. G., Pattern Classification, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2001.
Examples
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
(3,
1202
mean = (1,2)
cov = [[1,0],[1,0]]
x = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean,cov,(3,3))
x.shape
3, 2)
Chapter 3. Routines
The following is probably true, given that 0.6 is roughly twice the standard deviation:
>>> print list( (x[0,0,:] - mean) < 0.6 )
[True, True]
RandomState.negative_binomial(n, p, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a negative_Binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability of success where n is an integer > 0 and p is in the interval [0, 1].
Parameters
n : int
Parameter, > 0.
p : float
Parameter, >= 0 and <=1.
drawn.
Returns
samples : int or ndarray of ints
Drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density for the Negative Binomial distribution is

N +n1 n
P (N ; n, p) =
p (1 p)N ,
n1
where n 1 is the number of successes, p is the probability of success, and N + n 1 is the number of
trials.
The negative binomial distribution gives the probability of n-1 successes and N failures in N+n-1 trials,
and success on the (N+n)th trial.
If one throws a die repeatedly until the third time a 1 appears, then the probability distribution of the
number of non-1s that appear before the third 1 is a negative binomial distribution.
References
[R151], [R152]
Examples
A real world example. A company drills wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability
of success of 0.1. What is the probability of having one success for each successive well, that is what is
the probability of a single success after drilling 5 wells, after 6 wells, etc.?
>>> s = np.random.negative_binomial(1, 0.1, 100000)
>>> for i in range(1, 11):
...
probability = sum(s<i) / 100000.
...
print i, "wells drilled, probability of one success =", probability
1203
RandomState.noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc, size=None)

The noncentral 2 distribution is a generalisation of the 2 distribution.
Parameters
df : int
Degrees of freedom, should be >= 1.
nonc : float
Non-centrality, should be > 0.
Notes
The probability density function for the noncentral Chi-square distribution is
P (x; df, nonc) =
X
enonc/2 (nonc/2)i
i=0
i!
PYdf +2i (x),
where Yq is the Chi-square with q degrees of freedom.

In Delhi (2007), it is noted that the noncentral chi-square is useful in bombing and coverage problems, the
probability of killing the point target given by the noncentral chi-squared distribution.
References
[R153], [R154]
Examples
...
>>> plt.show()
1204
Chapter 3. Routines
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
10
20
30
40
50
70
60
80
Draw values from a noncentral chisquare with very small noncentrality, and compare to a chisquare.
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
...
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
values = plt.hist(np.random.noncentral_chisquare(3, .0000001, 100000),
values2 = plt.hist(np.random.chisquare(3, 100000),
plt.plot(values[1][0:-1], values[0]-values2[0], ob)
plt.show()
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.05
10
15
20
25
Demonstrate how large values of non-centrality lead to a more symmetric distribution.

>>> plt.figure()
...
>>> plt.show()
1205
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
RandomState.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, size=None)

Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numerator) and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters > 1. nonc is the non-centrality
parameter.
Parameters
dfnum : int
dfden : int
nonc : float
Parameter, should be >= 0.
drawn.
Returns
Drawn samples.
Notes
When calculating the power of an experiment (power = probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when
a specific alternative is true) the non-central F statistic becomes important. When the null hypothesis is
true, the F statistic follows a central F distribution. When the null hypothesis is not true, then it follows a
non-central F statistic.
References
Weisstein, Eric W. Noncentral F-Distribution.
From MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NoncentralF-Distribution.html
1206
Chapter 3. Routines
Wikipedia, Noncentral F distribution, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_F-distribution

Examples
In a study, testing for a specific alternative to the null hypothesis requires use of the Noncentral F distribution. We need to calculate the area in the tail of the distribution that exceeds the value of the F distribution
for the null hypothesis. Well plot the two probability distributions for comparison.
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
dfnum = 3 # between group deg of freedom

dfden = 20 # within groups degrees of freedom
nonc = 3.0
nc_vals = np.random.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, 1000000)
NF = np.histogram(nc_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
c_vals = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000000)
F = np.histogram(c_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
plt.plot(F[1][1:], F[0])
plt.plot(NF[1][1:], NF[0])
plt.show()
RandomState.normal(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

The probability density function of the normal distribution, first derived by De Moivre and 200 years later
by both Gauss and Laplace independently [R156], is often called the bell curve because of its characteristic
shape (see the example below).
The normal distributions occurs often in nature. For example, it describes the commonly occurring distribution of samples influenced by a large number of tiny, random disturbances, each with its own unique
distribution [R156].
Parameters
loc : float
Mean (centre) of the distribution.
scale : float
Standard deviation (spread or width) of the distribution.
drawn.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.norm
Notes
The probability density for the Gaussian distribution is
p(x) =
1
2 2
(x)2
2 2
where is the mean and the standard deviation. The square of the standard deviation, 2 , is called the
variance.
1207
The function has its peak at the mean, and its spread increases with the standard deviation (the function
reaches 0.607 times its maximum at x+ and x [R156]). This implies that numpy.random.normal
is more likely to return samples lying close to the mean, rather than those far away.
References
[R155], [R156]
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 0, 0.1 # mean and standard deviation
>>> s = np.random.normal(mu, sigma, 1000)
Verify the mean and the variance:

>>> abs(mu - np.mean(s)) < 0.01
True
>>> abs(sigma - np.std(s, ddof=1)) < 0.01
True
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
...
>>>

plt.plot(bins, 1/(sigma * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
np.exp( - (bins - mu)**2 / (2 * sigma**2) ),
plt.show()
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
RandomState.pareto(a, size=None)
The Lomax or Pareto II distribution is a shifted Pareto distribution. The classical Pareto distribution can be
obtained from the Lomax distribution by adding the location parameter m, see below. The smallest value of
the Lomax distribution is zero while for the classical Pareto distribution it is m, where the standard Pareto
distribution has location m=1. Lomax can also be considered as a simplified version of the Generalized
Pareto distribution (available in SciPy), with the scale set to one and the location set to zero.
1208
Chapter 3. Routines
The Pareto distribution must be greater than zero, and is unbounded above. It is also known as the 80-20
rule. In this distribution, 80 percent of the weights are in the lowest 20 percent of the range, while the
other 20 percent fill the remaining 80 percent of the range.
Parameters
shape : float, > 0.
drawn.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.lomax.pdf
scipy.stats.distributions.genpareto.pdf
Notes
The probability density for the Pareto distribution is
p(x) =
ama
xa+1
where a is the shape and m the location

The Pareto distribution, named after the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, is a power law probability
distribution useful in many real world problems. Outside the field of economics it is generally referred to
as the Bradford distribution. Pareto developed the distribution to describe the distribution of wealth in an
economy. It has also found use in insurance, web page access statistics, oil field sizes, and many other
problems, including the download frequency for projects in Sourceforge [1]. It is one of the so-called
fat-tailed distributions.
References
[R157], [R158], [R159], [R160]
Examples
>>> a, m = 3., 1. # shape and mode
>>> s = np.random.pareto(a, 1000) + m
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True, align=center)
fit = a*m**a/bins**(a+1)
plt.plot(bins, max(count)*fit/max(fit),linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
RandomState.permutation(x)
If x is a multi-dimensional array, it is only shuffled along its first index.
1209
Parameters
x : int or array_like
If x is an integer, randomly permute np.arange(x). If x is an array, make a copy and
shuffle the elements randomly.
Returns
out : ndarray
Permuted sequence or array range.
Examples
>>> np.random.permutation(10)
array([1, 7, 4, 3, 0, 9, 2, 5, 8, 6])
>>> np.random.permutation([1, 4, 9, 12, 15])
array([15, 1, 9, 4, 12])
>>> np.random.permutation(arr)
array([[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
RandomState.poisson(lam=1.0, size=None)
The Poisson distribution is the limit of the Binomial distribution for large N.
Parameters
lam : float
Expectation of interval, should be >= 0.
drawn.
Notes
The Poisson distribution
f (k; ) =
k e
k!
For events with an expected separation the Poisson distribution f (k; ) describes the probability of k
events occurring within the observed interval .
Because the output is limited to the range of the C long type, a ValueError is raised when lam is within 10
sigma of the maximum representable value.
References
[R161], [R162]
Examples
1210
Chapter 3. Routines

>>> s = np.random.poisson(5, 10000)
Display histogram of the sample:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 14, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
10
12
14
16
18
RandomState.power(a, size=None)
Also known as the power function distribution.
Parameters
a : float
parameter, > 0
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then
m * n * k samples are drawn.
Returns
The returned samples lie in [0, 1].
Raises
ValueError
If a<1.
Notes
The probability density function is
P (x; a) = axa1 , 0 x 1, a > 0.
1211
The power function distribution is just the inverse of the Pareto distribution. It may also be seen as a special
case of the Beta distribution.
It is used, for example, in modeling the over-reporting of insurance claims.
References
[R163], [R164]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> samples = 1000
>>> s = np.random.power(a, samples)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, bins=30)
x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
y = a*x**(a-1.)
normed_y = samples*np.diff(bins)[0]*y
plt.plot(x, normed_y)
plt.show()
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Compare the power function distribution to the inverse of the Pareto.
1212
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
from scipy import stats

rvs = np.random.power(5, 1000000)
rvsp = np.random.pareto(5, 1000000)
xx = np.linspace(0,1,100)
powpdf = stats.powerlaw.pdf(xx,5)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
plt.hist(rvs, bins=50, normed=True)
plt.title(np.random.power(5))
Chapter 3. Routines
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
plt.title(inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5))
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
plt.figure()
plt.title(inverse of stats.pareto(5))
np.random.power(5)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.8
1.0
inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1213
inverse of stats.pareto(5)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
RandomState.rand(d0, d1, ..., dn)

Create an array of the given shape and propagate it with random samples from a uniform distribution over
[0, 1).
Parameters
The dimensions of the returned array, should all be positive. If no argument is given a
Returns
out : ndarray, shape (d0, d1, ..., dn)
Random values.
See Also:
random
Notes
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a shape-tuple as the first argument, refer
to np.random.random_sample .
Examples
>>> np.random.rand(3,2)
array([[ 0.14022471, 0.96360618], #random
[ 0.37601032, 0.25528411], #random
[ 0.49313049, 0.94909878]]) #random
RandomState.randint(low, high=None, size=None)

Return random integers from the discrete uniform distribution in the half-open interval [low, high). If
high is None (the default), then results are from [0, low).
Parameters
low : int
1214
Chapter 3. Routines

If provided, one above the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see
above for behavior if high=None).
Returns
See Also:
random.random_integers
similar to randint, only for the closed interval [low, high], and 1 is the lowest value if high is
omitted. In particular, this other one is the one to use to generate uniformly distributed discrete nonintegers.
Examples
array([1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1,
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
size=10)
0, 0, 1, 0])
size=10)
0, 0, 0, 0])
Generate a 2 x 4 array of ints between 0 and 4, inclusive:

>>> np.random.randint(5, size=(2, 4))
array([[4, 0, 2, 1],
[3, 2, 2, 0]])
RandomState.randn(d0, d1, ..., dn)

If positive, int_like or int-convertible arguments are provided, randn generates an array of shape (d0,
d1, ..., dn), filled with random floats sampled from a univariate normal (Gaussian) distribution
of mean 0 and variance 1 (if any of the di are floats, they are first converted to integers by truncation). A
single float randomly sampled from the distribution is returned if no argument is provided.
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a tuple as the first argument, use
numpy.random.standard_normal instead.
Parameters
The dimensions of the returned array, should be all positive. If no argument is given a
Returns
Z : ndarray or float
A (d0, d1, ..., dn)-shaped array of floating-point samples from the standard
normal distribution, or a single such float if no parameters were supplied.
See Also:
1215
random.standard_normal
Similar, but takes a tuple as its argument.
Notes
sigma * np.random.randn(...)
+ mu
Examples
>>> np.random.randn()
2.1923875335537315 #random
Two-by-four array of samples from N(3, 6.25):

>>> 2.5 * np.random.randn(2, 4) + 3
array([[-4.49401501, 4.00950034, -1.81814867,
[ 0.39924804, 4.68456316, 4.99394529,
7.29718677], #random
4.84057254]]) #random
RandomState.random_integers(low, high=None, size=None)

Return random integers from the discrete uniform distribution in the closed interval [low, high]. If high
is None (the default), then results are from [1, low].
Parameters
low : int
If provided, the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see above for
behavior if high=None).
Returns
See Also:
random.randint
Similar to random_integers, only for the half-open interval [low, high), and 0 is the lowest value
if high is omitted.
Notes
To sample from N evenly spaced floating-point numbers between a and b, use:
a + (b - a) * (np.random.random_integers(N) - 1) / (N - 1.)
1216
Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.random.random_integers(5)
4
>>> type(np.random.random_integers(5))
<type int>
>>> np.random.random_integers(5, size=(3.,2.))
array([[5, 4],
[3, 3],
[4, 5]])
Choose five random numbers from the set of five evenly-spaced numbers between 0 and 2.5, inclusive (i.e.,
from the set 0, 5/8, 10/8, 15/8, 20/8):
>>> 2.5 * (np.random.random_integers(5, size=(5,)) - 1) / 4.
array([ 0.625, 1.25 , 0.625, 0.625, 2.5 ])
Roll two six sided dice 1000 times and sum the results:
>>> dsums = d1 + d2
Display results as a histogram:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(dsums, 11, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
10
12
RandomState.random_sample(size=None)
Results are from the continuous uniform distribution over the stated interval. To sample U nif [a, b), b >
a multiply the output of random_sample by (b-a) and add a:
Parameters
1217
a single float.
Returns
is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type float>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 ,
0.11659149,
0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
RandomState.rayleigh(scale=1.0, size=None)
The and Weibull distributions are generalizations of the Rayleigh.
Parameters
scale : scalar
Scale, also equals the mode. Should be >= 0.
Shape of the output. Default is None, in which case a single value is returned.
Notes
The probability density function for the Rayleigh distribution is
P (x; scale) =
x2
x
e 2scale2
2
scale
The Rayleigh distribution arises if the wind speed and wind direction are both gaussian variables, then
the vector wind velocity forms a Rayleigh distribution. The Rayleigh distribution is used to model the
expected output from wind turbines.
References
[R165], [R166]
Examples
>>> values = hist(np.random.rayleigh(3, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
1218
Chapter 3. Routines
Wave heights tend to follow a Rayleigh distribution. If the mean wave height is 1 meter, what fraction of
waves are likely to be larger than 3 meters?
>>> meanvalue = 1
>>> modevalue = np.sqrt(2 / np.pi) * meanvalue
>>> s = np.random.rayleigh(modevalue, 1000000)
The percentage of waves larger than 3 meters is:

>>> 100.*sum(s>3)/1000000.
0.087300000000000003
RandomState.seed(seed=None)
Seed the generator.
This method is called when RandomState is initialized. It can be called again to re-seed the generator.
For details, see RandomState.
Parameters
seed : int or array_like, optional
Seed for RandomState.
See Also:
RandomState
RandomState.set_state(state)
For use if one has reason to manually (re-)set the internal state of the Mersenne Twister[R167] pseudorandom number generating algorithm.
Parameters
state : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The state tuple has the following items:
1. the string MT19937, specifying the Mersenne Twister algorithm.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integers keys.
3. an integer pos.
Returns
out : None
Returns None on success.
See Also:
get_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If
the internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
For backwards compatibility, the form (str, array of 624 uints, int) is also accepted although it is missing
some information about the cached Gaussian value: state = (MT19937, keys, pos).
1219
References
[R167]
RandomState.shuffle(x)
Parameters
x : array_like
The array or list to be shuffled.
Returns
None
Examples
>>> arr = np.arange(10)
>>> arr
[1 7 5 2 9 4 3 6 0 8]
This function only shuffles the array along the first index of a multi-dimensional array:
>>> arr
array([[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2]])
RandomState.standard_cauchy(size=None)
Also known as the Lorentz distribution.
Parameters
Returns
The drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density function for the full Cauchy distribution is
P (x; x0 , ) =
1

0 2
1 + ( xx
)
and the Standard Cauchy distribution just sets x0 = 0 and = 1

The Cauchy distribution arises in the solution to the driven harmonic oscillator problem, and also describes
spectral line broadening. It also describes the distribution of values at which a line tilted at a random angle
will cut the x axis.
When studying hypothesis tests that assume normality, seeing how the tests perform on data from a Cauchy
distribution is a good indicator of their sensitivity to a heavy-tailed distribution, since the Cauchy looks
very much like a Gaussian distribution, but with heavier tails.
1220
Chapter 3. Routines
References
[R168], [R169], [R170]
Examples
Draw samples and plot the distribution:
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
s = np.random.standard_cauchy(1000000)
s = s[(s>-25) & (s<25)] # truncate distribution so it plots well
plt.hist(s, bins=100)
plt.show()
RandomState.standard_exponential(size=None)
standard_exponential is identical to the exponential distribution with a scale parameter of 1.
Parameters
Returns
Drawn samples.
Examples
Output a 3x8000 array:
>>> n = np.random.standard_exponential((3, 8000))
RandomState.standard_gamma(shape, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated
k) and scale=1.
Parameters
shape : float
drawn.
Returns
The drawn samples.
See Also:
1221
Notes
p(x) = xk1
ex/
,
k (k)
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises
naturally in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
References
[R171], [R172]
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 1. # mean and width
>>> s = np.random.standard_gamma(shape, 1000000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
...
>>>
>>>

y = bins**(shape-1) * ((np.exp(-bins/scale))/ \
(sps.gamma(shape) * scale**shape))
plt.show()
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
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10
12
14
16
18
RandomState.standard_normal(size=None)
Parameters
1222
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
Drawn samples.
Examples
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(8000)
>>> s
array([ 0.6888893 , 0.78096262, -0.89086505, ...,
-0.38672696, -0.4685006 ])
>>> s.shape
(8000,)
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(size=(3, 4, 2))
>>> s.shape
(3, 4, 2)
0.49876311, #random
#random
RandomState.standard_t(df, size=None)
A special case of the hyperbolic distribution. As df gets large, the result resembles that of the standard
normal distribution (standard_normal).
Parameters
df : int
Degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
Returns
Drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density function for the t distribution is
( df2+1 )
x2 (df +1)/2
P (x, df ) =
1
+
df
df ( df2 )
The t test is based on an assumption that the data come from a Normal distribution. The t test provides a
way to test whether the sample mean (that is the mean calculated from the data) is a good estimate of the
true mean.
The derivation of the t-distribution was forst published in 1908 by William Gisset while working for the
Guinness Brewery in Dublin. Due to proprietary issues, he had to publish under a pseudonym, and so he
used the name Student.
References
[R173], [R174]
Examples
From Dalgaard page 83 [R173], suppose the daily energy intake for 11 women in Kj is:
1223
>>> intake = np.array([5260., 5470, 5640, 6180, 6390, 6515, 6805, 7515, \
...
7515, 8230, 8770])
Does their energy intake deviate systematically from the recommended value of 7725 kJ?
We have 10 degrees of freedom, so is the sample mean within 95% of the recommended value?
>>> s = np.random.standard_t(10, size=100000)
>>> np.mean(intake)
6753.636363636364
>>> intake.std(ddof=1)
1142.1232221373727
Calculate the t statistic, setting the ddof parameter to the unbiased value so the divisor in the standard
deviation will be degrees of freedom, N-1.
>>> t = (np.mean(intake)-7725)/(intake.std(ddof=1)/np.sqrt(len(intake)))
>>> h = plt.hist(s, bins=100, normed=True)
For a one-sided t-test, how far out in the distribution does the t statistic appear?
>>> >>> np.sum(s<t) / float(len(s))
0.0090699999999999999 #random
So the p-value is about 0.009, which says the null hypothesis has a probability of about 99% of being true.
RandomState.tomaxint(size=None)
Random integers between 0 and sys.maxint, inclusive.
Return a sample of uniformly distributed random integers in the interval [0, sys.maxint].
Parameters
Shape of output. If this is, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated. If no
shape is specified, a single sample is returned.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
randint
Uniform sampling over a given half-open interval of integers.
random_integers
Uniform sampling over a given closed interval of integers.
Examples
>>> RS = np.random.mtrand.RandomState() # need a RandomState object
>>> RS.tomaxint((2,2,2))
array([[[1170048599, 1600360186],
[ 739731006, 1947757578]],
[[1871712945, 752307660],
[1601631370, 1479324245]]])
>>> import sys
>>> sys.maxint
2147483647
1224
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> RS.tomaxint((2,2,2)) < sys.maxint

array([[[ True, True],
[ True, True]],
[[ True, True],
[ True, True]]], dtype=bool)
RandomState.triangular(left, mode, right, size=None)

The triangular distribution is a continuous probability distribution with lower limit left, peak at mode, and
upper limit right. Unlike the other distributions, these parameters directly define the shape of the pdf.
Parameters
left : scalar
Lower limit.
mode : scalar
The value where the peak of the distribution occurs. The value should fulfill the condition left <= mode <= right.
right : scalar
Upper limit, should be larger than left.
Returns
The returned samples all lie in the interval [left, right].
Notes
The probability density function for the Triangular distribution is
2(xl)
(rl)(ml) for l x m,
2(mx)
P (x; l, m, r) = (rl)(rm)
for m x r,
0
otherwise.
The triangular distribution is often used in ill-defined problems where the underlying distribution is not
known, but some knowledge of the limits and mode exists. Often it is used in simulations.
References
[R175]
Examples
>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.triangular(-3, 0, 8, 100000), bins=200,
...
normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
1225
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0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
RandomState.uniform(low=0.0, high=1.0, size=1)

Samples are uniformly distributed over the half-open interval [low, high) (includes low, but excludes
high). In other words, any value within the given interval is equally likely to be drawn by uniform.
Parameters
low : float, optional
Lower boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be greater than or
equal to low. The default value is 0.
high : float
Upper boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be less than high. The
default value is 1.0.
Shape of output. If the given size is, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated.
If no shape is specified, a single sample is returned.
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
randint
Discrete uniform distribution, yielding integers.
random_integers
Discrete uniform distribution over the closed interval [low, high].
random_sample
Floats uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
random
Alias for random_sample.
1226
Chapter 3. Routines
rand
Convenience function that accepts dimensions as input, e.g., rand(2,2) would generate a 2-by-2
array of floats, uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
Notes
The probability density function of the uniform distribution is
p(x) =
1
ba
anywhere within the interval [a, b), and zero elsewhere.

Examples
>>> s = np.random.uniform(-1,0,1000)
All values are within the given interval:

>>> np.all(s >= -1)
True
>>> np.all(s < 0)
True
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>

plt.plot(bins, np.ones_like(bins), linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
1.2
1.0
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0.6
0.4
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1.0
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RandomState.vonmises(mu, kappa, size=None)

Samples are drawn from a von Mises distribution with specified mode (mu) and dispersion (kappa), on the
interval [-pi, pi].
1227
The von Mises distribution (also known as the circular normal distribution) is a continuous probability
distribution on the unit circle. It may be thought of as the circular analogue of the normal distribution.
Parameters
mu : float
Mode (center) of the distribution.
kappa : float
Dispersion of the distribution, has to be >=0.
drawn.
Returns
The returned samples, which are in the interval [-pi, pi].
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.vonmises
Notes
The probability density for the von Mises distribution is
p(x) =
ecos(x)
,
2I0 ()
where is the mode and the dispersion, and I0 () is the modified Bessel function of order 0.
The von Mises is named for Richard Edler von Mises, who was born in Austria-Hungary, in what is now
the Ukraine. He fled to the United States in 1939 and became a professor at Harvard. He worked in
probability theory, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, and philosophy of science.
References
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (ed.), Handbook of Mathematical Functions, New York: Dover, 1965.
von Mises, R., Mathematical Theory of Probability and Statistics, New York: Academic Press, 1964.
Examples
>>> mu, kappa = 0.0, 4.0 # mean and dispersion
>>> s = np.random.vonmises(mu, kappa, 1000)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
1228

x = np.arange(-np.pi, np.pi, 2*np.pi/50.)
y = -np.exp(kappa*np.cos(x-mu))/(2*np.pi*sps.jn(0,kappa))
plt.plot(x, y/max(y), linewidth=2, color=r)
plt.show()
Chapter 3. Routines
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
RandomState.wald(mean, scale, size=None)

As the scale approaches infinity, the distribution becomes more like a Gaussian.
Some references claim that the Wald is an Inverse Gaussian with mean=1, but this is by no means universal.
The Inverse Gaussian distribution was first studied in relationship to Brownian motion. In 1956 M.C.K.
Tweedie used the name Inverse Gaussian because there is an inverse relationship between the time to cover
a unit distance and distance covered in unit time.
Parameters
mean : scalar
Distribution mean, should be > 0.
scale : scalar
Scale parameter, should be >= 0.
Returns
Drawn sample, all greater than zero.
Notes
The probability density function for the Wald distribution is
r
2
scale scale(xmean)
2mean2 x
P (x; mean, scale) =
e
2x3
As noted above the Inverse Gaussian distribution first arise from attempts to model Brownian Motion. It
is also a competitor to the Weibull for use in reliability modeling and modeling stock returns and interest
rate processes.
1229
References
[R176], [R177], [R178]
Examples
>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.wald(3, 2, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
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10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
RandomState.weibull(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a 1-parameter Weibull distribution with the given shape parameter a.
X = (ln(U ))1/a
Here, U is drawn from the uniform distribution over (0,1].

The more common 2-parameter Weibull, including a scale parameter is just X = (ln(U ))1/a .
Parameters
a : float
drawn.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.weibull_max, scipy.stats.distributions.weibull_min,
scipy.stats.distributions.genextreme, gumbel
1230
Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
The Weibull (or Type III asymptotic extreme value distribution for smallest values, SEV Type III, or
Rosin-Rammler distribution) is one of a class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in
modeling extreme value problems. This class includes the Gumbel and Frechet distributions.
The probability density for the Weibull distribution is
p(x) =
a x a1 (x/)a
( )
e
,

where a is the shape and the scale.

1/a
The function has its peak (the mode) at ( a1
.
a )
When a = 1, the Weibull distribution reduces to the exponential distribution.

References
[R179], [R180], [R181]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> s = np.random.weibull(a, 1000)
>>> x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
>>> def weib(x,n,a):
...
return (a / n) * (x / n)**(a - 1) * np.exp(-(x / n)**a)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(np.random.weibull(5.,1000))

x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
scale = count.max()/weib(x, 1., 5.).max()
plt.plot(x, weib(x, 1., 5.)*scale)
plt.show()
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
1231
RandomState.zipf(a, size=None)
Samples are drawn from a Zipf distribution with specified parameter a > 1.
The Zipf distribution (also known as the zeta distribution) is a continuous probability distribution that
satisfies Zipfs law: the frequency of an item is inversely proportional to its rank in a frequency table.
Parameters
a : float > 1
Distribution parameter.
size : int or tuple of int, optional
drawn; a single integer is equivalent in its result to providing a mono-tuple, i.e., a 1-D
array of length size is returned. The default is None, in which case a single scalar is
returned.
Returns
The returned samples are greater than or equal to one.
See Also:
scipy.stats.distributions.zipf
Notes
The probability density for the Zipf distribution is
p(x) =
xa
,
(a)
where is the Riemann Zeta function.

It is named for the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf, who noted that the frequency of any word in
a sample of a language is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table.
References
Zipf, G. K., Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language, Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Univ. Press, 1932.
Examples
>>> a = 2. # parameter
>>> s = np.random.zipf(a, 1000)
>>> import scipy.special as sps
Truncate s values at 50 so plot is interesting
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s[s<50], 50, normed=True)
>>> x = np.arange(1., 50.)
1232
Chapter 3. Routines
>>> y = x**(-a)/sps.zetac(a)
>>> plt.plot(x, y/max(y), linewidth=2, color=r)
>>> plt.show()
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30
40
50
numpy.random.seed(seed=None)
Seed the generator.
This method is called when RandomState is initialized. It can be called again to re-seed the generator. For
details, see RandomState.
Parameters
seed : int or array_like, optional
Seed for RandomState.
See Also:
RandomState
numpy.random.get_state()
For more details, see set_state.
Returns
out : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The returned tuple has the following items:
1. the string MT19937.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integer keys.
3. an integer pos.
See Also:
set_state
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Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If the
internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
numpy.random.set_state(state)
For use if one has reason to manually (re-)set the internal state of the Mersenne Twister[R226] pseudo-random
number generating algorithm.
Parameters
state : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The state tuple has the following items:
1. the string MT19937, specifying the Mersenne Twister algorithm.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integers keys.
3. an integer pos.
Returns
out : None
Returns None on success.
See Also:
get_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If the
internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
For backwards compatibility, the form (str, array of 624 uints, int) is also accepted although it is missing some
information about the cached Gaussian value: state = (MT19937, keys, pos).
References
[R226]
3.28 Set routines

3.28.1 Making proper sets
unique(ar[, return_index, return_inverse])
numpy.unique(ar, return_index=False, return_inverse=False)

Returns the sorted unique elements of an array. There are two optional outputs in addition to the unique elements:
the indices of the input array that give the unique values, and the indices of the unique array that reconstruct the
input array.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
ar : array_like
Input array. This will be flattened if it is not already 1-D.
return_index : bool, optional
If True, also return the indices of ar that result in the unique array.
return_inverse : bool, optional
If True, also return the indices of the unique array that can be used to reconstruct ar.
Returns
unique : ndarray
The sorted unique values.
unique_indices : ndarray, optional
The indices of the first occurrences of the unique values in the (flattened) original array.
Only provided if return_index is True.
unique_inverse : ndarray, optional
The indices to reconstruct the (flattened) original array from the unique array. Only
provided if return_inverse is True.
See Also:
Examples
>>> np.unique([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
array([1, 2, 3])
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> np.unique(a)
array([1, 2, 3])
Return the indices of the original array that give the unique values:
>>> a = np.array([a, b, b, c, a])
>>> u, indices = np.unique(a, return_index=True)
>>> u
array([a, b, c],
dtype=|S1)
>>> indices
array([0, 1, 3])
>>> a[indices]
array([a, b, c],
dtype=|S1)
Reconstruct the input array from the unique values:

>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 2])
>>> u, indices = np.unique(a, return_inverse=True)
>>> u
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 6])
>>> indices
array([0, 1, 4, 3, 1, 2, 1])
3.28. Set routines
1235
>>> u[indices]
array([1, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 2])
3.28.2 Boolean operations

in1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique, invert])
intersect1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique])
setdiff1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique])
setxor1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique])
union1d(ar1, ar2)
Test whether each element of a 1-D array is also present in a second array.
Find the intersection of two arrays.
Find the set difference of two arrays.
Find the set exclusive-or of two arrays.
Find the union of two arrays.
numpy.in1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False, invert=False)

Test whether each element of a 1-D array is also present in a second array.
Returns a boolean array the same length as ar1 that is True where an element of ar1 is in ar2 and False otherwise.
Parameters
ar1 : (M,) array_like
Input array.
ar2 : array_like
The values against which to test each value of ar1.
assume_unique : bool, optional
If True, the input arrays are both assumed to be unique, which can speed up the calculation. Default is False.
invert : bool, optional
If True, the values in the returned array are inverted (that is, False where an element of ar1 is in ar2 and True otherwise). Default is False. np.in1d(a, b,
invert=True) is equivalent to (but is faster than) np.invert(in1d(a, b)).
Returns
in1d : (M,) ndarray, bool
The values ar1[in1d] are in ar2.
See Also:
Notes
in1d can be considered as an element-wise function version of the python keyword in, for 1-D sequences.
in1d(a, b) is roughly equivalent to np.array([item in b for item in a]). New in version
1.4.0.
Examples
>>> test = np.array([0, 1, 2, 5, 0])
>>> states = [0, 2]
>>> mask = np.in1d(test, states)
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> mask
array([ True, False, True, False, True], dtype=bool)
>>> test[mask]
array([0, 2, 0])
>>> mask = np.in1d(test, states, invert=True)
>>> mask
array([False, True, False, True, False], dtype=bool)
>>> test[mask]
array([1, 5])
numpy.intersect1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False)

Find the intersection of two arrays.
Return the sorted, unique values that are in both of the input arrays.
Parameters
ar1, ar2 : array_like
Input arrays.
assume_unique : bool
Returns
intersect1d : ndarray
Sorted 1D array of common and unique elements.
See Also:
Examples
>>> np.intersect1d([1, 3, 4, 3], [3, 1, 2, 1])
array([1, 3])
numpy.setdiff1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False)

Find the set difference of two arrays.
Return the sorted, unique values in ar1 that are not in ar2.
Parameters
ar1 : array_like
Input array.
ar2 : array_like
Input comparison array.
Returns
setdiff1d : ndarray
Sorted 1D array of values in ar1 that are not in ar2.
3.28. Set routines
1237
See Also:
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 1])
>>> b = np.array([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.setdiff1d(a, b)
array([1, 2])
numpy.setxor1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False)

Find the set exclusive-or of two arrays.
Return the sorted, unique values that are in only one (not both) of the input arrays.
Parameters
Input arrays.
Returns
setxor1d : ndarray
Sorted 1D array of unique values that are in only one of the input arrays.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 2, 4])
>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 5, 7, 5])
>>> np.setxor1d(a,b)
array([1, 4, 5, 7])
numpy.union1d(ar1, ar2)
Find the union of two arrays.
Return the unique, sorted array of values that are in either of the two input arrays.
Parameters
Input arrays. They are flattened if they are not already 1D.
Returns
union1d : ndarray
Unique, sorted union of the input arrays.
See Also:
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.union1d([-1, 0, 1], [-2, 0, 2])
array([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
3.29 Sorting, searching, and counting

3.29.1 Sorting
sort(a[, axis, kind, order])
lexsort(keys[, axis])
argsort(a[, axis, kind, order])
ndarray.sort([axis, kind, order])
msort(a)
sort_complex(a)
partition(a, kth[, axis, kind, order])
argpartition(a, kth[, axis, kind, order])

Perform an indirect sort using a sequence of keys.
Returns the indices that would sort an array.
Return a copy of an array sorted along the first axis.
Sort a complex array using the real part first, then the imaginary part.
Return a partitioned copy of an array.
Perform an indirect partition along the given axis using the algorithm specified by the k
numpy.sort(a, axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
axis : int or None, optional
Returns
See Also:
ndarray.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
3.29. Sorting, searching, and counting
1239
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
The various sorting algorithms are characterized by their average speed, worst case performance, work space
size, and whether they are stable. A stable sort keeps items with the same key in the same relative order. The
three available algorithms have the following properties:
kind
quicksort
mergesort
heapsort
speed
1
2
3
worst case
O(n^2)
O(n*log(n))
O(n*log(n))
work space
0
~n/2
0
stable
no
yes
no
All the sort algorithms make temporary copies of the data when sorting along any but the last axis. Consequently,
sorting along the last axis is faster and uses less space than sorting along any other axis.
The sort order for complex numbers is lexicographic. If both the real and imaginary parts are non-nan then the
order is determined by the real parts except when they are equal, in which case the order is determined by the
imaginary parts.
Previous to numpy 1.4.0 sorting real and complex arrays containing nan values led to undefined behaviour. In
numpy versions >= 1.4.0 nan values are sorted to the end. The extended sort order is:
Real: [R, nan]
Complex: [R + Rj, R + nanj, nan + Rj, nan + nanj]
where R is a non-nan real value. Complex values with the same nan placements are sorted according to the
non-nan part if it exists. Non-nan values are sorted as before.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4],[3,1]])
>>> np.sort(a)
# sort along the last axis
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> np.sort(a, axis=None)
# sort the flattened array
array([1, 1, 3, 4])
>>> np.sort(a, axis=0)
# sort along the first axis
array([[1, 1],
[3, 4]])
>>> dtype = [(name, S10), (height, float), (age, int)]
>>> values = [(Arthur, 1.8, 41), (Lancelot, 1.9, 38),
...
(Galahad, 1.7, 38)]
>>> a = np.array(values, dtype=dtype)
# create a structured array
>>> np.sort(a, order=height)
array([(Galahad, 1.7, 38), (Arthur, 1.8, 41),
(Lancelot, 1.8999999999999999, 38)],
dtype=[(name, |S10), (height, <f8), (age, <i4)])
Sort by age, then height if ages are equal:

>>> np.sort(a, order=[age, height])
array([(Galahad, 1.7, 38), (Lancelot, 1.8999999999999999, 38),
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Chapter 3. Routines
(Arthur, 1.8, 41)],

dtype=[(name, |S10), (height, <f8), (age, <i4)])
numpy.lexsort(keys, axis=-1)
Perform an indirect sort using a sequence of keys.
Given multiple sorting keys, which can be interpreted as columns in a spreadsheet, lexsort returns an array of
integer indices that describes the sort order by multiple columns. The last key in the sequence is used for the
primary sort order, the second-to-last key for the secondary sort order, and so on. The keys argument must be
a sequence of objects that can be converted to arrays of the same shape. If a 2D array is provided for the keys
argument, its rows are interpreted as the sorting keys and sorting is according to the last row, second last row
etc.
Parameters
keys : (k, N) array or tuple containing k (N,)-shaped sequences
The k different columns to be sorted. The last column (or row if keys is a 2D array) is
the primary sort key.
Axis to be indirectly sorted. By default, sort over the last axis.
Returns
indices : (N,) ndarray of ints
Array of indices that sort the keys along the specified axis.
See Also:
argsort
Indirect sort.
ndarray.sort
In-place sort.
sort
Examples
Sort names: first by surname, then by name.
>>> surnames =
(Hertz,
Galilei, Hertz)
>>> first_names = (Heinrich, Galileo, Gustav)
>>> ind = np.lexsort((first_names, surnames))
>>> ind
array([1, 2, 0])
>>> [surnames[i] + ", " + first_names[i] for i in ind]
[Galilei, Galileo, Hertz, Gustav, Hertz, Heinrich]
Sort two columns of numbers:

>>> a = [1,5,1,4,3,4,4] # First column
>>> b = [9,4,0,4,0,2,1] # Second column
>>> ind = np.lexsort((b,a)) # Sort by a, then by b
>>> print ind
[2 0 4 6 5 3 1]
1241
>>> [(a[i],b[i]) for i in ind]

[(1, 0), (1, 9), (3, 0), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4), (5, 4)]
Note that sorting is first according to the elements of a. Secondary sorting is according to the elements of b.
A normal argsort would have yielded:
>>> [(a[i],b[i]) for i in np.argsort(a)]
[(1, 9), (1, 0), (3, 0), (4, 4), (4, 2), (4, 1), (5, 4)]
Structured arrays are sorted lexically by argsort:

>>> x = np.array([(1,9), (5,4), (1,0), (4,4), (3,0), (4,2), (4,1)],
...
dtype=np.dtype([(x, int), (y, int)]))
>>> np.argsort(x) # or np.argsort(x, order=(x, y))
array([2, 0, 4, 6, 5, 3, 1])
numpy.argsort(a, axis=-1, kind=quicksort, order=None)

Returns the indices that would sort an array.
Perform an indirect sort along the given axis using the algorithm specified by the kind keyword. It returns an
array of indices of the same shape as a that index data along the given axis in sorted order.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to sort.
Axis along which to sort. The default is -1 (the last axis). If None, the flattened array is
used.
Sorting algorithm.
Returns
In other words,
See Also:
sort
lexsort
ndarray.sort
Inplace sort.
argpartition
Indirect partial sort.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Notes
As of NumPy 1.4.0 argsort works with real/complex arrays containing nan values. The enhanced sort order
is documented in sort.
Examples
One dimensional array:
>>> x = np.array([3, 1, 2])
>>> np.argsort(x)
array([1, 2, 0])
Two-dimensional array:
>>> x = np.array([[0, 3], [2, 2]])
>>> x
array([[0, 3],
[2, 2]])
>>> np.argsort(x, axis=0)
array([[0, 1],
[1, 0]])
>>> np.argsort(x, axis=1)
array([[0, 1],
[0, 1]])
Sorting with keys:

>>> x = np.array([(1, 0), (0, 1)], dtype=[(x, <i4), (y, <i4)])
>>> x
array([(1, 0), (0, 1)],
dtype=[(x, <i4), (y, <i4)])
>>> np.argsort(x, order=(x,y))
array([1, 0])
>>> np.argsort(x, order=(y,x))
array([0, 1])

Parameters
See Also:
1243
numpy.sort
argsort
Indirect sort.
lexsort
searchsorted
partition
Partial sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
>>> a.sort(order=y)
>>> a
array([(c, 1), (a, 2)],
dtype=[(x, |S1), (y, <i4)])
numpy.msort(a)
Return a copy of an array sorted along the first axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
Returns
See Also:
sort
Notes
np.msort(a) is equivalent to np.sort(a, axis=0).
numpy.sort_complex(a)
Sort a complex array using the real part first, then the imaginary part.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array
Returns
Always returns a sorted complex array.
Examples
>>> np.sort_complex([5, 3, 6, 2, 1])
array([ 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j, 3.+0.j, 5.+0.j,
6.+0.j])
>>> np.sort_complex([1 + 2j, 2 - 1j, 3 - 2j, 3 - 3j, 3 + 5j])

array([ 1.+2.j, 2.-1.j, 3.-3.j, 3.-2.j, 3.+5.j])
numpy.partition(a, kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)

Return a partitioned copy of an array.
Creates a copy of the array with its elements rearranged in such a way that the value of the element in kth position
is in the position it would be in a sorted array. All elements smaller than the kth element are moved before this
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to be sorted.
Element index to partition by. The kth value of the element will be in its final sorted
position and all smaller elements will be moved before it and all equal or greater elements behind it. The order all elements in the partitions is undefined. If provided with
a sequence of kth it will partition all elements indexed by kth of them into their sorted
position at once.
Returns
partitioned_array : ndarray
See Also:
ndarray.partition
1245
argpartition
Indirect partition.
sort
Full sorting
Notes
The various selection algorithms are characterized by their average speed, worst case performance, work space
size, and whether they are stable. A stable sort keeps items with the same key in the same relative order. The
three available algorithms have the following properties:
kind
introselect
speed
1
worst case
O(n)
work space
0
stable
no
All the partition algorithms make temporary copies of the data when partitioning along any but the last axis.
Consequently, partitioning along the last axis is faster and uses less space than partitioning along any other axis.
The sort order for complex numbers is lexicographic. If both the real and imaginary parts are non-nan then the
order is determined by the real parts except when they are equal, in which case the order is determined by the
imaginary parts.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
>>> np.partition(a, 3)
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
>>> np.partition(a, (1, 3))
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
numpy.argpartition(a, kth, axis=-1, kind=introselect, order=None)

Perform an indirect partition along the given axis using the algorithm specified by the kind keyword. It returns
an array of indices of the same shape as a that index data along the given axis in partitioned order. New in
version 1.8.0.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array to sort.
Element index to partition by. The kth element will be in its final sorted position and all
smaller elements will be moved before it and all larger elements behind it. The order
all elements in the partitions is undefined. If provided with a sequence of kth it will
partition all of them into their sorted position at once.
Axis along which to sort. The default is -1 (the last axis). If None, the flattened array is
used.
Selection algorithm. Default is introselect
1246
Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
Array of indices that partition a along the specified axis.
In other words,
See Also:
partition
Describes partition algorithms used.
ndarray.partition
Inplace partition.
argsort
Full indirect sort
Notes
See partition for notes on the different selection algorithms.
Examples
One dimensional array:
>>> x = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
>>> x[np.argpartition(x, 3)]
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
>>> x[np.argpartition(x, (1, 3))]
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
3.29.2 Searching
argmax(a[, axis])
nanargmax(a[, axis])
argmin(a[, axis])
nanargmin(a[, axis])
argwhere(a)
nonzero(a)
flatnonzero(a)
where(condition, [x, y])
searchsorted(a, v[, side, sorter])
extract(condition, arr)

Return the indices of the maximum values in the specified axis ignoring
Return the indices of the minimum values in the specified axis ignoring
Find the indices of array elements that are non-zero, grouped by element.
Return indices that are non-zero in the flattened version of a.
Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Return the elements of an array that satisfy some condition.
numpy.argmax(a, axis=None)
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
By default, the index is into the flattened array, otherwise along the specified axis.
Returns
1247
index_array : ndarray of ints

Array of indices into the array. It has the same shape as a.shape with the dimension
along axis removed.
See Also:
ndarray.argmax, argmin
amax
The maximum value along a given axis.
unravel_index
Convert a flat index into an index tuple.
Notes
In case of multiple occurrences of the maximum values, the indices corresponding to the first occurrence are
returned.
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.argmax(a)
5
>>> np.argmax(a, axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> np.argmax(a, axis=1)
array([2, 2])
>>> b[1] = 5
>>> b
array([0, 5, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> np.argmax(b) # Only the first occurrence is returned.
1
numpy.nanargmax(a, axis=None)
Return the indices of the maximum values in the specified axis ignoring NaNs. For all-NaN slices ValueError
is raised. Warning: the results cannot be trusted if a slice contains only NaNs and -Infs.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Axis along which to operate. By default flattened input is used.
Returns
index_array : ndarray
An array of indices or a single index value.
See Also:
argmax, nanargmin
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[np.nan, 4], [2, 3]])
>>> np.argmax(a)
0
>>> np.nanargmax(a)
1
>>> np.nanargmax(a, axis=0)
array([1, 0])
>>> np.nanargmax(a, axis=1)
array([1, 1])
numpy.argmin(a, axis=None)
See Also:
argmax
Similar function. Please refer to numpy.argmax for detailed documentation.
numpy.nanargmin(a, axis=None)
Return the indices of the minimum values in the specified axis ignoring NaNs. For all-NaN slices ValueError
is raised. Warning: the results cannot be trusted if a slice contains only NaNs and Infs.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Axis along which to operate. By default flattened input is used.
Returns
An array of indices or a single index value.
See Also:
argmin, nanargmax
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[np.nan, 4], [2, 3]])
>>> np.argmin(a)
0
>>> np.nanargmin(a)
2
>>> np.nanargmin(a, axis=0)
array([1, 1])
>>> np.nanargmin(a, axis=1)
array([1, 0])
numpy.argwhere(a)
Find the indices of array elements that are non-zero, grouped by element.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
1249
Returns
Indices of elements that are non-zero. Indices are grouped by element.
See Also:
where, nonzero
Notes
np.argwhere(a) is the same as np.transpose(np.nonzero(a)).
The output of argwhere is not suitable for indexing arrays. For this purpose use where(a) instead.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.argwhere(x>1)
array([[0, 2],
[1, 0],
[1, 1],
[1, 2]])
numpy.nonzero(a)
Returns a tuple of arrays, one for each dimension of a, containing the indices of the non-zero elements in that
a[nonzero(a)]
To group the indices by element, rather than dimension, use:

transpose(nonzero(a))
The result of this is always a 2-D array, with a row for each non-zero element.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input array.
Returns
See Also:
flatnonzero
ndarray.nonzero
count_nonzero
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0.,
[ 0., 1.,
[ 0., 0.,
>>> np.nonzero(x)
(array([0, 1, 2]),
0.],
0.],
1.]])
array([0, 1, 2]))
>>> x[np.nonzero(x)]
array([ 1., 1., 1.])
>>> np.transpose(np.nonzero(x))
array([[0, 0],
[1, 1],
[2, 2]])
condition a > 3 is a boolean array and since False is interpreted as 0, np.nonzero(a > 3) yields the indices of the
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
[ True, True, True],
[ True, True, True]], dtype=bool)
>>> np.nonzero(a > 3)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
The nonzero method of the boolean array can also be called.

>>> (a > 3).nonzero()
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.flatnonzero(a)
Return indices that are non-zero in the flattened version of a.
This is equivalent to a.ravel().nonzero()[0].
Parameters
a : ndarray
Input array.
Returns
res : ndarray
Output array, containing the indices of the elements of a.ravel() that are non-zero.
See Also:
nonzero
Return the indices of the non-zero elements of the input array.
ravel
Return a 1-D array containing the elements of the input array.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(-2, 3)
>>> x
1251
array([-2, -1, 0, 1,
>>> np.flatnonzero(x)
array([0, 1, 3, 4])
2])
Use the indices of the non-zero elements as an index array to extract these elements:
>>> x.ravel()[np.flatnonzero(x)]
array([-2, -1, 1, 2])
numpy.where(condition[, x, y ])
If only condition is given, return condition.nonzero().
Parameters
When True, yield x, otherwise yield y.
Values from which to choose. x and y need to have the same shape as condition.
Returns
out : ndarray or tuple of ndarrays
If both x and y are specified, the output array contains elements of x where condition is
True, and elements from y elsewhere.
If only condition is given, return the tuple condition.nonzero(), the indices
where condition is True.
See Also:
nonzero, choose
Notes
If x and y are given and input arrays are 1-D, where is equivalent to:
[xv if c else yv for (c,xv,yv) in zip(condition,x,y)]
Examples
>>> np.where([[True, False], [True, True]],
...
[[1, 2], [3, 4]],
...
[[9, 8], [7, 6]])
array([[1, 8],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.where([[0, 1], [1, 0]])
(array([0, 1]), array([1, 0]))
>>> np.where( x > 5 )
(array([2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))
>>> x[np.where( x > 3.0 )]
array([ 4., 5., 6., 7., 8.])
>>> np.where(x < 5, x, -1)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -1.],
[-1., -1., -1.]])
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# Note: result is 1D.

# Note: broadcasting.
Chapter 3. Routines
Find the indices of elements of x that are in goodvalues.

>>> goodvalues = [3, 4, 7]
>>> ix = np.in1d(x.ravel(), goodvalues).reshape(x.shape)
>>> ix
[ True, True, False],
[False, True, False]], dtype=bool)
>>> np.where(ix)
(array([1, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 1]))
numpy.searchsorted(a, v, side=left, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted array a such that, if the corresponding elements in v were inserted before the
indices, the order of a would be preserved.
Parameters
a : 1-D array_like
Input array. If sorter is None, then it must be sorted in ascending order, otherwise sorter
must be an array of indices that sort it.
v : array_like
Values to insert into a.
side : {left, right}, optional
If left, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If right, return the last
such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the length of
a).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional
New in version 1.7.0. Optional array of integer indices that sort array a into ascending
order. They are typically the result of argsort.
Returns
indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as v.
See Also:
sort
histogram
Produce histogram from 1-D data.
Notes
Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.
As of Numpy 1.4.0 searchsorted works with real/complex arrays containing nan values. The enhanced
sort order is documented in sort.
Examples
>>> np.searchsorted([1,2,3,4,5], 3)
2
>>> np.searchsorted([1,2,3,4,5], 3, side=right)
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3
>>> np.searchsorted([1,2,3,4,5], [-10, 10, 2, 3])
array([0, 5, 1, 2])
numpy.extract(condition, arr)
Return the elements of an array that satisfy some condition.
This is equivalent to np.compress(ravel(condition), ravel(arr)). If condition is boolean
np.extract is equivalent to arr[condition].
Parameters
An array whose nonzero or True entries indicate the elements of arr to extract.
arr : array_like
Input array of the same size as condition.
Returns
extract : ndarray
Rank 1 array of values from arr where condition is True.
See Also:
take, put, copyto, compress
Examples
>>> arr
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> condition = np.mod(arr, 3)==0
>>> condition
array([[ True, False, False, True],
[False, False, True, False],
[False, True, False, False]], dtype=bool)
>>> np.extract(condition, arr)
array([0, 3, 6, 9])
If condition is boolean:
>>> arr[condition]
array([0, 3, 6, 9])
3.29.3 Counting
count_nonzero(a)
count_reduce_items
Counts the number of non-zero values in the array a.
numpy.count_nonzero(a)
Counts the number of non-zero values in the array a.
Parameters
a : array_like
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The array for which to count non-zeros.

Returns
count : int or array of int
Number of non-zero values in the array.
See Also:
nonzero
Return the coordinates of all the non-zero values.
Examples
>>> np.count_nonzero(np.eye(4))
4
>>> np.count_nonzero([[0,1,7,0,0],[3,0,0,2,19]])
5
3.30 Statistics
3.30.1 Order statistics
amin(a[, axis, out, keepdims])
amax(a[, axis, out, keepdims])
nanmin(a[, axis, out, keepdims])
nanmax(a[, axis, out, keepdims])
ptp(a[, axis, out])
percentile(a, q[, axis, out, overwrite_input])
Return the minimum of an array or minimum along an axis.

Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an axis.
Return minimum of an array or minimum along an axis, ignoring any NaNs.
Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an axis, ignoring any
Range of values (maximum - minimum) along an axis.
Compute the qth percentile of the data along the specified axis.
numpy.amin(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the minimum of an array or minimum along an axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Axis along which to operate. By default, flattened input is used.
buffer length as the expected output. See doc.ufuncs (Section Output arguments)
for more details.
Returns
amin : ndarray or scalar
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1255
Minimum of a. If axis is None, the result is a scalar value. If axis is given, the result is
an array of dimension a.ndim - 1.
See Also:
amax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
nanmin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
minimum
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
fmin
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
argmin
Return the indices of the minimum values.
nanmax, maximum, fmax
Notes
NaN values are propagated, that is if at least one item is NaN, the corresponding min value will be NaN as well.
To ignore NaN values (MATLAB behavior), please use nanmin.
Dont use amin for element-wise comparison of 2 arrays; when a.shape[0] is 2, minimum(a[0],
a[1]) is faster than amin(a, axis=0).
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> np.amin(a)
# Minimum of the flattened array
0
>>> np.amin(a, axis=0)
# Minima along the first axis
array([0, 1])
>>> np.amin(a, axis=1)
# Minima along the second axis
array([0, 2])
>>>
>>>
>>>
nan
>>>
0.0
b = np.arange(5, dtype=np.float)
b[2] = np.NaN
np.amin(b)
np.nanmin(b)
numpy.amax(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an axis.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data.
Axis along which to operate. By default, flattened input is used.
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buffer length as the expected output. See doc.ufuncs (Section Output arguments)
for more details.
Returns
amax : ndarray or scalar
Maximum of a. If axis is None, the result is a scalar value. If axis is given, the result is
an array of dimension a.ndim - 1.
See Also:
amin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
nanmax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
maximum
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
fmax
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
argmax
Return the indices of the maximum values.
nanmin, minimum, fmin
Notes
NaN values are propagated, that is if at least one item is NaN, the corresponding max value will be NaN as well.
To ignore NaN values (MATLAB behavior), please use nanmax.
Dont use amax for element-wise comparison of 2 arrays; when a.shape[0] is 2, maximum(a[0],
a[1]) is faster than amax(a, axis=0).
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> np.amax(a)
# Maximum of the flattened array
3
>>> np.amax(a, axis=0)
# Maxima along the first axis
array([2, 3])
>>> np.amax(a, axis=1)
# Maxima along the second axis
array([1, 3])
>>> b = np.arange(5, dtype=np.float)
>>> b[2] = np.NaN
>>> np.amax(b)
nan
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1257
>>> np.nanmax(b)
4.0
numpy.nanmin(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return minimum of an array or minimum along an axis, ignoring any NaNs. When all-NaN slices are encountered a RuntimeWarning is raised and Nan is returned for that slice.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing numbers whose minimum is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion
is attempted.
Axis along which the minimum is computed. The default is to compute the minimum
of the flattened array.
Alternate output array in which to place the result. The default is None; if provided, it
See doc.ufuncs for details. New in version 1.8.0.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original a. New
in version 1.8.0.
Returns
nanmin : ndarray
or if axis is None, an ndarray scalar is returned. The same dtype as a is returned.
See Also:
nanmax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
amin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
fmin
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
minimum
Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
isnan
isfinite
Shows which elements are neither NaN nor infinity.
amax, fmax, maximum
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity. Positive infinity is treated as a very large number and negative infinity is
treated as a very small (i.e. negative) number.
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If the input has a integer type the function is equivalent to np.min.

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])
>>> np.nanmin(a)
1.0
>>> np.nanmin(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 2.])
>>> np.nanmin(a, axis=1)
array([ 1., 3.])
When positive infinity and negative infinity are present:

>>> np.nanmin([1, 2, np.nan, np.inf])
1.0
>>> np.nanmin([1, 2, np.nan, np.NINF])
-inf
numpy.nanmax(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an axis, ignoring any NaNs. When all-NaN slices are
encountered a RuntimeWarning is raised and NaN is returned for that slice.
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing numbers whose maximum is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion
is attempted.
Axis along which the maximum is computed. The default is to compute the maximum
of the flattened array.
See doc.ufuncs for details. New in version 1.8.0.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original a. New
in version 1.8.0.
Returns
nanmax : ndarray
or if axis is None, an ndarray scalar is returned. The same dtype as a is returned.
See Also:
nanmin
The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
amax
The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
fmax
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
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1259
maximum
Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
isnan
isfinite
Shows which elements are neither NaN nor infinity.
amin, fmin, minimum
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity. Positive infinity is treated as a very large number and negative infinity is
treated as a very small (i.e. negative) number.
If the input has a integer type the function is equivalent to np.max.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])
>>> np.nanmax(a)
3.0
>>> np.nanmax(a, axis=0)
array([ 3., 2.])
>>> np.nanmax(a, axis=1)
array([ 2., 3.])
When positive infinity and negative infinity are present:

>>> np.nanmax([1, 2, np.nan, np.NINF])
2.0
>>> np.nanmax([1, 2, np.nan, np.inf])
inf
numpy.ptp(a, axis=None, out=None)

Range of values (maximum - minimum) along an axis.
The name of the function comes from the acronym for peak to peak.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input values.
Axis along which to find the peaks. By default, flatten the array.
out : array_like
buffer length as the expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if
necessary.
Returns
ptp : ndarray
out is returned.
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Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> np.ptp(x, axis=0)
array([2, 2])
>>> np.ptp(x, axis=1)
array([1, 1])
numpy.percentile(a, q, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False)

Compute the qth percentile of the data along the specified axis.
Returns the qth percentile of the array elements.
Parameters
a : array_like
q : float in range of [0,100] (or sequence of floats)
Percentile to compute which must be between 0 and 100 inclusive.
Axis along which the percentiles are computed. The default (None) is to compute the
buffer length as the expected output, but the type (of the output) will be cast if necessary.
If True, then allow use of memory of input array a for calculations. The input array
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. Note that, if overwrite_input is True and
the input is not already an array, an error will be raised.
Returns
percentile : scalar or ndarray
If a single percentile q is given and axis=None a scalar is returned. If multiple percentiles q are given an array holding the result is returned. The results are listed in the
first axis. (If out is specified, in which case that array is returned instead). If the input
contains integers, or floats of smaller precision than 64, then the output data-type is
float64. Otherwise, the output data-type is the same as that of the input.
See Also:
mean, median
Notes
Given a vector V of length N, the q-th percentile of V is the q-th ranked value in a sorted copy of V. The values
and distances of the two nearest neighbors as well as the interpolation parameter will determine the percentile
3.30. Statistics
1261
if the normalized ranking does not match q exactly. This function is the same as the median if q=50, the same
as the minimum if q=0and the same as the maximum if q=100.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[10, 7, 4], [3, 2, 1]])
>>> a
array([[10, 7, 4],
[ 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.percentile(a, 50)
3.5
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=0)
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=1)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> m = np.percentile(a, 50, axis=0)
>>> out = np.zeros_like(m)
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=0, out=m)
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> m
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.percentile(b, 50, axis=1, overwrite_input=True)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> assert not np.all(a==b)
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.percentile(b, 50, axis=None, overwrite_input=True)
3.5
3.30.2 Averages and variances

median(a[, axis, out, overwrite_input])
average(a[, axis, weights, returned])
mean(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims])
std(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims])
var(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims])
nanmean(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims])
nanstd(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims])
nanvar(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims])

Compute the weighted average along the specified axis.
Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis.
Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis, ignoring NaNs.
Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis, while
Compute the variance along the specified axis, while ignoring NaNs.
numpy.median(a, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False)

Parameters
a : array_like
Axis along which the medians are computed. The default (axis=None) is to compute
the median along a flattened version of the array.
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buffer length as the expected output, but the type (of the output) will be cast if necessary.
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. Note that, if overwrite_input is True and
Returns
median : ndarray
A new array holding the result (unless out is specified, in which case that array is returned instead). If the input contains integers, or floats of smaller precision than 64,
then the output data-type is float64. Otherwise, the output data-type is the same as that
of the input.
See Also:
mean, percentile
Notes
Given a vector V of length N, the median of V is the middle value of a sorted copy of V, V_sorted - i.e.,
V_sorted[(N-1)/2], when N is odd. When N is even, it is the average of the two middle values of
V_sorted.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[10, 7, 4], [3, 2, 1]])
>>> a
array([[10, 7, 4],
[ 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.median(a)
3.5
>>> np.median(a, axis=0)
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> np.median(a, axis=1)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> m = np.median(a, axis=0)
>>> out = np.zeros_like(m)
>>> np.median(a, axis=0, out=m)
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> m
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.median(b, axis=1, overwrite_input=True)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.median(b, axis=None, overwrite_input=True)
3.5
numpy.average(a, axis=None, weights=None, returned=False)

Compute the weighted average along the specified axis.
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1263
Parameters
a : array_like
Array containing data to be averaged. If a is not an array, a conversion is attempted.
Axis along which to average a. If None, averaging is done over the flattened array.
An array of weights associated with the values in a. Each value in a contributes to the
average according to its associated weight. The weights array can either be 1-D (in
which case its length must be the size of a along the given axis) or of the same shape as
a. If weights=None, then all data in a are assumed to have a weight equal to one.
Default is False. If True, the tuple (average, sum_of_weights) is returned, otherwise
only the average is returned. If weights=None, sum_of_weights is equivalent to the
number of elements over which the average is taken.
Returns
average, [sum_of_weights] : {array_type, double}
Return the average along the specified axis. When returned is True, return a tuple with
the average as the first element and the sum of the weights as the second element.
The return type is Float if a is of integer type, otherwise it is of the same type as a.
sum_of_weights is of the same type as average.
Raises
ZeroDivisionError
When all weights along axis are zero. See numpy.ma.average for a version robust
to this type of error.
TypeError
When the length of 1D weights is not the same as the shape of a along axis.
See Also:
mean
ma.average
average for masked arrays useful if your data contains missing values
Examples
>>>
>>>
[1,
>>>
2.5
>>>
4.0
data = range(1,5)
data
2, 3, 4]
np.average(data)
np.average(range(1,11), weights=range(10,0,-1))
>>> data = np.arange(6).reshape((3,2))

>>> data
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3],
[4, 5]])
>>> np.average(data, axis=1, weights=[1./4, 3./4])
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array([ 0.75, 2.75, 4.75])

>>> np.average(data, weights=[1./4, 3./4])
...
TypeError: Axis must be specified when shapes of a and weights differ.
numpy.mean(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis.
Returns the average of the array elements. The average is taken over the flattened array by default, otherwise
over the specified axis. float64 intermediate and return values are used for integer inputs.
Parameters
a : array_like
attempted.
flattened array.
Type to use in computing the mean. For integer inputs, the default is float64; for
floating point inputs, it is the same as the input dtype.
See doc.ufuncs for details.
Returns
m : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
See Also:
average
Weighted average
std, var, nanmean, nanstd, nanvar
Notes
The arithmetic mean is the sum of the elements along the axis divided by the number of elements.
Note that for floating-point input, the mean is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending
on the input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below).
Specifying a higher-precision accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
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1265
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.mean(a)
2.5
>>> np.mean(a, axis=0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> np.mean(a, axis=1)
array([ 1.5, 3.5])
In single precision, mean can be inaccurate:

>>> a = np.zeros((2, 512*512), dtype=np.float32)
>>> a[0, :] = 1.0
>>> a[1, :] = 0.1
>>> np.mean(a)
0.546875
Computing the mean in float64 is more accurate:

>>> np.mean(a, dtype=np.float64)
0.55000000074505806
numpy.std(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Parameters
a : array_like
Returns
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See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
deviation per se.
and nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.5, 0.5])

>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45172946707416706

0.44999999925552653
numpy.var(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Parameters
a : array_like
is attempted.
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1267
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type the default is
float32; for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
Returns
See Also:
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
nonnegative.
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying
a higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])
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>>> a[0,:] = 1.0
>>> a[1,:] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20405951142311096

0.20249999932997387
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.20250000000000001
numpy.nanmean(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis, ignoring NaNs.
Returns the average of the array elements. The average is taken over the flattened array by default, otherwise
over the specified axis. float64 intermediate and return values are used for integer inputs.
For all-NaN slices, NaN is returned and a RuntimeWarning is raised. New in version 1.8.0.
Parameters
a : array_like
attempted.
flattened array.
Type to use in computing the mean. For integer inputs, the default is float64; for
inexact inputs, it is the same as the input dtype.
See doc.ufuncs for details.
Returns
m : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
the output array is returned. Nan is returned for slices that contain only NaNs.
See Also:
average
Weighted average
mean
Arithmetic mean taken while not ignoring NaNs
3.30. Statistics
1269
var, nanvar
Notes
The arithmetic mean is the sum of the non-NaN elements along the axis divided by the number of non-NaN
elements.
Note that for floating-point input, the mean is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on
the input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32. Specifying a higher-precision
accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, np.nan], [3, 4]])
>>> np.nanmean(a)
2.6666666666666665
>>> np.nanmean(a, axis=0)
array([ 2., 4.])
>>> np.nanmean(a, axis=1)
array([ 1., 3.5])
numpy.nanstd(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis, while ignoring NaNs.
Returns the standard deviation, a measure of the spread of a distribution, of the non-NaN array elements. The
standard deviation is computed for the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
For all-NaN slices or slices with zero degrees of freedom, NaN is returned and a RuntimeWarning is raised. New
in version 1.8.0.
Parameters
a : array_like
Calculate the standard deviation of the non-NaN values.
where N represents the number of non-NaN elements. By default ddof is zero.
Returns
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reference to the output array. If ddof is >= the number of non-NaN elements in a slice
or the slice contains only NaNs, then the result for that slice is NaN.
See Also:
var, mean, std, nanvar, nanmean
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
The standard deviation is the square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean: std =
deviation per se.
and nonnegative.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, np.nan], [3, 4]])
>>> np.nanstd(a)
1.247219128924647
>>> np.nanstd(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 0.])
>>> np.nanstd(a, axis=1)
array([ 0., 0.5])
numpy.nanvar(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Compute the variance along the specified axis, while ignoring NaNs.
For all-NaN slices or slices with zero degrees of freedom, NaN is returned and a RuntimeWarning is raised. New
in version 1.8.0.
Parameters
a : array_like
is attempted.
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1271
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type the default is
float32; for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
N represents the number of non-NaN elements. By default ddof is zero.
Returns
If out is None, return a new array containing the variance, otherwise return a reference
to the output array. If ddof is >= the number of non-NaN elements in a slice or the slice
contains only NaNs, then the result for that slice is NaN.
See Also:
std
Standard deviation
mean
Average
var
Variance while not ignoring NaNs
nanstd, nanmean
numpy.doc.ufuncs
Notes
nonnegative.
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying
a higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
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Chapter 3. Routines
>>> a = np.array([[1, np.nan], [3, 4]])

>>> np.var(a)
1.5555555555555554
>>> np.nanvar(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 0.])
>>> np.nanvar(a, axis=1)
array([ 0., 0.25])
3.30.3 Correlating
corrcoef(x[, y, rowvar, bias, ddof])
correlate(a, v[, mode, old_behavior])
cov(m[, y, rowvar, bias, ddof])
Return correlation coefficients.

Cross-correlation of two 1-dimensional sequences.
Estimate a covariance matrix, given data.
numpy.corrcoef(x, y=None, rowvar=1, bias=0, ddof=None)

Return correlation coefficients.
Please refer to the documentation for cov for more detail. The relationship between the correlation coefficient
matrix, P, and the covariance matrix, C, is
Pij = p
Cij
Cii Cjj
The values of P are between -1 and 1, inclusive.

Parameters
x : array_like
A 1-D or 2-D array containing multiple variables and observations. Each row of m
see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same shape as m.
rowvar : int, optional
If rowvar is non-zero (default), then each row represents a variable, with observations
in the columns. Otherwise, the relationship is transposed: each column represents a
variable, while the rows contain observations.
bias : int, optional
Default normalization is by (N - 1), where N is the number of observations (unbiased
estimate). If bias is 1, then normalization is by N. These values can be overridden by
using the keyword ddof in numpy versions >= 1.5.
None.
Returns
out : ndarray
3.30. Statistics
1273
The correlation coefficient matrix of the variables.

See Also:
cov
Covariance matrix
numpy.correlate(a, v, mode=valid, old_behavior=False)
Cross-correlation of two 1-dimensional sequences.
This function computes the correlation as generally defined in signal processing texts:
z[k] = sum_n a[n] * conj(v[n+k])
with a and v sequences being zero-padded where necessary and conj being the conjugate.
Parameters
a, v : array_like
Input sequences.
mode : {valid, same, full}, optional
Refer to the convolve docstring. Note that the default is valid, unlike convolve,
which uses full.
old_behavior : bool
If True, uses the old behavior from Numeric, (correlate(a,v) == correlate(v,a), and the
conjugate is not taken for complex arrays). If False, uses the conventional signal processing definition.
See Also:
convolve
Discrete, linear convolution of two one-dimensional sequences.
Examples
>>> np.correlate([1, 2, 3], [0,
array([ 3.5])
>>> np.correlate([1, 2, 3], [0,
array([ 2. , 3.5, 3. ])
>>> np.correlate([1, 2, 3], [0,
array([ 0.5, 2. , 3.5, 3. ,
1, 0.5])
1, 0.5], "same")
1, 0.5], "full")
0. ])
numpy.cov(m, y=None, rowvar=1, bias=0, ddof=None)

Estimate a covariance matrix, given data.
Covariance indicates the level to which two variables vary together. If we examine N-dimensional samples,
X = [x1 , x2 , ...xN ]T , then the covariance matrix element Cij is the covariance of xi and xj . The element Cii
is the variance of xi .
Parameters
m : array_like
A 1-D or 2-D array containing multiple variables and observations. Each row of m
see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same form as that of m.
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rowvar : int, optional

If rowvar is non-zero (default), then each row represents a variable, with observations
in the columns. Otherwise, the relationship is transposed: each column represents a
variable, while the rows contain observations.
bias : int, optional
Default normalization is by (N - 1), where N is the number of observations given
(unbiased estimate). If bias is 1, then normalization is by N. These values can be overridden by using the keyword ddof in numpy versions >= 1.5.
None.
Returns
out : ndarray
The covariance matrix of the variables.
See Also:
corrcoef
Normalized covariance matrix
Examples
Consider two variables, x0 and x1 , which correlate perfectly, but in opposite directions:
>>> x = np.array([[0, 2], [1, 1], [2, 0]]).T
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[2, 1, 0]])
Note how x0 increases while x1 decreases. The covariance matrix shows this clearly:
>>> np.cov(x)
array([[ 1., -1.],
[-1., 1.]])
Note that element C0,1 , which shows the correlation between x0 and x1 , is negative.
Further, note how x and y are combined:
>>> x = [-2.1, -1, 4.3]
>>> y = [3, 1.1, 0.12]
>>> X = np.vstack((x,y))
>>> print np.cov(X)
[[ 11.71
-4.286
]
[ -4.286
2.14413333]]
>>> print np.cov(x, y)
[[ 11.71
-4.286
]
[ -4.286
2.14413333]]
>>> print np.cov(x)
11.71
3.30. Statistics
1275
3.30.4 Histograms
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Chapter 3. Routines
histogram(a[, bins, range, normed, weights, ...])

histogram2d(x, y[, bins, range, normed, weights])
histogramdd(sample[, bins, range, normed, ...])
bincount(x[, weights, minlength])
digitize(x, bins[, right])
Compute the histogram of a set of data.

Compute the bi-dimensional histogram of two data samples.
Compute the multidimensional histogram of some data.
Count number of occurrences of each value in array of non-negative ints.
Return the indices of the bins to which each value in input array belongs.
numpy.histogram(a, bins=10, range=None, normed=False, weights=None, density=None)

Compute the histogram of a set of data.
Parameters
a : array_like
Input data. The histogram is computed over the flattened array.
bins : int or sequence of scalars, optional
If bins is an int, it defines the number of equal-width bins in the given range (10, by
default). If bins is a sequence, it defines the bin edges, including the rightmost edge,
allowing for non-uniform bin widths.
range : (float, float), optional
The lower and upper range of the bins. If not provided, range is simply (a.min(),
a.max()). Values outside the range are ignored.
normed : bool, optional
This keyword is deprecated in Numpy 1.6 due to confusing/buggy behavior. It will be
removed in Numpy 2.0. Use the density keyword instead. If False, the result will contain
the number of samples in each bin. If True, the result is the value of the probability
density function at the bin, normalized such that the integral over the range is 1. Note
that this latter behavior is known to be buggy with unequal bin widths; use density
instead.
An array of weights, of the same shape as a. Each value in a only contributes its
associated weight towards the bin count (instead of 1). If normed is True, the weights
are normalized, so that the integral of the density over the range remains 1
density : bool, optional
If False, the result will contain the number of samples in each bin. If True, the result is
the value of the probability density function at the bin, normalized such that the integral
over the range is 1. Note that the sum of the histogram values will not be equal to 1
unless bins of unity width are chosen; it is not a probability mass function. Overrides
the normed keyword if given.
Returns
hist : array
The values of the histogram. See normed and weights for a description of the possible
semantics.
bin_edges : array of dtype float
Return the bin edges (length(hist)+1).
See Also:
histogramdd, bincount, searchsorted, digitize
3.30. Statistics
1277
Notes
All but the last (righthand-most) bin is half-open. In other words, if bins is:
[1, 2, 3, 4]
then the first bin is [1, 2) (including 1, but excluding 2) and the second [2, 3). The last bin, however, is
[3, 4], which includes 4.
Examples
>>> np.histogram([1, 2, 1], bins=[0, 1, 2, 3])
(array([0, 2, 1]), array([0, 1, 2, 3]))
>>> np.histogram(np.arange(4), bins=np.arange(5), density=True)
(array([ 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]), array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4]))
>>> np.histogram([[1, 2, 1], [1, 0, 1]], bins=[0,1,2,3])
(array([1, 4, 1]), array([0, 1, 2, 3]))
>>> hist, bin_edges = np.histogram(a, density=True)
>>> hist
array([ 0.5, 0. , 0.5, 0. , 0. , 0.5, 0. , 0.5,
>>> hist.sum()
2.4999999999999996
>>> np.sum(hist*np.diff(bin_edges))
1.0
0. ,
0.5])
numpy.histogram2d(x, y, bins=10, range=None, normed=False, weights=None)

Compute the bi-dimensional histogram of two data samples.
Parameters
x : array_like, shape (N,)
An array containing the x coordinates of the points to be histogrammed.
y
[array_like, shape (N,)] An array containing the y coordinates of the points to be
histogrammed.
bins
[int or [int, int] or array_like or [array, array], optional] The bin specification:
If int, the number of bins for the two dimensions (nx=ny=bins).
If [int, int], the number of bins in each dimension (nx, ny = bins).
If array_like, the bin edges for the two dimensions (x_edges=y_edges=bins).
If [array, array], the bin edges in each dimension (x_edges, y_edges = bins).
range
[array_like, shape(2,2), optional] The leftmost and rightmost edges of the bins
along each dimension (if not specified explicitly in the bins parameters): [[xmin,
xmax], [ymin, ymax]]. All values outside of this range will be considered
outliers and not tallied in the histogram.
normed
[bool, optional] If False, returns the number of samples in each bin. If True, returns
the bin density bin_count / sample_count / bin_area.
weights
[array_like, shape(N,), optional] An array of values w_i weighing each sample
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Chapter 3. Routines
(x_i, y_i). Weights are normalized to 1 if normed is True. If normed is False,

the values of the returned histogram are equal to the sum of the weights belonging to
the samples falling into each bin.
Returns
H : ndarray, shape(nx, ny)
The bi-dimensional histogram of samples x and y. Values in x are histogrammed
along the first dimension and values in y are histogrammed along the second dimension.
xedges
[ndarray, shape(nx,)] The bin edges along the first dimension.
yedges
[ndarray, shape(ny,)] The bin edges along the second dimension.
See Also:
histogram
1D histogram
histogramdd
Multidimensional histogram
Notes
When normed is True, then the returned histogram is the sample density, defined such that the sum over bins of
the product bin_value * bin_area is 1.
Please note that the histogram does not follow the Cartesian convention where x values are on the abscissa and
y values on the ordinate axis. Rather, x is histogrammed along the first dimension of the array (vertical), and y
along the second dimension of the array (horizontal). This ensures compatibility with histogramdd.
Examples
>>> import matplotlib as mpl
Construct a 2D-histogram with variable bin width. First define the bin edges:
>>> xedges = [0, 1, 1.5, 3, 5]
>>> yedges = [0, 2, 3, 4, 6]
Next we create a histogram H with random bin content:

>>> x = np.random.normal(3, 1, 100)
>>> y = np.random.normal(1, 1, 100)
>>> H, xedges, yedges = np.histogram2d(y, x, bins=(xedges, yedges))
Or we fill the histogram H with a determined bin content:

>>> H = np.ones((4, 4)).cumsum().reshape(4, 4)
>>> print H[::-1] # This shows the bin content in the order as plotted
[[ 13. 14. 15. 16.]
[ 9. 10. 11. 12.]
[ 5.
6.
7.
8.]
[ 1.
2.
3.
4.]]
3.30. Statistics
1279
Imshow can only do an equidistant representation of bins:

>>> fig = plt.figure(figsize=(7, 3))
>>> ax = fig.add_subplot(131)
>>> ax.set_title(imshow:
equidistant)
>>> im = plt.imshow(H, interpolation=nearest, origin=low,
extent=[xedges[0], xedges[-1], yedges[0], yedges[-1]])
pcolormesh can displaying exact bin edges:

>>> ax.set_title(pcolormesh:
exact bin edges)

>>> X, Y = np.meshgrid(xedges, yedges)
>>> ax.pcolormesh(X, Y, H)
>>> ax.set_aspect(equal)
NonUniformImage displays exact bin edges with interpolation:

>>> ax.set_title(NonUniformImage:
interpolated)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>>
im = mpl.image.NonUniformImage(ax, interpolation=bilinear)
xcenters = xedges[:-1] + 0.5 * (xedges[1:] - xedges[:-1])
ycenters = yedges[:-1] + 0.5 * (yedges[1:] - yedges[:-1])
im.set_data(xcenters, ycenters, H)
ax.images.append(im)
ax.set_xlim(xedges[0], xedges[-1])
ax.set_ylim(yedges[0], yedges[-1])
ax.set_aspect(equal)
plt.show()
numpy.histogramdd(sample, bins=10, range=None, normed=False, weights=None)

Compute the multidimensional histogram of some data.
Parameters
sample : array_like
The data to be histogrammed. It must be an (N,D) array or data that can be converted to
such. The rows of the resulting array are the coordinates of points in a D dimensional
polytope.
bins : sequence or int, optional
The bin specification:
A sequence of arrays describing the bin edges along each dimension.
The number of bins for each dimension (nx, ny, ... =bins)
The number of bins for all dimensions (nx=ny=...=bins).
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Chapter 3. Routines
range : sequence, optional

A sequence of lower and upper bin edges to be used if the edges are not given explicitly
in bins. Defaults to the minimum and maximum values along each dimension.
normed : bool, optional
If False, returns the number of samples in each bin. If True, returns the bin density
bin_count / sample_count / bin_volume.
weights : array_like (N,), optional
An array of values w_i weighing each sample (x_i, y_i, z_i, ...). Weights are normalized
to 1 if normed is True. If normed is False, the values of the returned histogram are equal
to the sum of the weights belonging to the samples falling into each bin.
Returns
H : ndarray
The multidimensional histogram of sample x. See normed and weights for the different
possible semantics.
edges : list
A list of D arrays describing the bin edges for each dimension.
See Also:
histogram
1-D histogram
histogram2d
2-D histogram
Examples
>>> r = np.random.randn(100,3)
>>> H, edges = np.histogramdd(r, bins = (5, 8, 4))
>>> H.shape, edges[0].size, edges[1].size, edges[2].size
((5, 8, 4), 6, 9, 5)
numpy.bincount(x, weights=None, minlength=None)

Count number of occurrences of each value in array of non-negative ints.
The number of bins (of size 1) is one larger than the largest value in x. If minlength is specified, there will be
at least this number of bins in the output array (though it will be longer if necessary, depending on the contents
of x). Each bin gives the number of occurrences of its index value in x. If weights is specified the input array is
weighted by it, i.e. if a value n is found at position i, out[n] += weight[i] instead of out[n] += 1.
Parameters
x : array_like, 1 dimension, nonnegative ints
Input array.
Weights, array of the same shape as x.
minlength : int, optional
New in version 1.6.0. A minimum number of bins for the output array.
Returns
out : ndarray of ints
3.30. Statistics
1281
The result of binning the input array. The length of out is equal to np.amax(x)+1.
Raises
ValueError
If the input is not 1-dimensional, or contains elements with negative values, or if minlength is non-positive.
TypeError
If the type of the input is float or complex.
See Also:
histogram, digitize, unique
Examples
>>> np.bincount(np.arange(5))
array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.bincount(np.array([0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 7]))
array([1, 3, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 7, 23])
>>> np.bincount(x).size == np.amax(x)+1
True
The input array needs to be of integer dtype, otherwise a TypeError is raised:

>>> np.bincount(np.arange(5, dtype=np.float))
TypeError: array cannot be safely cast to required type
A possible use of bincount is to perform sums over variable-size chunks of an array, using the weights
keyword.
>>> w = np.array([0.3, 0.5, 0.2, 0.7, 1., -0.6]) # weights
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2])
>>> np.bincount(x, weights=w)
array([ 0.3, 0.7, 1.1])
numpy.digitize(x, bins, right=False)

Return the indices of the bins to which each value in input array belongs.
Each index i returned is such that bins[i-1] <= x < bins[i] if bins is monotonically increasing, or
bins[i-1] > x >= bins[i] if bins is monotonically decreasing. If values in x are beyond the bounds of
bins, 0 or len(bins) is returned as appropriate. If right is True, then the right bin is closed so that the index i
is such that bins[i-1] < x <= bins[i] or bins[i-1] >= x > bins[i] if bins is monotonically increasing
or decreasing, respectively.
Parameters
x : array_like
Input array to be binned. It has to be 1-dimensional.
bins : array_like
Array of bins. It has to be 1-dimensional and monotonic.
right : bool, optional
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Chapter 3. Routines
Indicating whether the intervals include the right or the left bin edge. Default behavior
is (right==False) indicating that the interval does not include the right edge. The left
bin and is open in this case. Ie., bins[i-1] <= x < bins[i] is the default behavior for
monotonically increasing bins.
Returns
out : ndarray of ints
Output array of indices, of same shape as x.
Raises
ValueError
If the input is not 1-dimensional, or if bins is not monotonic.
TypeError
If the type of the input is complex.
See Also:
bincount, histogram, unique
Notes
If values in x are such that they fall outside the bin range, attempting to index bins with the indices that
digitize returns will result in an IndexError.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([0.2, 6.4, 3.0, 1.6])
>>> bins = np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.5, 4.0, 10.0])
>>> inds = np.digitize(x, bins)
>>> inds
array([1, 4, 3, 2])
>>> for n in range(x.size):
...
print bins[inds[n]-1], "<=", x[n], "<", bins[inds[n]]
...
0.0 <= 0.2 < 1.0
4.0 <= 6.4 < 10.0
2.5 <= 3.0 < 4.0
1.0 <= 1.6 < 2.5
>>> x = np.array([1.2, 10.0, 12.4, 15.5, 20.])
>>> bins = np.array([0,5,10,15,20])
>>> np.digitize(x,bins,right=True)
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
>>> np.digitize(x,bins,right=False)
array([1, 3, 3, 4, 5])
3.31 Test Support (numpy.testing)

Common test support for all numpy test scripts.
This single module should provide all the common functionality for numpy tests in a single location, so that test scripts
can just import it and work right away.
3.31. Test Support (numpy.testing)
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3.32 Asserts
assert_almost_equal(actual, desired[, ...])
assert_approx_equal(actual, desired[, ...])
assert_array_almost_equal(x, y[, decimal, ...])
assert_allclose(actual, desired[, rtol, ...])
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, y[, nulp])
assert_array_max_ulp(a, b[, maxulp, dtype])
assert_array_equal(x, y[, err_msg, verbose])
assert_array_less(x, y[, err_msg, verbose])
assert_equal(actual, desired[, err_msg, verbose])
assert_raises(exception_class, callable, ...)
assert_warns(warning_class, func, *args, **kw)
assert_string_equal(actual, desired)
Raise an assertion if two items are not equal up to desired precision.

Raise an assertion if two items are not equal up to significant digits.
Raise an assertion if two objects are not equal up to desired precision.
Raise an assertion if two objects are not equal up to desired tolerance.
Compare two arrays relatively to their spacing.
Check that all items of arrays differ in at most N Units in the Last Place.
Raise an assertion if two array_like objects are not equal.
Raise an assertion if two array_like objects are not ordered by less than.
Raise an assertion if two objects are not equal.
Fail unless an exception of class exception_class is thrown by callable wh
Fail unless the given callable throws the specified warning.
Test if two strings are equal.
numpy.testing.assert_almost_equal(actual, desired, decimal=7, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two items are not equal up to desired precision.
Note: It is recommended to use one of assert_allclose, assert_array_almost_equal_nulp or
assert_array_max_ulp instead of this function for more consistent floating point comparisons.
The test is equivalent to abs(desired-actual) < 0.5 * 10**(-decimal).
Given two objects (numbers or ndarrays), check that all elements of these objects are almost equal. An exception
is raised at conflicting values. For ndarrays this delegates to assert_array_almost_equal
Parameters
actual : array_like
The object to check.
desired : array_like
The expected object.
decimal : int, optional
Desired precision, default is 7.
err_msg : str, optional
The error message to be printed in case of failure.
verbose : bool, optional
If True, the conflicting values are appended to the error message.
Raises
AssertionError
If actual and desired are not equal up to specified precision.
See Also:
assert_allclose
Compare two array_like objects for equality with desired relative and/or absolute precision.
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp, assert_array_max_ulp, assert_equal
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> import numpy.testing as npt
>>> npt.assert_almost_equal(2.3333333333333, 2.33333334)
>>> npt.assert_almost_equal(2.3333333333333, 2.33333334, decimal=10)
...
<type exceptions.AssertionError>:
Items are not equal:
ACTUAL: 2.3333333333333002
DESIRED: 2.3333333399999998
>>> npt.assert_almost_equal(np.array([1.0,2.3333333333333]),
...
np.array([1.0,2.33333334]), decimal=9)
...
Arrays are not almost equal
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1.
y: array([ 1.
,
,
2.33333333])
2.33333334])
numpy.testing.assert_approx_equal(actual, desired, significant=7, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two items are not equal up to significant digits.
Given two numbers, check that they are approximately equal. Approximately equal is defined as the number of
significant digits that agree.
Parameters
actual : scalar
desired : scalar
significant : int, optional
Raises
AssertionError
See Also:
assert_allclose
3.32. Asserts
1285
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_approx_equal(0.12345677777777e-20, 0.1234567e-20)
>>> np.testing.assert_approx_equal(0.12345670e-20, 0.12345671e-20,
significant=8)
>>> np.testing.assert_approx_equal(0.12345670e-20, 0.12345672e-20,
significant=8)
...
Items are not equal to 8 significant digits:
ACTUAL: 1.234567e-021
DESIRED: 1.2345672000000001e-021
the evaluated condition that raises the exception is

>>> abs(0.12345670e-20/1e-21 - 0.12345672e-20/1e-21) >= 10**-(8-1)
True
numpy.testing.assert_array_almost_equal(x, y, decimal=6, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two objects are not equal up to desired precision.
The test verifies identical shapes and verifies values with abs(desired-actual) < 0.5 *
10**(-decimal).
Given two array_like objects, check that the shape is equal and all elements of these objects are almost equal.
An exception is raised at shape mismatch or conflicting values. In contrast to the standard usage in numpy,
NaNs are compared like numbers, no assertion is raised if both objects have NaNs in the same positions.
Parameters
x : array_like
The actual object to check.
y : array_like
The desired, expected object.
decimal : int, optional
Raises
AssertionError
See Also:
assert_allclose
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
the first assert does not raise an exception
>>> np.testing.assert_array_almost_equal([1.0,2.333,np.nan],
[1.0,2.333,np.nan])
...
[1.0,2.33339,np.nan], decimal=5)
...
AssertionError:
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1.
y: array([ 1.
,
,
2.33333,
2.33339,
NaN])
NaN])
...
[1.0,2.33333, 5], decimal=5)
<type exceptions.ValueError>:
ValueError:
x: array([ 1.
, 2.33333,
NaN])
y: array([ 1.
, 2.33333, 5.
])
numpy.testing.assert_allclose(actual, desired, rtol=1e-07, atol=0, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two objects are not equal up to desired tolerance.
The test is equivalent to allclose(actual, desired, rtol, atol). It compares the difference
between actual and desired to atol + rtol * abs(desired). New in version 1.5.0.
Parameters
actual : array_like
Array obtained.
Array desired.
Relative tolerance.
Absolute tolerance.
Raises
AssertionError
See Also:
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp, assert_array_max_ulp
3.32. Asserts
1287
Examples
>>> x = [1e-5, 1e-3, 1e-1]
>>> y = np.arccos(np.cos(x))
>>> assert_allclose(x, y, rtol=1e-5, atol=0)
numpy.testing.assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, y, nulp=1)
This is a relatively robust method to compare two arrays whose amplitude is variable.
Parameters
x, y : array_like
Input arrays.
nulp : int, optional
The maximum number of unit in the last place for tolerance (see Notes). Default is 1.
Returns
None
Raises
AssertionError
If the spacing between x and y for one or more elements is larger than nulp.
See Also:
assert_array_max_ulp
spacing
Return the distance between x and the nearest adjacent number.
Notes
An assertion is raised if the following condition is not met:
abs(x - y) <= nulps * spacing(max(abs(x), abs(y)))
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1., 1e-10, 1e-20])
>>> eps = np.finfo(x.dtype).eps
>>> np.testing.assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, x*eps/2 + x)
numpy.testing.assert_array_max_ulp(a, b, maxulp=1, dtype=None)

Parameters
a, b : array_like
Input arrays to be compared.
maxulp : int, optional
The maximum number of units in the last place that elements of a and b can differ.
Default is 1.
Data-type to convert a and b to if given. Default is None.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Returns
ret : ndarray
Array containing number of representable floating point numbers between items in a
and b.
Raises
AssertionError
If one or more elements differ by more than maxulp.
See Also:
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp
Examples
>>> a = np.linspace(0., 1., 100)
>>> res = np.testing.assert_array_max_ulp(a, np.arcsin(np.sin(a)))
numpy.testing.assert_array_equal(x, y, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two array_like objects are not equal.
Given two array_like objects, check that the shape is equal and all elements of these objects are equal. An
exception is raised at shape mismatch or conflicting values. In contrast to the standard usage in numpy, NaNs
are compared like numbers, no assertion is raised if both objects have NaNs in the same positions.
The usual caution for verifying equality with floating point numbers is advised.
Parameters
x : array_like
The actual object to check.
y : array_like
The desired, expected object.
Raises
AssertionError
If actual and desired objects are not equal.
See Also:
assert_allclose
3.32. Asserts
1289
Examples
The first assert does not raise an exception:
>>> np.testing.assert_array_equal([1.0,2.33333,np.nan],
...
[np.exp(0),2.33333, np.nan])
Assert fails with numerical inprecision with floats:

>>> np.testing.assert_array_equal([1.0,np.pi,np.nan],
...
[1, np.sqrt(np.pi)**2, np.nan])
...
AssertionError:
Arrays are not equal
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1.
y: array([ 1.
,
,
3.14159265,
3.14159265,
NaN])
NaN])
Use assert_allclose or one of the nulp (number of floating point values) functions for these cases instead:
>>> np.testing.assert_allclose([1.0,np.pi,np.nan],
...
[1, np.sqrt(np.pi)**2, np.nan],
...
rtol=1e-10, atol=0)
numpy.testing.assert_array_less(x, y, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two array_like objects are not ordered by less than.
Given two array_like objects, check that the shape is equal and all elements of the first object are strictly smaller
than those of the second object. An exception is raised at shape mismatch or incorrectly ordered values. Shape
mismatch does not raise if an object has zero dimension. In contrast to the standard usage in numpy, NaNs are
compared, no assertion is raised if both objects have NaNs in the same positions.
Parameters
x : array_like
The smaller object to check.
y : array_like
The larger object to compare.
err_msg : string
verbose : bool
Raises
AssertionError
If actual and desired objects are not equal.
See Also:
assert_array_equal
tests objects for equality
assert_array_almost_equal
test objects for equality up to precision
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 1.0, np.nan], [1.1, 2.0, np.nan])
>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 1.0, np.nan], [1, 2.0, np.nan])
...
Arrays are not less-ordered
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1.,
1., NaN])
y: array([ 1.,
2., NaN])
>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 4.0], 3)
...
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1., 4.])
y: array(3)
>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], [4])
...
(shapes (3,), (1,) mismatch)
x: array([ 1., 2., 3.])
y: array([4])
numpy.testing.assert_equal(actual, desired, err_msg=, verbose=True)

Raise an assertion if two objects are not equal.
Given two objects (scalars, lists, tuples, dictionaries or numpy arrays), check that all elements of these objects
are equal. An exception is raised at the first conflicting values.
Parameters
actual : array_like
Raises
AssertionError
If actual and desired are not equal.
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_equal([4,5], [4,6])
...
Items are not equal:
item=1
3.32. Asserts
1291
ACTUAL: 5
DESIRED: 6
numpy.testing.assert_raises(exception_class, callable, *args, **kwargs)

Fail unless an exception of class exception_class is thrown by callable when invoked with arguments args and
keyword arguments kwargs. If a different type of exception is thrown, it will not be caught, and the test case
will be deemed to have suffered an error, exactly as for an unexpected exception.
numpy.testing.assert_warns(warning_class, func, *args, **kw)
Fail unless the given callable throws the specified warning.
A warning of class warning_class should be thrown by the callable when invoked with arguments args and
keyword arguments kwargs. If a different type of warning is thrown, it will not be caught, and the test case will
be deemed to have suffered an error. New in version 1.4.0.
Parameters
warning_class : class
The class defining the warning that func is expected to throw.
func : callable
The callable to test.
*args : Arguments
Arguments passed to func.
**kwargs : Kwargs
Keyword arguments passed to func.
Returns
The value returned by func.
numpy.testing.assert_string_equal(actual, desired)
Test if two strings are equal.
If the given strings are equal, assert_string_equal does nothing. If they are not equal, an AssertionError
is raised, and the diff between the strings is shown.
Parameters
actual : str
The string to test for equality against the expected string.
desired : str
The expected string.
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_string_equal(abc, abc)
>>> np.testing.assert_string_equal(abc, abcd)
...
AssertionError: Differences in strings:
- abc+ abcd?
+
3.32.1 Decorators
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Chapter 3. Routines
decorators.deprecated([conditional])
decorators.knownfailureif(fail_condition[, msg])
decorators.setastest([tf])
decorators.skipif(skip_condition[, msg])
decorators.slow(t)
decorate_methods(cls, decorator[, testmatch])
Filter deprecation warnings while running the test suite.

Make function raise KnownFailureTest exception if given condition is t
Signals to nose that this function is or is not a test.
Make function raise SkipTest exception if a given condition is true.
Label a test as slow.
Apply a decorator to all methods in a class matching a regular expressio
numpy.testing.decorators.deprecated(conditional=True)
Filter deprecation warnings while running the test suite.
This decorator can be used to filter DeprecationWarnings, to avoid printing them during the test suite run, while
checking that the test actually raises a DeprecationWarning.
Parameters
conditional : bool or callable, optional
Flag to determine whether to mark test as deprecated or not. If the condition is a callable,
it is used at runtime to dynamically make the decision. Default is True.
Returns
decorator : function
The deprecated decorator itself.
Notes
numpy.testing.decorators.knownfailureif(fail_condition, msg=None)
Make function raise KnownFailureTest exception if given condition is true.
If the condition is a callable, it is used at runtime to dynamically make the decision. This is useful for tests that
may require costly imports, to delay the cost until the test suite is actually executed.
Parameters
fail_condition : bool or callable
Flag to determine whether to mark the decorated test as a known failure (if True) or not
(if False).
msg : str, optional
Message to give on raising a KnownFailureTest exception. Default is None.
Returns
Decorator, which, when applied to a function, causes SkipTest to be raised when
skip_condition is True, and the function to be called normally otherwise.
Notes
The decorator itself is decorated with the nose.tools.make_decorator function in order to transmit
function name, and various other metadata.
numpy.testing.decorators.setastest(tf=True)
Signals to nose that this function is or is not a test.
Parameters
tf : bool
3.32. Asserts
1293
If True, specifies that the decorated callable is a test. If False, specifies that the decorated
callable is not a test. Default is True.
Notes
This decorator cant use the nose namespace, because it can be called from a non-test module. See also istest
and nottest in nose.tools.
Examples
setastest can be used in the following way:
from numpy.testing.decorators import setastest
@setastest(False)
def func_with_test_in_name(arg1, arg2):
pass
numpy.testing.decorators.skipif(skip_condition, msg=None)
Make function raise SkipTest exception if a given condition is true.
If the condition is a callable, it is used at runtime to dynamically make the decision. This is useful for tests that
may require costly imports, to delay the cost until the test suite is actually executed.
Parameters
skip_condition : bool or callable
Flag to determine whether to skip the decorated test.
msg : str, optional
Message to give on raising a SkipTest exception. Default is None.
Returns
Decorator which, when applied to a function, causes SkipTest to be raised when
skip_condition is True, and the function to be called normally otherwise.
Notes
The decorator itself is decorated with the nose.tools.make_decorator function in order to transmit
function name, and various other metadata.
numpy.testing.decorators.slow(t)
Label a test as slow.
The exact definition of a slow test is obviously both subjective and hardware-dependent, but in general any
individual test that requires more than a second or two should be labeled as slow (the whole suite consits of
thousands of tests, so even a second is significant).
Parameters
t : callable
The test to label as slow.
Returns
t : callable
The decorated test t.
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
The numpy.testing module includes import decorators as dec. A test can be decorated as slow
like this:
from numpy.testing import *
@dec.slow
def test_big(self):
print Big, slow test
numpy.testing.decorate_methods(cls, decorator, testmatch=None)

Apply a decorator to all methods in a class matching a regular expression.
The given decorator is applied to all public methods of cls that are matched by the regular expression testmatch
(testmatch.search(methodname)). Methods that are private, i.e. start with an underscore, are ignored.
Parameters
cls : class
Class whose methods to decorate.
Decorator to apply to methods
testmatch : compiled regexp or str, optional
The regular expression. Default value is None, in which case the nose default
(re.compile(r(?:^|[\b_\.%s-])[Tt]est % os.sep)) is used. If
testmatch is a string, it is compiled to a regular expression first.
3.32.2 Test Running

Tester
run_module_suite([file_to_run])
rundocs([filename, raise_on_error])
Nose test runner.

Run doctests found in the given file.
numpy.testing.Tester
alias of NoseTester
numpy.testing.run_module_suite(file_to_run=None)
numpy.testing.rundocs(filename=None, raise_on_error=True)
Run doctests found in the given file.
By default rundocs raises an AssertionError on failure.
Parameters
filename : str
The path to the file for which the doctests are run.
raise_on_error : bool
Whether to raise an AssertionError when a doctest fails. Default is True.
3.32. Asserts
1295
Notes
The doctests can be run by the user/developer by adding the doctests argument to the test() call. For
example, to run all tests (including doctests) for numpy.lib:
>>> np.lib.test(doctests=True)
3.33 Window functions

3.33.1 Various windows
bartlett(M)
blackman(M)
hamming(M)
hanning(M)
kaiser(M, beta)
Return the Bartlett window.

Return the Blackman window.
Return the Hamming window.
Return the Hanning window.
Return the Kaiser window.
numpy.bartlett(M)
Return the Bartlett window.
The Bartlett window is very similar to a triangular window, except that the end points are at zero. It is often
used in signal processing for tapering a signal, without generating too much ripple in the frequency domain.
Parameters
M : int
Number of points in the output window. If zero or less, an empty array is returned.
Returns
out : array
The triangular window, with the maximum value normalized to one (the value one appears only if the number of samples is odd), with the first and last samples equal to
zero.
See Also:
blackman, hamming, hanning, kaiser
Notes
The Bartlett window is defined as
w(n) =
2
M 1

M 1
M 1
n
2
2
Most references to the Bartlett window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
many windowing functions for smoothing values. Note that convolution with this window produces linear interpolation. It is also known as an apodization (which meansremoving the foot, i.e. smoothing discontinuities
at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function. The fourier transform of the Bartlett is the
product of two sinc functions. Note the excellent discussion in Kanasewich.
References
[R11], [R12], [R13], [R14], [R15]
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.bartlett(12)
array([ 0.
,
0.90909091,
0.18181818,
0.18181818, 0.36363636,
0.90909091, 0.72727273,
0.
])
0.54545455,
0.54545455,
0.72727273,
0.36363636,
Plot the window and its frequency response (requires SciPy and matplotlib):
>>> from numpy.fft import fft, fftshift
>>> window = np.bartlett(51)
>>> plt.plot(window)
>>> plt.title("Bartlett window")
>>> plt.xlabel("Sample")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
<matplotlib.figure.Figure object at 0x...>
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> mag = np.abs(fftshift(A))
>>> freq = np.linspace(-0.5, 0.5, len(A))
>>> response = 20 * np.log10(mag)
>>> response = np.clip(response, -100, 100)
>>> plt.plot(freq, response)
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Bartlett window")
>>> plt.ylabel("Magnitude [dB]")
>>> plt.xlabel("Normalized frequency [cycles per sample]")
>>> plt.axis(tight)
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.blackman(M)
Return the Blackman window.
The Blackman window is a taper formed by using the first three terms of a summation of cosines. It was designed
to have close to the minimal leakage possible. It is close to optimal, only slightly worse than a Kaiser window.
Parameters
M : int
Returns
out : ndarray
The window, with the maximum value normalized to one (the value one appears only if
the number of samples is odd).
See Also:
bartlett, hamming, hanning, kaiser
3.33. Window functions
1297
Notes
The Blackman window is defined as
w(n) = 0.42 0.5 cos(2n/M ) + 0.08 cos(4n/M )
Most references to the Blackman window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
many windowing functions for smoothing values. It is also known as an apodization (which means removing
the foot, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function. It
is known as a near optimal tapering function, almost as good (by some measures) as the kaiser window.
References
Blackman, R.B. and Tukey, J.W., (1958) The measurement of power spectra, Dover Publications, New York.
Oppenheim, A.V., and R.W. Schafer. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1999, pp. 468-471.
Examples
>>> np.blackman(12)
array([ -1.38777878e-17,
4.14397981e-01,
9.67046769e-01,
1.59903635e-01,
3.26064346e-02,
7.36045180e-01,
7.36045180e-01,
3.26064346e-02,
1.59903635e-01,
9.67046769e-01,
4.14397981e-01,
-1.38777878e-17])
Plot the window and the frequency response:

>>> window = np.blackman(51)
>>> plt.title("Blackman window")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Blackman window")
>>> plt.axis(tight)
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
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Chapter 3. Routines
numpy.hamming(M)
Return the Hamming window.
The Hamming window is a taper formed by using a weighted cosine.
Parameters
M : int
Returns
out : ndarray
See Also:
bartlett, blackman, hanning, kaiser
Notes
The Hamming window is defined as

w(n) = 0.54 0.46cos
2n
M 1

0nM 1
The Hamming was named for R. W. Hamming, an associate of J. W. Tukey and is described in Blackman and
Tukey. It was recommended for smoothing the truncated autocovariance function in the time domain. Most
references to the Hamming window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of many
windowing functions for smoothing values. It is also known as an apodization (which means removing the
foot, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function.
References
[R21], [R22], [R23], [R24]
Examples
>>> np.hamming(12)
array([ 0.08
,
0.98136677,
0.15302337,
0.15302337, 0.34890909,
0.98136677, 0.84123594,
0.08
])
0.60546483,
0.60546483,
0.84123594,
0.34890909,

>>> window = np.hamming(51)
>>> plt.title("Hamming window")
>>> plt.show()
1299
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Hamming window")
>>> plt.axis(tight)
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.hanning(M)
Return the Hanning window.
The Hanning window is a taper formed by using a weighted cosine.
Parameters
M : int
Returns
out : ndarray, shape(M,)
M is odd).
See Also:
bartlett, blackman, hamming, kaiser
Notes
The Hanning window is defined as

w(n) = 0.5 0.5cos
2n
M 1

0nM 1
The Hanning was named for Julius van Hann, an Austrian meteorologist. It is also known as the Cosine Bell.
Some authors prefer that it be called a Hann window, to help avoid confusion with the very similar Hamming
window.
Most references to the Hanning window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
the foot, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function.
References
[R25], [R26], [R27], [R28]
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Chapter 3. Routines
Examples
>>> np.hanning(12)
array([ 0.
,
0.97974649,
0.07937323,
0.07937323, 0.29229249,
0.97974649, 0.82743037,
0.
])
0.57115742,
0.57115742,
0.82743037,
0.29229249,
Plot the window and its frequency response:

>>> window = np.hanning(51)
>>> plt.title("Hann window")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of the Hann window")
>>> plt.axis(tight)
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.kaiser(M, beta)
Return the Kaiser window.
The Kaiser window is a taper formed by using a Bessel function.
Parameters
M : int
beta : float
Shape parameter for window.
Returns
out : array
See Also:
1301
bartlett, blackman, hamming, hanning

Notes
The Kaiser window is defined as
s
w(n) = I0
4n2
1
(M 1)2
!
/I0 ()
with
M 1
M 1
n
,
2
2
where I0 is the modified zeroth-order Bessel function.

The Kaiser was named for Jim Kaiser, who discovered a simple approximation to the DPSS window based on
Bessel functions. The Kaiser window is a very good approximation to the Digital Prolate Spheroidal Sequence,
or Slepian window, which is the transform which maximizes the energy in the main lobe of the window relative
to total energy.
The Kaiser can approximate many other windows by varying the beta parameter.
beta
0
5
6
8.6
Window shape
Rectangular
Similar to a Hamming
Similar to a Hanning
Similar to a Blackman
A beta value of 14 is probably a good starting point. Note that as beta gets large, the window narrows, and so
the number of samples needs to be large enough to sample the increasingly narrow spike, otherwise NaNs will
get returned.
Most references to the Kaiser window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
the foot, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function.
References
[R34], [R35], [R36]
Examples
>>> np.kaiser(12, 14)
array([ 7.72686684e-06,
2.29737120e-01,
9.45674898e-01,
4.65200189e-02,
3.46009194e-03,
5.99885316e-01,
5.99885316e-01,
3.46009194e-03,
4.65200189e-02,
9.45674898e-01,
2.29737120e-01,
7.72686684e-06])

>>> window = np.kaiser(51, 14)
>>> plt.title("Kaiser window")
1302
Chapter 3. Routines

>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Kaiser window")
>>> plt.axis(tight)
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
1303
1304
Chapter 3. Routines
CHAPTER
FOUR
PACKAGING (NUMPY.DISTUTILS)
NumPy provides enhanced distutils functionality to make it easier to build and install sub-packages, auto-generate
code, and extension modules that use Fortran-compiled libraries. To use features of NumPy distutils, use the
setup command from numpy.distutils.core. A useful Configuration class is also provided in
numpy.distutils.misc_util that can make it easier to construct keyword arguments to pass to the setup
function (by passing the dictionary obtained from the todict() method of the class). More information is available in
the NumPy Distutils Users Guide in <site-packages>/numpy/doc/DISTUTILS.txt.
4.1 Modules in numpy.distutils

4.1.1 misc_util
get_numpy_include_dirs()
dict_append(d, **kws)
appendpath(prefix, path)
allpath(name)
dot_join(*args)
generate_config_py(target)
get_cmd(cmdname[, _cache])
terminal_has_colors()
red_text(s)
green_text(s)
yellow_text(s)
blue_text(s)
cyan_text(s)
cyg2win32(path)
all_strings(lst)
has_f_sources(sources)
has_cxx_sources(sources)
filter_sources(sources)
get_dependencies(sources)
is_local_src_dir(directory)
get_ext_source_files(ext)
get_script_files(scripts)
Convert a /-separated pathname to one using the OSs path separator.

Generate config.py file containing system_info information used during building the package.
Return True if all items in lst are string objects.

Return True if sources contains Fortran files
Return True if sources contains C++ files
Return four lists of filenames containing
Return true if directory is local directory.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_numpy_include_dirs()
1305
numpy.distutils.misc_util.dict_append(d, **kws)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.appendpath(prefix, path)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.allpath(name)
Convert a /-separated pathname to one using the OSs path separator.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.dot_join(*args)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.generate_config_py(target)
Generate config.py file containing system_info information used during building the package.
Usage:
config[py_modules].append((packagename, __config__,generate_config_py))
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_cmd(cmdname, _cache={})
numpy.distutils.misc_util.terminal_has_colors()
numpy.distutils.misc_util.red_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.green_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.yellow_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.blue_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.cyan_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.cyg2win32(path)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.all_strings(lst)
Return True if all items in lst are string objects.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.has_f_sources(sources)
Return True if sources contains Fortran files
numpy.distutils.misc_util.has_cxx_sources(sources)
Return True if sources contains C++ files
numpy.distutils.misc_util.filter_sources(sources)
Return four lists of filenames containing C, C++, Fortran, and Fortran 90 module sources, respectively.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_dependencies(sources)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.is_local_src_dir(directory)
Return true if directory is local directory.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_ext_source_files(ext)
1306
Chapter 4. Packaging (numpy.distutils)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_script_files(scripts)
class numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration(package_name=None, parent_name=None,
top_path=None, package_path=None, **attrs)
Construct a configuration instance for the given package name. If parent_name is not None, then construct the
package as a sub-package of the parent_name package. If top_path and package_path are None then they are
assumed equal to the path of the file this instance was created in. The setup.py files in the numpy distribution
are good examples of how to use the Configuration instance.
todict()
Return a dictionary compatible with the keyword arguments of distutils setup function.
Examples
>>> setup(**config.todict())
get_distribution()
Return the distutils distribution object for self.
get_subpackage(subpackage_name, subpackage_path=None, parent_name=None, caller_level=1)
Return list of subpackage configurations.
Parameters
subpackage_name : str or None
Name of the subpackage to get the configuration. * in subpackage_name is handled
as a wildcard.
subpackage_path : str
If None, then the path is assumed to be the local path plus the subpackage_name. If a
setup.py file is not found in the subpackage_path, then a default configuration is used.
parent_name : str
Parent name.
add_subpackage(subpackage_name, subpackage_path=None, standalone=False)
Add a sub-package to the current Configuration instance.
This is useful in a setup.py script for adding sub-packages to a package.
Parameters
subpackage_name : str
name of the subpackage
subpackage_path : str
if given, the subpackage path such as the subpackage is in subpackage_path / subpackage_name. If None,the subpackage is assumed to be located in the local path / subpackage_name.
standalone : bool
add_data_files(*files)
Add data files to configuration data_files.
Parameters
files : sequence
Argument(s) can be either
4.1. Modules in numpy.distutils
1307
2-sequence (<datadir prefix>,<path to data file(s)>)

paths to data files where python datadir prefix defaults to package dir.
Notes
The form of each element of the files sequence is very flexible allowing many combinations of where to
get the files from the package and where they should ultimately be installed on the system. The most basic
usage is for an element of the files argument sequence to be a simple filename. This will cause that file
from the local path to be installed to the installation path of the self.name package (package path). The file
argument can also be a relative path in which case the entire relative path will be installed into the package
directory. Finally, the file can be an absolute path name in which case the file will be found at the absolute
path name but installed to the package path.
This basic behavior can be augmented by passing a 2-tuple in as the file argument. The first element of the
tuple should specify the relative path (under the package install directory) where the remaining sequence
of files should be installed to (it has nothing to do with the file-names in the source distribution). The
second element of the tuple is the sequence of files that should be installed. The files in this sequence can
be filenames, relative paths, or absolute paths. For absolute paths the file will be installed in the top-level
package installation directory (regardless of the first argument). Filenames and relative path names will be
installed in the package install directory under the path name given as the first element of the tuple.
Rules for installation paths:
1.file.txt -> (., file.txt)-> parent/file.txt
2.foo/file.txt -> (foo, foo/file.txt) -> parent/foo/file.txt
3./foo/bar/file.txt -> (., /foo/bar/file.txt) -> parent/file.txt
4.*.txt -> parent/a.txt, parent/b.txt
5.foo/*.txt -> parent/foo/a.txt, parent/foo/b.txt
6./.txt -> (, */.txt) -> parent/c/a.txt, parent/d/b.txt
7.(sun, file.txt) -> parent/sun/file.txt
8.(sun, bar/file.txt) -> parent/sun/file.txt
9.(sun, /foo/bar/file.txt) -> parent/sun/file.txt
10.(sun, *.txt) -> parent/sun/a.txt, parent/sun/b.txt
11.(sun, bar/*.txt) -> parent/sun/a.txt, parent/sun/b.txt
12.(sun/, */.txt) -> parent/sun/c/a.txt, parent/d/b.txt
An additional feature is that the path to a data-file can actually be a function that takes no arguments and
returns the actual path(s) to the data-files. This is useful when the data files are generated while building
the package.
Examples
Add files to the list of data_files to be included with the package.
>>> self.add_data_files(foo.dat,
...
(fun, [gun.dat, nun/pun.dat, /tmp/sun.dat]),
...
bar/cat.dat,
...
/full/path/to/can.dat)
will install these data files to:
1308
<package install directory>/

foo.dat
fun/
gun.dat
nun/
pun.dat
sun.dat
bar/
car.dat
can.dat
where <package install directory> is the package (or sub-package) directory such as
/usr/lib/python2.4/site-packages/mypackage (C: Python2.4 Lib site-packages mypackage) or
/usr/lib/python2.4/site- packages/mypackage/mysubpackage (C: Python2.4 Lib site-packages mypackage mysubpackage).
add_data_dir(data_path)
Recursively add files under data_path to data_files list.
Recursively add files under data_path to the list of data_files to be installed (and distributed). The data_path
can be either a relative path-name, or an absolute path-name, or a 2-tuple where the first argument shows
where in the install directory the data directory should be installed to.
Parameters
data_path : seq or str
Argument can be either
2-sequence (<datadir suffix>, <path to data directory>)
path to data directory where python datadir suffix defaults to package dir.
Notes
Rules for installation paths:
foo/bar -> (foo/bar, foo/bar) -> parent/foo/bar (gun, foo/bar) -> parent/gun foo/* -> (foo/a, foo/a),
(foo/b, foo/b) -> parent/foo/a, parent/foo/b (gun, foo/) -> (gun, foo/a), (gun, foo/b) -> gun (gun/, foo/)
-> parent/gun/a, parent/gun/b /foo/bar -> (bar, /foo/bar) -> parent/bar (gun, /foo/bar) -> parent/gun
(fun/ /gun/*, sun/foo/bar) -> parent/fun/foo/gun/bar
Examples
For example suppose the source directory contains fun/foo.dat and fun/bar/car.dat:
>>> self.add_data_dir(fun)
>>> self.add_data_dir((sun, fun))
>>> self.add_data_dir((gun, /full/path/to/fun))
Will install data-files to the locations:

<package install directory>/
fun/
foo.dat
bar/
car.dat
sun/
foo.dat
bar/
car.dat
gun/
1309
foo.dat
car.dat
add_include_dirs(*paths)
Add paths to configuration include directories.
Add the given sequence of paths to the beginning of the include_dirs list. This list will be visible to all
extension modules of the current package.
add_headers(*files)
Add installable headers to configuration.
Add the given sequence of files to the beginning of the headers list. By default, headers will be installed
under <python- include>/<self.name.replace(.,/)>/ directory. If an item of files is a tuple, then its first
argument specifies the actual installation location relative to the <python-include> path.
Parameters
files : str or seq
Argument(s) can be either:
2-sequence (<includedir suffix>,<path to header file(s)>)
path(s) to header file(s) where python includedir suffix will default to package name.
add_extension(name, sources, **kw)
Add extension to configuration.
Create and add an Extension instance to the ext_modules list. This method also takes the following optional
keyword arguments that are passed on to the Extension constructor.
Parameters
name : str
name of the extension
sources : seq
list of the sources. The list of sources may contain functions (called source generators)
which must take an extension instance and a build directory as inputs and return a source
file or list of source files or None. If None is returned then no sources are generated.
If the Extension instance has no sources after processing all source generators, then no
extension module is built.
include_dirs :
define_macros :
undef_macros :
library_dirs :
libraries :
runtime_library_dirs :
extra_objects :
extra_compile_args :
extra_link_args :
extra_f77_compile_args :
extra_f90_compile_args :
1310
export_symbols :
swig_opts :
depends :
The depends list contains paths to files or directories that the sources of the extension
module depend on. If any path in the depends list is newer than the extension module,
then the module will be rebuilt.
language :
f2py_options :
module_dirs :
extra_info : dict or list
dict or list of dict of keywords to be appended to keywords.
Notes
The self.paths(...) method is applied to all lists that may contain paths.
add_library(name, sources, **build_info)
Add library to configuration.
Parameters
name : str
Name of the extension.
sources : sequence
List of the sources. The list of sources may contain functions (called source generators)
which must take an extension instance and a build directory as inputs and return a source
file or list of source files or None. If None is returned then no sources are generated.
If the Extension instance has no sources after processing all source generators, then no
extension module is built.
build_info : dict, optional
The following keys are allowed:
depends
macros
include_dirs
extra_compiler_args
extra_f77_compiler_args
f2py_options
language
add_scripts(*files)
Add scripts to configuration.
Add the sequence of files to the beginning of the scripts list. Scripts will be installed under the <prefix>/bin/
directory.
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add_installed_library(name, sources, install_dir, build_info=None)

Similar to add_library, but the specified library is installed.
Most C libraries used with distutils are only used to build python extensions, but libraries built
through this method will be installed so that they can be reused by third-party packages.
Parameters
name : str
Name of the installed library.
sources : sequence
List of the librarys source files. See add_library for details.
install_dir : str
Path to install the library, relative to the current sub-package.
build_info : dict, optional
The following keys are allowed:
depends
macros
include_dirs
extra_compiler_args
f2py_options
language
Returns
None
See Also:
add_library, add_npy_pkg_config, get_info
Notes
The best way to encode the options required to link against the specified C libraries is to use a libname.ini
file, and use get_info to retrieve the required options (see add_npy_pkg_config for more information).
add_npy_pkg_config(template, install_dir, subst_dict=None)
Generate and install a npy-pkg config file from a template.
The config file generated from template is installed in the given install directory, using subst_dict for
variable substitution.
Parameters
template : str
The path of the template, relatively to the current package path.
install_dir : str
Where to install the npy-pkg config file, relatively to the current package path.
subst_dict : dict, optional
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If given, any string of the form @key@ will be replaced by subst_dict[key] in the
template file when installed. The install prefix is always available through the variable
@prefix@, since the install prefix is not easy to get reliably from setup.py.
See Also:
add_installed_library, get_info
Notes
This works for both standard installs and in-place builds, i.e. the @prefix@ refer to the source directory
for in-place builds.
Examples
config.add_npy_pkg_config(foo.ini.in, lib, {foo: bar})
Assuming the foo.ini.in file has the following content:

[meta]
Name=@foo@
Version=1.0
Description=dummy description
[default]
Cflags=-I@prefix@/include
Libs=
The generated file will have the following content:

[meta]
Name=bar
Version=1.0
Description=dummy description
[default]
Cflags=-Iprefix_dir/include
Libs=
and will be installed as foo.ini in the lib subpath.

paths(*paths, **kws)
Apply glob to paths and prepend local_path if needed.
Applies glob.glob(...) to each path in the sequence (if needed) and pre-pends the local_path if needed.
Because this is called on all source lists, this allows wildcard characters to be specified in lists of sources
for extension modules and libraries and scripts and allows path-names be relative to the source directory.
get_config_cmd()
Returns the numpy.distutils config command instance.
get_build_temp_dir()
Return a path to a temporary directory where temporary files should be placed.
have_f77c()
Check for availability of Fortran 77 compiler.
Use it inside source generating function to ensure that setup distribution instance has been initialized.
Notes
True if a Fortran 77 compiler is available (because a simple Fortran 77 code was able to be compiled
successfully).
1313
have_f90c()
Check for availability of Fortran 90 compiler.
Use it inside source generating function to ensure that setup distribution instance has been initialized.
Notes
True if a Fortran 90 compiler is available (because a simple Fortran 90 code was able to be compiled
successfully)
get_version(version_file=None, version_variable=None)
Try to get version string of a package.
Return a version string of the current package or None if the version information could not be detected.
Notes
This method scans files named __version__.py, <packagename>_version.py, version.py, and
__svn_version__.py for string variables version, __version__, and <packagename>_version, until a version number is found.
make_svn_version_py(delete=True)
Appends a data function to the data_files list that will generate __svn_version__.py file to the current
package directory.
Generate package __svn_version__.py file from SVN revision number, it will be removed after python
exits but will be available when sdist, etc commands are executed.
Notes
If __svn_version__.py existed before, nothing is done.
This is intended for working with source directories that are in an SVN repository.
make_config_py(name=__config__)
Generate package __config__.py file containing system_info information used during building the package.
This file is installed to the package installation directory.
get_info(*names)
Get resources information.
Return information (from system_info.get_info) for all of the names in the argument list in a single dictionary.
4.1.2 Other modules

system_info.get_info(name[, notfound_action])
system_info.get_standard_file(fname)
cpuinfo.cpu
log.set_verbosity(v[, force])
exec_command
notfound_action:
Returns a list of files named fname from
exec_command
numpy.distutils.system_info.get_info(name, notfound_action=0)
notfound_action: 0 - do nothing 1 - display warning message 2 - raise error
numpy.distutils.system_info.get_standard_file(fname)
Returns a list of files named fname from 1) System-wide directory (directory-location of this module) 2)
1314
Users HOME directory (os.environ[HOME]) 3) Local directory

numpy.distutils.cpuinfo.cpu = <numpy.distutils.cpuinfo.LinuxCPUInfo object at 0x471cf10>
numpy.distutils.log.set_verbosity(v, force=False)
exec_command
Implements exec_command function that is (almost) equivalent to commands.getstatusoutput function but on NT,
DOS systems the returned status is actually correct (though, the returned status values may be different by a factor).
In addition, exec_command takes keyword arguments for (re-)defining environment variables.
Provides functions:
exec_command execute command in a specified directory and
in the modified environment.
find_executable locate a command using info from environment
variable PATH. Equivalent to posix which command.
Author: Pearu Peterson <pearu@cens.ioc.ee> Created: 11 January 2003
Requires: Python 2.x
Succesfully tested on:
os.name | sys.platform | comments ++- posix | linux2 | Debian (sid) Linux, Python
2.1.3+, 2.2.3+, 2.3.3
PyCrust 0.9.3, Idle 1.0.2
posix | linux2 | Red Hat 9 Linux, Python 2.1.3, 2.2.2, 2.3.2 posix | sunos5 | SunOS 5.9, Python 2.2, 2.3.2 posix |
darwin | Darwin 7.2.0, Python 2.3 nt | win32 | Windows Me
Python 2.3(EE), Idle 1.0, PyCrust 0.7.2 Python 2.1.1 Idle 0.8
nt | win32 | Windows 98, Python 2.1.1. Idle 0.8 nt | win32 | Cygwin 98-4.10, Python 2.1.1(MSC) - echo tests
fail i.e. redefining environment variables may not work. FIXED: dont use cygwin echo! Comment:
also cmd /c echo will not work but redefining environment variables do work.
posix | cygwin | Cygwin 98-4.10, Python 2.3.3(cygming special) nt | win32 | Windows XP, Python 2.3.3
Known bugs: - Tests, that send messages to stderr, fail when executed from MSYS prompt
because the messages are lost at some point.
Functions
exec_command(command[, execute_in, ...])
find_executable(exe[, path, _cache])
get_exception()
get_pythonexe()
is_sequence(seq)
make_temp_file([suffix, prefix, text])
open_latin1(filename[, mode])
quote_arg(arg)
splitcmdline(line)
temp_file_name()
Return (status,output) of executed command.

Return full path of a executable or None.
1315

test(**kws)
test_cl(**kws)
test_execute_in(**kws)
test_nt(**kws)
test_posix(**kws)
test_svn(**kws)
4.2 Building Installable C libraries

Conventional C libraries (installed through add_library) are not installed, and are just used during the build (they
are statically linked). An installable C library is a pure C library, which does not depend on the python C runtime,
and is installed such that it may be used by third-party packages. To build and install the C library, you just use
the method add_installed_library instead of add_library, which takes the same arguments except for an additional
install_dir argument:
>>> config.add_installed_library(foo, sources=[foo.c], install_dir=lib)
4.2.1 npy-pkg-config files

To make the necessary build options available to third parties, you could use the npy-pkg-config mechanism implemented in numpy.distutils. This mechanism is based on a .ini file which contains all the options. A .ini file is
very similar to .pc files as used by the pkg-config unix utility:
[meta]
Name: foo
Version: 1.0
Description: foo library
[variables]
prefix = /home/user/local
libdir = ${prefix}/lib
includedir = ${prefix}/include
[default]
cflags = -I${includedir}
libs = -L${libdir} -lfoo
Generally, the file needs to be generated during the build, since it needs some information known at build time only
(e.g. prefix). This is mostly automatic if one uses the Configuration method add_npy_pkg_config. Assuming we have
a template file foo.ini.in as follows:
[meta]
Name: foo
Version: @version@
Description: foo library
[variables]
prefix = @prefix@
libdir = ${prefix}/lib
includedir = ${prefix}/include
[default]
cflags = -I${includedir}
libs = -L${libdir} -lfoo
1316
and the following code in setup.py:

>>> config.add_installed_library(foo, sources=[foo.c], install_dir=lib)
>>> subst = {version: 1.0}
>>> config.add_npy_pkg_config(foo.ini.in, lib, subst_dict=subst)
This will install the file foo.ini into the directory package_dir/lib, and the foo.ini file will be generated from foo.ini.in,
where each @version@ will be replaced by subst_dict[version]. The dictionary has an additional prefix
substitution rule automatically added, which contains the install prefix (since this is not easy to get from setup.py).
npy-pkg-config files can also be installed at the same location as used for numpy, using the path returned from
get_npy_pkg_dir function.
4.2.2 Reusing a C library from another package

Info are easily retrieved from the get_info function in numpy.distutils.misc_util:
>>> info = get_info(npymath)
>>> config.add_extension(foo, sources=[foo.c], extra_info=**info)
An additional list of paths to look for .ini files can be given to get_info.
4.3 Conversion of .src files

NumPy distutils supports automatic conversion of source files named <somefile>.src. This facility can be used to
maintain very similar code blocks requiring only simple changes between blocks. During the build phase of setup, if
a template file named <somefile>.src is encountered, a new file named <somefile> is constructed from the template
and placed in the build directory to be used instead. Two forms of template conversion are supported. The first form
occurs for files named named <file>.ext.src where ext is a recognized Fortran extension (f, f90, f95, f77, for, ftn, pyf).
The second form is used for all other cases.
4.3.1 Fortran files

This template converter will replicate all function and subroutine blocks in the file with names that contain <...>
according to the rules in <...>. The number of comma-separated words in <...> determines the number of times
the block is repeated. What these words are indicates what that repeat rule, <...>, should be replaced with in each
block. All of the repeat rules in a block must contain the same number of comma-separated words indicating the
number of times that block should be repeated. If the word in the repeat rule needs a comma, leftarrow, or rightarrow,
then prepend it with a backslash . If a word in the repeat rule matches \<index> then it will be replaced with the
<index>-th word in the same repeat specification. There are two forms for the repeat rule: named and short.
Named repeat rule
A named repeat rule is useful when the same set of repeats must be used several times in a block. It is specified using
<rule1=item1, item2, item3,..., itemN>, where N is the number of times the block should be repeated. On each repeat
of the block, the entire expression, <...> will be replaced first with item1, and then with item2, and so forth until N
repeats are accomplished. Once a named repeat specification has been introduced, the same repeat rule may be used
in the current block by referring only to the name (i.e. <rule1>.
4.3. Conversion of .src files
1317
Short repeat rule

A short repeat rule looks like <item1, item2, item3, ..., itemN>. The rule specifies that the entire expression, <...>
should be replaced first with item1, and then with item2, and so forth until N repeats are accomplished.
Pre-defined names
The following predefined named repeat rules are available:
<prefix=s,d,c,z>
<_c=s,d,c,z>
<_t=real, double precision, complex, double complex>
<ftype=real, double precision, complex, double complex>
<ctype=float, double, complex_float, complex_double>
<ftypereal=float, double precision, \0, \1>
<ctypereal=float, double, \0, \1>
4.3.2 Other files

Non-Fortran files use a separate syntax for defining template blocks that should be repeated using a variable expansion
similar to the named repeat rules of the Fortran-specific repeats. The template rules for these files are:
1. /**begin repeat on a line by itself marks the beginning of a segment that should be repeated.
2. Named variable expansions are defined using #name=item1, item2, item3, ..., itemN# and placed on successive
lines. These variables are replaced in each repeat block with corresponding word. All named variables in the
same repeat block must define the same number of words.
3. In specifying the repeat rule for a named variable, item*N is short- hand for item, item, ..., item repeated N
times. In addition, parenthesis in combination with *N can be used for grouping several items that should be
repeated. Thus, #name=(item1, item2)*4# is equivalent to #name=item1, item2, item1, item2, item1, item2,
item1, item2#
4. */ on a line by itself marks the end of the the variable expansion naming. The next line is the first line that
will be repeated using the named rules.
5. Inside the block to be repeated, the variables that should be expanded are specified as @name@.
6. /**end repeat**/ on a line by itself marks the previous line as the last line of the block to be repeated.
1318
CHAPTER
FIVE
NUMPY C-API
Beware of the man who wont be bothered with details.
William Feather, Sr.
The truth is out there.

Chris Carter, The X Files
NumPy provides a C-API to enable users to extend the system and get access to the array object for use in other
routines. The best way to truly understand the C-API is to read the source code. If you are unfamiliar with (C) source
code, however, this can be a daunting experience at first. Be assured that the task becomes easier with practice, and
you may be surprised at how simple the C-code can be to understand. Even if you dont think you can write C-code
from scratch, it is much easier to understand and modify already-written source code then create it de novo.
Python extensions are especially straightforward to understand because they all have a very similar structure. Admittedly, NumPy is not a trivial extension to Python, and may take a little more snooping to grasp. This is especially true
because of the code-generation techniques, which simplify maintenance of very similar code, but can make the code a
little less readable to beginners. Still, with a little persistence, the code can be opened to your understanding. It is my
hope, that this guide to the C-API can assist in the process of becoming familiar with the compiled-level work that can
be done with NumPy in order to squeeze that last bit of necessary speed out of your code.
5.1 Python Types and C-Structures

Several new types are defined in the C-code. Most of these are accessible from Python, but a few are not exposed due
to their limited use. Every new Python type has an associated PyObject * with an internal structure that includes
a pointer to a method table that defines how the new object behaves in Python. When you receive a Python object
into C code, you always get a pointer to a PyObject structure. Because a PyObject structure is very generic and
defines only PyObject_HEAD, by itself it is not very interesting. However, different objects contain more details
after the PyObject_HEAD (but you have to cast to the correct type to access them or use accessor functions or
macros).
5.1.1 New Python Types Defined

Python types are the functional equivalent in C of classes in Python. By constructing a new Python type you make
available a new object for Python. The ndarray object is an example of a new type defined in C. New types are defined
in C by two basic steps:
1319
1. creating a C-structure (usually named Py{Name}Object) that is binary- compatible with the PyObject
structure itself but holds the additional information needed for that particular object;
2. populating the PyTypeObject table (pointed to by the ob_type member of the PyObject structure) with
pointers to functions that implement the desired behavior for the type.
Instead of special method names which define behavior for Python classes, there are function tables which point to
functions that implement the desired results. Since Python 2.2, the PyTypeObject itself has become dynamic which
allows C types that can be sub-typed from other C-types in C, and sub-classed in Python. The children types inherit
the attributes and methods from their parent(s).
There are two major new types: the ndarray ( PyArray_Type ) and the ufunc ( PyUFunc_Type ). Additional types play a supportive role: the PyArrayIter_Type, the PyArrayMultiIter_Type, and the
PyArrayDescr_Type . The PyArrayIter_Type is the type for a flat iterator for an ndarray (the object that
is returned when getting the flat attribute). The PyArrayMultiIter_Type is the type of the object returned
when calling broadcast (). It handles iteration and broadcasting over a collection of nested sequences. Also, the
PyArrayDescr_Type is the data-type-descriptor type whose instances describe the data. Finally, there are 21 new
scalar-array types which are new Python scalars corresponding to each of the fundamental data types available for
arrays. An additional 10 other types are place holders that allow the array scalars to fit into a hierarchy of actual
Python types.
PyArray_Type
PyArray_Type
The Python type of the ndarray is PyArray_Type. In C, every ndarray is a pointer to a PyArrayObject
structure. The ob_type member of this structure contains a pointer to the PyArray_Type typeobject.
PyArrayObject
The PyArrayObject C-structure contains all of the required information for an array. All instances of an
ndarray (and its subclasses) will have this structure. For future compatibility, these structure members should
normally be accessed using the provided macros. If you need a shorter name, then you can make use of
NPY_AO which is defined to be equivalent to PyArrayObject.
typedef struct PyArrayObject {
PyObject_HEAD
char *data;
int nd;
npy_intp *dimensions;
npy_intp *strides;
PyObject *base;
PyArray_Descr *descr;
int flags;
PyObject *weakreflist;
} PyArrayObject;
PyArrayObject.PyObject_HEAD
This is needed by all Python objects. It consists of (at least) a reference count member ( ob_refcnt ) and
a pointer to the typeobject ( ob_type ). (Other elements may also be present if Python was compiled with
special options see Include/object.h in the Python source tree for more information). The ob_type member
points to a Python type object.
char *PyArrayObject.data
A pointer to the first element of the array. This pointer can (and normally should) be recast to the data type of
the array.
int PyArrayObject.nd
An integer providing the number of dimensions for this array. When nd is 0, the array is sometimes called a
1320
Chapter 5. Numpy C-API
rank-0 array. Such arrays have undefined dimensions and strides and cannot be accessed. NPY_MAXDIMS is
the largest number of dimensions for any array.
npy_intp PyArrayObject.dimensions
An array of integers providing the shape in each dimension as long as nd 1. The integer is always large
enough to hold a pointer on the platform, so the dimension size is only limited by memory.
npy_intp *PyArrayObject.strides
An array of integers providing for each dimension the number of bytes that must be skipped to get to the next
element in that dimension.
PyObject *PyArrayObject.base
This member is used to hold a pointer to another Python object that is related to this array. There are two use
cases: 1) If this array does not own its own memory, then base points to the Python object that owns it (perhaps
another array object), 2) If this array has the NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flag set, then this array is a
working copy of a misbehaved array. As soon as this array is deleted, the array pointed to by base will be
updated with the contents of this array.
PyArray_Descr *PyArrayObject.descr
A pointer to a data-type descriptor object (see below). The data-type descriptor object is an instance of a new
built-in type which allows a generic description of memory. There is a descriptor structure for each data type
supported. This descriptor structure contains useful information about the type as well as a pointer to a table of
function pointers to implement specific functionality.
int PyArrayObject.flags
Flags indicating how the memory pointed to by data is to be interpreted.
Possible flags
are
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS,
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS,
NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA,
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE, and NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY.
PyObject *PyArrayObject.weakreflist
This member allows array objects to have weak references (using the weakref module).
PyArrayDescr_Type
PyArrayDescr_Type
The PyArrayDescr_Type is the built-in type of the data-type-descriptor objects used to describe how the
bytes comprising the array are to be interpreted. There are 21 statically-defined PyArray_Descr objects
for the built-in data-types. While these participate in reference counting, their reference count should never
reach zero. There is also a dynamic table of user-defined PyArray_Descr objects that is also maintained. Once a data-type-descriptor object is registered it should never be deallocated either. The function
PyArray_DescrFromType (...) can be used to retrieve a PyArray_Descr object from an enumerated
type-number (either built-in or user- defined).
PyArray_Descr
The format of the PyArray_Descr structure that lies at the heart of the PyArrayDescr_Type is
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
PyTypeObject *typeobj;
char kind;
char type;
char byteorder;
char unused;
int flags;
int type_num;
int elsize;
int alignment;
PyArray_ArrayDescr *subarray;
5.1. Python Types and C-Structures
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PyObject *fields;
PyArray_ArrFuncs *f;
} PyArray_Descr;
PyTypeObject *PyArray_Descr.typeobj
Pointer to a typeobject that is the corresponding Python type for the elements of this array. For the builtin
types, this points to the corresponding array scalar. For user-defined types, this should point to a user-defined
typeobject. This typeobject can either inherit from array scalars or not. If it does not inherit from array scalars,
then the NPY_USE_GETITEM and NPY_USE_SETITEM flags should be set in the flags member.
char PyArray_Descr.kind
A character code indicating the kind of array (using the array interface typestring notation). A b represents
Boolean, a i represents signed integer, a u represents unsigned integer, f represents floating point, c
represents complex floating point, S represents 8-bit character string, U represents 32-bit/character unicode
string, and V repesents arbitrary.
char PyArray_Descr.type
A traditional character code indicating the data type.
char PyArray_Descr.byteorder
A character indicating the byte-order: > (big-endian), < (little- endian), = (native), | (irrelevant, ignore).
All builtin data- types have byteorder =.
int PyArray_Descr.flags
A data-type bit-flag that determines if the data-type exhibits object- array like behavior. Each bit in this member
is a flag which are named as:
NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT
NPY_ITEM_HASOBJECT
Indicates that items of this data-type must be reference counted (using Py_INCREF and Py_DECREF ).
NPY_ITEM_LISTPICKLE
Indicates arrays of this data-type must be converted to a list before pickling.
NPY_ITEM_IS_POINTER
Indicates the item is a pointer to some other data-type
NPY_NEEDS_INIT
Indicates memory for this data-type must be initialized (set to 0) on creation.
NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI
Indicates this data-type requires the Python C-API during access (so dont give up the GIL if array access
is going to be needed).
NPY_USE_GETITEM
On array access use the f->getitem function pointer instead of the standard conversion to an array
scalar. Must use if you dont define an array scalar to go along with the data-type.
NPY_USE_SETITEM
When creating a 0-d array from an array scalar use f->setitem instead of the standard copy from an
array scalar. Must use if you dont define an array scalar to go along with the data-type.
NPY_FROM_FIELDS
The bits that are inherited for the parent data-type if these bits are set in any field of the data-type. Currently ( NPY_NEEDS_INIT | NPY_LIST_PICKLE | NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT | NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI
).
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NPY_OBJECT_DTYPE_FLAGS
Bits set for the object data-type:
( NPY_LIST_PICKLE | NPY_USE_GETITEM
NPY_ITEM_IS_POINTER | NPY_REFCOUNT | NPY_NEEDS_INIT | NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI).
PyDataType_FLAGCHK(PyArray_Descr *dtype, int flags)

Return true if all the given flags are set for the data-type object.
PyDataType_REFCHK(PyArray_Descr *dtype)
Equivalent to PyDataType_FLAGCHK (dtype, NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT).
int PyArray_Descr.type_num
A number that uniquely identifies the data type. For new data-types, this number is assigned when the data-type
is registered.
int PyArray_Descr.elsize
For data types that are always the same size (such as long), this holds the size of the data type. For flexible data
types where different arrays can have a different elementsize, this should be 0.
int PyArray_Descr.alignment
A number providing alignment information for this data type. Specifically, it shows how far from the start
of a 2-element structure (whose first element is a char ), the compiler places an item of this type:
offsetof(struct {char c; type v;}, v)
PyArray_ArrayDescr *PyArray_Descr.subarray
If this is non- NULL, then this data-type descriptor is a C-style contiguous array of another data-type descriptor.
In other-words, each element that this descriptor describes is actually an array of some other base descriptor.
This is most useful as the data-type descriptor for a field in another data-type descriptor. The fields member
should be NULL if this is non- NULL (the fields member of the base descriptor can be non- NULL however).
The PyArray_ArrayDescr structure is defined using
typedef struct {
PyArray_Descr *base;
PyObject *shape;
} PyArray_ArrayDescr;
The elements of this structure are:

PyArray_Descr *PyArray_ArrayDescr.base
The data-type-descriptor object of the base-type.
PyObject *PyArray_ArrayDescr.shape
The shape (always C-style contiguous) of the sub-array as a Python tuple.
PyObject *PyArray_Descr.fields
If this is non-NULL, then this data-type-descriptor has fields described by a Python dictionary whose keys
are names (and also titles if given) and whose values are tuples that describe the fields. Recall that a
data-type-descriptor always describes a fixed-length set of bytes. A field is a named sub-region of that total,
fixed-length collection. A field is described by a tuple composed of another data- type-descriptor and a byte
offset. Optionally, the tuple may contain a title which is normally a Python string. These tuples are placed in
this dictionary keyed by name (and also title if given).
PyArray_ArrFuncs *PyArray_Descr.f
A pointer to a structure containing functions that the type needs to implement internal features. These functions
are not the same thing as the universal functions (ufuncs) described later. Their signatures can vary arbitrarily.
PyArray_ArrFuncs
Functions implementing internal features. Not all of these function pointers must be defined for a given type.
The required members are nonzero, copyswap, copyswapn, setitem, getitem, and cast. These
are assumed to be non- NULL and NULL entries will cause a program crash. The other functions may be NULL
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which will just mean reduced functionality for that data-type. (Also, the nonzero function will be filled in with
a default function if it is NULL when you register a user-defined data-type).
typedef struct {
PyArray_VectorUnaryFunc *cast[NPY_NTYPES];
PyArray_GetItemFunc *getitem;
PyArray_SetItemFunc *setitem;
PyArray_CopySwapNFunc *copyswapn;
PyArray_CopySwapFunc *copyswap;
PyArray_CompareFunc *compare;
PyArray_ArgFunc *argmax;
PyArray_DotFunc *dotfunc;
PyArray_ScanFunc *scanfunc;
PyArray_FromStrFunc *fromstr;
PyArray_NonzeroFunc *nonzero;
PyArray_FillFunc *fill;
PyArray_FillWithScalarFunc *fillwithscalar;
PyArray_SortFunc *sort[NPY_NSORTS];
PyArray_ArgSortFunc *argsort[NPY_NSORTS];
PyObject *castdict;
PyArray_ScalarKindFunc *scalarkind;
int **cancastscalarkindto;
int *cancastto;
int listpickle
} PyArray_ArrFuncs;
The concept of a behaved segment is used in the description of the function pointers. A behaved segment is one
that is aligned and in native machine byte-order for the data-type. The nonzero, copyswap, copyswapn,
getitem, and setitem functions can (and must) deal with mis-behaved arrays. The other functions require
behaved memory segments.
void cast(void *from, void *to, npy_intp n, void *fromarr,
void *toarr)
An array of function pointers to cast from the current type to all of the other builtin types. Each function
casts a contiguous, aligned, and notswapped buffer pointed at by from to a contiguous, aligned, and
notswapped buffer pointed at by to The number of items to cast is given by n, and the arguments fromarr
and toarr are interpreted as PyArrayObjects for flexible arrays to get itemsize information.
PyObject *getitem(void *data, void *arr)
A pointer to a function that returns a standard Python object from a single element of the array object arr
pointed to by data. This function must be able to deal with misbehaved (misaligned and/or swapped)
arrays correctly.
int setitem(PyObject *item, void *data, void *arr)
A pointer to a function that sets the Python object item into the array, arr, at the position pointed to by data
. This function deals with misbehaved arrays. If successful, a zero is returned, otherwise, a negative one
is returned (and a Python error set).
void copyswapn(void *dest, npy_intp dstride, void *src,
npy_intp sstride, npy_intp n, int swap, void *arr)
void copyswap(void *dest, void *src, int swap, void *arr)
These members are both pointers to functions to copy data from src to dest and swap if indicated. The
value of arr is only used for flexible ( NPY_STRING, NPY_UNICODE, and NPY_VOID ) arrays (and is
obtained from arr->descr->elsize ). The second function copies a single value, while the first
loops over n values with the provided strides. These functions can deal with misbehaved src data. If src is
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NULL then no copy is performed. If swap is 0, then no byteswapping occurs. It is assumed that dest and
src do not overlap. If they overlap, then use memmove (...) first followed by copyswap(n) with NULL
valued src.
int compare(const void* d1, const void* d2, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that compares two elements of the array, arr, pointed to by d1 and d2. This
function requires behaved arrays. The return value is 1 if * d1 > * d2, 0 if * d1 == * d2, and -1 if * d1 <
* d2. The array object arr is used to retrieve itemsize and field information for flexible arrays.
int argmax(void* data, npy_intp n, npy_intp* max_ind,
void* arr)
A pointer to a function that retrieves the index of the largest of n elements in arr beginning at the element
pointed to by data. This function requires that the memory segment be contiguous and behaved. The
return value is always 0. The index of the largest element is returned in max_ind.
void dotfunc(void* ip1, npy_intp is1, void* ip2, npy_intp is2,
void* op, npy_intp n, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that multiplies two n -length sequences together, adds them, and places the result
in element pointed to by op of arr. The start of the two sequences are pointed to by ip1 and ip2.
To get to the next element in each sequence requires a jump of is1 and is2 bytes, respectively. This
function requires behaved (though not necessarily contiguous) memory.
int scanfunc(FILE* fd, void* ip, void* sep, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that scans (scanf style) one element of the corresponding type from the file descriptor fd into the array memory pointed to by ip. The array is assumed to be behaved. If sep is not
NULL, then a separator string is also scanned from the file before returning. The last argument arr is the
array to be scanned into. A 0 is returned if the scan is successful. A negative number indicates something
went wrong: -1 means the end of file was reached before the separator string could be scanned, -4 means
that the end of file was reached before the element could be scanned, and -3 means that the element could
not be interpreted from the format string. Requires a behaved array.
int fromstr(char* str, void* ip, char** endptr, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that converts the string pointed to by str to one element of the corresponding
type and places it in the memory location pointed to by ip. After the conversion is completed, *endptr
points to the rest of the string. The last argument arr is the array into which ip points (needed for
variable-size data- types). Returns 0 on success or -1 on failure. Requires a behaved array.
Bool nonzero(void* data, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that returns TRUE if the item of arr pointed to by data is nonzero. This function
can deal with misbehaved arrays.
void fill(void* data, npy_intp length, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that fills a contiguous array of given length with data. The first two elements of
the array must already be filled- in. From these two values, a delta will be computed and the values from
item 3 to the end will be computed by repeatedly adding this computed delta. The data buffer must be
well-behaved.
void fillwithscalar(void* buffer, npy_intp length,
void* value, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that fills a contiguous buffer of the given length with a single scalar value
whose address is given. The final argument is the array which is needed to get the itemsize for
variable-length arrays.
int sort(void* start, npy_intp length, void* arr)
An array of function pointers to a particular sorting algorithms. A particular sorting algorithm is obtained
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using a key (so far NPY_QUICKSORT, :dataNPY_HEAPSORT, and NPY_MERGESORT are defined).
These sorts are done in-place assuming contiguous and aligned data.
int argsort(void* start, npy_intp* result, npy_intp length,
void *arr)
An array of function pointers to sorting algorithms for this data type. The same sorting algorithms as for
sort are available. The indices producing the sort are returned in result (which must be initialized with
indices 0 to length-1 inclusive).
PyObject *castdict
Either NULL or a dictionary containing low-level casting functions for user- defined data-types. Each
function is wrapped in a PyCObject * and keyed by the data-type number.
NPY_SCALARKIND scalarkind(PyArrayObject* arr)
A function to determine how scalars of this type should be interpreted. The argument is NULL or a
0-dimensional array containing the data (if that is needed to determine the kind of scalar). The return
value must be of type NPY_SCALARKIND.
int **cancastscalarkindto
Either NULL or an array of NPY_NSCALARKINDS pointers. These pointers should each be either NULL
or a pointer to an array of integers (terminated by NPY_NOTYPE) indicating data-types that a scalar of
this data-type of the specified kind can be cast to safely (this usually means without losing precision).
int *cancastto
Either NULL or an array of integers (terminated by NPY_NOTYPE ) indicated data-types that this data-type
can be cast to safely (this usually means without losing precision).
int listpickle
Unused.
The PyArray_Type typeobject implements many of the features of Python objects including the tp_as_number,
tp_as_sequence, tp_as_mapping, and tp_as_buffer interfaces. The rich comparison (tp_richcompare) is also used
along with new-style attribute lookup for methods (tp_methods) and properties (tp_getset). The PyArray_Type can
also be sub-typed.
Tip: The tp_as_number methods use a generic approach to call whatever function has been registered for handling
the operation. The function PyNumeric_SetOps(..) can be used to register functions to handle particular mathematical
operations (for all arrays). When the umath module is imported, it sets the numeric operations for all arrays to the
corresponding ufuncs. The tp_str and tp_repr methods can also be altered using PyString_SetStringFunction(...).
PyUFunc_Type
PyUFunc_Type
The ufunc object is implemented by creation of the PyUFunc_Type. It is a very simple type that implements
only basic getattribute behavior, printing behavior, and has call behavior which allows these objects to act
like functions. The basic idea behind the ufunc is to hold a reference to fast 1-dimensional (vector) loops for
each data type that supports the operation. These one-dimensional loops all have the same signature and are
the key to creating a new ufunc. They are called by the generic looping code as appropriate to implement the
N-dimensional function. There are also some generic 1-d loops defined for floating and complexfloating arrays
that allow you to define a ufunc using a single scalar function (e.g. atanh).
PyUFuncObject
The core of the ufunc is the PyUFuncObject which contains all the information needed to call the underlying
C-code loops that perform the actual work. It has the following structure:
1326
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
int nin;
int nout;
int nargs;
int identity;
PyUFuncGenericFunction *functions;
void **data;
int ntypes;
int check_return;
char *name;
char *types;
char *doc;
void *ptr;
PyObject *obj;
PyObject *userloops;
npy_uint32 *op_flags;
npy_uint32 *iter_flags;
} PyUFuncObject;
PyUFuncObject.PyObject_HEAD
required for all Python objects.
int PyUFuncObject.nin
The number of input arguments.
int PyUFuncObject.nout
The number of output arguments.
int PyUFuncObject.nargs
The total number of arguments (nin + nout). This must be less than NPY_MAXARGS.
int PyUFuncObject.identity
Either PyUFunc_One, PyUFunc_Zero, or PyUFunc_None to indicate the identity for this operation.
It is only used for a reduce-like call on an empty array.
void PyUFuncObject.functions(char** args, npy_intp* dims,
npy_intp* steps, void* extradata)
An array of function pointers one for each data type supported by the ufunc. This is the vector loop
that is called to implement the underlying function dims [0] times. The first argument, args, is an array of
nargs pointers to behaved memory. Pointers to the data for the input arguments are first, followed by the
pointers to the data for the output arguments. How many bytes must be skipped to get to the next element
in the sequence is specified by the corresponding entry in the steps array. The last argument allows the
loop to receive extra information. This is commonly used so that a single, generic vector loop can be used
for multiple functions. In this case, the actual scalar function to call is passed in as extradata. The size of
this function pointer array is ntypes.
void **PyUFuncObject.data
Extra data to be passed to the 1-d vector loops or NULL if no extra-data is needed. This C-array must be
the same size ( i.e. ntypes) as the functions array. NULL is used if extra_data is not needed. Several C-API
calls for UFuncs are just 1-d vector loops that make use of this extra data to receive a pointer to the actual
function to call.
int PyUFuncObject.ntypes
The number of supported data types for the ufunc. This number specifies how many different 1-d loops
(of the builtin data types) are available.
int PyUFuncObject.check_return
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Obsolete and unused. However, it is set by the corresponding entry in the main ufunc creation routine:
PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData (...).
char *PyUFuncObject.name
A string name for the ufunc. This is used dynamically to build the __doc__ attribute of ufuncs.
char *PyUFuncObject.types
An array of nargs ntypes 8-bit type_numbers which contains the type signature for the function for
each of the supported (builtin) data types. For each of the ntypes functions, the corresponding set of type
numbers in this array shows how the args argument should be interpreted in the 1-d vector loop. These
type numbers do not have to be the same type and mixed-type ufuncs are supported.
char *PyUFuncObject.doc
Documentation for the ufunc. Should not contain the function signature as this is generated dynamically
when __doc__ is retrieved.
void *PyUFuncObject.ptr
Any dynamically allocated memory. Currently, this is used for dynamic ufuncs created from a python
function to store room for the types, data, and name members.
PyObject *PyUFuncObject.obj
For ufuncs dynamically created from python functions, this member holds a reference to the underlying
Python function.
PyObject *PyUFuncObject.userloops
A dictionary of user-defined 1-d vector loops (stored as CObject ptrs) for user-defined types. A loop may
be registered by the user for any user-defined type. It is retrieved by type number. User defined type
numbers are always larger than NPY_USERDEF.
npy_uint32 PyUFuncObject.op_flags
Override the default operand flags for each ufunc operand.
npy_uint32 PyUFuncObject.iter_flags
Override the default nditer flags for the ufunc.
PyArrayIter_Type
PyArrayIter_Type
This is an iterator object that makes it easy to loop over an N-dimensional array. It is the object returned from
the flat attribute of an ndarray. It is also used extensively throughout the implementation internals to loop
over an N-dimensional array. The tp_as_mapping interface is implemented so that the iterator object can be
indexed (using 1-d indexing), and a few methods are implemented through the tp_methods table. This object
implements the next method and can be used anywhere an iterator can be used in Python.
PyArrayIterObject
The C-structure corresponding to an object of PyArrayIter_Type is the PyArrayIterObject. The
PyArrayIterObject is used to keep track of a pointer into an N-dimensional array. It contains associated
information used to quickly march through the array. The pointer can be adjusted in three basic ways:
1) advance to the next position in the array in a C-style contiguous fashion, 2) advance to an arbitrary
N-dimensional coordinate in the array, and 3) advance to an arbitrary one-dimensional index into the array. The
members of the PyArrayIterObject structure are used in these calculations. Iterator objects keep their
own dimension and strides information about an array. This can be adjusted as needed for broadcasting, or to
loop over only specific dimensions.
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
int
nd_m1;
npy_intp index;
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npy_intp size;
npy_intp coordinates[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp dims_m1[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp strides[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp backstrides[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp factors[NPY_MAXDIMS];
PyArrayObject *ao;
char *dataptr;
Bool contiguous;
} PyArrayIterObject;
int PyArrayIterObject.nd_m1
N 1 where N is the number of dimensions in the underlying array.
npy_intp PyArrayIterObject.index
The current 1-d index into the array.
npy_intp PyArrayIterObject.size
The total size of the underlying array.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.coordinates
An N -dimensional index into the array.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.dims_m1
The size of the array minus 1 in each dimension.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.strides
The strides of the array. How many bytes needed to jump to the next element in each dimension.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.backstrides
How many bytes needed to jump from the end of a dimension back to its beginning. Note that backstrides
[k]= strides [k]*d ims_m1 [k], but it is stored here as an optimization.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.factors
This array is used in computing an N-d index from a 1-d index. It contains needed products of the dimensions.
PyArrayObject *PyArrayIterObject.ao
A pointer to the underlying ndarray this iterator was created to represent.
char *PyArrayIterObject.dataptr
This member points to an element in the ndarray indicated by the index.
Bool PyArrayIterObject.contiguous
This flag is true if the underlying array is NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS. It is used to simplify calculations when possible.
How to use an array iterator on a C-level is explained more fully in later sections. Typically, you do not need to
concern yourself with the internal structure of the iterator object, and merely interact with it through the use of the
macros PyArray_ITER_NEXT (it), PyArray_ITER_GOTO (it, dest), or PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D (it, index).
All of these macros require the argument it to be a PyArrayIterObject *.
PyArrayMultiIter_Type
PyArrayMultiIter_Type
This type provides an iterator that encapsulates the concept of broadcasting. It allows N arrays to be broadcast
together so that the loop progresses in C-style contiguous fashion over the broadcasted array. The corresponding
C-structure is the PyArrayMultiIterObject whose memory layout must begin any object, obj, passed in
to the PyArray_Broadcast (obj) function. Broadcasting is performed by adjusting array iterators so that
1329
each iterator represents the broadcasted shape and size, but has its strides adjusted so that the correct element
from the array is used at each iteration.
PyArrayMultiIterObject
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
int numiter;
npy_intp size;
npy_intp index;
int nd;
npy_intp dimensions[NPY_MAXDIMS];
PyArrayIterObject *iters[NPY_MAXDIMS];
} PyArrayMultiIterObject;
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyObject_HEAD
Needed at the start of every Python object (holds reference count and type identification).
int PyArrayMultiIterObject.numiter
The number of arrays that need to be broadcast to the same shape.
npy_intp PyArrayMultiIterObject.size
The total broadcasted size.
npy_intp PyArrayMultiIterObject.index
The current (1-d) index into the broadcasted result.
int PyArrayMultiIterObject.nd
The number of dimensions in the broadcasted result.
npy_intp *PyArrayMultiIterObject.dimensions
The shape of the broadcasted result (only nd slots are used).
PyArrayIterObject **PyArrayMultiIterObject.iters
An array of iterator objects that holds the iterators for the arrays to be broadcast together. On return, the
iterators are adjusted for broadcasting.
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Type
This is an iterator object that makes it easy to loop over an N-dimensional neighborhood.
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject
The C-structure corresponding to an object
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject.
of
is
the
PyArrayFlags_Type
PyArrayFlags_Type
When the flags attribute is retrieved from Python, a special builtin object of this type is constructed. This special
type makes it easier to work with the different flags by accessing them as attributes or by accessing them as if
the object were a dictionary with the flag names as entries.
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ScalarArrayTypes
There is a Python type for each of the different built-in data types that can be present in the array Most of these are simple wrappers around the corresponding data type in C. The C-names for these types are Py{TYPE}ArrType_Type
where {TYPE} can be
Bool, Byte, Short, Int, Long, LongLong, UByte, UShort, UInt, ULong, ULongLong, Half, Float,
Double, LongDouble, CFloat, CDouble, CLongDouble, String, Unicode, Void, and Object.
These type names are part of the C-API and can therefore be created in extension C-code. There is also a
PyIntpArrType_Type and a PyUIntpArrType_Type that are simple substitutes for one of the integer types
that can hold a pointer on the platform. The structure of these scalar objects is not exposed to C-code. The function
PyArray_ScalarAsCtype (..) can be used to extract the C-type value from the array scalar and the function
PyArray_Scalar (...) can be used to construct an array scalar from a C-value.
5.1.2 Other C-Structures

A few new C-structures were found to be useful in the development of NumPy. These C-structures are used in at least
one C-API call and are therefore documented here. The main reason these structures were defined is to make it easy
to use the Python ParseTuple C-API to convert from Python objects to a useful C-Object.
PyArray_Dims
PyArray_Dims
This structure is very useful when shape and/or strides information is supposed to be interpreted. The structure
is:
typedef struct {
npy_intp *ptr;
int len;
} PyArray_Dims;
The members of this structure are

npy_intp *PyArray_Dims.ptr
A pointer to a list of (npy_intp) integers which usually represent array shape or array strides.
int PyArray_Dims.len
The length of the list of integers. It is assumed safe to access ptr [0] to ptr [len-1].
PyArray_Chunk
PyArray_Chunk
This is equivalent to the buffer object structure in Python up to the ptr member. On 32-bit platforms (i.e. if
NPY_SIZEOF_INT == NPY_SIZEOF_INTP ) or in Python 2.5, the len member also matches an equivalent
member of the buffer object. It is useful to represent a generic single- segment chunk of memory.
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
PyObject *base;
void *ptr;
npy_intp len;
int flags;
} PyArray_Chunk;
The members are

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PyArray_Chunk.PyObject_HEAD
Necessary for all Python objects. Included here so that the PyArray_Chunk structure matches that of
the buffer object (at least to the len member).
PyObject *PyArray_Chunk.base
The Python object this chunk of memory comes from. Needed so that memory can be accounted for
properly.
void *PyArray_Chunk.ptr
A pointer to the start of the single-segment chunk of memory.
npy_intp PyArray_Chunk.len
The length of the segment in bytes.
int PyArray_Chunk.flags
Any data flags (e.g. NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE ) that should be used to interpret the memory.
PyArrayInterface
See Also:
The Array Interface
PyArrayInterface
The PyArrayInterface structure is defined so that NumPy and other extension modules can use the rapid
array interface protocol. The __array_struct__ method of an object that supports the rapid array interface
protocol should return a PyCObject that contains a pointer to a PyArrayInterface structure with the
relevant details of the array. After the new array is created, the attribute should be DECREFd which will
free the PyArrayInterface structure. Remember to INCREF the object (whose __array_struct__
attribute was retrieved) and point the base member of the new PyArrayObject to this same object. In this
way the memory for the array will be managed correctly.
typedef struct {
int two;
int nd;
char typekind;
int itemsize;
int flags;
npy_intp *shape;
npy_intp *strides;
void *data;
PyObject *descr;
} PyArrayInterface;
int PyArrayInterface.two
the integer 2 as a sanity check.
int PyArrayInterface.nd
the number of dimensions in the array.
char PyArrayInterface.typekind
A character indicating what kind of array is present according to the typestring convention with t ->
bitfield, b -> Boolean, i -> signed integer, u -> unsigned integer, f -> floating point, c -> complex
floating point, O -> object, S -> string, U -> unicode, V -> void.
int PyArrayInterface.itemsize
The number of bytes each item in the array requires.
int PyArrayInterface.flags
Any of the bits NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS
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(1),
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS
(2),
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED (0x100), NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED (0x200), or NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE

(0x400) to indicate something about the data.
The NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED,
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, and NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS flags can actually be determined from the other parameters. The flag NPY_ARR_HAS_DESCR (0x800) can also be set to indicate to
objects consuming the version 3 array interface that the descr member of the structure is present (it will
be ignored by objects consuming version 2 of the array interface).
npy_intp *PyArrayInterface.shape
An array containing the size of the array in each dimension.
npy_intp *PyArrayInterface.strides
An array containing the number of bytes to jump to get to the next element in each dimension.
void *PyArrayInterface.data
A pointer to the first element of the array.
PyObject *PyArrayInterface.descr
A Python object describing the data-type in more detail (same as the descr key in
__array_interface__). This can be NULL if typekind and itemsize provide enough information. This field is also ignored unless ARR_HAS_DESCR flag is on in flags.
Internally used structures
Internally, the code uses some additional Python objects primarily for memory management. These types are not
accessible directly from Python, and are not exposed to the C-API. They are included here only for completeness and
assistance in understanding the code.
PyUFuncLoopObject
A loose wrapper for a C-structure that contains the information needed for looping. This is useful if you are
trying to understand the ufunc looping code. The PyUFuncLoopObject is the associated C-structure. It is
defined in the ufuncobject.h header.
PyUFuncReduceObject
A loose wrapper for the C-structure that contains the information needed for reduce-like methods of
ufuncs. This is useful if you are trying to understand the reduce, accumulate, and reduce-at code. The
PyUFuncReduceObject is the associated C-structure. It is defined in the ufuncobject.h header.
PyUFunc_Loop1d
A simple linked-list of C-structures containing the information needed to define a 1-d loop for a ufunc for every
defined signature of a user-defined data-type.
PyArrayMapIter_Type
Advanced indexing is handled with this Python type. It is simply a loose wrapper around the Cstructure containing the variables needed for advanced array indexing.
The associated C-structure,
PyArrayMapIterObject, is useful if you are trying to understand the advanced-index mapping
code. It is defined in the arrayobject.h header. This type is not exposed to Python and could be replaced
with a C-structure. As a Python type it takes advantage of reference- counted memory management.
5.2 System configuration

When NumPy is built, information about system configuration is recorded, and is made available for extension modules
using Numpys C API. These are mostly defined in numpyconfig.h (included in ndarrayobject.h). The
public symbols are prefixed by NPY_*. Numpy also offers some functions for querying information about the platform
in use.
5.2. System configuration
1333
For private use, Numpy also constructs a config.h in the NumPy include directory, which is not exported by Numpy
(that is a python extension which use the numpy C API will not see those symbols), to avoid namespace pollution.
5.2.1 Data type sizes

The NPY_SIZEOF_{CTYPE} constants are defined so that sizeof information is available to the pre-processor.
NPY_SIZEOF_SHORT
NPY_SIZEOF_INT
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG
NPY_SIZEOF_LONGLONG
sizeof(longlong) where longlong is defined appropriately on the platform.
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_LONG_LONG
NPY_SIZEOF_FLOAT
NPY_SIZEOF_DOUBLE
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_INTPTR_T
Size of a pointer on this platform (sizeof(void *)) (A macro defines NPY_SIZEOF_INTP as well.)
5.2.2 Platform information

NPY_CPU_X86
NPY_CPU_AMD64
NPY_CPU_IA64
NPY_CPU_PPC
NPY_CPU_PPC64
NPY_CPU_SPARC
NPY_CPU_SPARC64
NPY_CPU_S390
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NPY_CPU_PARISC
New in version 1.3.0. CPU architecture of the platform; only one of the above is defined.
Defined in numpy/npy_cpu.h
NPY_LITTLE_ENDIAN
NPY_BIG_ENDIAN
NPY_BYTE_ORDER
New in version 1.3.0. Portable alternatives to the endian.h macros of GNU Libc.
NPY_BYTE_ORDER == NPY_BIG_ENDIAN, and similarly for little endian architectures.
If big endian,
Defined in numpy/npy_endian.h.
PyArray_GetEndianness()
New in version 1.3.0. Returns the endianness of the current platform.
NPY_CPU_LITTLE, or NPY_CPU_UNKNOWN_ENDIAN.
One of NPY_CPU_BIG,
5.3 Data Type API

The standard array can have 24 different data types (and has some support for adding your own types). These data
types all have an enumerated type, an enumerated type-character, and a corresponding array scalar Python type object
(placed in a hierarchy). There are also standard C typedefs to make it easier to manipulate elements of the given data
type. For the numeric types, there are also bit-width equivalent C typedefs and named typenumbers that make it easier
to select the precision desired.
Warning: The names for the types in c code follows c naming conventions more closely. The Python names for
these types follow Python conventions. Thus, NPY_FLOAT picks up a 32-bit float in C, but numpy.float_ in
Python corresponds to a 64-bit double. The bit-width names can be used in both Python and C for clarity.
5.3.1 Enumerated Types

There is a list of enumerated types defined providing the basic 24 data types plus some useful generic names. Whenever
the code requires a type number, one of these enumerated types is requested. The types are all called NPY_{NAME}:
NPY_BOOL
The enumeration value for the boolean type, stored as one byte. It may only be set to the values 0 and 1.
NPY_BYTE
NPY_INT8
The enumeration value for an 8-bit/1-byte signed integer.
NPY_SHORT
NPY_INT16
The enumeration value for a 16-bit/2-byte signed integer.
NPY_INT
5.3. Data Type API
1335
NPY_INT32
NPY_LONG
Equivalent to either NPY_INT or NPY_LONGLONG, depending on the platform.
NPY_LONGLONG
NPY_INT64
NPY_UBYTE
NPY_UINT8
The enumeration value for an 8-bit/1-byte unsigned integer.
NPY_USHORT
NPY_UINT16
The enumeration value for a 16-bit/2-byte unsigned integer.
NPY_UINT
NPY_UINT32
NPY_ULONG
Equivalent to either NPY_UINT or NPY_ULONGLONG, depending on the platform.
NPY_ULONGLONG
NPY_UINT64
NPY_HALF
NPY_FLOAT16
The enumeration value for a 16-bit/2-byte IEEE 754-2008 compatible floating point type.
NPY_FLOAT
NPY_FLOAT32
The enumeration value for a 32-bit/4-byte IEEE 754 compatible floating point type.
NPY_DOUBLE
NPY_FLOAT64
The enumeration value for a 64-bit/8-byte IEEE 754 compatible floating point type.
NPY_LONGDOUBLE
The enumeration value for a platform-specific floating point type which is at least as large as NPY_DOUBLE,
but larger on many platforms.
NPY_CFLOAT
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NPY_COMPLEX64
The enumeration value for a 64-bit/8-byte complex type made up of two NPY_FLOAT values.
NPY_CDOUBLE
NPY_COMPLEX128
The enumeration value for a 128-bit/16-byte complex type made up of two NPY_DOUBLE values.
NPY_CLONGDOUBLE
The enumeration value for a platform-specific complex floating point type which is made up of two
NPY_LONGDOUBLE values.
NPY_DATETIME
The enumeration value for a data type which holds dates or datetimes with a precision based on selectable date
or time units.
NPY_TIMEDELTA
The enumeration value for a data type which holds lengths of times in integers of selectable date or time units.
NPY_STRING
The enumeration value for ASCII strings of a selectable size. The strings have a fixed maximum size within a
given array.
NPY_UNICODE
The enumeration value for UCS4 strings of a selectable size. The strings have a fixed maximum size within a
given array.
NPY_OBJECT
The enumeration value for references to arbitrary Python objects.
NPY_VOID
Primarily used to hold struct dtypes, but can contain arbitrary binary data.
Some useful aliases of the above types are
NPY_INTP
The enumeration value for a signed integer type which is the same size as a (void *) pointer. This is the type
used by all arrays of indices.
NPY_UINTP
The enumeration value for an unsigned integer type which is the same size as a (void *) pointer.
NPY_MASK
The enumeration value of the type used for masks, such as with the NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK iterator flag.
This is equivalent to NPY_UINT8.
NPY_DEFAULT_TYPE
The default type to use when no dtype is explicitly specified, for example when calling np.zero(shape). This is
equivalent to NPY_DOUBLE.
Other useful related constants are
NPY_NTYPES
The total number of built-in NumPy types. The enumeration covers the range from 0 to NPY_NTYPES-1.
NPY_NOTYPE
A signal value guaranteed not to be a valid type enumeration number.
NPY_USERDEF
The start of type numbers used for Custom Data types.
5.3. Data Type API
1337
The various character codes indicating certain types are also part of an enumerated list. References to type characters
(should they be needed at all) should always use these enumerations. The form of them is NPY_{NAME}LTR where
{NAME} can be
BOOL, BYTE, UBYTE, SHORT, USHORT, INT, UINT, LONG, ULONG, LONGLONG, ULONGLONG, HALF, FLOAT, DOUBLE, LONGDOUBLE, CFLOAT, CDOUBLE, CLONGDOUBLE,
DATETIME, TIMEDELTA, OBJECT, STRING, VOID
INTP, UINTP
GENBOOL, SIGNED, UNSIGNED, FLOATING, COMPLEX
The latter group of {NAME}s corresponds to letters used in the array interface typestring specification.
5.3.2 Defines
Max and min values for integers
NPY_MAX_INT{bits}
NPY_MAX_UINT{bits}
NPY_MIN_INT{bits}
These are defined for {bits} = 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 and provide the maximum (minimum) value of the
corresponding (unsigned) integer type. Note: the actual integer type may not be available on all platforms (i.e.
128-bit and 256-bit integers are rare).
NPY_MIN_{type}
This is defined for {type} = BYTE, SHORT, INT, LONG, LONGLONG, INTP
NPY_MAX_{type}
This is defined for all defined for {type} = BYTE, UBYTE, SHORT, USHORT, INT, UINT, LONG,
ULONG, LONGLONG, ULONGLONG, INTP, UINTP
Number of bits in data types
All NPY_SIZEOF_{CTYPE} constants have corresponding NPY_BITSOF_{CTYPE} constants defined. The
NPY_BITSOF_{CTYPE} constants provide the number of bits in the data type. Specifically, the available
{CTYPE}s are
BOOL, CHAR, SHORT, INT, LONG, LONGLONG, FLOAT, DOUBLE, LONGDOUBLE
Bit-width references to enumerated typenums
All of the numeric data types (integer, floating point, and complex) have constants that are defined to be a specific
enumerated type number. Exactly which enumerated type a bit-width type refers to is platform dependent. In particular, the constants available are PyArray_{NAME}{BITS} where {NAME} is INT, UINT, FLOAT, COMPLEX
and {BITS} can be 8, 16, 32, 64, 80, 96, 128, 160, 192, 256, and 512. Obviously not all bit-widths are available on
all platforms for all the kinds of numeric types. Commonly 8-, 16-, 32-, 64-bit integers; 32-, 64-bit floats; and 64-,
128-bit complex types are available.
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Integer that can hold a pointer

The constants NPY_INTP and NPY_UINTP refer to an enumerated integer type that is large enough to hold a pointer
on the platform. Index arrays should always be converted to NPY_INTP , because the dimension of the array is of
type npy_intp.
5.3.3 C-type names

There are standard variable types for each of the numeric data types and the bool data type. Some of these are already
available in the C-specification. You can create variables in extension code with these types.
Boolean
npy_bool
unsigned char; The constants NPY_FALSE and NPY_TRUE are also defined.
(Un)Signed Integer
Unsigned versions of the integers can be defined by pre-pending a u to the front of the integer name.
npy_(u)byte
(unsigned) char
npy_(u)short
(unsigned) short
npy_(u)int
(unsigned) int
npy_(u)long
(unsigned) long int
npy_(u)longlong
(unsigned long long int)
npy_(u)intp
(unsigned) Py_intptr_t (an integer that is the size of a pointer on the platform).
(Complex) Floating point
npy_(c)float
float
npy_(c)double
double
npy_(c)longdouble
long double
complex types are structures with .real and .imag members (in that order).
5.3. Data Type API
1339
Bit-width names
There are also typedefs for signed integers, unsigned integers, floating point, and complex floating point types of
specific bit- widths. The available type names are
npy_int{bits}, npy_uint{bits}, npy_float{bits}, and npy_complex{bits}
where {bits} is the number of bits in the type and can be 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 for integer types; 16, 32 , 64,
80, 96, 128, and 256 for floating-point types; and 32, 64, 128, 160, 192, and 512 for complex-valued types. Which
bit-widths are available is platform dependent. The bolded bit-widths are usually available on all platforms.
5.3.4 Printf Formatting

For help in printing, the following strings are defined as the correct format specifier in printf and related commands.
NPY_LONGLONG_FMT,
NPY_LONGDOUBLE_FMT
NPY_ULONGLONG_FMT,
NPY_INTP_FMT,
NPY_UINTP_FMT,
5.4 Array API

The test of a first-rate intelligence is the ability to hold two
opposed ideas in the mind at the same time, and still retain the
ability to function.
F. Scott Fitzgerald
For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public

relations, for Nature cannot be fooled.
Richard P. Feynman
5.4.1 Array structure and data access

These macros all access the PyArrayObject structure members. The input argument, arr, can be any PyObject
* that is directly interpretable as a PyArrayObject * (any instance of the PyArray_Type and its sub-types).
int PyArray_NDIM(PyArrayObject *arr)
The number of dimensions in the array.
npy_intp *PyArray_DIMS(PyArrayObject *arr)
Returns a pointer to the dimensions/shape of the array. The number of elements matches the number of dimensions of the array.
npy_intp *PyArray_SHAPE(PyArrayObject *arr)
New in version 1.7. A synonym for PyArray_DIMS, named to be consistent with the shape usage within
Python.
void *PyArray_DATA(PyArrayObject *arr)
char *PyArray_BYTES(PyArrayObject *arr)
These two macros are similar and obtain the pointer to the data-buffer for the array. The first macro can (and
should be) assigned to a particular pointer where the second is for generic processing. If you have not
1340
guaranteed a contiguous and/or aligned array then be sure you understand how to access the data in the array to
avoid memory and/or alignment problems.
npy_intp *PyArray_STRIDES(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns a pointer to the strides of the array. The number of elements matches the number of dimensions of the
array.
npy_intp PyArray_DIM(PyArrayObject* arr, int n)
Return the shape in the n th dimension.
npy_intp PyArray_STRIDE(PyArrayObject* arr, int n)
Return the stride in the n th dimension.
PyObject *PyArray_BASE(PyArrayObject* arr)
This returns the base object of the array. In most cases, this means the object which owns the memory the array
is pointing at.
If you are constructing an array using the C API, and specifying your own memory, you should use the function
PyArray_SetBaseObject to set the base to an object which owns the memory.
If the NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flag is set, it has a different meaning, namely base is the array into which
the current array will be copied upon destruction. This overloading of the base property for two functions is
likely to change in a future version of NumPy.
PyArray_Descr *PyArray_DESCR(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns a borrowed reference to the dtype property of the array.
PyArray_Descr *PyArray_DTYPE(PyArrayObject* arr)
New in version 1.7. A synonym for PyArray_DESCR, named to be consistent with the dtype usage within
Python.
void PyArray_ENABLEFLAGS(PyArrayObject* arr, int flags)
New in version 1.7. Enables the specified array flags. This function does no validation, and assumes that you
know what youre doing.
void PyArray_CLEARFLAGS(PyArrayObject* arr, int flags)
New in version 1.7. Clears the specified array flags. This function does no validation, and assumes that you
know what youre doing.
int PyArray_FLAGS(PyArrayObject* arr)
int PyArray_ITEMSIZE(PyArrayObject* arr)
Return the itemsize for the elements of this array.
int PyArray_TYPE(PyArrayObject* arr)
Return the (builtin) typenumber for the elements of this array.
PyObject *PyArray_GETITEM(PyArrayObject* arr, void* itemptr)
Get a Python object from the ndarray, arr, at the location pointed to by itemptr. Return NULL on failure.
int PyArray_SETITEM(PyArrayObject* arr, void* itemptr, PyObject* obj)
Convert obj and place it in the ndarray, arr, at the place pointed to by itemptr. Return -1 if an error occurs or 0
on success.
npy_intp PyArray_SIZE(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns the total size (in number of elements) of the array.
npy_intp PyArray_Size(PyArrayObject* obj)
Returns 0 if obj is not a sub-class of bigndarray. Otherwise, returns the total number of elements in the array.
Safer version of PyArray_SIZE (obj).
5.4. Array API
1341
npy_intp PyArray_NBYTES(PyArrayObject* arr)

Returns the total number of bytes consumed by the array.
Data access
These functions and macros provide easy access to elements of the ndarray from C. These work for all arrays. You
may need to take care when accessing the data in the array, however, if it is not in machine byte-order, misaligned, or
not writeable. In other words, be sure to respect the state of the flags unless you know what you are doing, or have
previously guaranteed an array that is writeable, aligned, and in machine byte-order using PyArray_FromAny. If
you wish to handle all types of arrays, the copyswap function for each type is useful for handling misbehaved arrays.
Some platforms (e.g. Solaris) do not like misaligned data and will crash if you de-reference a misaligned pointer.
Other platforms (e.g. x86 Linux) will just work more slowly with misaligned data.
void* PyArray_GetPtr(PyArrayObject* aobj, npy_intp* ind)
Return a pointer to the data of the ndarray, aobj, at the N-dimensional index given by the c-array, ind, (which
must be at least aobj ->nd in size). You may want to typecast the returned pointer to the data type of the ndarray.
void* PyArray_GETPTR1(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i)
void* PyArray_GETPTR2(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i, npy_intp j)
void* PyArray_GETPTR3(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i, npy_intp j, npy_intp k)
void* PyArray_GETPTR4(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i, npy_intp j, npy_intp k, npy_intp l)
Quick, inline access to the element at the given coordinates in the ndarray, obj, which must have respectively 1,
2, 3, or 4 dimensions (this is not checked). The corresponding i, j, k, and l coordinates can be any integer but
will be interpreted as npy_intp. You may want to typecast the returned pointer to the data type of the ndarray.
5.4.2 Creating arrays

From scratch
PyObject* PyArray_NewFromDescr(PyTypeObject* subtype, PyArray_Descr* descr, int nd,
npy_intp* dims, npy_intp* strides, void* data, int flags, PyObject* obj)
This function steals a reference to descr if it is not NULL.
This is the main array creation function. Most new arrays are created with this flexible function.
The returned object is an object of Python-type subtype, which must be a subtype of PyArray_Type. The
array has nd dimensions, described by dims. The data-type descriptor of the new array is descr.
If subtype is of an array subclass instead of the base &PyArray_Type, then obj is the object to pass to the
__array_finalize__ method of the subclass.
If data is NULL, then new memory will be allocated and flags can be non-zero to indicate a Fortran-style
contiguous array. If data is not NULL, then it is assumed to point to the memory to be used for the array and the flags argument is used as the new flags for the array (except the state of NPY_OWNDATA and
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flags of the new array will be reset).
In addition, if data is non-NULL, then strides can also be provided. If strides is NULL, then the array strides are
computed as C-style contiguous (default) or Fortran-style contiguous (flags is nonzero for data = NULL or flags
& NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS is nonzero non-NULL data). Any provided dims and strides are copied into
newly allocated dimension and strides arrays for the new array object.
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PyObject* PyArray_NewLikeArray(PyArrayObject*
prototype,
NPY_ORDER
PyArray_Descr* descr, int subok)
New in version 1.6. This function steals a reference to descr if it is not NULL.
order,
This array creation routine allows for the convenient creation of a new array matching an existing arrays shapes
and memory layout, possibly changing the layout and/or data type.
When order is NPY_ANYORDER, the result order is NPY_FORTRANORDER if prototype is a fortran array,
NPY_CORDER otherwise. When order is NPY_KEEPORDER, the result order matches that of prototype, even
when the axes of prototype arent in C or Fortran order.
If descr is NULL, the data type of prototype is used.
If subok is 1, the newly created array will use the sub-type of prototype to create the new array, otherwise it will
create a base-class array.
PyObject* PyArray_New(PyTypeObject* subtype, int nd, npy_intp* dims, int type_num, npy_intp* strides,
void* data, int itemsize, int flags, PyObject* obj)
This is similar to PyArray_DescrNew (...) except you specify the data-type descriptor with type_num and
itemsize, where type_num corresponds to a builtin (or user-defined) type. If the type always has the same
number of bytes, then itemsize is ignored. Otherwise, itemsize specifies the particular size of this array.
Warning: If data is passed to PyArray_NewFromDescr or PyArray_New, this memory must not be deallocated until the new array is deleted. If this data came from another Python object, this can be accomplished using
Py_INCREF on that object and setting the base member of the new array to point to that object. If strides are
passed in they must be consistent with the dimensions, the itemsize, and the data of the array.
PyObject* PyArray_SimpleNew(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int typenum)
Create a new unitialized array of type, typenum, whose size in each of nd dimensions is given by the integer
array, dims. This function cannot be used to create a flexible-type array (no itemsize given).
PyObject* PyArray_SimpleNewFromData(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int typenum, void* data)
Create an array wrapper around data pointed to by the given pointer. The array flags will have a default that the
data area is well-behaved and C-style contiguous. The shape of the array is given by the dims c-array of length
nd. The data-type of the array is indicated by typenum.
PyObject* PyArray_SimpleNewFromDescr(int nd, npy_intp* dims, PyArray_Descr* descr)
This function steals a reference to descr if it is not NULL.
Create a new array with the provided data-type descriptor, descr , of the shape deteremined by nd and dims.
PyArray_FILLWBYTE(PyObject* obj, int val)
Fill the array pointed to by obj which must be a (subclass of) bigndarraywith the contents of val (evaluated
as a byte). This macro calls memset, so obj must be contiguous.
PyObject* PyArray_Zeros(int nd, npy_intp* dims, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int fortran)
Construct a new nd -dimensional array with shape given by dims and data type given by dtype. If fortran is
non-zero, then a Fortran-order array is created, otherwise a C-order array is created. Fill the memory with zeros
(or the 0 object if dtype corresponds to NPY_OBJECT ).
PyObject* PyArray_ZEROS(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int type_num, int fortran)
Macro form of PyArray_Zeros which takes a type-number instead of a data-type object.
PyObject* PyArray_Empty(int nd, npy_intp* dims, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int fortran)
Construct a new nd -dimensional array with shape given by dims and data type given by dtype. If fortran is
non-zero, then a Fortran-order array is created, otherwise a C-order array is created. The array is uninitialized
unless the data type corresponds to NPY_OBJECT in which case the array is filled with Py_None.
PyObject* PyArray_EMPTY(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int typenum, int fortran)
Macro form of PyArray_Empty which takes a type-number, typenum, instead of a data-type object.
5.4. Array API
1343
PyObject* PyArray_Arange(double start, double stop, double step, int typenum)

Construct a new 1-dimensional array of data-type, typenum, that ranges from start to stop (exclusive) in increments of step . Equivalent to arange (start, stop, step, dtype).
PyObject* PyArray_ArangeObj(PyObject* start, PyObject* stop, PyObject* step, PyArray_Descr* descr)
Construct a new 1-dimensional array of data-type determined by descr, that ranges from start to stop
(exclusive) in increments of step. Equivalent to arange( start, stop, step, typenum ).
int PyArray_SetBaseObject(PyArrayObject* arr, PyObject* obj)
New in version 1.7. This function steals a reference to obj and sets it as the base property of arr.
If you construct an array by passing in your own memory buffer as a parameter, you need to set the arrays base
property to ensure the lifetime of the memory buffer is appropriate.
The return value is 0 on success, -1 on failure.
If the object provided is an array, this function traverses the chain of base pointers so that each array points to
the owner of the memory directly. Once the base is set, it may not be changed to another value.
From other objects
PyObject* PyArray_FromAny(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int min_depth, int max_depth, int requirements, PyObject* context)
This is the main function used to obtain an array from any nested sequence, or object that exposes the array
interface, op. The parameters allow specification of the required dtype, the minimum (min_depth) and maximum
(max_depth) number of dimensions acceptable, and other requirements for the array. The dtype argument needs
to be a PyArray_Descr structure indicating the desired data-type (including required byteorder). The dtype
argument may be NULL, indicating that any data-type (and byteorder) is acceptable. Unless FORCECAST is
present in flags, this call will generate an error if the data type cannot be safely obtained from the object. If
you want to use NULL for the dtype and ensure the array is notswapped then use PyArray_CheckFromAny.
A value of 0 for either of the depth parameters causes the parameter to be ignored. Any of the following
array flags can be added (e.g. using |) to get the requirements argument. If your code can handle general (e.g.
strided, byte-swapped, or unaligned arrays) then requirements may be 0. Also, if op is not already an array (or
does not expose the array interface), then a new array will be created (and filled from op using the sequence
protocol). The new array will have NPY_DEFAULT as its flags member. The context argument is passed to the
__array__ method of op and is only used if the array is constructed that way. Almost always this parameter
is NULL.
In versions 1.6 and earlier of NumPy, the following flags did not have the _ARRAY_ macro namespace in them.
That form of the constant names is deprecated in 1.7.
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS
Make sure the returned array is C-style contiguous
Make sure the returned array is Fortran-style contiguous.
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
Make sure the returned array is aligned on proper boundaries for its data type. An aligned array has the
data pointer and every strides factor as a multiple of the alignment factor for the data-type- descriptor.
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
Make sure the returned array can be written to.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY
Make sure a copy is made of op. If this flag is not present, data is not copied if it can be avoided.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY
Make sure the result is a base-class ndarray or bigndarray. By default, if op is an instance of a subclass of
1344
the bigndarray, an instance of that same subclass is returned. If this flag is set, an ndarray object will be
returned instead.
NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST
Force a cast to the output type even if it cannot be done safely. Without this flag, a data cast will occur
only if it can be done safely, otherwise an error is reaised.
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY
If op is already an array, but does not satisfy the requirements, then a copy is made (which will satisfy
the requirements). If this flag is present and a copy (of an object that is already an array) must be made,
then the corresponding NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flag is set in the returned copy and op is made
to be read-only. When the returned copy is deleted (presumably after your calculations are complete), its
contents will be copied back into op and the op array will be made writeable again. If op is not writeable
to begin with, then an error is raised. If op is not already an array, then this flag has no effect.
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_IN_ARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_IN_FARRAY
NPY_OUT_ARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_OUT_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_ARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
int PyArray_GetArrayParamsFromObject(PyObject* op,

PyArray_Descr* requested_dtype,
npy_bool writeable,
PyArray_Descr** out_dtype,
int* out_ndim, npy_intp* out_dims, PyArrayObject** out_arr, PyObject* context)
New in version 1.6. Retrieves the array parameters for viewing/converting an arbitrary PyObject* to a NumPy
array. This allows the innate type and shape of Python list-of-lists to be discovered without actually
converting to an array. PyArray_FromAny calls this function to analyze its input.
5.4. Array API
1345
In some cases, such as structured arrays and the __array__ interface, a data type needs to be used to make
sense of the object. When this is needed, provide a Descr for requested_dtype, otherwise provide NULL. This
reference is not stolen. Also, if the requested dtype doesnt modify the interpretation of the input, out_dtype
will still get the innate dtype of the object, not the dtype passed in requested_dtype.
If writing to the value in op is desired, set the boolean writeable to 1. This raises an error when op is
a scalar, list of lists, or other non-writeable op. This differs from passing NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE to
PyArray_FromAny, where the writeable array may be a copy of the input.
When success (0 return value) is returned, either out_arr is filled with a non-NULL PyArrayObject and the rest
of the parameters are untouched, or out_arr is filled with NULL, and the rest of the parameters are filled.
Typical usage:
PyArrayObject *arr = NULL;
PyArray_Descr *dtype = NULL;
int ndim = 0;
npy_intp dims[NPY_MAXDIMS];
if (PyArray_GetArrayParamsFromObject(op, NULL, 1, &dtype,
&ndim, &dims, &arr, NULL) < 0) {
return NULL;
}
if (arr == NULL) {
... validate/change dtype, validate flags, ndim, etc ...
// Could make custom strides here too
arr = PyArray_NewFromDescr(&PyArray_Type, dtype, ndim,
dims, NULL,
fortran ? NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS : 0,
NULL);
if (arr == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
if (PyArray_CopyObject(arr, op) < 0) {
Py_DECREF(arr);
return NULL;
}
}
else {
... in this case the other parameters werent filled, just
validate and possibly copy arr itself ...
}
... use arr ...
PyObject* PyArray_CheckFromAny(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int min_depth, int max_depth,

int requirements, PyObject* context)
Nearly identical to PyArray_FromAny (...) except requirements can contain NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
(over-riding the specification in dtype) and NPY_ARRAY_ELEMENTSTRIDES which indicates that the array
should be aligned in the sense that the strides are multiples of the element size.
In versions 1.6 and earlier of NumPy, the following flags did not have the _ARRAY_ macro namespace in them.
That form of the constant names is deprecated in 1.7.
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
Make sure the returned array has a data-type descriptor that is in machine byte-order, over-riding any specification in the dtype argument. Normally, the byte-order requirement is determined by the dtype argument. If
this flag is set and the dtype argument does not indicate a machine byte-order descriptor (or is NULL and the
object is already an array with a data-type descriptor that is not in machine byteorder), then a new data-type
descriptor is created and used with its byte-order field set to native.
1346
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED_NS
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
NPY_ARRAY_ELEMENTSTRIDES
Make sure the returned array has strides that are multiples of the element size.
PyObject* PyArray_FromArray(PyArrayObject* op, PyArray_Descr* newtype, int requirements)
Special case of PyArray_FromAny for when op is already an array but it needs to be of a specific newtype
(including byte-order) or has certain requirements.
PyObject* PyArray_FromStructInterface(PyObject* op)
Returns an ndarray object from a Python object that exposes the __array_struct__ method and follows the array interface protocol. If the object does not contain this method then a borrowed reference to
Py_NotImplemented is returned.
PyObject* PyArray_FromInterface(PyObject* op)
Returns an ndarray object from a Python object that exposes the __array_shape__ and
__array_typestr__ methods following the array interface protocol. If the object does not contain
one of these method then a borrowed reference to Py_NotImplemented is returned.
PyObject* PyArray_FromArrayAttr(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* dtype, PyObject* context)
Return an ndarray object from a Python object that exposes the __array__ method. The __array__
method can take 0, 1, or 2 arguments ([dtype, context]) where context is used to pass information about where
the __array__ method is being called from (currently only used in ufuncs).
PyObject* PyArray_ContiguousFromAny(PyObject* op, int typenum, int min_depth, int max_depth)
This function returns a (C-style) contiguous and behaved function array from any nested sequence or array
interface exporting object, op, of (non-flexible) type given by the enumerated typenum, of minimum depth
min_depth, and of maximum depth max_depth. Equivalent to a call to PyArray_FromAny with requirements
set to NPY_DEFAULT and the type_num member of the type argument set to typenum.
PyObject *PyArray_FromObject(PyObject *op, int typenum, int min_depth, int max_depth)
Return an aligned and in native-byteorder array from any nested sequence or array-interface exporting object,
op, of a type given by the enumerated typenum. The minimum number of dimensions the array can have is
given by min_depth while the maximum is max_depth. This is equivalent to a call to PyArray_FromAny
with requirements set to BEHAVED.
PyObject* PyArray_EnsureArray(PyObject* op)
This function steals a reference to op and makes sure that op is a base-class ndarray. It special cases array
scalars, but otherwise calls PyArray_FromAny ( op, NULL, 0, 0, NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY).
PyObject* PyArray_FromString(char* string, npy_intp slen, PyArray_Descr* dtype, npy_intp num,
char* sep)
Construct a one-dimensional ndarray of a single type from a binary or (ASCII) text string of length slen.
The data-type of the array to-be-created is given by dtype. If num is -1, then copy the entire string and return
an appropriately sized array, otherwise, num is the number of items to copy from the string. If sep is NULL
(or ), then interpret the string as bytes of binary data, otherwise convert the sub-strings separated by sep to
items of data-type dtype. Some data-types may not be readable in text mode and an error will be raised if that
occurs. All errors return NULL.
PyObject* PyArray_FromFile(FILE* fp, PyArray_Descr* dtype, npy_intp num, char* sep)
Construct a one-dimensional ndarray of a single type from a binary or text file. The open file pointer is fp, the
data-type of the array to be created is given by dtype. This must match the data in the file. If num is -1, then
read until the end of the file and return an appropriately sized array, otherwise, num is the number of items to
read. If sep is NULL (or ), then read from the file in binary mode, otherwise read from the file in text mode
with sep providing the item separator. Some array types cannot be read in text mode in which case an error is
raised.
PyObject* PyArray_FromBuffer(PyObject* buf, PyArray_Descr* dtype, npy_intp count, npy_intp offset)
Construct a one-dimensional ndarray of a single type from an object, buf, that exports the (single-segment)
5.4. Array API
1347
buffer protocol (or has an attribute __buffer__ that returns an object that exports the buffer protocol). A
writeable buffer will be tried first followed by a readonly buffer. The NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag of the
returned array will reflect which one was successful. The data is assumed to start at offset bytes from the
start of the memory location for the object. The type of the data in the buffer will be interpreted depending on
the data- type descriptor, dtype. If count is negative then it will be determined from the size of the buffer
and the requested itemsize, otherwise, count represents how many elements should be converted from the
buffer.
int PyArray_CopyInto(PyArrayObject* dest, PyArrayObject* src)
Copy from the source array, src, into the destination array, dest, performing a data-type conversion if necessary. If an error occurs return -1 (otherwise 0). The shape of src must be broadcastable to the shape of dest.
The data areas of dest and src must not overlap.
int PyArray_MoveInto(PyArrayObject* dest, PyArrayObject* src)
Move data from the source array, src, into the destination array, dest, performing a data-type conversion if
necessary. If an error occurs return -1 (otherwise 0). The shape of src must be broadcastable to the shape of
dest. The data areas of dest and src may overlap.
PyArrayObject* PyArray_GETCONTIGUOUS(PyObject* op)
If op is already (C-style) contiguous and well-behaved then just return a reference, otherwise return a (contiguous and well-behaved) copy of the array. The parameter op must be a (sub-class of an) ndarray and no checking
for that is done.
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_O(PyObject* obj)
Convert obj to an ndarray. The argument can be any nested sequence or object that exports the array interface.
This is a macro form of PyArray_FromAny using NULL, 0, 0, 0 for the other arguments. Your code must be
able to handle any data-type descriptor and any combination of data-flags to use this macro.
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_OF(PyObject* obj, int requirements)
Similar to PyArray_FROM_O except it can take an argument of requirements indicating properties the resulting array must have.
Available requirements that can be enforced
are
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED,
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE,
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED,
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY,
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY, NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST, and NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY. Standard combinations of flags can also be used:
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_OT(PyObject* obj, int typenum)
Similar to PyArray_FROM_O except it can take an argument of typenum specifying the type-number the
returned array.
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_OTF(PyObject* obj, int typenum, int requirements)
Combination of PyArray_FROM_OF and PyArray_FROM_OT allowing both a typenum and a flags argument
to be provided..
PyObject* PyArray_FROMANY(PyObject* obj, int typenum, int min, int max, int requirements)
Similar to PyArray_FromAny except the data-type is specified using a typenumber.
PyArray_DescrFromType (typenum) is passed directly to PyArray_FromAny. This macro also
adds NPY_DEFAULT to requirements if NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY is passed in as requirements.
PyObject *PyArray_CheckAxis(PyObject* obj, int* axis, int requirements)
Encapsulate the functionality of functions and methods that take the axis= keyword and work properly with
None as the axis argument. The input array is obj, while *axis is a converted integer (so that >=MAXDIMS
is the None value), and requirements gives the needed properties of obj. The output is a converted version
of the input so that requirements are met and if needed a flattening has occurred. On output negative values of
*axis are converted and the new value is checked to ensure consistency with the shape of obj.
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5.4.3 Dealing with types

General check of Python Type
PyArray_Check(op)
Evaluates true if op is a Python object whose type is a sub-type of PyArray_Type.
PyArray_CheckExact(op)
Evaluates true if op is a Python object with type PyArray_Type.
PyArray_HasArrayInterface(op, out)
If op implements any part of the array interface, then out will contain a new reference to the newly created
ndarray using the interface or out will contain NULL if an error during conversion occurs. Otherwise, out will
contain a borrowed reference to Py_NotImplemented and no error condition is set.
PyArray_HasArrayInterfaceType(op, type, context, out)
If op implements any part of the array interface, then out will contain a new reference to the newly created
ndarray using the interface or out will contain NULL if an error during conversion occurs. Otherwise, out will
contain a borrowed reference to Py_NotImplemented and no error condition is set. This version allows setting
of the type and context in the part of the array interface that looks for the __array__ attribute.
PyArray_IsZeroDim(op)
Evaluates true if op is an instance of (a subclass of) PyArray_Type and has 0 dimensions.
PyArray_IsScalar(op, cls)
Evaluates true if op is an instance of Py{cls}ArrType_Type.
PyArray_CheckScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is either an array scalar (an instance of a sub-type of PyGenericArr_Type ), or an
instance of (a sub-class of) PyArray_Type whose dimensionality is 0.
PyArray_IsPythonScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is a builtin Python scalar object (int, float, complex, str, unicode, long, bool).
PyArray_IsAnyScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is either a Python scalar or an array scalar (an instance of a subtype of
PyGenericArr_Type ).
Data-type checking
For the typenum macros, the argument is an integer representing an enumerated array data type. For the array type
checking macros the argument must be a PyObject * that can be directly interpreted as a PyArrayObject *.
PyTypeNum_ISUNSIGNED(num)
PyDataType_ISUNSIGNED(descr)
PyArray_ISUNSIGNED(obj)
Type represents an unsigned integer.
PyTypeNum_ISSIGNED(num)
PyDataType_ISSIGNED(descr)
PyArray_ISSIGNED(obj)
Type represents a signed integer.
5.4. Array API
1349
PyTypeNum_ISINTEGER(num)
PyDataType_ISINTEGER(descr)
PyArray_ISINTEGER(obj)
Type represents any integer.
PyTypeNum_ISFLOAT(num)
PyDataType_ISFLOAT(descr)
PyArray_ISFLOAT(obj)
Type represents any floating point number.
PyTypeNum_ISCOMPLEX(num)
PyDataType_ISCOMPLEX(descr)
PyArray_ISCOMPLEX(obj)
Type represents any complex floating point number.
PyTypeNum_ISNUMBER(num)
PyDataType_ISNUMBER(descr)
PyArray_ISNUMBER(obj)
Type represents any integer, floating point, or complex floating point number.
PyTypeNum_ISSTRING(num)
PyDataType_ISSTRING(descr)
PyArray_ISSTRING(obj)
Type represents a string data type.
PyTypeNum_ISPYTHON(num)
PyDataType_ISPYTHON(descr)
PyArray_ISPYTHON(obj)
Type represents an enumerated type corresponding to one of the standard Python scalar (bool, int, float, or
complex).
PyTypeNum_ISFLEXIBLE(num)
PyDataType_ISFLEXIBLE(descr)
PyArray_ISFLEXIBLE(obj)
Type represents one of the flexible array types ( NPY_STRING, NPY_UNICODE, or NPY_VOID ).
1350
PyTypeNum_ISUSERDEF(num)
PyDataType_ISUSERDEF(descr)
PyArray_ISUSERDEF(obj)
Type represents a user-defined type.
PyTypeNum_ISEXTENDED(num)
PyDataType_ISEXTENDED(descr)
PyArray_ISEXTENDED(obj)
Type is either flexible or user-defined.
PyTypeNum_ISOBJECT(num)
PyDataType_ISOBJECT(descr)
PyArray_ISOBJECT(obj)
Type represents object data type.
PyTypeNum_ISBOOL(num)
PyDataType_ISBOOL(descr)
PyArray_ISBOOL(obj)
Type represents Boolean data type.
PyDataType_HASFIELDS(descr)
PyArray_HASFIELDS(obj)
Type has fields associated with it.
PyArray_ISNOTSWAPPED(m)
Evaluates true if the data area of the ndarray m is in machine byte-order according to the arrays data-type
descriptor.
PyArray_ISBYTESWAPPED(m)
Evaluates true if the data area of the ndarray m is not in machine byte-order according to the arrays data-type
descriptor.
Bool PyArray_EquivTypes(PyArray_Descr* type1, PyArray_Descr* type2)
Return NPY_TRUE if type1 and type2 actually represent equivalent types for this platform (the fortran member
of each type is ignored). For example, on 32-bit platforms, NPY_LONG and NPY_INT are equivalent.
Otherwise return NPY_FALSE.
Bool PyArray_EquivArrTypes(PyArrayObject* a1, PyArrayObject * a2)
Return NPY_TRUE if a1 and a2 are arrays with equivalent types for this platform.
Bool PyArray_EquivTypenums(int typenum1, int typenum2)
Special case of PyArray_EquivTypes (...) that does not accept flexible data types but may be easier to call.
int PyArray_EquivByteorders({byteorder} b1, {byteorder} b2)
True if byteorder characters ( NPY_LITTLE, NPY_BIG, NPY_NATIVE, NPY_IGNORE ) are either equal or
5.4. Array API
1351
equivalent as to their specification of a native byte order. Thus, on a little-endian machine NPY_LITTLE and
NPY_NATIVE are equivalent where they are not equivalent on a big-endian machine.
Converting data types
PyObject* PyArray_Cast(PyArrayObject* arr, int typenum)
Mainly for backwards compatibility to the Numeric C-API and for simple casts to non-flexible types. Return a
new array object with the elements of arr cast to the data-type typenum which must be one of the enumerated
types and not a flexible type.
PyObject* PyArray_CastToType(PyArrayObject* arr, PyArray_Descr* type, int fortran)
Return a new array of the type specified, casting the elements of arr as appropriate. The fortran argument
specifies the ordering of the output array.
int PyArray_CastTo(PyArrayObject* out, PyArrayObject* in)
As of 1.6, this function simply calls PyArray_CopyInto, which handles the casting.
Cast the elements of the array in into the array out. The output array should be writeable, have an integermultiple of the number of elements in the input array (more than one copy can be placed in out), and have a data
type that is one of the builtin types. Returns 0 on success and -1 if an error occurs.
PyArray_VectorUnaryFunc* PyArray_GetCastFunc(PyArray_Descr* from, int totype)
Return the low-level casting function to cast from the given descriptor to the builtin type number. If no casting
function exists return NULL and set an error. Using this function instead of direct access to from ->f->cast will
allow support of any user-defined casting functions added to a descriptors casting dictionary.
int PyArray_CanCastSafely(int fromtype, int totype)
Returns non-zero if an array of data type fromtype can be cast to an array of data type totype without losing
information. An exception is that 64-bit integers are allowed to be cast to 64-bit floating point values even
though this can lose precision on large integers so as not to proliferate the use of long doubles without explict
requests. Flexible array types are not checked according to their lengths with this function.
int PyArray_CanCastTo(PyArray_Descr* fromtype, PyArray_Descr* totype)
PyArray_CanCastTypeTo supercedes this function in NumPy 1.6 and later.
Equivalent to PyArray_CanCastTypeTo(fromtype, totype, NPY_SAFE_CASTING).
int PyArray_CanCastTypeTo(PyArray_Descr* fromtype, PyArray_Descr* totype, NPY_CASTING casting)
New in version 1.6. Returns non-zero if an array of data type fromtype (which can include flexible types)
can be cast safely to an array of data type totype (which can include flexible types) according to the
casting rule casting. For simple types with NPY_SAFE_CASTING, this is basically a wrapper around
PyArray_CanCastSafely, but for flexible types such as strings or unicode, it produces results taking into
account their sizes.
int PyArray_CanCastArrayTo(PyArrayObject* arr, PyArray_Descr* totype, NPY_CASTING casting)
New in version 1.6. Returns non-zero if arr can be cast to totype according to the casting rule given in casting.
If arr is an array scalar, its value is taken into account, and non-zero is also returned when the value will not
overflow or be truncated to an integer when converting to a smaller type.
This is almost the same as the result of PyArray_CanCastTypeTo(PyArray_MinScalarType(arr), totype, casting),
but it also handles a special case arising because the set of uint values is not a subset of the int values for types
with the same number of bits.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_MinScalarType(PyArrayObject* arr)
New in version 1.6. If arr is an array, returns its data type descriptor, but if arr is an array scalar (has 0 dimensions), it finds the data type of smallest size to which the value may be converted without overflow or truncation
to an integer.
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This function will not demote complex to float or anything to boolean, but will demote a signed integer to an
unsigned integer when the scalar value is positive.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_PromoteTypes(PyArray_Descr* type1, PyArray_Descr* type2)
New in version 1.6. Finds the data type of smallest size and kind to which type1 and type2 may be safely
converted. This function is symmetric and associative.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_ResultType(npy_intp narrs, PyArrayObject**arrs, npy_intp ndtypes,
PyArray_Descr**dtypes)
New in version 1.6. This applies type promotion to all the inputs, using the NumPy rules for combining scalars
and arrays, to determine the output type of a set of operands. This is the same result type that ufuncs produce.
The specific algorithm used is as follows.
Categories are determined by first checking which of boolean, integer (int/uint), or floating point (float/complex)
the maximum kind of all the arrays and the scalars are.
If there are only scalars or the maximum category of the scalars is higher than the maximum category of the
arrays, the data types are combined with PyArray_PromoteTypes to produce the return value.
Otherwise, PyArray_MinScalarType is called on each array, and the resulting data types are all combined with
PyArray_PromoteTypes to produce the return value.
The set of int values is not a subset of the uint values for types with the same number of bits, something not
reflected in PyArray_MinScalarType, but handled as a special case in PyArray_ResultType.
int PyArray_ObjectType(PyObject* op, int mintype)
This function is superceded by PyArray_MinScalarType and/or PyArray_ResultType.
This function is useful for determining a common type that two or more arrays can be converted to. It only
works for non-flexible array types as no itemsize information is passed. The mintype argument represents the
minimum type acceptable, and op represents the object that will be converted to an array. The return value is
the enumerated typenumber that represents the data-type that op should have.
void PyArray_ArrayType(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* mintype, PyArray_Descr* outtype)
This function is superceded by PyArray_ResultType.
This function works similarly to PyArray_ObjectType (...) except it handles flexible arrays. The mintype
argument can have an itemsize member and the outtype argument will have an itemsize member at least as big
but perhaps bigger depending on the object op.
PyArrayObject** PyArray_ConvertToCommonType(PyObject* op, int* n)
The functionality this provides is largely superceded by iterator NpyIter introduced in 1.6, with flag
NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE or with the same dtype parameter for all operands.
Convert a sequence of Python objects contained in op to an array of ndarrays each having the same data type.
The type is selected based on the typenumber (larger type number is chosen over a smaller one) ignoring objects
that are only scalars. The length of the sequence is returned in n, and an n -length array of PyArrayObject
pointers is the return value (or NULL if an error occurs). The returned array must be freed by the caller of this
routine (using PyDataMem_FREE ) and all the array objects in it DECREF d or a memory-leak will occur.
The example template-code below shows a typically usage:
mps = PyArray_ConvertToCommonType(obj, &n);
if (mps==NULL) return NULL;
{code}
<before return>
for (i=0; i<n; i++) Py_DECREF(mps[i]);
PyDataMem_FREE(mps);
{return}
char* PyArray_Zero(PyArrayObject* arr)

A pointer to newly created memory of size arr ->itemsize that holds the representation of 0 for that type. The
5.4. Array API
1353
returned pointer, ret, must be freed using PyDataMem_FREE (ret) when it is not needed anymore.
char* PyArray_One(PyArrayObject* arr)
A pointer to newly created memory of size arr ->itemsize that holds the representation of 1 for that type. The
returned pointer, ret, must be freed using PyDataMem_FREE (ret) when it is not needed anymore.
int PyArray_ValidType(int typenum)
Returns NPY_TRUE if typenum represents a valid type-number (builtin or user-defined or character code).
Otherwise, this function returns NPY_FALSE.
New data types
void PyArray_InitArrFuncs(PyArray_ArrFuncs* f )
Initialize all function pointers and members to NULL.
int PyArray_RegisterDataType(PyArray_Descr* dtype)
Register a data-type as a new user-defined data type for arrays. The type must have most of its entries filled
in. This is not always checked and errors can produce segfaults. In particular, the typeobj member of the
dtype structure must be filled with a Python type that has a fixed-size element-size that corresponds to the
elsize member of dtype. Also the f member must have the required functions: nonzero, copyswap, copyswapn,
getitem, setitem, and cast (some of the cast functions may be NULL if no support is desired). To avoid
confusion, you should choose a unique character typecode but this is not enforced and not relied on internally.
A user-defined type number is returned that uniquely identifies the type. A pointer to the new structure can then
be obtained from PyArray_DescrFromType using the returned type number. A -1 is returned if an error
occurs. If this dtype has already been registered (checked only by the address of the pointer), then return the
previously-assigned type-number.
int PyArray_RegisterCastFunc(PyArray_Descr* descr, int totype, PyArray_VectorUnaryFunc* castfunc)
Register a low-level casting function, castfunc, to convert from the data-type, descr, to the given data-type
number, totype. Any old casting function is over-written. A 0 is returned on success or a -1 on failure.
int PyArray_RegisterCanCast(PyArray_Descr* descr, int totype, NPY_SCALARKIND scalar)
Register the data-type number, totype, as castable from data-type object, descr, of the given scalar kind. Use
scalar = NPY_NOSCALAR to register that an array of data-type descr can be cast safely to a data-type whose
type_number is totype.
Special functions for NPY_OBJECT
int PyArray_INCREF(PyArrayObject* op)
Used for an array, op, that contains any Python objects. It increments the reference count of every object in the
array according to the data-type of op. A -1 is returned if an error occurs, otherwise 0 is returned.
void PyArray_Item_INCREF(char* ptr, PyArray_Descr* dtype)
A function to INCREF all the objects at the location ptr according to the data-type dtype. If ptr is the start of a
record with an object at any offset, then this will (recursively) increment the reference count of all object-like
items in the record.
int PyArray_XDECREF(PyArrayObject* op)
Used for an array, op, that contains any Python objects. It decrements the reference count of every object in the
array according to the data-type of op. Normal return value is 0. A -1 is returned if an error occurs.
void PyArray_Item_XDECREF(char* ptr, PyArray_Descr* dtype)
A function to XDECREF all the object-like items at the loacation ptr as recorded in the data-type, dtype.
This works recursively so that if dtype itself has fields with data-types that contain object-like items, all the
object-like fields will be XDECREF d.
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void PyArray_FillObjectArray(PyArrayObject* arr, PyObject* obj)

Fill a newly created array with a single value obj at all locations in the structure with object data-types. No
checking is performed but arr must be of data-type NPY_OBJECT and be single-segment and uninitialized
(no previous objects in position). Use PyArray_DECREF (arr) if you need to decrement all the items in the
object array prior to calling this function.
5.4.4 Array flags

The flags attribute of the PyArrayObject structure contains important information about the memory used by
the array (pointed to by the data member) This flag information must be kept accurate or strange results and even
segfaults may result.
There are 6 (binary) flags that describe the memory area used by the data buffer. These constants are defined in
arrayobject.h and determine the bit-position of the flag. Python exposes a nice attribute- based interface as well
as a dictionary-like interface for getting (and, if appropriate, setting) these flags.
Memory areas of all kinds can be pointed to by an ndarray, necessitating these flags. If you get an arbitrary
PyArrayObject in C-code, you need to be aware of the flags that are set. If you need to guarantee a certain
kind of array (like NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS and NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED), then pass these requirements into
the PyArray_FromAny function.
Basic Array Flags
An ndarray can have a data segment that is not a simple contiguous chunk of well-behaved memory you can manipulate. It may not be aligned with word boundaries (very important on some platforms). It might have its data in a
different byte-order than the machine recognizes. It might not be writeable. It might be in Fortan-contiguous order.
The array flags are used to indicate what can be said about data associated with an array.
In versions 1.6 and earlier of NumPy, the following flags did not have the _ARRAY_ macro namespace in them. That
form of the constant names is deprecated in 1.7.
The data area is in C-style contiguous order (last index varies the fastest).
The data area is in Fortran-style contiguous order (first index varies the fastest).
Note: Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional arrays,
Even for contiguous arrays a stride for a given dimension arr.strides[dim] may be arbitrary if
arr.shape[dim] == 1 or the array has no elements. It does not generally hold that self.strides[-1]
== self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0] == self.itemsize for Fortranstyle contiguous arrays is true. The correct way to access the itemsize of an array from the C API is
PyArray_ITEMSIZE(arr).
See Also:
Internal memory layout of an ndarray
NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA
The data area is owned by this array.
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
The data area and all array elements are aligned appropriately.
5.4. Array API
1355
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
The data area can be written to.
Notice that the above 3 flags are are defined so that a new, well- behaved array has these flags defined as true.
The data area represents a (well-behaved) copy whose information should be transferred back to the original
when this array is deleted.
This is a special flag that is set if this array represents a copy made because a user required certain flags in
PyArray_FromAny and a copy had to be made of some other array (and the user asked for this flag to be set
in such a situation). The base attribute then points to the misbehaved array (which is set read_only). When
the array with this flag set is deallocated, it will copy its contents back to the misbehaved array (casting if
necessary) and will reset the misbehaved array to NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE. If the misbehaved array was
not NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE to begin with then PyArray_FromAny would have returned an error because
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY would not have been possible.
PyArray_UpdateFlags (obj, flags) will update the obj->flags for flags which can be
any of NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, or
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE.
Combinations of array flags
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATE_ALL
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
Flag-like constants
These constants are used in PyArray_FromAny (and its macro forms) to specify desired properties of the new array.
NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST
Cast to the desired type, even if it cant be done without losing information.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY
Make sure the resulting array is a copy of the original.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY
Make sure the resulting object is an actual ndarray (or bigndarray), and not a sub-class.
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
Only used in PyArray_CheckFromAny to over-ride the byteorder of the data-type object passed in.
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NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED_NS
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
Flag checking
For all of these macros arr must be an instance of a (subclass of) PyArray_Type, but no checking is done.
PyArray_CHKFLAGS(arr, flags)
The first parameter, arr, must be an ndarray or subclass.
The parameter, flags, should
be an integer consisting of bitwise combinations of the possible flags an array can have:
NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA,
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE, NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY.
PyArray_IS_C_CONTIGUOUS(arr)
Evaluates true if arr is C-style contiguous.
PyArray_IS_F_CONTIGUOUS(arr)
Evaluates true if arr is Fortran-style contiguous.
PyArray_ISFORTRAN(arr)
Evaluates true if arr is Fortran-style contiguous and not C-style contiguous. PyArray_IS_F_CONTIGUOUS
is the correct way to test for Fortran-style contiguity.
PyArray_ISWRITEABLE(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr can be written to
PyArray_ISALIGNED(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is properly aligned on the machine.
PyArray_ISBEHAVED(arr)
Evalutes true if the data area of arr is aligned and writeable and in machine byte-order according to its descriptor.
PyArray_ISBEHAVED_RO(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is aligned and in machine byte-order.
PyArray_ISCARRAY(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is C-style contiguous, and PyArray_ISBEHAVED (arr) is true.
PyArray_ISFARRAY(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is Fortran-style contiguous and PyArray_ISBEHAVED (arr) is true.
PyArray_ISCARRAY_RO(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is C-style contiguous, aligned, and in machine byte-order.
PyArray_ISFARRAY_RO(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is Fortran-style contiguous, aligned, and in machine byte-order .
PyArray_ISONESEGMENT(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr consists of a single (C-style or Fortran-style) contiguous segment.
void PyArray_UpdateFlags(PyArrayObject* arr, int flagmask)
The NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, and NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS array
flags can be calculated from the array object itself. This routine updates one or more of these flags of arr as
specified in flagmask by performing the required calculation.
Warning: It is important to keep the flags updated (using PyArray_UpdateFlags can help) whenever a
manipulation with an array is performed that might cause them to change. Later calculations in NumPy that rely
on the state of these flags do not repeat the calculation to update them.
5.4. Array API
1357
5.4.5 Array method alternative API

Conversion
PyObject* PyArray_GetField(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int offset)
Equivalent to ndarray.getfield (self, dtype, offset). Return a new array of the given dtype using the data
in the current array at a specified offset in bytes. The offset plus the itemsize of the new array type must be
less than self ->descr->elsize or an error is raised. The same shape and strides as the original array are used.
Therefore, this function has the effect of returning a field from a record array. But, it can also be used to select
specific bytes or groups of bytes from any array type.
int PyArray_SetField(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int offset, PyObject* val)
Equivalent to ndarray.setfield (self, val, dtype, offset ). Set the field starting at offset in bytes and of the
given dtype to val. The offset plus dtype ->elsize must be less than self ->descr->elsize or an error is raised.
Otherwise, the val argument is converted to an array and copied into the field pointed to. If necessary, the
elements of val are repeated to fill the destination array, But, the number of elements in the destination must be
an integer multiple of the number of elements in val.
PyObject* PyArray_Byteswap(PyArrayObject* self, Bool inplace)
Equivalent to ndarray.byteswap (self, inplace). Return an array whose data area is byteswapped. If inplace is non-zero, then do the byteswap inplace and return a reference to self. Otherwise, create a byteswapped
copy and leave self unchanged.
PyObject* PyArray_NewCopy(PyArrayObject* old, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to ndarray.copy (self, fortran). Make a copy of the old array. The returned array is always
aligned and writeable with data interpreted the same as the old array. If order is NPY_CORDER, then a C-style
contiguous array is returned. If order is NPY_FORTRANORDER, then a Fortran-style contiguous array is
returned. If order is NPY_ANYORDER, then the array returned is Fortran-style contiguous only if the old one is;
otherwise, it is C-style contiguous.
PyObject* PyArray_ToList(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.tolist (self ). Return a nested Python list from self.
PyObject* PyArray_ToString(PyArrayObject* self, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to ndarray.tostring (self, order). Return the bytes of this array in a Python string.
PyObject* PyArray_ToFile(PyArrayObject* self, FILE* fp, char* sep, char* format)
Write the contents of self to the file pointer fp in C-style contiguous fashion. Write the data as binary bytes
if sep is the string or NULL. Otherwise, write the contents of self as text using the sep string as the item
separator. Each item will be printed to the file. If the format string is not NULL or , then it is a Python print
statement format string showing how the items are to be written.
int PyArray_Dump(PyObject* self, PyObject* file, int protocol)
Pickle the object in self to the given file (either a string or a Python file object). If file is a Python string it is
considered to be the name of a file which is then opened in binary mode. The given protocol is used (if protocol
is negative, or the highest available is used). This is a simple wrapper around cPickle.dump(self, file, protocol).
PyObject* PyArray_Dumps(PyObject* self, int protocol)
Pickle the object in self to a Python string and return it. Use the Pickle protocol provided (or the highest
available if protocol is negative).
int PyArray_FillWithScalar(PyArrayObject* arr, PyObject* obj)
Fill the array, arr, with the given scalar object, obj. The object is first converted to the data type of arr, and then
copied into every location. A -1 is returned if an error occurs, otherwise 0 is returned.
PyObject* PyArray_View(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Descr* dtype, PyTypeObject *ptype)
Equivalent to ndarray.view (self, dtype). Return a new view of the array self as possibly a different datatype, dtype, and different array subclass ptype.
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If dtype is NULL, then the returned array will have the same data type as self. The new data-type must be
consistent with the size of self. Either the itemsizes must be identical, or self must be single-segment and the
total number of bytes must be the same. In the latter case the dimensions of the returned array will be altered in
the last (or first for Fortran-style contiguous arrays) dimension. The data area of the returned array and self is
exactly the same.
Shape Manipulation
PyObject* PyArray_Newshape(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Dims* newshape)
Result will be a new array (pointing to the same memory location as self if possible), but having a shape given
by newshape . If the new shape is not compatible with the strides of self, then a copy of the array with the new
specified shape will be returned.
PyObject* PyArray_Reshape(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* shape)
Equivalent to ndarray.reshape (self, shape) where shape is a sequence.
PyArray_Dims structure and calls PyArray_Newshape internally.
Converts shape to a
PyObject* PyArray_Squeeze(PyArrayObject* self )

Equivalent to ndarray.squeeze (self ). Return a new view of self with all of the dimensions of length 1
removed from the shape.
Warning: matrix objects are always 2-dimensional. Therefore, PyArray_Squeeze has no effect on arrays of
matrix sub-class.
PyObject* PyArray_SwapAxes(PyArrayObject* self, int a1, int a2)
Equivalent to ndarray.swapaxes (self, a1, a2). The returned array is a new view of the data in self with
the given axes, a1 and a2, swapped.
PyObject* PyArray_Resize(PyArrayObject* self,
PyArray_Dims* newshape,
int refcheck,
NPY_ORDER fortran)
Equivalent to ndarray.resize (self, newshape, refcheck = refcheck, order= fortran ). This function only
works on single-segment arrays. It changes the shape of self inplace and will reallocate the memory for self
if newshape has a different total number of elements then the old shape. If reallocation is necessary, then self
must own its data, have self - >base==NULL, have self - >weakrefs==NULL, and (unless refcheck is 0)
not be referenced by any other array. A reference to the new array is returned. The fortran argument can be
NPY_ANYORDER, NPY_CORDER, or NPY_FORTRANORDER. It currently has no effect. Eventually it could be
used to determine how the resize operation should view the data when constructing a differently-dimensioned
array.
PyObject* PyArray_Transpose(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Dims* permute)
Equivalent to ndarray.transpose (self, permute). Permute the axes of the ndarray object self according
to the data structure permute and return the result. If permute is NULL, then the resulting array has its axes
reversed. For example if self has shape 10 20 30, and permute .ptr is (0,2,1) the shape of the result is
10 30 20. If permute is NULL, the shape of the result is 30 20 10.
PyObject* PyArray_Flatten(PyArrayObject* self, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to ndarray.flatten (self, order).
Return a 1-d copy of the array.
If order is
NPY_FORTRANORDER the elements are scanned out in Fortran order (first-dimension varies the fastest).
If order is NPY_CORDER, the elements of self are scanned in C-order (last dimension varies the fastest). If
order NPY_ANYORDER, then the result of PyArray_ISFORTRAN (self ) is used to determine which order to
flatten.
PyObject* PyArray_Ravel(PyArrayObject* self, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to self.ravel(order). Same basic functionality as PyArray_Flatten (self, order) except if order
is 0 and self is C-style contiguous, the shape is altered but no copy is performed.
5.4. Array API
1359

PyObject* PyArray_TakeFrom(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* indices, int axis, PyArrayObject* ret,
NPY_CLIPMODE clipmode)
Equivalent to ndarray.take (self, indices, axis, ret, clipmode) except axis =None in Python is obtained by
setting axis = NPY_MAXDIMS in C. Extract the items from self indicated by the integer-valued indices along
the given axis. The clipmode argument can be NPY_RAISE, NPY_WRAP, or NPY_CLIP to indicate what to
do with out-of-bound indices. The ret argument can specify an output array rather than having one created
internally.
PyObject* PyArray_PutTo(PyArrayObject*
self,
PyObject*
values,
PyObject*
indices,
Equivalent to self.put(values, indices, clipmode ). Put values into self at the corresponding (flattened) indices.
If values is too small it will be repeated as necessary.
PyObject* PyArray_PutMask(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* values, PyObject* mask)
Place the values in self wherever corresponding positions (using a flattened context) in mask are true. The
mask and self arrays must have the same total number of elements. If values is too small, it will be repeated as
necessary.
PyObject* PyArray_Repeat(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* op, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.repeat (self, op, axis). Copy the elements of self, op times along the given axis.
Either op is a scalar integer or a sequence of length self ->dimensions[ axis ] indicating how many times to
repeat each item along the axis.
PyObject* PyArray_Choose(PyArrayObject*
self,
PyObject*
op,
PyArrayObject*
ret,
Equivalent to ndarray.choose (self, op, ret, clipmode). Create a new array by selecting elements from the
sequence of arrays in op based on the integer values in self. The arrays must all be broadcastable to the same
shape and the entries in self should be between 0 and len(op). The output is placed in ret unless it is NULL in
which case a new output is created. The clipmode argument determines behavior for when entries in self are
not between 0 and len(op).
NPY_RAISE
raise a ValueError;
NPY_WRAP
wrap values < 0 by adding len(op) and values >=len(op) by subtracting len(op) until they are in range;
NPY_CLIP
all values are clipped to the region [0, len(op) ).
PyObject* PyArray_Sort(PyArrayObject* self, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.sort (self, axis). Return an array with the items of self sorted along axis.
PyObject* PyArray_ArgSort(PyArrayObject* self, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.argsort (self, axis). Return an array of indices such that selection of these indices
along the given axis would return a sorted version of self. If self ->descr is a data-type with fields defined,
then self->descr->names is used to determine the sort order. A comparison where the first field is equal will use
the second field and so on. To alter the sort order of a record array, create a new data-type with a different order
of names and construct a view of the array with that new data-type.
PyObject* PyArray_LexSort(PyObject* sort_keys, int axis)
Given a sequence of arrays (sort_keys) of the same shape, return an array of indices (similar to
PyArray_ArgSort (...)) that would sort the arrays lexicographically. A lexicographic sort specifies
that when two keys are found to be equal, the order is based on comparison of subsequent keys. A merge
sort (which leaves equal entries unmoved) is required to be defined for the types. The sort is accomplished
by sorting the indices first using the first sort_key and then using the second sort_key and so forth. This is
equivalent to the lexsort(sort_keys, axis) Python command. Because of the way the merge-sort works, be sure
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to understand the order the sort_keys must be in (reversed from the order you would use when comparing two
elements).
If these arrays are all collected in a record array, then PyArray_Sort (...) can also be used to sort the array
directly.
PyObject* PyArray_SearchSorted(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* values)
Equivalent to ndarray.searchsorted (self, values). Assuming self is a 1-d array in ascending order
representing bin boundaries then the output is an array the same shape as values of bin numbers, giving the bin
into which each item in values would be placed. No checking is done on whether or not self is in ascending
order.
int PyArray_Partition(PyArrayObject
*self,
PyArrayObject
*
ktharray,
int
axis,
NPY_SELECTKIND which)
Equivalent to ndarray.partition (self, ktharray, axis, kind). Partitions the array so that the values of the
element indexed by ktharray are in the positions they would be if the array is fully sorted and places all elements
smaller than the kth before and all elements equal or greater after the kth element. The ordering of all elements
within the partitions is undefined. If self ->descr is a data-type with fields defined, then self->descr->names is
used to determine the sort order. A comparison where the first field is equal will use the second field and so on.
To alter the sort order of a record array, create a new data-type with a different order of names and construct a
view of the array with that new data-type. Returns zero on success and -1 on failure.
PyObject* PyArray_ArgPartition(PyArrayObject *op, PyArrayObject * ktharray, int axis,
NPY_SELECTKIND which)
Equivalent to ndarray.argpartition (self, ktharray, axis, kind). Return an array of indices such that
selection of these indices along the given axis would return a partitioned version of self.
PyObject* PyArray_Diagonal(PyArrayObject* self, int offset, int axis1, int axis2)
Equivalent to ndarray.diagonal (self, offset, axis1, axis2 ). Return the offset diagonals of the 2-d arrays
defined by axis1 and axis2.
npy_intp PyArray_CountNonzero(PyArrayObject* self )
New in version 1.6. Counts the number of non-zero elements in the array object self.
PyObject* PyArray_Nonzero(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.nonzero (self ). Returns a tuple of index arrays that select elements of self that are
nonzero. If (nd= PyArray_NDIM ( self ))==1, then a single index array is returned. The index arrays have
data type NPY_INTP. If a tuple is returned (nd 6= 1), then its length is nd.
PyObject* PyArray_Compress(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* condition, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.compress (self, condition, axis ). Return the elements along axis corresponding to
elements of condition that are true.
Calculation
Tip: Pass in NPY_MAXDIMS for axis in order to achieve the same effect that is obtained by passing in axis = None
in Python (treating the array as a 1-d array).
PyObject* PyArray_ArgMax(PyArrayObject* self, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.argmax (self, axis). Return the index of the largest element of self along axis.
PyObject* PyArray_ArgMin(PyArrayObject* self, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.argmin (self, axis). Return the index of the smallest element of self along axis.
PyObject* PyArray_Max(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.max (self, axis). Return the largest element of self along the given axis.
5.4. Array API
1361
PyObject* PyArray_Min(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)

Equivalent to ndarray.min (self, axis). Return the smallest element of self along the given axis.
PyObject* PyArray_Ptp(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.ptp (self, axis). Return the difference between the largest element of self along axis
and the smallest element of self along axis.
Note: The rtype argument specifies the data-type the reduction should take place over. This is important if the datatype of the array is not large enough to handle the output. By default, all integer data-types are made at least as large
as NPY_LONG for the add and multiply ufuncs (which form the basis for mean, sum, cumsum, prod, and cumprod
functions).
PyObject* PyArray_Mean(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.mean (self, axis, rtype). Returns the mean of the elements along the given axis, using
the enumerated type rtype as the data type to sum in. Default sum behavior is obtained using NPY_NOTYPE for
rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_Trace(PyArrayObject* self, int offset, int axis1, int axis2, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.trace (self, offset, axis1, axis2, rtype). Return the sum (using rtype as the data
type of summation) over the offset diagonal elements of the 2-d arrays defined by axis1 and axis2 variables. A
positive offset chooses diagonals above the main diagonal. A negative offset selects diagonals below the main
diagonal.
PyObject* PyArray_Clip(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* min, PyObject* max)
Equivalent to ndarray.clip (self, min, max). Clip an array, self, so that values larger than max are fixed to
max and values less than min are fixed to min.
PyObject* PyArray_Conjugate(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.conjugate (self ). Return the complex conjugate of self. If self is not of complex
data type, then return self with an reference.
PyObject* PyArray_Round(PyArrayObject* self, int decimals, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.round (self, decimals, out). Returns the array with elements rounded to the nearest
decimal place. The decimal place is defined as the 10decimals digit so that negative decimals cause rounding to
the nearest 10s, 100s, etc. If out is NULL, then the output array is created, otherwise the output is placed in out
which must be the correct size and type.
PyObject* PyArray_Std(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.std (self, axis, rtype). Return the standard deviation using data along axis converted
to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_Sum(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.sum (self, axis, rtype). Return 1-d vector sums of elements in self along axis. Perform
the sum after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_CumSum(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.cumsum (self, axis, rtype). Return cumulative 1-d sums of elements in self along
axis. Perform the sum after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_Prod(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.prod (self, axis, rtype). Return 1-d products of elements in self along axis. Perform
the product after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_CumProd(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.cumprod (self, axis, rtype). Return 1-d cumulative products of elements in self
along axis. Perform the product after converting data to data type rtype.
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PyObject* PyArray_All(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)

Equivalent to ndarray.all (self, axis). Return an array with True elements for every 1-d sub-array of self
defined by axis in which all the elements are True.
PyObject* PyArray_Any(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.any (self, axis). Return an array with True elements for every 1-d sub-array of self
defined by axis in which any of the elements are True.
5.4.6 Functions
Array Functions
int PyArray_AsCArray(PyObject** op, void* ptr, npy_intp* dims, int nd, int typenum, int itemsize)
Sometimes it is useful to access a multidimensional array as a C-style multi-dimensional array so that algorithms
can be implemented using Cs a[i][j][k] syntax. This routine returns a pointer, ptr, that simulates this kind of
C-style array, for 1-, 2-, and 3-d ndarrays.
Parameters
op The address to any Python object. This Python object will be replaced with an equivalent well-behaved, C-style contiguous, ndarray of the given data type specifice by the last
two arguments. Be sure that stealing a reference in this way to the input object is justified.
ptr The address to a (ctype* for 1-d, ctype** for 2-d or ctype*** for 3-d) variable where
ctype is the equivalent C-type for the data type. On return, ptr will be addressable as a 1-d,
2-d, or 3-d array.
dims An output array that contains the shape of the array object. This array gives boundaries on any looping that will take place.
nd The dimensionality of the array (1, 2, or 3).
typenum The expected data type of the array.
itemsize This argument is only needed when typenum represents a flexible array. Otherwise it should be 0.
Note: The simulation of a C-style array is not complete for 2-d and 3-d arrays. For example, the simulated arrays of
pointers cannot be passed to subroutines expecting specific, statically-defined 2-d and 3-d arrays. To pass to functions
requiring those kind of inputs, you must statically define the required array and copy data.
int PyArray_Free(PyObject* op, void* ptr)
Must be called with the same objects and memory locations returned from PyArray_AsCArray (...). This
function cleans up memory that otherwise would get leaked.
PyObject* PyArray_Concatenate(PyObject* obj, int axis)
Join the sequence of objects in obj together along axis into a single array. If the dimensions or types are not
compatible an error is raised.
PyObject* PyArray_InnerProduct(PyObject* obj1, PyObject* obj2)
Compute a product-sum over the last dimensions of obj1 and obj2. Neither array is conjugated.
PyObject* PyArray_MatrixProduct(PyObject* obj1, PyObject* obj)
Compute a product-sum over the last dimension of obj1 and the second-to-last dimension of obj2. For 2-d
arrays this is a matrix-product. Neither array is conjugated.
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PyObject* PyArray_MatrixProduct2(PyObject* obj1, PyObject* obj, PyObject* out)

New in version 1.6. Same as PyArray_MatrixProduct, but store the result in out. The output array must have
the correct shape, type, and be C-contiguous, or an exception is raised.
PyObject* PyArray_EinsteinSum(char* subscripts, npy_intp nop, PyArrayObject** op_in,
PyArray_Descr* dtype, NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting, PyArrayObject* out)
New in version 1.6. Applies the einstein summation convention to the array operands provided, returning a
new array or placing the result in out. The string in subscripts is a comma separated list of index letters. The
number of operands is in nop, and op_in is an array containing those operands. The data type of the output
can be forced with dtype, the output order can be forced with order (NPY_KEEPORDER is recommended), and
when dtype is specified, casting indicates how permissive the data conversion should be.
See the einsum function for more details.
PyObject* PyArray_CopyAndTranspose(PyObject * op)
A specialized copy and transpose function that works only for 2-d arrays. The returned array is a transposed
copy of op.
PyObject* PyArray_Correlate(PyObject* op1, PyObject* op2, int mode)
Compute the 1-d correlation of the 1-d arrays op1 and op2 . The correlation is computed at each output point
by multiplying op1 by a shifted version of op2 and summing the result. As a result of the shift, needed values
outside of the defined range of op1 and op2 are interpreted as zero. The mode determines how many shifts to
return: 0 - return only shifts that did not need to assume zero- values; 1 - return an object that is the same size
as op1, 2 - return all possible shifts (any overlap at all is accepted).
Notes
This does not compute the usual correlation: if op2 is larger than op1, the arguments are swapped, and the
conjugate is never taken for complex arrays. See PyArray_Correlate2 for the usual signal processing correlation.
PyObject* PyArray_Correlate2(PyObject* op1, PyObject* op2, int mode)
Updated version of PyArray_Correlate, which uses the usual definition of correlation for 1d arrays. The correlation is computed at each output point by multiplying op1 by a shifted version of op2 and summing the result.
As a result of the shift, needed values outside of the defined range of op1 and op2 are interpreted as zero. The
mode determines how many shifts to return: 0 - return only shifts that did not need to assume zero- values; 1 return an object that is the same size as op1, 2 - return all possible shifts (any overlap at all is accepted).
Notes
Compute z as follows:
z[k] = sum_n op1[n] * conj(op2[n+k])
PyObject* PyArray_Where(PyObject* condition, PyObject* x, PyObject* y)

If both x and y are NULL, then return PyArray_Nonzero (condition). Otherwise, both x and y must be given
and the object returned is shaped like condition and has elements of x and y where condition is respectively
True or False.
Other functions
Bool PyArray_CheckStrides(int elsize, int nd, npy_intp numbytes, npy_intp* dims, npy_intp* newstrides)
Determine if newstrides is a strides array consistent with the memory of an nd -dimensional array with shape
dims and element-size, elsize. The newstrides array is checked to see if jumping by the provided number of
bytes in each direction will ever mean jumping more than numbytes which is the assumed size of the available
memory segment. If numbytes is 0, then an equivalent numbytes is computed assuming nd, dims, and elsize
refer to a single-segment array. Return NPY_TRUE if newstrides is acceptable, otherwise return NPY_FALSE.
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npy_intp PyArray_MultiplyList(npy_intp* seq, int n)

int PyArray_MultiplyIntList(int* seq, int n)
Both of these routines multiply an n -length array, seq, of integers and return the result. No overflow checking
is performed.
int PyArray_CompareLists(npy_intp* l1, npy_intp* l2, int n)
Given two n -length arrays of integers, l1, and l2, return 1 if the lists are identical; otherwise, return 0.
5.4.7 Auxiliary Data With Object Semantics

NpyAuxData
When working with more complex dtypes which are composed of other dtypes, such as the struct dtype, creating inner
loops that manipulate the dtypes requires carrying along additional data. NumPy supports this idea through a struct
NpyAuxData, mandating a few conventions so that it is possible to do this.
Defining an NpyAuxData is similar to defining a class in C++, but the object semantics have to be tracked manually
since the API is in C. Heres an example for a function which doubles up an element using an element copier function
as a primitive.:
typedef struct {
NpyAuxData base;
ElementCopier_Func *func;
NpyAuxData *funcdata;
} eldoubler_aux_data;
void free_element_doubler_aux_data(NpyAuxData *data)
{
eldoubler_aux_data *d = (eldoubler_aux_data *)data;
/* Free the memory owned by this auxadata */
NPY_AUXDATA_FREE(d->funcdata);
PyArray_free(d);
}
NpyAuxData *clone_element_doubler_aux_data(NpyAuxData *data)
{
eldoubler_aux_data *ret = PyArray_malloc(sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
if (ret == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
/* Raw copy of all data */
memcpy(ret, data, sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
/* Fix up the owned auxdata so we have our own copy */
ret->funcdata = NPY_AUXDATA_CLONE(ret->funcdata);
if (ret->funcdata == NULL) {
PyArray_free(ret);
return NULL;
}
return (NpyAuxData *)ret;
}
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NpyAuxData *create_element_doubler_aux_data(
ElementCopier_Func *func,
NpyAuxData *funcdata)
{
eldoubler_aux_data *ret = PyArray_malloc(sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
if (ret == NULL) {
PyErr_NoMemory();
return NULL;
}
memset(&ret, 0, sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
ret->base->free = &free_element_doubler_aux_data;
ret->base->clone = &clone_element_doubler_aux_data;
ret->func = func;
ret->funcdata = funcdata;
return (NpyAuxData *)ret;
}
NpyAuxData_FreeFunc
The function pointer type for NpyAuxData free functions.
NpyAuxData_CloneFunc
The function pointer type for NpyAuxData clone functions. These functions should never set the Python exception on error, because they may be called from a multi-threaded context.
NPY_AUXDATA_FREE(auxdata)
A macro which calls the auxdatas free function appropriately, does nothing if auxdata is NULL.
NPY_AUXDATA_CLONE(auxdata)
A macro which calls the auxdatas clone function appropriately, returning a deep copy of the auxiliary data.
5.4.8 Array Iterators

As of Numpy 1.6, these array iterators are superceded by the new array iterator, NpyIter.
An array iterator is a simple way to access the elements of an N-dimensional array quickly and efficiently. Section 2
provides more description and examples of this useful approach to looping over an array.
PyObject* PyArray_IterNew(PyObject* arr)
Return an array iterator object from the array, arr. This is equivalent to arr. flat. The array iterator object
makes it easy to loop over an N-dimensional non-contiguous array in C-style contiguous fashion.
PyObject* PyArray_IterAllButAxis(PyObject* arr, int *axis)
Return an array iterator that will iterate over all axes but the one provided in *axis. The returned iterator cannot
be used with PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D. This iterator could be used to write something similar to what ufuncs
do wherein the loop over the largest axis is done by a separate sub-routine. If *axis is negative then *axis will
be set to the axis having the smallest stride and that axis will be used.
PyObject *PyArray_BroadcastToShape(PyObject* arr, npy_intp *dimensions, int nd)
Return an array iterator that is broadcast to iterate as an array of the shape provided by dimensions and nd.
int PyArrayIter_Check(PyObject* op)
Evaluates true if op is an array iterator (or instance of a subclass of the array iterator type).
void PyArray_ITER_RESET(PyObject* iterator)
Reset an iterator to the beginning of the array.
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void PyArray_ITER_NEXT(PyObject* iterator)

Incremement the index and the dataptr members of the iterator to point to the next element of the array. If the
array is not (C-style) contiguous, also increment the N-dimensional coordinates array.
void *PyArray_ITER_DATA(PyObject* iterator)
A pointer to the current element of the array.
void PyArray_ITER_GOTO(PyObject* iterator, npy_intp* destination)
Set the iterator index, dataptr, and coordinates members to the location in the array indicated by the
N-dimensional c-array, destination, which must have size at least iterator ->nd_m1+1.
PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D(PyObject* iterator, npy_intp index)
Set the iterator index and dataptr to the location in the array indicated by the integer index which points to an
element in the C-styled flattened array.
int PyArray_ITER_NOTDONE(PyObject* iterator)
Evaluates TRUE as long as the iterator has not looped through all of the elements, otherwise it evaluates FALSE.
5.4.9 Broadcasting (multi-iterators)

PyObject* PyArray_MultiIterNew(int num, ...)
A simplified interface to broadcasting. This function takes the number of arrays to broadcast and then num
extra ( PyObject * ) arguments. These arguments are converted to arrays and iterators are created.
PyArray_Broadcast is then called on the resulting multi-iterator object. The resulting, broadcasted
mult-iterator object is then returned. A broadcasted operation can then be performed using a single loop and
using PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT (..)
void PyArray_MultiIter_RESET(PyObject* multi)
Reset all the iterators to the beginning in a multi-iterator object, multi.
void PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT(PyObject* multi)
Advance each iterator in a multi-iterator object, multi, to its next (broadcasted) element.
void *PyArray_MultiIter_DATA(PyObject* multi, int i)
Return the data-pointer of the i th iterator in a multi-iterator object.
void PyArray_MultiIter_NEXTi(PyObject* multi, int i)
Advance the pointer of only the i th iterator.
void PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO(PyObject* multi, npy_intp* destination)
Advance each iterator in a multi-iterator object, multi, to the given N -dimensional destination where N is the
number of dimensions in the broadcasted array.
void PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO1D(PyObject* multi, npy_intp index)
Advance each iterator in a multi-iterator object, multi, to the corresponding location of the index into the flattened broadcasted array.
int PyArray_MultiIter_NOTDONE(PyObject* multi)
Evaluates TRUE as long as the multi-iterator has not looped through all of the elements (of the broadcasted
result), otherwise it evaluates FALSE.
int PyArray_Broadcast(PyArrayMultiIterObject* mit)
This function encapsulates the broadcasting rules. The mit container should already contain iterators for all
the arrays that need to be broadcast. On return, these iterators will be adjusted so that iteration over each
simultaneously will accomplish the broadcasting. A negative number is returned if an error occurs.
int PyArray_RemoveSmallest(PyArrayMultiIterObject* mit)
This function takes a multi-iterator object that has been previously broadcasted, finds the dimension with
the smallest sum of strides in the broadcasted result and adapts all the iterators so as not to iterate over
that dimension (by effectively making them of length-1 in that dimension). The corresponding dimension is
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returned unless mit ->nd is 0, then -1 is returned. This function is useful for constructing ufunc-like routines
that broadcast their inputs correctly and then call a strided 1-d version of the routine as the inner-loop. This 1-d
version is usually optimized for speed and for this reason the loop should be performed over the axis that wont
require large stride jumps.
5.4.10 Neighborhood iterator

New in version 1.4.0. Neighborhood iterators are subclasses of the iterator object, and can be used to iter over a
neighborhood of a point. For example, you may want to iterate over every voxel of a 3d image, and for every such
voxel, iterate over an hypercube. Neighborhood iterator automatically handle boundaries, thus making this kind of
code much easier to write than manual boundaries handling, at the cost of a slight overhead.
PyObject* PyArray_NeighborhoodIterNew(PyArrayIterObject* iter, npy_intp bounds, int mode,
PyArrayObject* fill_value)
This function creates a new neighborhood iterator from an existing iterator. The neighborhood will be computed
relatively to the position currently pointed by iter, the bounds define the shape of the neighborhood iterator, and
the mode argument the boundaries handling mode.
The bounds argument is expected to be a (2 * iter->ao->nd) arrays, such as the range bound[2*i]->bounds[2*i+1]
defines the range where to walk for dimension i (both bounds are included in the walked coordinates). The
bounds should be ordered for each dimension (bounds[2*i] <= bounds[2*i+1]).
The mode should be one of:
NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_ZERO_PADDING: zero padding. Outside bounds values will be 0.
NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_ONE_PADDING: one padding, Outside bounds values will be 1.
NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_CONSTANT_PADDING: constant padding. Outside bounds values
will be the same as the first item in fill_value.
NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_MIRROR_PADDING: mirror padding. Outside bounds values will be
as if the array items were mirrored. For example, for the array [1, 2, 3, 4], x[-2] will be 2, x[-2] will be 1,
x[4] will be 4, x[5] will be 1, etc...
NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_CIRCULAR_PADDING: circular padding. Outside bounds values will
be as if the array was repeated. For example, for the array [1, 2, 3, 4], x[-2] will be 3, x[-2] will be 4, x[4]
will be 1, x[5] will be 2, etc...
If the mode is constant filling (NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_CONSTANT_PADDING), fill_value should
point to an array object which holds the filling value (the first item will be the filling value if the array contains
more than one item). For other cases, fill_value may be NULL.
The iterator holds a reference to iter
Return NULL on failure (in which case the reference count of iter is not changed)
iter itself can be a Neighborhood iterator: this can be useful for .e.g automatic boundaries handling
the object returned by this function should be safe to use as a normal iterator
If the position of iter is changed, any subsequent call to PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next is undefined
behavior, and PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset must be called.
PyArrayIterObject \*iter;
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject \*neigh_iter;
iter = PyArray_IterNew(x);
//For a 3x3 kernel
bounds = {-1, 1, -1, 1};
neigh_iter = (PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject*)PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_New(
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iter, bounds, NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_ZERO_PADDING, NULL);

for(i = 0; i < iter->size; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < neigh_iter->size; ++j) {
// Walk around the item currently pointed by iter->dataptr
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next(neigh_iter);
}
// Move to the next point of iter
PyArrayIter_Next(iter);
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset(neigh_iter);
}
int PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset(PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject* iter)

Reset the iterator position to the first point of the neighborhood. This should be called whenever the iter argument given at PyArray_NeighborhoodIterObject is changed (see example)
int PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next(PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject* iter)
After this call, iter->dataptr points to the next point of the neighborhood. Calling this function after every point
of the neighborhood has been visited is undefined.
5.4.11 Array Scalars

PyObject* PyArray_Return(PyArrayObject* arr)
This function checks to see if arr is a 0-dimensional array and, if so, returns the appropriate array scalar. It
should be used whenever 0-dimensional arrays could be returned to Python.
PyObject* PyArray_Scalar(void* data, PyArray_Descr* dtype, PyObject* itemsize)
Return an array scalar object of the given enumerated typenum and itemsize by copying from memory pointed
to by data . If swap is nonzero then this function will byteswap the data if appropriate to the data-type because
array scalars are always in correct machine-byte order.
PyObject* PyArray_ToScalar(void* data, PyArrayObject* arr)
Return an array scalar object of the type and itemsize indicated by the array object arr copied from the memory
pointed to by data and swapping if the data in arr is not in machine byte-order.
PyObject* PyArray_FromScalar(PyObject* scalar, PyArray_Descr* outcode)
Return a 0-dimensional array of type determined by outcode from scalar which should be an array-scalar
object. If outcode is NULL, then the type is determined from scalar.
void PyArray_ScalarAsCtype(PyObject* scalar, void* ctypeptr)
Return in ctypeptr a pointer to the actual value in an array scalar. There is no error checking so scalar must be
an array-scalar object, and ctypeptr must have enough space to hold the correct type. For flexible-sized types, a
pointer to the data is copied into the memory of ctypeptr, for all other types, the actual data is copied into the
address pointed to by ctypeptr.
void PyArray_CastScalarToCtype(PyObject* scalar, void* ctypeptr, PyArray_Descr* outcode)
Return the data (cast to the data type indicated by outcode) from the array-scalar, scalar, into the memory
pointed to by ctypeptr (which must be large enough to handle the incoming memory).
PyObject* PyArray_TypeObjectFromType(int type)
Returns a scalar type-object from a type-number, type . Equivalent to PyArray_DescrFromType (type)>typeobj except for reference counting and error-checking. Returns a new reference to the typeobject on
success or NULL on failure.
NPY_SCALARKIND PyArray_ScalarKind(int typenum, PyArrayObject** arr)
See the function PyArray_MinScalarType for an alternative mechanism introduced in NumPy 1.6.0.
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Return the kind of scalar represented by typenum and the array in *arr (if arr is not NULL ). The array is assumed
to be rank-0 and only used if typenum represents a signed integer. If arr is not NULL and the first element is negative then NPY_INTNEG_SCALAR is returned, otherwise NPY_INTPOS_SCALAR is returned. The possible
return values are NPY_{kind}_SCALAR where {kind} can be INTPOS, INTNEG, FLOAT, COMPLEX,
BOOL, or OBJECT. NPY_NOSCALAR is also an enumerated value NPY_SCALARKIND variables can take
on.
int PyArray_CanCoerceScalar(char thistype, char neededtype, NPY_SCALARKIND scalar)
See the function PyArray_ResultType for details of NumPy type promotion, updated in NumPy 1.6.0.
Implements the rules for scalar coercion. Scalars are only silently coerced from thistype to neededtype if this function returns nonzero. If scalar is NPY_NOSCALAR, then this function is equivalent to
PyArray_CanCastSafely. The rule is that scalars of the same KIND can be coerced into arrays of the
same KIND. This rule means that high-precision scalars will never cause low-precision arrays of the same
KIND to be upcast.
5.4.12 Data-type descriptors

Warning: Data-type objects must be reference counted so be aware of the action on the data-type reference
of different C-API calls. The standard rule is that when a data-type object is returned it is a new reference.
Functions that take PyArray_Descr * objects and return arrays steal references to the data-type their inputs
unless otherwise noted. Therefore, you must own a reference to any data-type object used as input to such a
function.
int PyArrayDescr_Check(PyObject* obj)
Evaluates as true if obj is a data-type object ( PyArray_Descr * ).
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrNew(PyArray_Descr* obj)
Return a new data-type object copied from obj (the fields reference is just updated so that the new object points
to the same fields dictionary if any).
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrNewFromType(int typenum)
Create a new data-type object from the built-in (or user-registered) data-type indicated by typenum. All builtin
types should not have any of their fields changed. This creates a new copy of the PyArray_Descr structure
so that you can fill it in as appropriate. This function is especially needed for flexible data-types which need to
have a new elsize member in order to be meaningful in array construction.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrNewByteorder(PyArray_Descr* obj, char newendian)
Create a new data-type object with the byteorder set according to newendian. All referenced data-type objects
(in subdescr and fields members of the data-type object) are also changed (recursively). If a byteorder of
NPY_IGNORE is encountered it is left alone. If newendian is NPY_SWAP, then all byte-orders are swapped.
Other valid newendian values are NPY_NATIVE, NPY_LITTLE, and NPY_BIG which all cause the returned
data-typed descriptor (and all its referenced data-type descriptors) to have the corresponding byteorder.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrFromObject(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* mintype)
Determine an appropriate data-type object from the object op (which should be a nested sequence object) and
the minimum data-type descriptor mintype (which can be NULL ). Similar in behavior to array(op).dtype. Dont
confuse this function with PyArray_DescrConverter. This function essentially looks at all the objects in
the (nested) sequence and determines the data-type from the elements it finds.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrFromScalar(PyObject* scalar)
Return a data-type object from an array-scalar object. No checking is done to be sure that scalar is an array
scalar. If no suitable data-type can be determined, then a data-type of NPY_OBJECT is returned by default.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrFromType(int typenum)
Returns a data-type object corresponding to typenum. The typenum can be one of the enumerated types, a
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character code for one of the enumerated types, or a user-defined type.

int PyArray_DescrConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Convert any compatible Python object, obj, to a data-type object in dtype. A large number of Python objects
can be converted to data-type objects. See Data type objects (dtype) for a complete description. This version of
the converter converts None objects to a NPY_DEFAULT_TYPE data-type object. This function can be used
with the O& character code in PyArg_ParseTuple processing.
int PyArray_DescrConverter2(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Convert any compatible Python object, obj, to a data-type object in dtype. This version of the converter converts
None objects so that the returned data-type is NULL. This function can also be used with the O& character in
PyArg_ParseTuple processing.
int Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Like PyArray_DescrConverter except it aligns C-struct-like objects on word-boundaries as the compiler
would.
int Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter2(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Like PyArray_DescrConverter2 except it aligns C-struct-like objects on word-boundaries as the compiler would.
PyObject *PyArray_FieldNames(PyObject* dict)
Take the fields dictionary, dict, such as the one attached to a data-type object and construct an ordered-list of
field names such as is stored in the names field of the PyArray_Descr object.
5.4.13 Conversion Utilities

For use with PyArg_ParseTuple
All of these functions can be used in PyArg_ParseTuple (...) with the O& format specifier to automatically
convert any Python object to the required C-object. All of these functions return NPY_SUCCEED if successful and
NPY_FAIL if not. The first argument to all of these function is a Python object. The second argument is the address
of the C-type to convert the Python object to.
Warning: Be sure to understand what steps you should take to manage the memory when using these conversion
functions. These functions can require freeing memory, and/or altering the reference counts of specific objects
based on your use.
int PyArray_Converter(PyObject* obj, PyObject** address)
Convert any Python object to a PyArrayObject. If PyArray_Check (obj) is TRUE then its reference
count is incremented and a reference placed in address. If obj is not an array, then convert it to an array using
PyArray_FromAny . No matter what is returned, you must DECREF the object returned by this routine in
address when you are done with it.
int PyArray_OutputConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArrayObject** address)
This is a default converter for output arrays given to functions. If obj is Py_None or NULL, then *address will
be NULL but the call will succeed. If PyArray_Check ( obj) is TRUE then it is returned in *address without
incrementing its reference count.
int PyArray_IntpConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Dims* seq)
Convert any Python sequence, obj, smaller than NPY_MAXDIMS to a C-array of npy_intp. The Python
object could also be a single number. The seq variable is a pointer to a structure with members ptr and len.
On successful return, seq ->ptr contains a pointer to memory that must be freed to avoid a memory leak.
The restriction on memory size allows this converter to be conveniently used for sequences intended to be
interpreted as array shapes.
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int PyArray_BufferConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Chunk* buf )

Convert any Python object, obj, with a (single-segment) buffer interface to a variable with members that detail
the objects use of its chunk of memory. The buf variable is a pointer to a structure with base, ptr, len, and flags
members. The PyArray_Chunk structure is binary compatibile with the Pythons buffer object (through
its len member on 32-bit platforms and its ptr member on 64-bit platforms or in Python 2.5). On return, the
base member is set to obj (or its base if obj is already a buffer object pointing to another object). If you
need to hold on to the memory be sure to INCREF the base member. The chunk of memory is pointed to
by buf ->ptr member and has length buf ->len. The flags member of buf is NPY_BEHAVED_RO with the
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag set if obj has a writeable buffer interface.
int PyArray_AxisConverter(PyObject * obj, int* axis)
Convert a Python object, obj, representing an axis argument to the proper value for passing to the functions that
take an integer axis. Specifically, if obj is None, axis is set to NPY_MAXDIMS which is interpreted correctly by
the C-API functions that take axis arguments.
int PyArray_BoolConverter(PyObject* obj, Bool* value)
Convert any Python object, obj, to NPY_TRUE or NPY_FALSE, and place the result in value.
int PyArray_ByteorderConverter(PyObject* obj, char* endian)
Convert Python strings into the corresponding byte-order character: >, <, s, =, or |.
int PyArray_SortkindConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_SORTKIND* sort)
Convert Python strings into one of NPY_QUICKSORT (starts with q or Q) , NPY_HEAPSORT (starts with
h or H), or NPY_MERGESORT (starts with m or M).
int PyArray_SearchsideConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_SEARCHSIDE* side)
Convert Python strings into one of NPY_SEARCHLEFT (starts with l or L), or NPY_SEARCHRIGHT (starts
with r or R).
int PyArray_OrderConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_ORDER* order)
Convert the Python strings C, F, A, and K into the NPY_ORDER enumeration NPY_CORDER,
NPY_FORTRANORDER, NPY_ANYORDER, and NPY_KEEPORDER.
int PyArray_CastingConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_CASTING* casting)
Convert the Python strings no, equiv, safe, same_kind, and unsafe into the NPY_CASTING enumeration NPY_NO_CASTING, NPY_EQUIV_CASTING, NPY_SAFE_CASTING, NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING,
and NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING.
int PyArray_ClipmodeConverter(PyObject* object, NPY_CLIPMODE* val)
Convert the Python strings clip, wrap, and raise into the NPY_CLIPMODE enumeration NPY_CLIP,
NPY_WRAP, and NPY_RAISE.
int PyArray_ConvertClipmodeSequence(PyObject* object, NPY_CLIPMODE* modes, int n)
Converts either a sequence of clipmodes or a single clipmode into a C array of NPY_CLIPMODE values. The
number of clipmodes n must be known before calling this function. This function is provided to help functions
allow a different clipmode for each dimension.
Other conversions
int PyArray_PyIntAsInt(PyObject* op)
Convert all kinds of Python objects (including arrays and array scalars) to a standard integer. On error, -1 is
returned and an exception set. You may find useful the macro:
#define error_converting(x) (((x) == -1) && PyErr_Occurred()
npy_intp PyArray_PyIntAsIntp(PyObject* op)

Convert all kinds of Python objects (including arrays and array scalars) to a (platform-pointer-sized) integer.
On error, -1 is returned and an exception set.
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int PyArray_IntpFromSequence(PyObject* seq, npy_intp* vals, int maxvals)

Convert any Python sequence (or single Python number) passed in as seq to (up to) maxvals pointer-sized
integers and place them in the vals array. The sequence can be smaller then maxvals as the number of converted
objects is returned.
int PyArray_TypestrConvert(int itemsize, int gentype)
Convert typestring characters (with itemsize) to basic enumerated data types. The typestring character corresponding to signed and unsigned integers, floating point numbers, and complex-floating point numbers are
recognized and converted. Other values of gentype are returned. This function can be used to convert, for
example, the string f4 to NPY_FLOAT32.
5.4.14 Miscellaneous
Importing the API
In order to make use of the C-API from another extension module, the import_array () command must be used.
If the extension module is self-contained in a single .c file, then that is all that needs to be done. If, however, the
extension module involves multiple files where the C-API is needed then some additional steps must be taken.
void import_array(void)
This function must be called in the initialization section of a module that will make use of the C-API. It imports
the module where the function-pointer table is stored and points the correct variable to it.
PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL
NO_IMPORT_ARRAY
Using these #defines you can use the C-API in multiple files for a single extension module. In each file you
must define PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL to some name that will hold the C-API (e.g. myextension_ARRAY_API). This must be done before including the numpy/arrayobject.h file. In the module
intialization routine you call import_array (). In addition, in the files that do not have the module
initialization sub_routine define NO_IMPORT_ARRAY prior to including numpy/arrayobject.h.
Suppose I have two files coolmodule.c and coolhelper.c which need to be compiled and linked into a single
extension module. Suppose coolmodule.c contains the required initcool module initialization function (with the
import_array() function called). Then, coolmodule.c would have at the top:
#define PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL cool_ARRAY_API
#include numpy/arrayobject.h
On the other hand, coolhelper.c would contain at the top:

#define PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL cool_ARRAY_API
#define NO_IMPORT_ARRAY
#include numpy/arrayobject.h
Checking the API Version

Because python extensions are not used in the same way as usual libraries on most platforms, some errors cannot
be automatically detected at build time or even runtime. For example, if you build an extension using a function
available only for numpy >= 1.3.0, and you import the extension later with numpy 1.2, you will not get an import error
(but almost certainly a segmentation fault when calling the function). Thats why several functions are provided to
check for numpy versions. The macros NPY_VERSION and NPY_FEATURE_VERSION corresponds to the numpy
version used to build the extension, whereas the versions returned by the functions PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion
and PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion corresponds to the runtime numpys version.
5.4. Array API
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The rules for ABI and API compatibilities can be summarized as follows:
Whenever NPY_VERSION != PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion, the extension has to be recompiled (ABI incompatibility).
NPY_VERSION
==
PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion
and
NPY_FEATURE_VERSION
PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion means backward compatible changes.
<=
ABI incompatibility is automatically detected in every numpys version. API incompatibility detection was added in
numpy 1.4.0. If you want to supported many different numpy versions with one extension binary, you have to build
your extension with the lowest NPY_FEATURE_VERSION as possible.
unsigned int PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion(void)
This just returns the value NPY_VERSION. NPY_VERSION changes whenever a backward incompatible
change at the ABI level. Because it is in the C-API, however, comparing the output of this function from the
value defined in the current header gives a way to test if the C-API has changed thus requiring a re-compilation
of extension modules that use the C-API. This is automatically checked in the function import_array.
unsigned int PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion(void)
New in version 1.4.0. This just returns the value NPY_FEATURE_VERSION. NPY_FEATURE_VERSION
changes whenever the API changes (e.g. a function is added). A changed value does not always require a
recompile.
Internal Flexibility
int PyArray_SetNumericOps(PyObject* dict)
NumPy stores an internal table of Python callable objects that are used to implement arithmetic operations for
arrays as well as certain array calculation methods. This function allows the user to replace any or all of these
Python objects with their own versions. The keys of the dictionary, dict, are the named functions to replace and
the paired value is the Python callable object to use. Care should be taken that the function used to replace an
internal array operation does not itself call back to that internal array operation (unless you have designed the
function to handle that), or an unchecked infinite recursion can result (possibly causing program crash). The
key names that represent operations that can be replaced are:
add, subtract, multiply, divide, remainder, power, square, reciprocal, ones_like, sqrt, negative,
absolute, invert, left_shift, right_shift, bitwise_and, bitwise_xor, bitwise_or, less, less_equal,
equal, not_equal, greater, greater_equal, floor_divide, true_divide, logical_or, logical_and,
floor, ceil, maximum, minimum, rint.
These functions are included here because they are used at least once in the array objects methods. The function
returns -1 (without setting a Python Error) if one of the objects being assigned is not callable.
PyObject* PyArray_GetNumericOps(void)
Return a Python dictionary containing the callable Python objects stored in the the internal arithmetic operation
table. The keys of this dictionary are given in the explanation for PyArray_SetNumericOps.
void PyArray_SetStringFunction(PyObject* op, int repr)
This function allows you to alter the tp_str and tp_repr methods of the array object to any Python function. Thus
you can alter what happens for all arrays when str(arr) or repr(arr) is called from Python. The function to be
called is passed in as op. If repr is non-zero, then this function will be called in response to repr(arr), otherwise
the function will be called in response to str(arr). No check on whether or not op is callable is performed. The
callable passed in to op should expect an array argument and should return a string to be printed.
Memory management
char* PyDataMem_NEW(size_t nbytes)
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PyDataMem_FREE(char* ptr)
char* PyDataMem_RENEW(void * ptr, size_t newbytes)
Macros to allocate, free, and reallocate memory. These macros are used internally to create arrays.
npy_intp* PyDimMem_NEW(nd)
PyDimMem_FREE(npy_intp* ptr)
npy_intp* PyDimMem_RENEW(npy_intp* ptr, npy_intp newnd)
Macros to allocate, free, and reallocate dimension and strides memory.
PyArray_malloc(nbytes)
PyArray_free(ptr)
PyArray_realloc(ptr, nbytes)
These macros use different memory allocators, depending on the constant NPY_USE_PYMEM. The system
malloc is used when NPY_USE_PYMEM is 0, if NPY_USE_PYMEM is 1, then the Python memory allocator is
used.
Threading support
These macros are only meaningful if NPY_ALLOW_THREADS evaluates True during compilation of the extension
module. Otherwise, these macros are equivalent to whitespace. Python uses a single Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)
for each Python process so that only a single thread may excecute at a time (even on multi-cpu machines). When
calling out to a compiled function that may take time to compute (and does not have side-effects for other threads like
updated global variables), the GIL should be released so that other Python threads can run while the time-consuming
calculations are performed. This can be accomplished using two groups of macros. Typically, if one macro in a group
is used in a code block, all of them must be used in the same code block. Currently, NPY_ALLOW_THREADS is
defined to the python-defined WITH_THREADS constant unless the environment variable NPY_NOSMP is set in which
case NPY_ALLOW_THREADS is defined to be 0.
Group 1
This group is used to call code that may take some time but does not use any Python C-API calls. Thus,
the GIL should be released during its calculation.
NPY_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
Equivalent to Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS except it uses NPY_ALLOW_THREADS to determine
if the macro if replaced with white-space or not.
NPY_END_ALLOW_THREADS
Equivalent to Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS except it uses NPY_ALLOW_THREADS to determine if
the macro if replaced with white-space or not.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DEF
Place in the variable declaration area. This macro sets up the variable needed for storing the Python
state.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS
Place right before code that does not need the Python interpreter (no Python C-API calls). This
macro saves the Python state and releases the GIL.
5.4. Array API
1375
NPY_END_THREADS
Place right after code that does not need the Python interpreter. This macro acquires the GIL and
restores the Python state from the saved variable.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DESCR(PyArray_Descr *dtype)
Useful to release the GIL only if dtype does not contain arbitrary Python objects which may need
the Python interpreter during execution of the loop. Equivalent to
NPY_END_THREADS_DESCR(PyArray_Descr *dtype)
Useful to regain the GIL in situations where it was released using the BEGIN form of this macro.
Group 2
This group is used to re-acquire the Python GIL after it has been released. For example, suppose the
GIL has been released (using the previous calls), and then some path in the code (perhaps in a different
subroutine) requires use of the Python C-API, then these macros are useful to acquire the GIL. These
macros accomplish essentially a reverse of the previous three (acquire the LOCK saving what state it had)
and then re-release it with the saved state.
NPY_ALLOW_C_API_DEF
Place in the variable declaration area to set up the necessary variable.
NPY_ALLOW_C_API
Place before code that needs to call the Python C-API (when it is known that the GIL has already
been released).
NPY_DISABLE_C_API
Place after code that needs to call the Python C-API (to re-release the GIL).
Tip: Never use semicolons after the threading support macros.
Priority
NPY_PRIORITY
Default priority for arrays.
NPY_SUBTYPE_PRIORITY
Default subtype priority.
NPY_SCALAR_PRIORITY
Default scalar priority (very small)
double PyArray_GetPriority(PyObject* obj, double def )
Return the __array_priority__ attribute (converted to a double) of obj or def if no attribute of that name
exists. Fast returns that avoid the attribute lookup are provided for objects of type PyArray_Type.
Default buffers
NPY_BUFSIZE
Default size of the user-settable internal buffers.
NPY_MIN_BUFSIZE
Smallest size of user-settable internal buffers.
NPY_MAX_BUFSIZE
Largest size allowed for the user-settable buffers.
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Other constants
NPY_NUM_FLOATTYPE
The number of floating-point types
NPY_MAXDIMS
The maximum number of dimensions allowed in arrays.
NPY_VERSION
The current version of the ndarray object (check to see if this variable is defined to guarantee the
numpy/arrayobject.h header is being used).
NPY_FALSE
Defined as 0 for use with Bool.
NPY_TRUE
Defined as 1 for use with Bool.
NPY_FAIL
The return value of failed converter functions which are called using the O& syntax in
PyArg_ParseTuple-like functions.
NPY_SUCCEED
The return value of successful converter functions which are called using the O& syntax in
PyArg_ParseTuple-like functions.
Miscellaneous Macros
PyArray_SAMESHAPE(a1, a2)
Evaluates as True if arrays a1 and a2 have the same shape.
PyArray_MAX(a, b)
Returns the maximum of a and b. If (a) or (b) are expressions they are evaluated twice.
PyArray_MIN(a, b)
Returns the minimum of a and b. If (a) or (b) are expressions they are evaluated twice.
PyArray_CLT(a, b)
PyArray_CGT(a, b)
PyArray_CLE(a, b)
PyArray_CGE(a, b)
PyArray_CEQ(a, b)
PyArray_CNE(a, b)
Implements the complex comparisons between two complex numbers (structures with a real and imag member)
using NumPys definition of the ordering which is lexicographic: comparing the real parts first and then the
complex parts if the real parts are equal.
PyArray_REFCOUNT(PyObject* op)
Returns the reference count of any Python object.
5.4. Array API
1377
PyArray_XDECREF_ERR(PyObject *obj)
DECREFs an array object which may have the NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flag set without causing the
contents to be copied back into the original array. Resets the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag on the base
object. This is useful for recovering from an error condition when NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY is used.
Enumerated Types
NPY_SORTKIND
A special variable-type which can take on the values NPY_{KIND} where {KIND} is
QUICKSORT, HEAPSORT, MERGESORT
NPY_NSORTS
Defined to be the number of sorts.
NPY_SCALARKIND
A special variable type indicating the number of kinds of scalars distinguished in determining scalar-coercion
rules. This variable can take on the values NPY_{KIND} where {KIND} can be
NOSCALAR, BOOL_SCALAR, INTPOS_SCALAR, INTNEG_SCALAR, FLOAT_SCALAR,
COMPLEX_SCALAR, OBJECT_SCALAR
NPY_NSCALARKINDS
Defined to be the number of scalar kinds (not including NPY_NOSCALAR).
NPY_ORDER
An enumeration type indicating the element order that an array should be interpreted in. When a brand new
array is created, generally only NPY_CORDER and NPY_FORTRANORDER are used, whereas when one
or more inputs are provided, the order can be based on them.
NPY_ANYORDER
Fortran order if all the inputs are Fortran, C otherwise.
NPY_CORDER
C order.
NPY_FORTRANORDER
Fortran order.
NPY_KEEPORDER
An order as close to the order of the inputs as possible, even if the input is in neither C nor Fortran order.
NPY_CLIPMODE
A variable type indicating the kind of clipping that should be applied in certain functions.
NPY_RAISE
The default for most operations, raises an exception if an index is out of bounds.
NPY_CLIP
Clips an index to the valid range if it is out of bounds.
NPY_WRAP
Wraps an index to the valid range if it is out of bounds.
NPY_CASTING
New in version 1.6. An enumeration type indicating how permissive data conversions should be. This is used
by the iterator added in NumPy 1.6, and is intended to be used more broadly in a future version.
NPY_NO_CASTING
Only allow identical types.
1378
NPY_EQUIV_CASTING
Allow identical and casts involving byte swapping.
NPY_SAFE_CASTING
Only allow casts which will not cause values to be rounded, truncated, or otherwise changed.
NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING
Allow any safe casts, and casts between types of the same kind. For example, float64 -> float32 is permitted
with this rule.
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING
Allow any cast, no matter what kind of data loss may occur.
5.5 Array Iterator API

New in version 1.6.
5.5.1 Array Iterator

The array iterator encapsulates many of the key features in ufuncs, allowing user code to support features like output
parameters, preservation of memory layouts, and buffering of data with the wrong alignment or type, without requiring
difficult coding.
This page documents the API for the iterator. The C-API naming convention chosen is based on the one in the numpyrefactor branch, so will integrate naturally into the refactored code base. The iterator is named NpyIter and functions
are named NpyIter_*.
There is an introductory guide to array iteration which may be of interest for those using this C API. In many instances,
testing out ideas by creating the iterator in Python is a good idea before writing the C iteration code.
5.5.2 Converting from Previous NumPy Iterators

The existing iterator API includes functions like PyArrayIter_Check, PyArray_Iter* and PyArray_ITER_*. The multiiterator array includes PyArray_MultiIter*, PyArray_Broadcast, and PyArray_RemoveSmallest. The new iterator
design replaces all of this functionality with a single object and associated API. One goal of the new API is that all
uses of the existing iterator should be replaceable with the new iterator without significant effort. In 1.6, the major
exception to this is the neighborhood iterator, which does not have corresponding features in this iterator.
Here is a conversion table for which functions to use with the new iterator:
5.5. Array Iterator API
1379
Iterator Functions
PyArray_IterNew
PyArray_IterAllButAxis
NpyIter_New
NpyIter_New + axes parameter or Iterator flag
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
NOT SUPPORTED (Use the support for multiple operands instead.)
Will need to add this in Python exposure
NpyIter_Reset
Function pointer from NpyIter_GetIterNext
NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray
NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex
NpyIter_GotoIndex or NpyIter_GotoIterIndex
Return value of iternext function pointer
PyArray_BroadcastToShape
PyArrayIter_Check
PyArray_ITER_RESET
PyArray_ITER_NEXT
PyArray_ITER_DATA
PyArray_ITER_GOTO
PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D
PyArray_ITER_NOTDONE
Multi-iterator Functions
PyArray_MultiIterNew
NpyIter_MultiNew
PyArray_MultiIter_RESET
NpyIter_Reset
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT
Function pointer from NpyIter_GetIterNext
PyArray_MultiIter_DATA
NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXTi
NOT SUPPORTED (always lock-step iteration)
PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO
NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex
PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO1D NpyIter_GotoIndex or NpyIter_GotoIterIndex
PyArray_MultiIter_NOTDONE Return value of iternext function pointer
PyArray_Broadcast
Handled by NpyIter_MultiNew
PyArray_RemoveSmallest
Iterator flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
Other Functions
PyArray_ConvertToCommonType
Iterator flag NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE
5.5.3 Simple Iteration Example

The best way to become familiar with the iterator is to look at its usage within the NumPy codebase itself. For example,
here is a slightly tweaked version of the code for PyArray_CountNonzero, which counts the number of non-zero
elements in an array.
npy_intp PyArray_CountNonzero(PyArrayObject* self)
{
/* Nonzero boolean function */
PyArray_NonzeroFunc* nonzero = PyArray_DESCR(self)->f->nonzero;
NpyIter* iter;
NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext;
char** dataptr;
npy_intp* strideptr,* innersizeptr;
/* Handle zero-sized arrays specially */
if (PyArray_SIZE(self) == 0) {
return 0;
}
/*
* Create and use an iterator to count the nonzeros.
flag NPY_ITER_READONLY
*
- The array is never written to.
*
flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
*
- Inner loop is done outside the iterator for efficiency.
*
flag NPY_ITER_NPY_ITER_REFS_OK
*
1380
- Reference types are acceptable.

*
order NPY_KEEPORDER
*
- Visit elements in memory order, regardless of strides.
*
This is good for performance when the specific order
*
elements are visited is unimportant.
*
casting NPY_NO_CASTING
*
- No casting is required for this operation.
*
*/
iter = NpyIter_New(self, NPY_ITER_READONLY|
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP|
NPY_ITER_REFS_OK,
NPY_KEEPORDER, NPY_NO_CASTING,
NULL);
if (iter == NULL) {
return -1;
}
/*
* The iternext function gets stored in a local variable
* so it can be called repeatedly in an efficient manner.
*/
iternext = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter, NULL);
if (iternext == NULL) {
NpyIter_Deallocate(iter);
return -1;
}
/* The location of the data pointer which the iterator may update */
dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
/* The location of the stride which the iterator may update */
strideptr = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter);
/* The location of the inner loop size which the iterator may update */
innersizeptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter);
/* The iteration loop */
do {
/* Get the inner loop data/stride/count values */
char* data = *dataptr;
npy_intp stride = *strideptr;
npy_intp count = *innersizeptr;
/* This is a typical inner loop for NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP */
while (count--) {
if (nonzero(data, self)) {
++nonzero_count;
}
data += stride;
}
/* Increment the iterator to the next inner loop */
} while(iternext(iter));
NpyIter_Deallocate(iter);
return nonzero_count;
}
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5.5.4 Simple Multi-Iteration Example

Here is a simple copy function using the iterator. The order parameter is used to control the memory layout of the
allocated result, typically NPY_KEEPORDER is desired.
PyObject *CopyArray(PyObject *arr, NPY_ORDER order)
{
NpyIter *iter;
NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext;
PyObject *op[2], *ret;
npy_uint32 flags;
npy_uint32 op_flags[2];
npy_intp itemsize, *innersizeptr, innerstride;
char **dataptrarray;
/*
* No inner iteration - inner loop is handled by CopyArray code
*/
flags = NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP;
/*
* Tell the constructor to automatically allocate the output.
* The data type of the output will match that of the input.
*/
op[0] = arr;
op[1] = NULL;
op_flags[0] = NPY_ITER_READONLY;
op_flags[1] = NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY | NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE;
/* Construct the iterator */
iter = NpyIter_MultiNew(2, op, flags, order, NPY_NO_CASTING,
op_flags, NULL);
if (iter == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
/*
* Make a copy of the iternext function pointer and
* a few other variables the inner loop needs.
*/
iternext = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter, NULL);
innerstride = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter)[0];
itemsize = NpyIter_GetDescrArray(iter)[0]->elsize;
/*
* The inner loop size and data pointers may change during the
* loop, so just cache the addresses.
*/
innersizeptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter);
dataptrarray = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
/*
* Note that because the iterator allocated the output,
* it matches the iteration order and is packed tightly,
* so we dont need to check it like the input.
*/
if (innerstride == itemsize) {
do {
memcpy(dataptrarray[1], dataptrarray[0],
itemsize * (*innersizeptr));
} while (iternext(iter));
1382
} else {
/* For efficiency, should specialize this based on item size... */
npy_intp i;
do {
npy_intp size = *innersizeptr;
char *src = dataaddr[0], *dst = dataaddr[1];
for(i = 0; i < size; i++, src += innerstride, dst += itemsize) {
memcpy(dst, src, itemsize);
}
} while (iternext(iter));
}
/* Get the result from the iterator object array */
ret = NpyIter_GetOperandArray(iter)[1];
Py_INCREF(ret);
if (NpyIter_Deallocate(iter) != NPY_SUCCEED) {
Py_DECREF(ret);
return NULL;
}
return ret;
}
5.5.5 Iterator Data Types

The iterator layout is an internal detail, and user code only sees an incomplete struct.
NpyIter
This is an opaque pointer type for the iterator. Access to its contents can only be done through the iterator API.
NpyIter_Type
This is the type which exposes the iterator to Python. Currently, no API is exposed which provides access to
the values of a Python-created iterator. If an iterator is created in Python, it must be used in Python and vice
versa. Such an API will likely be created in a future version.
NpyIter_IterNextFunc
This is a function pointer for the iteration loop, returned by NpyIter_GetIterNext.
NpyIter_GetMultiIndexFunc
This is a function pointer for
NpyIter_GetGetMultiIndex.
getting
the
current
iterator
multi-index,
returned
by
5.5.6 Construction and Destruction

NpyIter* NpyIter_New(PyArrayObject* op, npy_uint32 flags, NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting, PyArray_Descr* dtype)
Creates an iterator for the given numpy array object op.
Flags that may be passed in flags are any combination of the global and per-operand flags documented in
NpyIter_MultiNew, except for NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE.
Any of the NPY_ORDER enum values may be passed to order. For efficient iteration, NPY_KEEPORDER is
the best option, and the other orders enforce the particular iteration pattern.
Any of the NPY_CASTING enum values may be passed to casting.
The values include
NPY_NO_CASTING, NPY_EQUIV_CASTING, NPY_SAFE_CASTING, NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING, and
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NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING. To allow the casts to occur, copying or buffering must also be enabled.
If dtype isnt NULL, then it requires that data type. If copying is allowed, it will make a temporary copy if the
data is castable. If NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY is enabled, it will also copy the data back with another cast
upon iterator destruction.
Returns NULL if there is an error, otherwise returns the allocated iterator.
To make an iterator similar to the old iterator, this should work.
iter = NpyIter_New(op, NPY_ITER_READWRITE,
NPY_CORDER, NPY_NO_CASTING, NULL);
If you want to edit an array with aligned double code, but the order doesnt matter, you would use this.
dtype = PyArray_DescrFromType(NPY_DOUBLE);
iter = NpyIter_New(op, NPY_ITER_READWRITE|
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED|
NPY_ITER_NBO|
NPY_ITER_ALIGNED,
NPY_KEEPORDER,
NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING,
dtype);
Py_DECREF(dtype);
NpyIter* NpyIter_MultiNew(npy_intp
nop,
PyArrayObject**
op,
npy_uint32
flags,
NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting, npy_uint32* op_flags,
PyArray_Descr** op_dtypes)
Creates an iterator for broadcasting the nop array objects provided in op, using regular NumPy broadcasting
rules.
Any of the NPY_ORDER enum values may be passed to order. For efficient iteration, NPY_KEEPORDER is
the best option, and the other orders enforce the particular iteration pattern. When using NPY_KEEPORDER,
if you also want to ensure that the iteration is not reversed along an axis, you should pass the flag
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES.
Any of the NPY_CASTING enum values may be passed to casting.
The values include
NPY_NO_CASTING, NPY_EQUIV_CASTING, NPY_SAFE_CASTING, NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING, and
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING. To allow the casts to occur, copying or buffering must also be enabled.
If op_dtypes isnt NULL, it specifies a data type or NULL for each op[i].
Flags that may be passed in flags, applying to the whole iterator, are:
NPY_ITER_C_INDEX
Causes the iterator to track a raveled flat index matching C order. This option cannot be used
with NPY_ITER_F_INDEX.
NPY_ITER_F_INDEX
Causes the iterator to track a raveled flat index matching Fortran order. This option cannot be
used with NPY_ITER_C_INDEX.
NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX
Causes the iterator to track a multi-index. This prevents the iterator from coalescing axes to
produce bigger inner loops.
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
Causes the iterator to skip iteration of the innermost loop, requiring the user of the iterator to
handle it.
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This flag is incompatible with NPY_ITER_C_INDEX, NPY_ITER_F_INDEX, and

NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX.
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES
This only affects the iterator when NPY_KEEPORDER is specified for the order parameter. By
default with NPY_KEEPORDER, the iterator reverses axes which have negative strides, so that
memory is traversed in a forward direction. This disables this step. Use this flag if you want to
use the underlying memory-ordering of the axes, but dont want an axis reversed. This is the
behavior of numpy.ravel(a, order=K), for instance.
NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE
Causes the iterator to convert all the operands to a common data type, calculated based on the
ufunc type promotion rules. Copying or buffering must be enabled.
If the common data type is known ahead of time, dont use this flag. Instead, set the requested
dtype for all the operands.
NPY_ITER_REFS_OK
Indicates that arrays with reference types (object arrays or structured arrays containing an object
type) may be accepted and used in the iterator. If this flag is enabled, the caller must be sure
to check whether :cfunc:NpyIter_IterationNeedsAPI(iter) is true, in which case it may not
release the GIL during iteration.
NPY_ITER_ZEROSIZE_OK
Indicates that arrays with a size of zero should be permitted. Since the typical iteration loop
does not naturally work with zero-sized arrays, you must check that the IterSize is non-zero
before entering the iteration loop.
NPY_ITER_REDUCE_OK
Permits writeable operands with a dimension with zero stride and size greater than one. Note
that such operands must be read/write.
When buffering is enabled, this also switches to a special buffering mode which reduces the loop
length as necessary to not trample on values being reduced.
Note that if you want to do a reduction on an automatically allocated output, you must use
NpyIter_GetOperandArray to get its reference, then set every value to the reduction unit
before doing the iteration loop. In the case of a buffered reduction, this means you must also
specify the flag NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC, then reset the iterator after initializing the
allocated operand to prepare the buffers.
NPY_ITER_RANGED
Enables
support
for
iteration
of
sub-ranges
of
the
full
iterindex
range
[0, NpyIter_IterSize(iter)).
Use
the
function
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange to specify a range for iteration.
This flag can only be used with NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP when
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED is enabled. This is because without buffering, the inner loop is
always the size of the innermost iteration dimension, and allowing it to get cut up would require
special handling, effectively making it more like the buffered version.
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED
Causes the iterator to store buffering data, and use buffering to satisfy data type, alignment,
and byte-order requirements. To buffer an operand, do not specify the NPY_ITER_COPY
or NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY flags, because they will override buffering. Buffering is
especially useful for Python code using the iterator, allowing for larger chunks of data at once
to amortize the Python interpreter overhead.
If used with NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP, the inner loop for the caller may get larger chunks
than would be possible without buffering, because of how the strides are laid out.
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Note that if an operand is given the flag NPY_ITER_COPY or NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY,

a copy will be made in preference to buffering. Buffering will still occur when the array was
broadcast so elements need to be duplicated to get a constant stride.
In normal buffering, the size of each inner loop is equal to the buffer size, or possibly larger if
NPY_ITER_GROWINNER is specified. If NPY_ITER_REDUCE_OK is enabled and a reduction
occurs, the inner loops may become smaller depending on the structure of the reduction.
NPY_ITER_GROWINNER
When buffering is enabled, this allows the size of the inner loop to grow when buffering isnt
necessary. This option is best used if youre doing a straight pass through all the data, rather
than anything with small cache-friendly arrays of temporary values for each inner loop.
NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC
When buffering is enabled, this delays allocation of the buffers until NpyIter_Reset or
another reset function is called. This flag exists to avoid wasteful copying of buffer data when
making multiple copies of a buffered iterator for multi-threaded iteration.
Another use of this flag is for setting up reduction operations. After the iterator is created, and a
reduction output is allocated automatically by the iterator (be sure to use READWRITE access),
its value may be initialized to the reduction unit. Use NpyIter_GetOperandArray to get
the object. Then, call NpyIter_Reset to allocate and fill the buffers with their initial values.
Flags that may be passed in op_flags[i], where 0 <= i < nop:
NPY_ITER_READWRITE
NPY_ITER_READONLY
NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY
Indicate how the user of the iterator will read or write to op[i]. Exactly one of these flags
must be specified per operand.
NPY_ITER_COPY
Allow a copy of op[i] to be made if it does not meet the data type or alignment requirements
as specified by the constructor flags and parameters.
NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY
Triggers NPY_ITER_COPY, and when an array operand is flagged for writing and is copied,
causes the data in a copy to be copied back to op[i] when the iterator is destroyed.
If the operand is flagged as write-only and a copy is needed, an uninitialized temporary array
will be created and then copied to back to op[i] on destruction, instead of doing the unecessary
copy operation.
NPY_ITER_NBO
NPY_ITER_ALIGNED
NPY_ITER_CONTIG
Causes the iterator to provide data for op[i] that is in native byte order, aligned according to
the dtype requirements, contiguous, or any combination.
By default, the iterator produces pointers into the arrays provided, which may be aligned or
unaligned, and with any byte order. If copying or buffering is not enabled and the operand data
doesnt satisfy the constraints, an error will be raised.
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The contiguous constraint applies only to the inner loop, successive inner loops may have arbitrary pointer changes.
If the requested data type is in non-native byte order, the NBO flag overrides it and the requested
data type is converted to be in native byte order.
NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE
This is for output arrays, and requires that the flag NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY or
NPY_ITER_READWRITE be set. If op[i] is NULL, creates a new array with the final
broadcast dimensions, and a layout matching the iteration order of the iterator.
When op[i] is NULL, the requested data type op_dtypes[i] may be NULL as well, in
which case it is automatically generated from the dtypes of the arrays which are flagged as
readable. The rules for generating the dtype are the same is for UFuncs. Of special note is
handling of byte order in the selected dtype. If there is exactly one input, the inputs dtype is
used as is. Otherwise, if more than one input dtypes are combined together, the output will be in
native byte order.
After being allocated with this flag, the caller may retrieve the new array by calling
NpyIter_GetOperandArray and getting the i-th object in the returned C array. The caller
must call Py_INCREF on it to claim a reference to the array.
NPY_ITER_NO_SUBTYPE
For use with NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE, this flag disables allocating an array subtype for the
output, forcing it to be a straight ndarray.
TODO: Maybe it would be better to introduce a function NpyIter_GetWrappedOutput
and remove this flag?
NPY_ITER_NO_BROADCAST
Ensures that the input or output matches the iteration dimensions exactly.
NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK
New in version 1.7. Indicates that this operand is the mask to use for selecting elements when
writing to operands which have the NPY_ITER_WRITEMASKED flag applied to them. Only
one operand may have NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK flag applied to it.
The data type of an operand with this flag should be either NPY_BOOL, NPY_MASK, or a struct
dtype whose fields are all valid mask dtypes. In the latter case, it must match up with a struct
operand being WRITEMASKED, as it is specifying a mask for each field of that array.
This flag only affects writing from the buffer back to the array. This means that if the operand is
also NPY_ITER_READWRITE or NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY, code doing iteration can write to
this operand to control which elements will be untouched and which ones will be modified. This
is useful when the mask should be a combination of input masks, for example. Mask values can
be created with the NpyMask_Create function.
NPY_ITER_WRITEMASKED
New in version 1.7. Indicates that only elements which the operand with the ARRAYMASK
flag indicates are intended to be modified by the iteration. In general, the iterator does not
enforce this, it is up to the code doing the iteration to follow that promise. Code can use the
NpyMask_IsExposed inline function to test whether the mask at a particular element allows
writing.
When this flag is used, and this operand is buffered, this changes how data is copied from the
buffer into the array. A masked copying routine is used, which only copies the elements in the
buffer for which NpyMask_IsExposed returns true from the corresponding element in the
ARRAYMASK operand.
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NpyIter* NpyIter_AdvancedNew(npy_intp
nop,
PyArrayObject**
op,
npy_uint32
flags,
NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting, npy_uint32* op_flags,
PyArray_Descr** op_dtypes, int oa_ndim, int** op_axes,
npy_intp* itershape, npy_intp buffersize)
Extends NpyIter_MultiNew with several advanced options providing more control over broadcasting and
buffering.
If -1/NULL values are passed to oa_ndim, op_axes, itershape, and buffersize, it is equivalent to
NpyIter_MultiNew.
The parameter oa_ndim, when not zero or -1, specifies the number of dimensions that will be iterated with customized broadcasting. If it is provided, op_axes must and itershape can also be provided. The op_axes
parameter let you control in detail how the axes of the operand arrays get matched together and iterated. In
op_axes, you must provide an array of nop pointers to oa_ndim-sized arrays of type npy_intp. If an entry in op_axes is NULL, normal broadcasting rules will apply. In op_axes[j][i] is stored either a valid
axis of op[j], or -1 which means newaxis. Within each op_axes[j] array, axes may not be repeated. The
following example is how normal broadcasting applies to a 3-D array, a 2-D array, a 1-D array and a scalar.
Note: Before NumPy 1.8 oa_ndim == 0 was used for signalling that that op_axes
and itershape are unused. This is deprecated and should be replaced with -1. Better backward compatibility
may be achieved by using NpyIter_MultiNew for this case.
int oa_ndim = 3;
int op0_axes[] =
int op1_axes[] =
int op2_axes[] =
int op3_axes[] =
int* op_axes[] =
/* # iteration axes */
{0, 1, 2};
/* 3-D operand */
{-1, 0, 1};
/* 2-D operand */
{-1, -1, 0}; /* 1-D operand */
{-1, -1, -1} /* 0-D (scalar) operand */
{op0_axes, op1_axes, op2_axes, op3_axes};
The itershape parameter allows you to force the iterator to have a specific iteration shape. It is an array of
length oa_ndim. When an entry is negative, its value is determined from the operands. This parameter allows
automatically allocated outputs to get additional dimensions which dont match up with any dimension of an
input.
If buffersize is zero, a default buffer size is used, otherwise it specifies how big of a buffer to use. Buffers
which are powers of 2 such as 4096 or 8192 are recommended.
NpyIter* NpyIter_Copy(NpyIter* iter)
Makes a copy of the given iterator. This function is provided primarily to enable multi-threaded iteration of the
data.
TODO: Move this to a section about multithreaded iteration.
The recommended approach to multithreaded iteration is to first create an iterator with
the
flags
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP,
NPY_ITER_RANGED,
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED,
NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC, and possibly NPY_ITER_GROWINNER. Create a copy of this iterator for each thread (minus one for the first iterator). Then, take the iteration index range [0,
NpyIter_GetIterSize(iter)) and split it up into tasks, for example using a TBB parallel_for loop. When a thread gets a task to execute, it then uses its copy of the iterator by calling
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange and iterating over the full range.
When using the iterator in multi-threaded code or in code not holding the Python GIL, care must be taken to
only call functions which are safe in that context. NpyIter_Copy cannot be safely called without the Python
GIL, because it increments Python references. The Reset* and some other functions may be safely called by
passing in the errmsg parameter as non-NULL, so that the functions will pass back errors through it instead
of setting a Python exception.
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int NpyIter_RemoveAxis(NpyIter* iter, int axis)

Removes an axis from iteration. This requires that NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX was set for iterator creation,
and does not work if buffering is enabled or an index is being tracked. This function also resets the iterator to
its initial state.
This is useful for setting up an accumulation loop, for example. The iterator can first be created with all the
dimensions, including the accumulation axis, so that the output gets created correctly. Then, the accumulation
axis can be removed, and the calculation done in a nested fashion.
WARNING: This function may change the internal memory layout of the iterator. Any cached functions or
pointers from the iterator must be retrieved again!
Returns NPY_SUCCEED or NPY_FAIL.
int NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter)
If the iterator is tracking a multi-index, this strips support for them, and does further iterator optimizations that
are possible if multi-indices are not needed. This function also resets the iterator to its initial state.
WARNING: This function may change the internal memory layout of the iterator. Any cached functions or
pointers from the iterator must be retrieved again!
After calling this function, :cfunc:NpyIter_HasMultiIndex(iter) will return false.
int NpyIter_EnableExternalLoop(NpyIter* iter)
If NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex was called,
you may want to enable the flag
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP. This flag is not permitted together with NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX,
so this function is provided to enable the feature after NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex is called. This
function also resets the iterator to its initial state.
WARNING: This function changes the internal logic of the iterator. Any cached functions or pointers from the
iterator must be retrieved again!
int NpyIter_Deallocate(NpyIter* iter)
Deallocates the iterator object. This additionally frees any copies made, triggering UPDATEIFCOPY behavior
where necessary.
int NpyIter_Reset(NpyIter* iter, char** errmsg)
Resets the iterator back to its initial state, at the beginning of the iteration range.
Returns NPY_SUCCEED or NPY_FAIL. If errmsg is non-NULL, no Python exception is set when NPY_FAIL
is returned. Instead, *errmsg is set to an error message. When errmsg is non-NULL, the function may be safely
called without holding the Python GIL.
int NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp istart, npy_intp iend, char** errmsg)
Resets the iterator and restricts it to the iterindex range [istart, iend). See NpyIter_Copy for an
explanation of how to use this for multi-threaded iteration. This requires that the flag NPY_ITER_RANGED
was passed to the iterator constructor.
If you want to reset both the iterindex range and the base pointers at the same time, you can do the following
to avoid extra buffer copying (be sure to add the return code error checks when you copy this code).
/* Set to a trivial empty range */
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange(iter, 0, 0);
/* Set the base pointers */
NpyIter_ResetBasePointers(iter, baseptrs);
/* Set to the desired range */
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange(iter, istart, iend);
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int NpyIter_ResetBasePointers(NpyIter *iter, char** baseptrs, char** errmsg)
Resets the iterator back to its initial state, but using the values in baseptrs for the data instead of the pointers
from the arrays being iterated. This functions is intended to be used, together with the op_axes parameter, by
nested iteration code with two or more iterators.
TODO: Move the following into a special section on nested iterators.
Creating iterators for nested iteration requires some care. All the iterator operands must match exactly, or the
calls to NpyIter_ResetBasePointers will be invalid. This means that automatic copies and output allocation should not be used haphazardly. It is possible to still use the automatic data conversion and casting
features of the iterator by creating one of the iterators with all the conversion parameters enabled, then grabbing
the allocated operands with the NpyIter_GetOperandArray function and passing them into the constructors for the rest of the iterators.
WARNING: When creating iterators for nested iteration, the code must not use a dimension more than once in
the different iterators. If this is done, nested iteration will produce out-of-bounds pointers during iteration.
WARNING: When creating iterators for nested iteration, buffering can only be applied to the innermost iterator.
If a buffered iterator is used as the source for baseptrs, it will point into a small buffer instead of the array
and the inner iteration will be invalid.
The pattern for using nested iterators is as follows.
NpyIter *iter1, *iter1;
NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext1, *iternext2;
char **dataptrs1;
/*
* With the exact same operands, no copies allowed, and
* no axis in op_axes used both in iter1 and iter2.
* Buffering may be enabled for iter2, but not for iter1.
*/
iter1 = ...; iter2 = ...;
iternext1 = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter1);
iternext2 = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter2);
dataptrs1 = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter1);
do {
NpyIter_ResetBasePointers(iter2, dataptrs1);
do {
/* Use the iter2 values */
} while (iternext2(iter2));
} while (iternext1(iter1));
int NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* multi_index)

Adjusts the iterator to point to the ndim indices pointed to by multi_index. Returns an error if a multi-index
is not being tracked, the indices are out of bounds, or inner loop iteration is disabled.
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int NpyIter_GotoIndex(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp index)

Adjusts the iterator to point to the index specified. If the iterator was constructed with the flag
NPY_ITER_C_INDEX, index is the C-order index, and if the iterator was constructed with the flag
NPY_ITER_F_INDEX, index is the Fortran-order index. Returns an error if there is no index being tracked,
the index is out of bounds, or inner loop iteration is disabled.
npy_intp NpyIter_GetIterSize(NpyIter* iter)
Returns the number of elements being iterated. This is the product of all the dimensions in the shape.
npy_intp NpyIter_GetIterIndex(NpyIter* iter)
Gets the iterindex of the iterator, which is an index matching the iteration order of the iterator.
void NpyIter_GetIterIndexRange(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* istart, npy_intp* iend)
Gets the iterindex sub-range that is being iterated. If NPY_ITER_RANGED was not specified, this always
returns the range [0, NpyIter_IterSize(iter)).
int NpyIter_GotoIterIndex(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp iterindex)
Adjusts the iterator to point to the iterindex specified. The IterIndex is an index matching the iteration
order of the iterator. Returns an error if the iterindex is out of bounds, buffering is enabled, or inner loop
iteration is disabled.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasDelayedBufAlloc(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the flag NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC was passed to the iterator constructor, and no call to one
of the Reset functions has been done yet, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasExternalLoop(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the caller needs to handle the inner-most 1-dimensional loop, or 0 if the iterator handles all looping.
This is controlled by the constructor flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP or
NpyIter_EnableExternalLoop.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasIndex(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_C_INDEX or NPY_ITER_F_INDEX flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_RequiresBuffering(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator requires buffering, which occurs when an operand needs conversion or alignment and
so cannot be used directly.
npy_bool NpyIter_IsBuffered(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_BUFFERED flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_IsGrowInner(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_GROWINNER flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_intp NpyIter_GetBufferSize(NpyIter* iter)
If the iterator is buffered, returns the size of the buffer being used, otherwise returns 0.
int NpyIter_GetNDim(NpyIter* iter)
Returns the number of dimensions being iterated. If a multi-index was not requested in the iterator constructor,
this value may be smaller than the number of dimensions in the original objects.
int NpyIter_GetNOp(NpyIter* iter)
Returns the number of operands in the iterator.
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When NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA is used on an operand, a new operand is added to the end of the operand list
in the iterator to track that operands NA mask. Thus, this equals the number of construction operands plus the
number of operands for which the flag NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA was specified.
int NpyIter_GetFirstMaskNAOp(NpyIter* iter)
New in version 1.7. Returns the index of the first NA mask operand in the array. This value is equal to the
number of operands passed into the constructor.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetAxisStrideArray(NpyIter* iter, int axis)
Gets the array of strides for the specified axis. Requires that the iterator be tracking a multi-index, and that
buffering not be enabled.
This may be used when you want to match up operand axes in some fashion, then remove them with
NpyIter_RemoveAxis to handle their processing manually. By calling this function before removing the
axes, you can get the strides for the manual processing.
Returns NULL on error.
int NpyIter_GetShape(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* outshape)
Returns the broadcast shape of the iterator in outshape. This can only be called on an iterator which is
tracking a multi-index.
PyArray_Descr** NpyIter_GetDescrArray(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the nop data type Descrs for the objects being iterated. The result points into
iter, so the caller does not gain any references to the Descrs.
This pointer may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it.
PyObject** NpyIter_GetOperandArray(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the nop operand PyObjects that are being iterated. The result points into iter, so
the caller does not gain any references to the PyObjects.
npy_int8* NpyIter_GetMaskNAIndexArray(NpyIter* iter)
New in version 1.7. This gives back a pointer to the nop indices which map construction operands with
NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA flagged to their corresponding NA mask operands and vice versa. For operands
which were not flagged with NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA, this array contains negative values.
PyObject* NpyIter_GetIterView(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp i)
This gives back a reference to a new ndarray view, which is a view into the i-th object in the array
:cfunc:NpyIter_GetOperandArray(), whose dimensions and strides match the internal optimized iteration
pattern. A C-order iteration of this view is equivalent to the iterators iteration order.
For example, if an iterator was created with a single array as its input, and it was possible to rearrange all its
axes and then collapse it into a single strided iteration, this would return a view that is a one-dimensional array.
void NpyIter_GetReadFlags(NpyIter* iter, char* outreadflags)
Fills nop flags. Sets outreadflags[i] to 1 if op[i] can be read from, and to 0 if not.
void NpyIter_GetWriteFlags(NpyIter* iter, char* outwriteflags)
Fills nop flags. Sets outwriteflags[i] to 1 if op[i] can be written to, and to 0 if not.
int NpyIter_CreateCompatibleStrides(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp itemsize, npy_intp* outstrides)
Builds a set of strides which are the same as the strides of an output array created using the
NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE flag, where NULL was passed for op_axes. This is for data packed contiguously, but not necessarily in C or Fortran order. This should be used together with NpyIter_GetShape and
NpyIter_GetNDim with the flag NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX passed into the constructor.
A use case for this function is to match the shape and layout of the iterator and tack on one or more dimensions.
For example, in order to generate a vector per input value for a numerical gradient, you pass in ndim*itemsize
for itemsize, then add another dimension to the end with size ndim and stride itemsize. To do the Hessian matrix,
1392
you do the same thing but add two dimensions, or take advantage of the symmetry and pack it into 1 dimension
with a particular encoding.
This function may only be called if the iterator is tracking a multi-index and if
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES was used to prevent an axis from being iterated in reverse order.
If an array is created with this method, simply adding itemsize for each iteration will traverse the new array
matching the iterator.
npy_bool NpyIter_IsFirstVisit(NpyIter* iter, int iop)
New in version 1.7. Checks to see whether this is the first time the elements of the specified reduction operand
which the iterator points at are being seen for the first time. The function returns a reasonable answer for
reduction operands and when buffering is disabled. The answer may be incorrect for buffered non-reduction
operands.
This function is intended to be used in EXTERNAL_LOOP mode only, and will produce some wrong answers
when that mode is not enabled.
If this function returns true, the caller should also check the inner loop stride of the operand, because if that
stride is 0, then only the first element of the innermost external loop is being visited for the first time.
WARNING: For performance reasons, iop is not bounds-checked, it is not confirmed that iop is actually a
reduction operand, and it is not confirmed that EXTERNAL_LOOP mode is enabled. These checks are the
responsibility of the caller, and should be done outside of any inner loops.
5.5.7 Functions For Iteration

NpyIter_IterNextFunc* NpyIter_GetIterNext(NpyIter* iter, char** errmsg)
Returns a function pointer for iteration. A specialized version of the function pointer may be calculated by this
function instead of being stored in the iterator structure. Thus, to get good performance, it is required that the
function pointer be saved in a variable rather than retrieved for each loop iteration.
Returns NULL if there is an error. If errmsg is non-NULL, no Python exception is set when NPY_FAIL is
returned. Instead, *errmsg is set to an error message. When errmsg is non-NULL, the function may be safely
The typical looping construct is as follows.
NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter, NULL);
char** dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
do {
/* use the addresses dataptr[0], ... dataptr[nop-1] */
} while(iternext(iter));
When NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP is specified, the typical inner loop construct is as follows.

char** dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
npy_intp* stride = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter);
npy_intp* size_ptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter), size;
npy_intp iop, nop = NpyIter_GetNOp(iter);
do {
size = *size_ptr;
while (size--) {
1393
for (iop = 0; iop < nop; ++iop) {

dataptr[iop] += stride[iop];
}
}
} while (iternext());
Observe that we are using the dataptr array inside the iterator, not copying the values to a local temporary.
This is possible because when iternext() is called, these pointers will be overwritten with fresh values, not
incrementally updated.
If a compile-time fixed buffer is being used (both flags NPY_ITER_BUFFERED and
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP), the inner size may be used as a signal as well. The size is guaranteed
to become zero when iternext() returns false, enabling the following loop construct. Note that if you use
this construct, you should not pass NPY_ITER_GROWINNER as a flag, because it will cause larger sizes under
some circumstances.
/* The constructor should have buffersize passed as this value */
#define FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE 1024
char **dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
npy_intp *stride = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter);
npy_intp *size_ptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter), size;
npy_intp i, iop, nop = NpyIter_GetNOp(iter);
/* One loop with a fixed inner size */
size = *size_ptr;
while (size == FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE) {
/*
* This loop could be manually unrolled by a factor
* which divides into FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE
*/
for (i = 0; i < FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE; ++i) {
}
}
iternext();
size = *size_ptr;
}
/* Finish-up loop with variable inner size */
if (size > 0) do {
size = *size_ptr;
while (size--) {
}
}
} while (iternext());
NpyIter_GetMultiIndexFunc *NpyIter_GetGetMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter, char** errmsg)

Returns a function pointer for getting the current multi-index of the iterator. Returns NULL if the iterator is not
tracking a multi-index. It is recommended that this function pointer be cached in a local variable before the
iteration loop.
Returns NULL if there is an error. If errmsg is non-NULL, no Python exception is set when NPY_FAIL is
1394
returned. Instead, *errmsg is set to an error message. When errmsg is non-NULL, the function may be safely
char** NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the nop data pointers. If NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP was not specified, each
data pointer points to the current data item of the iterator. If no inner iteration was specified, it points to the first
data item of the inner loop.
This pointer may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it. This function may
be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
char** NpyIter_GetInitialDataPtrArray(NpyIter* iter)
Gets the array of data pointers directly into the arrays (never into the buffers), corresponding to iteration index
0.
These pointers are different from the pointers accepted by NpyIter_ResetBasePointers, because the
direction along some axes may have been reversed.
This function may be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetIndexPtr(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the index being tracked, or NULL if no index is being tracked. It is only useable if
one of the flags NPY_ITER_C_INDEX or NPY_ITER_F_INDEX were specified during construction.
When the flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP is used, the code needs to know the parameters for doing the inner
loop. These functions provide that information.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(NpyIter* iter)
Returns a pointer to an array of the nop strides, one for each iterated object, to be used by the inner loop.
This pointer may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it. This function may
be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(NpyIter* iter)
Returns a pointer to the number of iterations the inner loop should execute.
This address may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it. The value itself
may change during iteration, in particular if buffering is enabled. This function may be safely called without
holding the Python GIL.
void NpyIter_GetInnerFixedStrideArray(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* out_strides)
Gets an array of strides which are fixed, or will not change during the entire iteration. For strides that may
change, the value NPY_MAX_INTP is placed in the stride.
Once the iterator is prepared for iteration (after a reset if NPY_DELAY_BUFALLOC was used), call this to get
the strides which may be used to select a fast inner loop function. For example, if the stride is 0, that means
the inner loop can always load its value into a variable once, then use the variable throughout the loop, or if the
stride equals the itemsize, a contiguous version for that operand may be used.
This function may be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
5.6 UFunc API

5.6.1 Constants
UFUNC_ERR_{HANDLER}
{HANDLER} can be IGNORE, WARN, RAISE, or CALL
5.6. UFunc API
1395
UFUNC_{THING}_{ERR}
{THING} can be MASK, SHIFT, or FPE, and {ERR} can be DIVIDEBYZERO, OVERFLOW, UNDERFLOW, and INVALID.
PyUFunc_{VALUE}
{VALUE} can be One (1), Zero (0), or None (-1)
5.6.2 Macros
NPY_LOOP_BEGIN_THREADS
Used in universal function code to only release the Python GIL if loop->obj is not true (i.e. this is not an
OBJECT array loop). Requires use of NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DEF in variable declaration area.
NPY_LOOP_END_THREADS
Used in universal function code to re-acquire the Python GIL if it was released (because loop->obj was not
true).
UFUNC_CHECK_ERROR(loop)
A macro used internally to check for errors and goto fail if found. This macro requires a fail label in the current
code block. The loop variable must have at least members (obj, errormask, and errorobj). If loop ->obj is
nonzero, then PyErr_Occurred () is called (meaning the GIL must be held). If loop ->obj is zero, then if
loop ->errormask is nonzero, PyUFunc_checkfperr is called with arguments loop ->errormask and loop
->errobj. If the result of this check of the IEEE floating point registers is true then the code redirects to the fail
label which must be defined.
UFUNC_CHECK_STATUS(ret)
A macro that expands to platform-dependent code. The ret variable can can be any integer. The
UFUNC_FPE_{ERR} bits are set in ret according to the status of the corresponding error flags of the
floating point processor.
5.6.3 Functions
PyObject* PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData(PyUFuncGenericFunction* func,
void** data, char* types, int ntypes, int nin, int nout, int identity,
char* name, char* doc, int check_return)
Create a new broadcasting universal function from required variables. Each ufunc builds around the notion of
an element-by-element operation. Each ufunc object contains pointers to 1-d loops implementing the basic
functionality for each supported type.
Note: The func, data, types, name, and doc arguments are not copied by PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData.
The caller must ensure that the memory used by these arrays is not freed as long as the ufunc object is alive.
Parameters
func Must to an array of length ntypes containing PyUFuncGenericFunction items.
These items are pointers to functions that actually implement the underlying (element-byelement) function N times.
data Should be NULL or a pointer to an array of size ntypes . This array may contain
arbitrary extra-data to be passed to the corresponding 1-d loop function in the func array.
1396
types Must be of length (nin + nout) * ntypes, and it contains the data-types (built-in only)
that the corresponding function in the func array can deal with.
ntypes How many different data-type signatures the ufunc has implemented.
nin The number of inputs to this operation.
nout The number of outputs
name The name for the ufunc. Specifying a name of add or multiply enables a special
behavior for integer-typed reductions when no dtype is given. If the input type is an integer
(or boolean) data type smaller than the size of the int_ data type, it will be internally upcast
to the int_ (or uint) data type.
doc Allows passing in a documentation string to be stored with the ufunc. The documentation string should not contain the name of the function or the calling signature as that
will be dynamically determined from the object and available when accessing the __doc__
attribute of the ufunc.
check_return Unused and present for backwards compatibility of the C-API. A corresponding check_return integer does exist in the ufunc structure and it does get set with this
value when the ufunc object is created.
int PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType(PyUFuncObject* ufunc,
int usertype, PyUFuncGenericFunction function, int* arg_types, void* data)
This function allows the user to register a 1-d loop with an already- created ufunc to be used whenever the
ufunc is called with any of its input arguments as the user-defined data-type. This is needed in order to make
ufuncs work with built-in data-types. The data-type must have been previously registered with the numpy
system. The loop is passed in as function. This loop can take arbitrary data which should be passed in as data.
The data-types the loop requires are passed in as arg_types which must be a pointer to memory at least as large
as ufunc->nargs.
int PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForDescr(PyUFuncObject* ufunc,
PyArray_Descr* userdtype, PyUFuncGenericFunction function,
PyArray_Descr** arg_dtypes, void* data)
This function behaves like PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType above, except that it allows the user to register a
1-d loop using PyArray_Descr objects instead of dtype type num values. This allows a 1-d loop to be registered
for structured array data-dtypes and custom data-types instead of scalar data-types.
int PyUFunc_ReplaceLoopBySignature(PyUFuncObject* ufunc,
PyUFuncGenericFunction newfunc, int* signature,
PyUFuncGenericFunction* oldfunc)
Replace a 1-d loop matching the given signature in the already-created ufunc with the new 1-d loop newfunc.
Return the old 1-d loop function in oldfunc. Return 0 on success and -1 on failure. This function works only
with built-in types (use PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType for user-defined types). A signature is an array
of data-type numbers indicating the inputs followed by the outputs assumed by the 1-d loop.
int PyUFunc_GenericFunction(PyUFuncObject* self,
PyObject* args, PyObject* kwds, PyArrayObject** mps)
A generic ufunc call. The ufunc is passed in as self, the arguments to the ufunc as args and kwds. The mps
argument is an array of PyArrayObject pointers whose values are discarded and which receive the converted
input arguments as well as the ufunc outputs when success is returned. The user is responsible for managing
5.6. UFunc API
1397
this array and receives a new reference for each array in mps. The total number of arrays in mps is given by self
->nin + self ->nout.
Returns 0 on success, -1 on error.
int PyUFunc_checkfperr(int errmask, PyObject* errobj)
A simple interface to the IEEE error-flag checking support. The errmask argument is a mask of
UFUNC_MASK_{ERR} bitmasks indicating which errors to check for (and how to check for them). The
errobj must be a Python tuple with two elements: a string containing the name which will be used in any
communication of error and either a callable Python object (call-back function) or Py_None. The callable
object will only be used if UFUNC_ERR_CALL is set as the desired error checking method. This routine
manages the GIL and is safe to call even after releasing the GIL. If an error in the IEEE-compatibile hardware
is determined a -1 is returned, otherwise a 0 is returned.
void PyUFunc_clearfperr()
Clear the IEEE error flags.
void PyUFunc_GetPyValues(char* name, int* bufsize,
int* errmask, PyObject** errobj)
Get the Python values used for ufunc processing from the thread-local storage area unless the defaults have
been set in which case the name lookup is bypassed. The name is placed as a string in the first element of
*errobj. The second element is the looked-up function to call on error callback. The value of the looked-up
buffer-size to use is passed into bufsize, and the value of the error mask is placed into errmask.
5.6.4 Generic functions

At the core of every ufunc is a collection of type-specific functions that defines the basic functionality for each of the
supported types. These functions must evaluate the underlying function N 1 times. Extra-data may be passed in
that may be used during the calculation. This feature allows some general functions to be used as these basic looping
functions. The general function has all the code needed to point variables to the right place and set up a function call.
The general function assumes that the actual function to call is passed in as the extra data and calls it with the correct
values. All of these functions are suitable for placing directly in the array of functions stored in the functions member
of the PyUFuncObject structure.
void PyUFunc_f_f_As_d_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_d_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_f_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_g_g(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_F_F_As_D_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
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void PyUFunc_F_F(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_D_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_G_G(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_e_e(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_e_e_As_f_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_e_e_As_d_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
Type specific, core 1-d functions for ufuncs where each calculation is obtained by calling a function taking
one input argument and returning one output. This function is passed in func. The letters correspond to
dtypechars of the supported data types ( e - half, f - float, d - double, g - long double, F - cfloat, D - cdouble, G
- clongdouble). The argument func must support the same signature. The _As_X_X variants assume ndarrays
of one data type but cast the values to use an underlying function that takes a different data type. Thus,
PyUFunc_f_f_As_d_d uses ndarrays of data type NPY_FLOAT but calls out to a C-function that takes
double and returns double.
void PyUFunc_ff_f_As_dd_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_ff_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_dd_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_gg_g(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
5.6. UFunc API
1399
void PyUFunc_FF_F_As_DD_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,

void PyUFunc_DD_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_FF_F(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_GG_G(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_ee_e(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_ee_e_As_ff_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_ee_e_As_dd_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
Type specific, core 1-d functions for ufuncs where each calculation is obtained by calling a function taking two
input arguments and returning one output. The underlying function to call is passed in as func. The letters
correspond to dtypechars of the specific data type supported by the general-purpose function. The argument
func must support the corresponding signature. The _As_XX_X variants assume ndarrays of one data type
but cast the values at each iteration of the loop to use the underlying function that takes a different data type.
void PyUFunc_O_O(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
void PyUFunc_OO_O(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
One-input, one-output, and two-input, one-output core 1-d functions for the NPY_OBJECT data type. These
functions handle reference count issues and return early on error. The actual function to call is func
and it must accept calls with the signature (PyObject*) (PyObject*) for PyUFunc_O_O or
(PyObject*)(PyObject *, PyObject *) for PyUFunc_OO_O.
void PyUFunc_O_O_method(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
This general purpose 1-d core function assumes that func is a string representing a method of the input object.
For each iteration of the loop, the Python obejct is extracted from the array and its func method is called
returning the result to the output array.
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void PyUFunc_OO_O_method(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,

This general purpose 1-d core function assumes that func is a string representing a method of the input object
that takes one argument. The first argument in args is the method whose function is called, the second argument
in args is the argument passed to the function. The output of the function is stored in the third entry of args.
void PyUFunc_On_Om(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions,
This is the 1-d core function used by the dynamic ufuncs created by umath.frompyfunc(function, nin, nout). In
this case func is a pointer to a PyUFunc_PyFuncData structure which has definition
PyUFunc_PyFuncData
typedef struct {
int nin;
int nout;
PyObject *callable;
} PyUFunc_PyFuncData;
At each iteration of the loop, the nin input objects are exctracted from their object arrays and placed into an
argument tuple, the Python callable is called with the input arguments, and the nout outputs are placed into their
object arrays.
5.6.5 Importing the API

PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL
NO_IMPORT_UFUNC
void import_ufunc(void)
These are the constants and functions for accessing the ufunc C-API from extension modules in precisely
the same way as the array C-API can be accessed. The import_ufunc () function must always be called
(in the initialization subroutine of the extension module). If your extension module is in one file then that is
all that is required. The other two constants are useful if your extension module makes use of multiple files.
In that case, define PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL to something unique to your code and then in source
files that do not contain the module initialization function but still need access to the UFUNC API, define
PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL to the same name used previously and also define NO_IMPORT_UFUNC.
The C-API is actually an array of function pointers. This array is created (and pointed to by a global variable)
by import_ufunc. The global variable is either statically defined or allowed to be seen by other files depending
on the state of Py_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL and NO_IMPORT_UFUNC.
5.7 Generalized Universal Function API

There is a general need for looping over not only functions on scalars but also over functions on vectors (or arrays),
as explained on http://scipy.org/scipy/numpy/wiki/GeneralLoopingFunctions. We propose to realize this concept by
generalizing the universal functions (ufuncs), and provide a C implementation that adds ~500 lines to the numpy code
base. In current (specialized) ufuncs, the elementary function is limited to element-by-element operations, whereas the
generalized version supports sub-array by sub-array operations. The Perl vector library PDL provides a similar
functionality and its terms are re-used in the following.
5.7. Generalized Universal Function API
1401
Each generalized ufunc has information associated with it that states what the core dimensionality of the inputs is,
as well as the corresponding dimensionality of the outputs (the element-wise ufuncs have zero core dimensions). The
list of the core dimensions for all arguments is called the signature of a ufunc. For example, the ufunc numpy.add
has signature (),()->() defining two scalar inputs and one scalar output.
Another example is (see the GeneralLoopingFunctions page) the function inner1d(a,b) with a signature of
(i),(i)->(). This applies the inner product along the last axis of each input, but keeps the remaining indices
intact. For example, where a is of shape (3,5,N) and b is of shape (5,N), this will return an output of shape
(3,5). The underlying elementary function is called 3*5 times. In the signature, we specify one core dimension (i)
for each input and zero core dimensions () for the output, since it takes two 1-d arrays and returns a scalar. By using
the same name i, we specify that the two corresponding dimensions should be of the same size (or one of them is of
size 1 and will be broadcasted).
The dimensions beyond the core dimensions are called loop dimensions. In the above example, this corresponds to
(3,5).
The usual numpy broadcasting rules apply, where the signature determines how the dimensions of each input/output
object are split into core and loop dimensions:
1. While an input array has a smaller dimensionality than the corresponding number of core dimensions, 1s are
pre-pended to its shape.
2. The core dimensions are removed from all inputs and the remaining dimensions are broadcasted; defining the
loop dimensions.
3. The output is given by the loop dimensions plus the output core dimensions.
5.7.1 Definitions
Elementary Function
Each ufunc consists of an elementary function that performs the most basic operation on the smallest portion of
array arguments (e.g. adding two numbers is the most basic operation in adding two arrays). The ufunc applies
the elementary function multiple times on different parts of the arrays. The input/output of elementary functions
can be vectors; e.g., the elementary function of inner1d takes two vectors as input.
Signature
A signature is a string describing the input/output dimensions of the elementary function of a ufunc. See section
below for more details.
Core Dimension
The dimensionality of each input/output of an elementary function is defined by its core dimensions (zero core
dimensions correspond to a scalar input/output). The core dimensions are mapped to the last dimensions of the
input/output arrays.
Dimension Name
A dimension name represents a core dimension in the signature. Different dimensions may share a name,
indicating that they are of the same size (or are broadcastable).
Dimension Index
A dimension index is an integer representing a dimension name. It enumerates the dimension names according
to the order of the first occurrence of each name in the signature.
5.7.2 Details of Signature

The signature defines core dimensionality of input and output variables, and thereby also defines the contraction of
the dimensions. The signature is represented by a string of the following format:
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Core dimensions of each input or output array are represented by a list of dimension names in parentheses,
(i_1,...,i_N); a scalar input/output is denoted by (). Instead of i_1, i_2, etc, one can use any valid
Python variable name.
Dimension lists for different arguments are separated by ",". Input/output arguments are separated by "->".
If one uses the same dimension name in multiple locations, this enforces the same size (or broadcastable size)
of the corresponding dimensions.
The formal syntax of signatures is as follows:
<Signature>
<Input arguments>
<Output arguments>
<Argument list>
<Argument>
<Core dimension list>
<Dimension name>
::=
::=
::=
::=
::=
::=
<Input arguments> "->" <Output arguments>

<Argument list>
<Argument list>
nil | <Argument> | <Argument> "," <Argument list>
"(" <Core dimension list> ")"
nil | <Dimension name> |
<Dimension name> "," <Core dimension list>
::= valid Python variable name
Notes:
1. All quotes are for clarity.
2. Core dimensions that share the same name must be broadcastable, as the two i in our example above. Each
dimension name typically corresponding to one level of looping in the elementary functions implementation.
3. White spaces are ignored.
Here are some examples of signatures:
add
inner1d
sum1d
dot2d
outer_inner
(),()->()
(i),(i)->()
(i)->()
(m,n),(n,p)->(m,p)
matrix multiplication
(i,t),(j,t)->(i,j)
inner over the last dimension, outer over the second to last, and
loop/broadcast over the rest.
5.7.3 C-API for implementing Elementary Functions

The current interface remains unchanged, and PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData can still be used to implement (specialized) ufuncs, consisting of scalar elementary functions.
One can use PyUFunc_FromFuncAndDataAndSignature to declare a more general ufunc. The argument list
is the same as PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData, with an additional argument specifying the signature as C string.
Furthermore, the callback function is of the same type as before, void (*foo)(char **args, intp
*dimensions, intp *steps, void *func). When invoked, args is a list of length nargs containing
the data of all input/output arguments. For a scalar elementary function, steps is also of length nargs, denoting the
strides used for the arguments. dimensions is a pointer to a single integer defining the size of the axis to be looped
over.
For a non-trivial signature, dimensions will also contain the sizes of the core dimensions as well, starting at the
second entry. Only one size is provided for each unique dimension name and the sizes are given according to the first
occurrence of a dimension name in the signature.
The first nargs elements of steps remain the same as for scalar ufuncs. The following elements contain the strides
of all core dimensions for all arguments in order.
For example, consider a ufunc with signature (i,j),(i)->(). In this case, args will contain three pointers to the
data of the input/output arrays a, b, c. Furthermore, dimensions will be [N, I, J] to define the size of N of
5.7. Generalized Universal Function API
1403
the loop and the sizes I and J for the core dimensions i and j. Finally, steps will be [a_N, b_N, c_N, a_i,
a_j, b_i], containing all necessary strides.
5.8 Numpy core libraries

New in version 1.3.0. Starting from numpy 1.3.0, we are working on separating the pure C, computational code
from the python dependent code. The goal is twofolds: making the code cleaner, and enabling code reuse by other
extensions outside numpy (scipy, etc...).
5.8.1 Numpy core math library

The numpy core math library (npymath) is a first step in this direction. This library contains most math-related C99
functionality, which can be used on platforms where C99 is not well supported. The core math functions have the
same API as the C99 ones, except for the npy_* prefix.
The available functions are defined in <numpy/npy_math.h> - please refer to this header when in doubt.
Floating point classification
NPY_NAN
This macro is defined to a NaN (Not a Number), and is guaranteed to have the signbit unset (positive NaN).
The corresponding single and extension precision macro are available with the suffix F and L.
NPY_INFINITY
This macro is defined to a positive inf. The corresponding single and extension precision macro are available
with the suffix F and L.
NPY_PZERO
This macro is defined to positive zero. The corresponding single and extension precision macro are available
with the suffix F and L.
NPY_NZERO
This macro is defined to negative zero (that is with the sign bit set). The corresponding single and extension
precision macro are available with the suffix F and L.
int npy_isnan(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 isnan: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x is a NaN.
int npy_isfinite(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 isfinite: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x is neither a NaN nor an infinity.
int npy_isinf(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 isinf: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x is infinite (positive and negative).
int npy_signbit(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 signbit: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x has the signbit set (that is the number is negative).
double npy_copysign(double x, double y)
This is a function equivalent to C99 copysign: return x with the same sign as y. Works for any value, including
inf and nan. Single and extended precisions are available with suffix f and l. New in version 1.4.0.
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Useful math constants

The following math constants are available in npy_math.h. Single and extended precision are also available by adding
the F and L suffixes respectively.
NPY_E
Base of natural logarithm (e)
NPY_LOG2E
ln(e)
)
Logarithm to base 2 of the Euler constant ( ln(2)
NPY_LOG10E
ln(e)
Logarithm to base 10 of the Euler constant ( ln(10)
)
NPY_LOGE2
Natural logarithm of 2 (ln(2))
NPY_LOGE10
Natural logarithm of 10 (ln(10))
NPY_PI
Pi ()
NPY_PI_2
Pi divided by 2 ( 2 )
NPY_PI_4
Pi divided by 4 ( 4 )
NPY_1_PI
Reciprocal of pi ( 1 )
NPY_2_PI
Two times the reciprocal of pi ( 2 )
NPY_EULER
The Euler constant
Pn
limn ( k=1
1
k
ln n)
Low-level floating point manipulation

Those can be useful for precise floating point comparison.
double npy_nextafter(double x, double y)
This is a function equivalent to C99 nextafter: return next representable floating point value from x in the
direction of y. Single and extended precisions are available with suffix f and l. New in version 1.4.0.
double npy_spacing(double x)
This is a function equivalent to Fortran intrinsic. Return distance between x and next representable floating
point value from x, e.g. spacing(1) == eps. spacing of nan and +/- inf return nan. Single and extended precisions
are available with suffix f and l. New in version 1.4.0.
Complex functions
New in version 1.4.0. C99-like complex functions have been added. Those can be used if you wish to implement
portable C extensions. Since we still support platforms without C99 complex type, you need to restrict to C90compatible syntax, e.g.:
5.8. Numpy core libraries
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/* a = 1 + 2i \*/
npy_complex a = npy_cpack(1, 2);
npy_complex b;
b = npy_log(a);
Linking against the core math library in an extension

New in version 1.4.0. To use the core math library in your own extension, you need to add the npymath compile and
link options to your extension in your setup.py:
>>> from numpy.distutils.misc_util import get_info
>>> info = get_info(npymath)
>>> config.add_extension(foo, sources=[foo.c], extra_info=info)
In other words, the usage of info is exactly the same as when using blas_info and co.
Half-precision functions
New in version 2.0.0. The header file <numpy/halffloat.h> provides functions to work with IEEE 754-2008 16-bit
floating point values. While this format is not typically used for numerical computations, it is useful for storing values
which require floating point but do not need much precision. It can also be used as an educational tool to understand
the nature of floating point round-off error.
Like for other types, NumPy includes a typedef npy_half for the 16 bit float. Unlike for most of the other types, you
cannot use this as a normal type in C, since is is a typedef for npy_uint16. For example, 1.0 looks like 0x3c00 to C,
and if you do an equality comparison between the different signed zeros, you will get -0.0 != 0.0 (0x8000 != 0x0000),
which is incorrect.
For these reasons, NumPy provides an API to work with npy_half values accessible by including <numpy/halffloat.h>
and linking to npymath. For functions that are not provided directly, such as the arithmetic operations, the preferred
method is to convert to float or double and back again, as in the following example.
npy_half sum(int n, npy_half *array) {
float ret = 0;
while(n--) {
ret += npy_half_to_float(*array++);
}
return npy_float_to_half(ret);
}
External Links:
754-2008 IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic
Half-precision Float Wikipedia Article.
OpenGL Half Float Pixel Support
The OpenEXR image format.
NPY_HALF_ZERO
This macro is defined to positive zero.
NPY_HALF_PZERO
This macro is defined to positive zero.
NPY_HALF_NZERO
This macro is defined to negative zero.
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NPY_HALF_ONE
This macro is defined to 1.0.
NPY_HALF_NEGONE
This macro is defined to -1.0.
NPY_HALF_PINF
This macro is defined to +inf.
NPY_HALF_NINF
This macro is defined to -inf.
NPY_HALF_NAN
This macro is defined to a NaN value, guaranteed to have its sign bit unset.
float npy_half_to_float(npy_half h)
Converts a half-precision float to a single-precision float.
double npy_half_to_double(npy_half h)
Converts a half-precision float to a double-precision float.
npy_half npy_float_to_half(float f )
Converts a single-precision float to a half-precision float. The value is rounded to the nearest representable half,
with ties going to the nearest even. If the value is too small or too big, the systems floating point underflow or
overflow bit will be set.
npy_half npy_double_to_half(double d)
Converts a double-precision float to a half-precision float. The value is rounded to the nearest representable
half, with ties going to the nearest even. If the value is too small or too big, the systems floating point underflow
or overflow bit will be set.
int npy_half_eq(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 == h2).
int npy_half_ne(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 != h2).
int npy_half_le(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 <= h2).
int npy_half_lt(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 < h2).
int npy_half_ge(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 >= h2).
int npy_half_gt(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 > h2).
int npy_half_eq_nonan(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats that are known to not be NaN (h1 == h2). If a value is NaN, the result is
undefined.
int npy_half_lt_nonan(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats that are known to not be NaN (h1 < h2). If a value is NaN, the result is
undefined.
int npy_half_le_nonan(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats that are known to not be NaN (h1 <= h2). If a value is NaN, the result is
undefined.
5.8. Numpy core libraries
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int npy_half_iszero(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float has a value equal to zero. This may be slightly faster than calling
npy_half_eq(h, NPY_ZERO).
int npy_half_isnan(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float is a NaN.
int npy_half_isinf(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float is plus or minus Inf.
int npy_half_isfinite(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float is finite (not NaN or Inf).
int npy_half_signbit(npy_half h)
Returns 1 is h is negative, 0 otherwise.
npy_half npy_half_copysign(npy_half x, npy_half y)
Returns the value of x with the sign bit copied from y. Works for any value, including Inf and NaN.
npy_half npy_half_spacing(npy_half h)
This is the same for half-precision float as npy_spacing and npy_spacingf described in the low-level floating
point section.
npy_half npy_half_nextafter(npy_half x, npy_half y)
This is the same for half-precision float as npy_nextafter and npy_nextafterf described in the low-level floating
point section.
npy_uint16 npy_floatbits_to_halfbits(npy_uint32 f )
Low-level function which converts a 32-bit single-precision float, stored as a uint32, into a 16-bit half-precision
float.
npy_uint16 npy_doublebits_to_halfbits(npy_uint64 d)
Low-level function which converts a 64-bit double-precision float, stored as a uint64, into a 16-bit half-precision
float.
npy_uint32 npy_halfbits_to_floatbits(npy_uint16 h)
Low-level function which converts a 16-bit half-precision float into a 32-bit single-precision float, stored as a
uint32.
npy_uint64 npy_halfbits_to_doublebits(npy_uint16 h)
Low-level function which converts a 16-bit half-precision float into a 64-bit double-precision float, stored as a
uint64.
5.9 C API Deprecations

5.9.1 Background
The API exposed by NumPy for third-party extensions has grown over years of releases, and has allowed programmers
to directly access NumPy functionality from C. This API can be best described as organic. It has emerged from
multiple competing desires and from multiple points of view over the years, strongly influenced by the desire to make
it easy for users to move to NumPy from Numeric and Numarray. The core API originated with Numeric in 1995 and
there are patterns such as the heavy use of macros written to mimic Pythons C-API as well as account for compiler
technology of the late 90s. There is also only a small group of volunteers who have had very little time to spend on
improving this API.
There is an ongoing effort to improve the API. It is important in this effort to ensure that code that compiles for
NumPy 1.X continues to compile for NumPy 1.X. At the same time, certain APIs will be marked as deprecated so
that future-looking code can avoid these APIs and follow better practices.
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Another important role played by deprecation markings in the C API is to move towards hiding internal details of the
NumPy implementation. For those needing direct, easy, access to the data of ndarrays, this will not remove this ability.
Rather, there are many potential performance optimizations which require changing the implementation details, and
NumPy developers have been unable to try them because of the high value of preserving ABI compatibility. By
deprecating this direct access, we will in the future be able to improve NumPys performance in ways we cannot
presently.
5.9.2 Deprecation Mechanism NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API

In C, there is no equivalent to the deprecation warnings that Python supports. One way to do deprecations is to flag
them in the documentation and release notes, then remove or change the deprecated features in a future major version
(NumPy 2.0 and beyond). Minor versions of NumPy should not have major C-API changes, however, that prevent
code that worked on a previous minor release. For example, we will do our best to ensure that code that compiled and
worked on NumPy 1.4 should continue to work on NumPy 1.7 (but perhaps with compiler warnings).
To use the NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API mechanism, you need to #define it to the target API version of NumPy
before #including any NumPy headers. If you want to confirm that your code is clean against 1.7, use:
#define NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API NPY_1_7_API_VERSION
On compilers which support a #warning mechanism, NumPy issues a compiler warning if you do not define the
symbol NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API. This way, the fact that there are deprecations will be flagged for third-party
developers who may not have read the release notes closely.
5.9. C API Deprecations
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CHAPTER
SIX
NUMPY INTERNALS
6.1 Numpy C Code Explanations
Fanaticism consists of redoubling your efforts when you have forgotten your aim. George Santayana
An authority is a person who can tell you more about something than you really care to know. Unknown
This Chapter attempts to explain the logic behind some of the new pieces of code. The purpose behind these explanations is to enable somebody to be able to understand the ideas behind the implementation somewhat more easily than
just staring at the code. Perhaps in this way, the algorithms can be improved on, borrowed from, and/or optimized.
6.1.1 Memory model

One fundamental aspect of the ndarray is that an array is seen as a chunk of memory starting at some location. The
interpretation of this memory depends on the stride information. For each dimension in an N -dimensional array, an
integer (stride) dictates how many bytes must be skipped to get to the next element in that dimension. Unless you have
a single-segment array, this stride information must be consulted when traversing through an array. It is not difficult
to write code that accepts strides, you just have to use (char *) pointers because strides are in units of bytes. Keep
in mind also that strides do not have to be unit-multiples of the element size. Also, remember that if the number of
dimensions of the array is 0 (sometimes called a rank-0 array), then the strides and dimensions variables are NULL.
Besides the structural information contained in the strides and dimensions members of the PyArrayObject, the
flags contain important information about how the data may be accessed. In particular, the NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
flag is set when the memory is on a suitable boundary according to the data-type array. Even if you have a contiguous
chunk of memory, you cannot just assume it is safe to dereference a data- type-specific pointer to an element. Only
if the NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED flag is set is this a safe operation (on some platforms it will work but on others, like
Solaris, it will cause a bus error). The NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE should also be ensured if you plan on writing to the
memory area of the array. It is also possible to obtain a pointer to an unwriteable memory area. Sometimes, writing
to the memory area when the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag is not set will just be rude. Other times it can cause
program crashes ( e.g. a data-area that is a read-only memory-mapped file).
6.1.2 Data-type encapsulation

The data-type is an important abstraction of the ndarray. Operations will look to the data-type to provide the key
functionality that is needed to operate on the array. This functionality is provided in the list of function pointers
pointed to by the f member of the PyArray_Descr structure. In this way, the number of data-types can be
extended simply by providing a PyArray_Descr structure with suitable function pointers in the f member. For
built-in types there are some optimizations that by-pass this mechanism, but the point of the data- type abstraction is
to allow new data-types to be added.
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One of the built-in data-types, the void data-type allows for arbitrary records containing 1 or more fields as elements
of the array. A field is simply another data-type object along with an offset into the current record. In order to
support arbitrarily nested fields, several recursive implementations of data-type access are implemented for the void
type. A common idiom is to cycle through the elements of the dictionary and perform a specific operation based on
the data-type object stored at the given offset. These offsets can be arbitrary numbers. Therefore, the possibility of
encountering misaligned data must be recognized and taken into account if necessary.
6.1.3 N-D Iterators

A very common operation in much of NumPy code is the need to iterate over all the elements of a general, strided,
N-dimensional array. This operation of a general-purpose N-dimensional loop is abstracted in the notion of an iterator
object. To write an N-dimensional loop, you only have to create an iterator object from an ndarray, work with the
dataptr member of the iterator object structure and call the macro PyArray_ITER_NEXT (it) on the iterator object
to move to the next element. The next element is always in C-contiguous order. The macro works by first special
casing the C-contiguous, 1-D, and 2-D cases which work very simply.
For the general case, the iteration works by keeping track of a list of coordinate counters in the iterator object. At each
iteration, the last coordinate counter is increased (starting from 0). If this counter is smaller then one less than the size
of the array in that dimension (a pre-computed and stored value), then the counter is increased and the dataptr member
is increased by the strides in that dimension and the macro ends. If the end of a dimension is reached, the counter
for the last dimension is reset to zero and the dataptr is moved back to the beginning of that dimension by subtracting
the strides value times one less than the number of elements in that dimension (this is also pre-computed and stored
in the backstrides member of the iterator object). In this case, the macro does not end, but a local dimension counter
is decremented so that the next-to-last dimension replaces the role that the last dimension played and the previouslydescribed tests are executed again on the next-to-last dimension. In this way, the dataptr is adjusted appropriately for
arbitrary striding.
The coordinates member of the PyArrayIterObject structure maintains the current N-d counter unless
the underlying array is C-contiguous in which case the coordinate counting is by-passed. The index member of the PyArrayIterObject keeps track of the current flat index of the iterator. It is updated by the
PyArray_ITER_NEXT macro.
6.1.4 Broadcasting
In Numeric, broadcasting was implemented in several lines of code buried deep in ufuncobject.c. In NumPy, the
notion of broadcasting has been abstracted so that it can be performed in multiple places. Broadcasting is handled by
the function PyArray_Broadcast. This function requires a PyArrayMultiIterObject (or something that
is a binary equivalent) to be passed in. The PyArrayMultiIterObject keeps track of the broadcasted number
of dimensions and size in each dimension along with the total size of the broadcasted result. It also keeps track of the
number of arrays being broadcast and a pointer to an iterator for each of the arrays being broadcasted.
The PyArray_Broadcast function takes the iterators that have already been defined and uses them to determine
the broadcast shape in each dimension (to create the iterators at the same time that broadcasting occurs then use the
PyMultiIter_New function). Then, the iterators are adjusted so that each iterator thinks it is iterating over an
array with the broadcasted size. This is done by adjusting the iterators number of dimensions, and the shape in each
dimension. This works because the iterator strides are also adjusted. Broadcasting only adjusts (or adds) length-1
dimensions. For these dimensions, the strides variable is simply set to 0 so that the data-pointer for the iterator over
that array doesnt move as the broadcasting operation operates over the extended dimension.
Broadcasting was always implemented in Numeric using 0-valued strides for the extended dimensions. It
is done in exactly the same way in NumPy. The big difference is that now the array of strides is kept
track of in a PyArrayIterObject, the iterators involved in a broadcasted result are kept track of in a
PyArrayMultiIterObject, and the PyArray_BroadCast call implements the broad-casting rules.
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Chapter 6. Numpy internals
6.1.5 Array Scalars

The array scalars offer a hierarchy of Python types that allow a one- to-one correspondence between the data-type
stored in an array and the Python-type that is returned when an element is extracted from the array. An exception to
this rule was made with object arrays. Object arrays are heterogeneous collections of arbitrary Python objects. When
you select an item from an object array, you get back the original Python object (and not an object array scalar which
does exist but is rarely used for practical purposes).
The array scalars also offer the same methods and attributes as arrays with the intent that the same code can be
used to support arbitrary dimensions (including 0-dimensions). The array scalars are read-only (immutable) with
the exception of the void scalar which can also be written to so that record-array field setting works more naturally
(a[0][f1] = value ).
6.1.6 Advanced (Fancy) Indexing

The implementation of advanced indexing represents some of the most difficult code to write and explain. In fact, there
are two implementations of advanced indexing. The first works only with 1-D arrays and is implemented to handle
expressions involving a.flat[obj]. The second is general-purpose that works for arrays of arbitrary dimension (up to
a fixed maximum). The one-dimensional indexing approaches were implemented in a rather straightforward fashion,
and so it is the general-purpose indexing code that will be the focus of this section.
There is a multi-layer approach to indexing because the indexing code can at times return an array scalar and at other
times return an array. The functions with _nice appended to their name do this special handling while the function
without the _nice appendage always return an array (perhaps a 0-dimensional array). Some special-case optimizations
(the index being an integer scalar, and the index being a tuple with as many dimensions as the array) are handled in
array_subscript_nice function which is what Python calls when presented with the code a[obj]. These optimizations
allow fast single-integer indexing, and also ensure that a 0-dimensional array is not created only to be discarded as the
array scalar is returned instead. This provides significant speed-up for code that is selecting many scalars out of an
array (such as in a loop). However, it is still not faster than simply using a list to store standard Python scalars, because
that is optimized by the Python interpreter itself.
After these optimizations, the array_subscript function itself is called. This function first checks for field selection
which occurs when a string is passed as the indexing object. Then, 0-D arrays are given special-case consideration.
Finally, the code determines whether or not advanced, or fancy, indexing needs to be performed. If fancy indexing
is not needed, then standard view-based indexing is performed using code borrowed from Numeric which parses the
indexing object and returns the offset into the data-buffer and the dimensions necessary to create a new view of the
array. The strides are also changed by multiplying each stride by the step-size requested along the corresponding
dimension.
Fancy-indexing check
The fancy_indexing_check routine determines whether or not to use standard view-based indexing or new copy-based
indexing. If the indexing object is a tuple, then view-based indexing is assumed by default. Only if the tuple contains
an array object or a sequence object is fancy-indexing assumed. If the indexing object is an array, then fancy indexing
is automatically assumed. If the indexing object is any other kind of sequence, then fancy-indexing is assumed by
default. This is over-ridden to simple indexing if the sequence contains any slice, newaxis, or Ellipsis objects, and no
arrays or additional sequences are also contained in the sequence. The purpose of this is to allow the construction of
slicing sequences which is a common technique for building up code that works in arbitrary numbers of dimensions.
Fancy-indexing implementation
The concept of indexing was also abstracted using the idea of an iterator. If fancy indexing is performed, then a
PyArrayMapIterObject is created. This internal object is not exposed to Python. It is created in order to handle
6.1. Numpy C Code Explanations
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the fancy-indexing at a high-level. Both get and set fancy-indexing operations are implemented using this object. Fancy
indexing is abstracted into three separate operations: (1) creating the PyArrayMapIterObject from the indexing
object, (2) binding the PyArrayMapIterObject to the array being indexed, and (3) getting (or setting) the items
determined by the indexing object. There is an optimization implemented so that the PyArrayIterObject (which
has its own less complicated fancy-indexing) is used for indexing when possible.
Creating the mapping object
The first step is to convert the indexing objects into a standard form where iterators are created for all of the index
array inputs and all Boolean arrays are converted to equivalent integer index arrays (as if nonzero(arr) had been called).
Finally, all integer arrays are replaced with the integer 0 in the indexing object and all of the index-array iterators are
broadcast to the same shape.
Binding the mapping object
When the mapping object is created it does not know which array it will be used with so once the index iterators are
constructed during mapping-object creation, the next step is to associate these iterators with a particular ndarray. This
process interprets any ellipsis and slice objects so that the index arrays are associated with the appropriate axis (the
axis indicated by the iteraxis entry corresponding to the iterator for the integer index array). This information is then
used to check the indices to be sure they are within range of the shape of the array being indexed. The presence of
ellipsis and/or slice objects implies a sub-space iteration that is accomplished by extracting a sub-space view of the
array (using the index object resulting from replacing all the integer index arrays with 0) and storing the information
about where this sub-space starts in the mapping object. This is used later during mapping-object iteration to select
the correct elements from the underlying array.
Getting (or Setting)
After the mapping object is successfully bound to a particular array, the mapping object contains the shape of the
resulting item as well as iterator objects that will walk through the currently-bound array and either get or set its
elements as needed. The walk is implemented using the PyArray_MapIterNext function. This function sets
the coordinates of an iterator object into the current array to be the next coordinate location indicated by all of the
indexing-object iterators while adjusting, if necessary, for the presence of a subspace. The result of this function is
that the dataptr member of the mapping object structure is pointed to the next position in the array that needs to be
copied out or set to some value.
When advanced indexing is used to extract an array, an iterator for the new array is constructed and advanced in phase
with the mapping object iterator. When advanced indexing is used to place values in an array, a special broadcasted
iterator is constructed from the object being placed into the array so that it will only work if the values used for setting
have a shape that is broadcastable to the shape implied by the indexing object.
6.1.7 Universal Functions

Universal functions are callable objects that take N inputs and produce M outputs by wrapping basic 1-D loops that
work element-by-element into full easy-to use functions that seamlessly implement broadcasting, type-checking and
buffered coercion, and output-argument handling. New universal functions are normally created in C, although there
is a mechanism for creating ufuncs from Python functions (frompyfunc). The user must supply a 1-D loop that
implements the basic function taking the input scalar values and placing the resulting scalars into the appropriate
output slots as explaine n implementation.
Setup
Every ufunc calculation involves some overhead related to setting up the calculation. The practical significance of
this overhead is that even though the actual calculation of the ufunc is very fast, you will be able to write array
and type-specific code that will work faster for small arrays than the ufunc. In particular, using ufuncs to perform
many calculations on 0-D arrays will be slower than other Python-based solutions (the silently-imported scalarmath
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module exists precisely to give array scalars the look-and-feel of ufunc-based calculations with significantly reduced
overhead).
When a ufunc is called, many things must be done. The information collected from these setup operations is stored
in a loop-object. This loop object is a C-structure (that could become a Python object but is not initialized as such
because it is only used internally). This loop object has the layout needed to be used with PyArray_Broadcast so that
the broadcasting can be handled in the same way as it is handled in other sections of code.
The first thing done is to look-up in the thread-specific global dictionary the current values for the buffer-size, the error
mask, and the associated error object. The state of the error mask controls what happens when an error-condiction is
found. It should be noted that checking of the hardware error flags is only performed after each 1-D loop is executed.
This means that if the input and output arrays are contiguous and of the correct type so that a single 1-D loop is
performed, then the flags may not be checked until all elements of the array have been calcluated. Looking up these
values in a thread- specific dictionary takes time which is easily ignored for all but very small arrays.
After checking, the thread-specific global variables, the inputs are evaluated to determine how the ufunc should proceed
and the input and output arrays are constructed if necessary. Any inputs which are not arrays are converted to arrays
(using context if necessary). Which of the inputs are scalars (and therefore converted to 0-D arrays) is noted.
Next, an appropriate 1-D loop is selected from the 1-D loops available to the ufunc based on the input array types. This
1-D loop is selected by trying to match the signature of the data-types of the inputs against the available signatures.
The signatures corresponding to built-in types are stored in the types member of the ufunc structure. The signatures
corresponding to user-defined types are stored in a linked-list of function-information with the head element stored
as a CObject in the userloops dictionary keyed by the data-type number (the first user-defined type in the argument
list is used as the key). The signatures are searched until a signature is found to which the input arrays can all be cast
safely (ignoring any scalar arguments which are not allowed to determine the type of the result). The implication of
this search procedure is that lesser types should be placed below larger types when the signatures are stored. If no
1-D loop is found, then an error is reported. Otherwise, the argument_list is updated with the stored signature in
case casting is necessary and to fix the output types assumed by the 1-D loop.
If the ufunc has 2 inputs and 1 output and the second input is an Object array then a special-case check is performed
so that NotImplemented is returned if the second input is not an ndarray, has the __array_priority__ attribute, and
has an __r{op}__ special method. In this way, Python is signaled to give the other object a chance to complete the
operation instead of using generic object-array calculations. This allows (for example) sparse matrices to override the
multiplication operator 1-D loop.
For input arrays that are smaller than the specified buffer size, copies are made of all non-contiguous, mis-aligned, or
out-of- byteorder arrays to ensure that for small arrays, a single-loop is used. Then, array iterators are created for all
the input arrays and the resulting collection of iterators is broadcast to a single shape.
The output arguments (if any) are then processed and any missing return arrays are constructed. If any provided output
array doesnt have the correct type (or is mis-aligned) and is smaller than the buffer size, then a new output array is
constructed with the special UPDATEIFCOPY flag set so that when it is DECREFd on completion of the function,
its contents will be copied back into the output array. Iterators for the output arguments are then processed.
Finally, the decision is made about how to execute the looping mechanism to ensure that all elements of the input
arrays are combined to produce the output arrays of the correct type. The options for loop execution are one-loop (for
contiguous, aligned, and correct data- type), strided-loop (for non-contiguous but still aligned and correct data-type),
and a buffered loop (for mis-aligned or incorrect data- type situations). Depending on which execution method is
called for, the loop is then setup and computed.
Function call
This section describes how the basic universal function computation loop is setup and executed for each of the three
different kinds of execution possibilities. If NPY_ALLOW_THREADS is defined during compilation, then the Python
Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is released prior to calling all of these loops (as long as they dont involve object arrays).
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It is re-acquired if necessary to handle error conditions. The hardware error flags are checked only after the 1-D loop
is calcluated.
One Loop
This is the simplest case of all. The ufunc is executed by calling the underlying 1-D loop exactly once. This is possible
only when we have aligned data of the correct type (including byte-order) for both input and output and all arrays have
uniform strides (either contiguous, 0-D, or 1-D). In this case, the 1-D computational loop is called once to compute
the calculation for the entire array. Note that the hardware error flags are only checked after the entire calculation is
complete.
Strided Loop
When the input and output arrays are aligned and of the correct type, but the striding is not uniform (non-contiguous
and 2-D or larger), then a second looping structure is employed for the calculation. This approach converts all of the
iterators for the input and output arguments to iterate over all but the largest dimension. The inner loop is then handled
by the underlying 1-D computational loop. The outer loop is a standard iterator loop on the converted iterators. The
hardware error flags are checked after each 1-D loop is completed.
Buffered Loop
This is the code that handles the situation whenever the input and/or output arrays are either misaligned or of the wrong
data-type (including being byte-swapped) from what the underlying 1-D loop expects. The arrays are also assumed to
be non-contiguous. The code works very much like the strided loop except for the inner 1-D loop is modified so that
pre-processing is performed on the inputs and post- processing is performed on the outputs in bufsize chunks (where
bufsize is a user-settable parameter). The underlying 1-D computational loop is called on data that is copied over (if it
needs to be). The setup code and the loop code is considerably more complicated in this case because it has to handle:
memory allocation of the temporary buffers
deciding whether or not to use buffers on the input and output data (mis-aligned and/or wrong data-type)
copying and possibly casting data for any inputs or outputs for which buffers are necessary.
special-casing Object arrays so that reference counts are properly handled when copies and/or casts are necessary.
breaking up the inner 1-D loop into bufsize chunks (with a possible remainder).
Again, the hardware error flags are checked at the end of each 1-D loop.
Final output manipulation
Ufuncs allow other array-like classes to be passed seamlessly through the interface in that inputs of a particular class will induce the outputs to be of that same class. The mechanism by which this works is the following.
If any of the inputs are not ndarrays and define the __array_wrap__ method, then the class with the largest
__array_priority__ attribute determines the type of all the outputs (with the exception of any output arrays
passed in). The __array_wrap__ method of the input array will be called with the ndarray being returned from
the ufunc as its input. There are two calling styles of the __array_wrap__ function supported. The first takes
the ndarray as the first argument and a tuple of context as the second argument. The context is (ufunc, arguments,
output argument number). This is the first call tried. If a TypeError occurs, then the function is called with just the
ndarray as the first argument.
Methods
Their are three methods of ufuncs that require calculation similar to the general-purpose ufuncs. These are reduce,
accumulate, and reduceat. Each of these methods requires a setup command followed by a loop. There are four loop
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styles possible for the methods corresponding to no-elements, one-element, strided-loop, and buffered- loop. These
are the same basic loop styles as implemented for the general purpose function call except for the no-element and oneelement cases which are special-cases occurring when the input array objects have 0 and 1 elements respectively.
Setup
The setup function for all three methods is construct_reduce. This function creates a reducing loop object and
fills it with parameters needed to complete the loop. All of the methods only work on ufuncs that take 2-inputs and
return 1 output. Therefore, the underlying 1-D loop is selected assuming a signature of [ otype, otype, otype
] where otype is the requested reduction data-type. The buffer size and error handling is then retrieved from (perthread) global storage. For small arrays that are mis-aligned or have incorrect data-type, a copy is made so that the
un-buffered section of code is used. Then, the looping strategy is selected. If there is 1 element or 0 elements in the
array, then a simple looping method is selected. If the array is not mis-aligned and has the correct data-type, then
strided looping is selected. Otherwise, buffered looping must be performed. Looping parameters are then established,
and the return array is constructed. The output array is of a different shape depending on whether the method is reduce,
accumulate, or reduceat. If an output array is already provided, then its shape is checked. If the output array is not
C-contiguous, aligned, and of the correct data type, then a temporary copy is made with the UPDATEIFCOPY flag set.
In this way, the methods will be able to work with a well-behaved output array but the result will be copied back into
the true output array when the method computation is complete. Finally, iterators are set up to loop over the correct
axis (depending on the value of axis provided to the method) and the setup routine returns to the actual computation
routine.
Reduce
All of the ufunc methods use the same underlying 1-D computational loops with input and output arguments adjusted
so that the appropriate reduction takes place. For example, the key to the functioning of reduce is that the 1-D loop is
called with the output and the second input pointing to the same position in memory and both having a step- size of 0.
The first input is pointing to the input array with a step- size given by the appropriate stride for the selected axis. In
this way, the operation performed is
o=
o=
i[0]
i[k]<op>o
k = 1...N
where N + 1 is the number of elements in the input, i, o is the output, and i[k] is the k th element of i along the selected
axis. This basic operations is repeated for arrays with greater than 1 dimension so that the reduction takes place for
every 1-D sub-array along the selected axis. An iterator with the selected dimension removed handles this looping.
For buffered loops, care must be taken to copy and cast data before the loop function is called because the underlying
loop expects aligned data of the correct data-type (including byte-order). The buffered loop must handle this copying
and casting prior to calling the loop function on chunks no greater than the user-specified bufsize.
Accumulate
The accumulate function is very similar to the reduce function in that the output and the second input both point to the
output. The difference is that the second input points to memory one stride behind the current output pointer. Thus,
the operation performed is
o[0] =
i[0]
o[k] =
i[k]<op>o[k 1] k = 1 . . . N.
The output has the same shape as the input and each 1-D loop operates over N elements when the shape in the selected
axis is N +1. Again, buffered loops take care to copy and cast the data before calling the underlying 1-D computational
loop.
Reduceat
The reduceat function is a generalization of both the reduce and accumulate functions. It implements a reduce over
ranges of the input array specified by indices. The extra indices argument is checked to be sure that every input
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is not too large for the input array along the selected dimension before the loop calculations take place. The loop
implementation is handled using code that is very similar to the reduce code repeated as many times as there are
elements in the indices input. In particular: the first input pointer passed to the underlying 1-D computational loop
points to the input array at the correct location indicated by the index array. In addition, the output pointer and the
second input pointer passed to the underlying 1-D loop point to the same position in memory. The size of the 1-D
computational loop is fixed to be the difference between the current index and the next index (when the current index
is the last index, then the next index is assumed to be the length of the array along the selected dimension). In this
way, the 1-D loop will implement a reduce over the specified indices.
Mis-aligned or a loop data-type that does not match the input and/or output data-type is handled using buffered code
where-in data is copied to a temporary buffer and cast to the correct data-type if necessary prior to calling the underlying 1-D function. The temporary buffers are created in (element) sizes no bigger than the user settable buffer-size
value. Thus, the loop must be flexible enough to call the underlying 1-D computational loop enough times to complete
the total calculation in chunks no bigger than the buffer-size.
6.2 Internal organization of numpy arrays

It helps to understand a bit about how numpy arrays are handled under the covers to help understand numpy better.
This section will not go into great detail. Those wishing to understand the full details are referred to Travis Oliphants
book Guide to Numpy.
Numpy arrays consist of two major components, the raw array data (from now on, referred to as the data buffer), and
the information about the raw array data. The data buffer is typically what people think of as arrays in C or Fortran,
a contiguous (and fixed) block of memory containing fixed sized data items. Numpy also contains a significant set of
data that describes how to interpret the data in the data buffer. This extra information contains (among other things):
1. The basic data elements size in bytes
2. The start of the data within the data buffer (an offset relative to the beginning of the data buffer).
3. The number of dimensions and the size of each dimension
4. The separation between elements for each dimension (the stride). This does not have to be a multiple of the
element size
5. The byte order of the data (which may not be the native byte order)
6. Whether the buffer is read-only
7. Information (via the dtype object) about the interpretation of the basic data element. The basic data element
may be as simple as a int or a float, or it may be a compound object (e.g., struct-like), a fixed character field, or
Python object pointers.
8. Whether the array is to interpreted as C-order or Fortran-order.
This arrangement allow for very flexible use of arrays. One thing that it allows is simple changes of the metadata
to change the interpretation of the array buffer. Changing the byteorder of the array is a simple change involving no
rearrangement of the data. The shape of the array can be changed very easily without changing anything in the data
buffer or any data copying at all
Among other things that are made possible is one can create a new array metadata object that uses the same data buffer
to create a new view of that data buffer that has a different interpretation of the buffer (e.g., different shape, offset,
byte order, strides, etc) but shares the same data bytes. Many operations in numpy do just this such as slices. Other
operations, such as transpose, dont move data elements around in the array, but rather change the information about
the shape and strides so that the indexing of the array changes, but the data in the doesnt move.
Typically these new versions of the array metadata but the same data buffer are new views into the data buffer. There
is a different ndarray object, but it uses the same data buffer. This is why it is necessary to force copies through use of
the .copy() method if one really wants to make a new and independent copy of the data buffer.
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New views into arrays mean the the object reference counts for the data buffer increase. Simply doing away with the
original array object will not remove the data buffer if other views of it still exist.
6.3 Multidimensional Array Indexing Order Issues

What is the right way to index multi-dimensional arrays? Before you jump to conclusions about the one and true
way to index multi-dimensional arrays, it pays to understand why this is a confusing issue. This section will try to
explain in detail how numpy indexing works and why we adopt the convention we do for images, and when it may be
appropriate to adopt other conventions.
The first thing to understand is that there are two conflicting conventions for indexing 2-dimensional arrays. Matrix
notation uses the first index to indicate which row is being selected and the second index to indicate which column
is selected. This is opposite the geometrically oriented-convention for images where people generally think the first
index represents x position (i.e., column) and the second represents y position (i.e., row). This alone is the source of
much confusion; matrix-oriented users and image-oriented users expect two different things with regard to indexing.
The second issue to understand is how indices correspond to the order the array is stored in memory. In Fortran the first
index is the most rapidly varying index when moving through the elements of a two dimensional array as it is stored
in memory. If you adopt the matrix convention for indexing, then this means the matrix is stored one column at a time
(since the first index moves to the next row as it changes). Thus Fortran is considered a Column-major language. C
has just the opposite convention. In C, the last index changes most rapidly as one moves through the array as stored
in memory. Thus C is a Row-major language. The matrix is stored by rows. Note that in both cases it presumes that
the matrix convention for indexing is being used, i.e., for both Fortran and C, the first index is the row. Note this
convention implies that the indexing convention is invariant and that the data order changes to keep that so.
But thats not the only way to look at it. Suppose one has large two-dimensional arrays (images or matrices) stored
in data files. Suppose the data are stored by rows rather than by columns. If we are to preserve our index convention
(whether matrix or image) that means that depending on the language we use, we may be forced to reorder the data
if it is read into memory to preserve our indexing convention. For example if we read row-ordered data into memory
without reordering, it will match the matrix indexing convention for C, but not for Fortran. Conversely, it will match
the image indexing convention for Fortran, but not for C. For C, if one is using data stored in row order, and one wants
to preserve the image index convention, the data must be reordered when reading into memory.
In the end, which you do for Fortran or C depends on which is more important, not reordering data or preserving the
indexing convention. For large images, reordering data is potentially expensive, and often the indexing convention is
inverted to avoid that.
The situation with numpy makes this issue yet more complicated. The internal machinery of numpy arrays is flexible
enough to accept any ordering of indices. One can simply reorder indices by manipulating the internal stride information for arrays without reordering the data at all. Numpy will know how to map the new index order to the data
without moving the data.
So if this is true, why not choose the index order that matches what you most expect? In particular, why not define
row-ordered images to use the image convention? (This is sometimes referred to as the Fortran convention vs the C
convention, thus the C and FORTRAN order options for array ordering in numpy.) The drawback of doing this
is potential performance penalties. Its common to access the data sequentially, either implicitly in array operations
or explicitly by looping over rows of an image. When that is done, then the data will be accessed in non-optimal
order. As the first index is incremented, what is actually happening is that elements spaced far apart in memory are
being sequentially accessed, with usually poor memory access speeds. For example, for a two dimensional image im
defined so that im[0, 10] represents the value at x=0, y=10. To be consistent with usual Python behavior then im[0]
would represent a column at x=0. Yet that data would be spread over the whole array since the data are stored in
row order. Despite the flexibility of numpys indexing, it cant really paper over the fact basic operations are rendered
inefficient because of data order or that getting contiguous subarrays is still awkward (e.g., im[:,0] for the first row,
vs im[0]), thus one cant use an idiom such as for row in im; for col in im does work, but doesnt yield contiguous
column data.
6.3. Multidimensional Array Indexing Order Issues
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As it turns out, numpy is smart enough when dealing with ufuncs to determine which index is the most rapidly varying
one in memory and uses that for the innermost loop. Thus for ufuncs there is no large intrinsic advantage to either
approach in most cases. On the other hand, use of .flat with an FORTRAN ordered array will lead to non-optimal
memory access as adjacent elements in the flattened array (iterator, actually) are not contiguous in memory.
Indeed, the fact is that Python indexing on lists and other sequences naturally leads to an outside-to inside ordering
(the first index gets the largest grouping, the next the next largest, and the last gets the smallest element). Since image
data are normally stored by rows, this corresponds to position within rows being the last item indexed.
If you do want to use Fortran ordering realize that there are two approaches to consider: 1) accept that the first index
is just not the most rapidly changing in memory and have all your I/O routines reorder your data when going from
memory to disk or visa versa, or use numpys mechanism for mapping the first index to the most rapidly varying
data. We recommend the former if possible. The disadvantage of the latter is that many of numpys functions will
yield arrays without Fortran ordering unless you are careful to use the order keyword. Doing this would be highly
inconvenient.
Otherwise we recommend simply learning to reverse the usual order of indices when accessing elements of an array.
Granted, it goes against the grain, but it is more in line with Python semantics and the natural order of the data.
1420
CHAPTER
SEVEN
NUMPY AND SWIG

7.1 Numpy.i: a SWIG Interface File for NumPy
7.1.1 Introduction
The Simple Wrapper and Interface Generator (or SWIG) is a powerful tool for generating wrapper code for interfacing
to a wide variety of scripting languages. SWIG can parse header files, and using only the code prototypes, create an
interface to the target language. But SWIG is not omnipotent. For example, it cannot know from the prototype:
double rms(double* seq, int n);
what exactly seq is. Is it a single value to be altered in-place? Is it an array, and if so what is its length? Is it
input-only? Output-only? Input-output? SWIG cannot determine these details, and does not attempt to do so.
If we designed rms, we probably made it a routine that takes an input-only array of length n of double values called
seq and returns the root mean square. The default behavior of SWIG, however, will be to create a wrapper function
that compiles, but is nearly impossible to use from the scripting language in the way the C routine was intended.
For Python, the preferred way of handling contiguous (or technically, strided) blocks of homogeneous data is with
NumPy, which provides full object-oriented access to multidimensial arrays of data. Therefore, the most logical
Python interface for the rms function would be (including doc string):
def rms(seq):
"""
rms: return the root mean square of a sequence
rms(numpy.ndarray) -> double
rms(list) -> double
rms(tuple) -> double
"""
where seq would be a NumPy array of double values, and its length n would be extracted from seq internally
before being passed to the C routine. Even better, since NumPy supports construction of arrays from arbitrary Python
sequences, seq itself could be a nearly arbitrary sequence (so long as each element can be converted to a double)
and the wrapper code would internally convert it to a NumPy array before extracting its data and length.
SWIG allows these types of conversions to be defined via a mechanism called typemaps. This document provides
information on how to use numpy.i, a SWIG interface file that defines a series of typemaps intended to make the
type of array-related conversions described above relatively simple to implement. For example, suppose that the rms
function prototype defined above was in a header file named rms.h. To obtain the Python interface discussed above,
your SWIG interface file would need the following:
%{
#define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT
1421
#include "rms.h"
%}
%include "numpy.i"
%init %{
import_array();
%}
%apply (double* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1) {(double* seq, int n)};
%include "rms.h"
Typemaps are keyed off a list of one or more function arguments, either by type or by type and name. We will
refer to such lists as signatures. One of the many typemaps defined by numpy.i is used above and has the signature
(double* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1). The argument names are intended to suggest that the double* argument
is an input array of one dimension and that the int represents the size of that dimension. This is precisely the pattern
in the rms prototype.
Most likely, no actual prototypes to be wrapped will have the argument names IN_ARRAY1 and DIM1. We use
the SWIG %apply directive to apply the typemap for one-dimensional input arrays of type double to the actual
prototype used by rms. Using numpy.i effectively, therefore, requires knowing what typemaps are available and
what they do.
A SWIG interface file that includes the SWIG directives given above will produce wrapper code that looks something
like:
1 PyObject *_wrap_rms(PyObject *args) {
2
PyObject *resultobj = 0;
3
double *arg1 = (double *) 0 ;
4
int arg2 ;
5
double result;
6
PyArrayObject *array1 = NULL ;
7
int is_new_object1 = 0 ;
8
PyObject * obj0 = 0 ;
9
10
if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,(char *)"O:rms",&obj0)) SWIG_fail;
11
{
12
array1 = obj_to_array_contiguous_allow_conversion(
13
obj0, NPY_DOUBLE, &is_new_object1);
14
npy_intp size[1] = {
15
-1
16
};
17
if (!array1 || !require_dimensions(array1, 1) ||
18
!require_size(array1, size, 1)) SWIG_fail;
19
arg1 = (double*) array1->data;
20
arg2 = (int) array1->dimensions[0];
21
}
22
result = (double)rms(arg1,arg2);
23
resultobj = SWIG_From_double((double)(result));
24
{
25
if (is_new_object1 && array1) Py_DECREF(array1);
26
}
27
return resultobj;
28 fail:
29
{
30
if (is_new_object1 && array1) Py_DECREF(array1);
31
}
32
return NULL;
33 }
1422
Chapter 7. Numpy and SWIG
The typemaps from numpy.i are responsible for the following lines of code: 1220, 25 and 30. Line 10 parses
the input to the rms function. From the format string "O:rms", we can see that the argument list is expected to
be a single Python object (specified by the O before the colon) and whose pointer is stored in obj0. A number of
functions, supplied by numpy.i, are called to make and check the (possible) conversion from a generic Python object
to a NumPy array. These functions are explained in the section Helper Functions, but hopefully their names are selfexplanatory. At line 12 we use obj0 to construct a NumPy array. At line 17, we check the validity of the result: that
it is non-null and that it has a single dimension of arbitrary length. Once these states are verified, we extract the data
buffer and length in lines 19 and 20 so that we can call the underlying C function at line 22. Line 25 performs memory
management for the case where we have created a new array that is no longer needed.
This code has a significant amount of error handling. Note the SWIG_fail is a macro for goto fail, refering to
the label at line 28. If the user provides the wrong number of arguments, this will be caught at line 10. If construction
of the NumPy array fails or produces an array with the wrong number of dimensions, these errors are caught at line
17. And finally, if an error is detected, memory is still managed correctly at line 30.
Note that if the C function signature was in a different order:
double rms(int n, double* seq);
that SWIG would not match the typemap signature given above with the argument list for rms. Fortunately, numpy.i
has a set of typemaps with the data pointer given last:
%apply (int DIM1, double* IN_ARRAY1) {(int n, double* seq)};
This simply has the effect of switching the definitions of arg1 and arg2 in lines 3 and 4 of the generated code above,
and their assignments in lines 19 and 20.
7.1.2 Using numpy.i

The numpy.i file is currently located in the numpy/docs/swig sub-directory under the numpy installation directory. Typically, you will want to copy it to the directory where you are developing your wrappers.
A simple module that only uses a single SWIG interface file should include the following:
%{
#define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT
%}
%include "numpy.i"
%init %{
import_array();
%}
Within a compiled Python module, import_array() should only get called once. This could be in a C/C++
file that you have written and is linked to the module. If this is the case, then none of your interface files should
#define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT or call import_array(). Or, this initialization call could be in a wrapper
file generated by SWIG from an interface file that has the %init block as above. If this is the case, and you have
more than one SWIG interface file, then only one interface file should #define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT and
call import_array().
7.1.3 Available Typemaps

The typemap directives provided by numpy.i for arrays of different data types, say double and int, and dimensions of different types, say int or long, are identical to one another except for the C and NumPy type specifications.
The typemaps are therefore implemented (typically behind the scenes) via a macro:
7.1. Numpy.i: a SWIG Interface File for NumPy
1423
%numpy_typemaps(DATA_TYPE, DATA_TYPECODE, DIM_TYPE)
that can be invoked for appropriate (DATA_TYPE, DATA_TYPECODE, DIM_TYPE) triplets. For example:
%numpy_typemaps(double, NPY_DOUBLE, int)
%numpy_typemaps(int,
NPY_INT
, int)
The numpy.i interface file uses the %numpy_typemaps macro to implement typemaps for the following C data
types and int dimension types:
signed char
unsigned char
short
unsigned short
int
unsigned int
long
unsigned long
long long
unsigned long long
float
double
In the following descriptions, we reference a generic DATA_TYPE, which could be any of the C data types listed
above, and DIM_TYPE which should be one of the many types of integers.
The typemap signatures are largely differentiated on the name given to the buffer pointer. Names with FARRAY are
for Fortran-ordered arrays, and names with ARRAY are for C-ordered (or 1D arrays).
Input Arrays
Input arrays are defined as arrays of data that are passed into a routine but are not altered in-place or returned to
the user. The Python input array is therefore allowed to be almost any Python sequence (such as a list) that can be
converted to the requested type of array. The input array signatures are
1D:
( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY1[ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1 )
( int DIM1, DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY1 )
2D:
( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY2 )
( DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY2 )
1424
3D:
( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY3[ANY][ANY][ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY3 )
( DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY3 )
4D:
(DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY4[ANY][ANY][ANY][ANY])
(DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
(DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, , DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
IN_ARRAY4)
(DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
(DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
IN_FARRAY4)
The first signature listed, ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY[ANY] ) is for one-dimensional arrays with hard-coded dimensions. Likewise, ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] ) is for two-dimensional arrays with hard-coded
dimensions, and similarly for three-dimensional.
In-Place Arrays
In-place arrays are defined as arrays that are modified in-place. The input values may or may not be used, but the
values at the time the function returns are significant. The provided Python argument must therefore be a NumPy
array of the required type. The in-place signatures are
1D:
( DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY1[ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY1, int DIM1 )
( int DIM1, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY1 )
2D:
( DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY2 )
( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY2 )
3D:
( DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY3[ANY][ANY][ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY3 )
( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
1425
( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY3 )

4D:
(DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY4[ANY][ANY][ANY][ANY])
(DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
(DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, , DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
INPLACE_ARRAY4)
(DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
(DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
INPLACE_FARRAY4)
These typemaps now check to make sure that the INPLACE_ARRAY arguments use native byte ordering. If not, an
exception is raised.
Argout Arrays
Argout arrays are arrays that appear in the input arguments in C, but are in fact output arrays. This pattern occurs often
when there is more than one output variable and the single return argument is therefore not sufficient. In Python, the
convential way to return multiple arguments is to pack them into a sequence (tuple, list, etc.) and return the sequence.
This is what the argout typemaps do. If a wrapped function that uses these argout typemaps has more than one return
argument, they are packed into a tuple or list, depending on the version of Python. The Python user does not pass
these arrays in, they simply get returned. For the case where a dimension is specified, the python user must provide
that dimension as an argument. The argout signatures are
1D:
( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY1[ANY] )
( DATA_TYPE* ARGOUT_ARRAY1, int DIM1 )
( int DIM1, DATA_TYPE* ARGOUT_ARRAY1 )
2D:
( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] )
3D:
( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY3[ANY][ANY][ANY] )
4D:
( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY4[ANY][ANY][ANY][ANY] )
These are typically used in situations where in C/C++, you would allocate a(n) array(s) on the heap, and call the
function to fill the array(s) values. In Python, the arrays are allocated for you and returned as new array objects.
Note that we support DATA_TYPE* argout typemaps in 1D, but not 2D or 3D. This is because of a quirk with the
SWIG typemap syntax and cannot be avoided. Note that for these types of 1D typemaps, the Python function will take
a single argument representing DIM1.
Argout View Arrays
Argoutview arrays are for when your C code provides you with a view of its internal data and does not require any
memory to be allocated by the user. This can be dangerous. There is almost no way to guarantee that the internal data
1426
from the C code will remain in existence for the entire lifetime of the NumPy array that encapsulates it. If the user
destroys the object that provides the view of the data before destroying the NumPy array, then using that array may
result in bad memory references or segmentation faults. Nevertheless, there are situations, working with large data
sets, where you simply have no other choice.
The C code to be wrapped for argoutview arrays are characterized by pointers: pointers to the dimensions and double
pointers to the data, so that these values can be passed back to the user. The argoutview typemap signatures are
therefore
1D:
( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY1, DIM_TYPE* DIM1 )
( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY1 )
2D:
( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2 )
( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY2 )
( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2 )
( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY2 )
3D:
( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DIM3)
( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY3)
( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2,
DIM_TYPE* DIM3)
( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY3)
4D:
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DIM3, DIM_TYPE* DIM4)
(DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DIM_TYPE* DIM4,
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY4)
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY4)
Note that arrays with hard-coded dimensions are not supported. These cannot follow the double pointer signatures of
these typemaps.
Memory Managed Argout View Arrays
A recent addition to numpy.i are typemaps that permit argout arrays with views into memory that is managed. See
the discussion here.
1D:
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY1, DIM_TYPE* DIM1)
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(DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY1)

2D:
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2)
(DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY2)
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2)
(DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY2)
3D:
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DIM3)
(DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY3)
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2,
DIM_TYPE* DIM3)
(DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY3)
4D:
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY4)
(DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2,
DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DIM_TYPE* DIM4)
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY4)
Output Arrays
The numpy.i interface file does not support typemaps for output arrays, for several reasons. First, C/C++ return
arguments are limited to a single value. This prevents obtaining dimension information in a general way. Second,
arrays with hard-coded lengths are not permitted as return arguments. In other words:
double[3] newVector(double x, double y, double z);
is not legal C/C++ syntax. Therefore, we cannot provide typemaps of the form:
%typemap(out) (TYPE[ANY]);
If you run into a situation where a function or method is returning a pointer to an array, your best bet is to write your
own version of the function to be wrapped, either with %extend for the case of class methods or %ignore and
%rename for the case of functions.
Other Common Types: bool
Note that C++ type bool is not supported in the list in the Available Typemaps section. NumPy bools are a single
byte, while the C++ bool is four bytes (at least on my system). Therefore:
1428
%numpy_typemaps(bool, NPY_BOOL, int)
will result in typemaps that will produce code that reference improper data lengths. You can implement the following
macro expansion:
%numpy_typemaps(bool, NPY_UINT, int)
to fix the data length problem, and Input Arrays will work fine, but In-Place Arrays might fail type-checking.
Other Common Types: complex
Typemap conversions for complex floating-point types is also not supported automatically. This is because Python and
NumPy are written in C, which does not have native complex types. Both Python and NumPy implement their own
(essentially equivalent) struct definitions for complex variables:
/* Python */
typedef struct {double real; double imag;} Py_complex;
/* NumPy */
typedef struct {float real, imag;} npy_cfloat;
typedef struct {double real, imag;} npy_cdouble;
We could have implemented:

%numpy_typemaps(Py_complex , NPY_CDOUBLE, int)
%numpy_typemaps(npy_cfloat , NPY_CFLOAT , int)
%numpy_typemaps(npy_cdouble, NPY_CDOUBLE, int)
which would have provided automatic type conversions for arrays of type Py_complex, npy_cfloat and
npy_cdouble. However, it seemed unlikely that there would be any independent (non-Python, non-NumPy) application code that people would be using SWIG to generate a Python interface to, that also used these definitions
for complex types. More likely, these application codes will define their own complex types, or in the case of
C++, use std::complex. Assuming these data structures are compatible with Python and NumPy complex types,
%numpy_typemap expansions as above (with the users complex type substituted for the first argument) should
work.
7.1.4 NumPy Array Scalars and SWIG

SWIG has sophisticated type checking for numerical types. For example, if your C/C++ routine expects an integer
as input, the code generated by SWIG will check for both Python integers and Python long integers, and raise an
overflow error if the provided Python integer is too big to cast down to a C integer. With the introduction of NumPy
scalar arrays into your Python code, you might conceivably extract an integer from a NumPy array and attempt to
pass this to a SWIG-wrapped C/C++ function that expects an int, but the SWIG type checking will not recognize
the NumPy array scalar as an integer. (Often, this does in fact work it depends on whether NumPy recognizes the
integer type you are using as inheriting from the Python integer type on the platform you are using. Sometimes, this
means that code that works on a 32-bit machine will fail on a 64-bit machine.)
If you get a Python error that looks like the following:
TypeError: in method MyClass_MyMethod, argument 2 of type int
and the argument you are passing is an integer extracted from a NumPy array, then you have stumbled upon this
problem. The solution is to modify the SWIG type conversion system to accept Numpy array scalars in addition to the
standard integer types. Fortunately, this capabilitiy has been provided for you. Simply copy the file:
1429
pyfragments.swg
to the working build directory for you project, and this problem will be fixed. It is suggested that you do this anyway,
as it only increases the capabilities of your Python interface.
Why is There a Second File?
The SWIG type checking and conversion system is a complicated combination of C macros, SWIG macros, SWIG
typemaps and SWIG fragments. Fragments are a way to conditionally insert code into your wrapper file if it is needed,
and not insert it if not needed. If multiple typemaps require the same fragment, the fragment only gets inserted into
your wrapper code once.
There is a fragment for converting a Python integer to a C long. There is a different fragment that converts a Python
integer to a C int, that calls the rountine defined in the long fragment. We can make the changes we want here by
changing the definition for the long fragment. SWIG determines the active definition for a fragment using a first
come, first served system. That is, we need to define the fragment for long conversions prior to SWIG doing it
internally. SWIG allows us to do this by putting our fragment definitions in the file pyfragments.swg. If we were
to put the new fragment definitions in numpy.i, they would be ignored.
7.1.5 Helper Functions

The numpy.i file containes several macros and routines that it uses internally to build its typemaps. However, these
functions may be useful elsewhere in your interface file. These macros and routines are implemented as fragments,
which are described briefly in the previous section. If you try to use one or more of the following macros or functions,
but your compiler complains that it does not recognize the symbol, then you need to force these fragments to appear
in your code using:
%fragment("NumPy_Fragments");
in your SWIG interface file.

Macros
is_array(a)
Evaluates as true if a is non-NULL and can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_type(a)
Evaluates to the integer data type code of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_numdims(a)
Evaluates to the integer number of dimensions of a, assuming a can be cast to a
PyArrayObject*.
array_dimensions(a)
Evaluates to an array of type npy_intp and length array_numdims(a), giving the lengths of
all of the dimensions of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_size(a,i)
Evaluates to the i-th dimension size of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_strides(a)
Evaluates to an array of type npy_intp and length array_numdims(a), giving the stridess of
all of the dimensions of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*. A stride is the distance
in bytes between an element and its immediate neighbor along the same axis.
1430
array_stride(a,i)
Evaluates to the i-th stride of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_data(a)
Evaluates to a pointer of type void* that points to the data buffer of a, assuming a can be cast to a
PyArrayObject*.
array_descr(a)
Returns a borrowed reference to the dtype property (PyArray_Descr*) of a, assuming a can be
cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_flags(a)
Returns an integer representing the flags of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_enableflags(a,f)
Sets the flag represented by f of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_is_contiguous(a)
Evaluates as true if a is a contiguous array. Equivalent to (PyArray_ISCONTIGUOUS(a)).
array_is_native(a)
Evaluates as true if the data buffer of a uses native byte order.
(PyArray_ISNOTSWAPPED(a)).
Equivalent to
array_is_fortran(a)
Evaluates as true if a is FORTRAN ordered.
Routines
pytype_string()
Return type: const char*
Arguments:
PyObject* py_obj, a general Python object.
Return a string describing the type of py_obj.
typecode_string()
Return type: const char*
Arguments:
int typecode, a NumPy integer typecode.
Return a string describing the type corresponding to the NumPy typecode.
type_match()
Return type: int
Arguments:
int actual_type, the NumPy typecode of a NumPy array.
int desired_type, the desired NumPy typecode.
Make sure that actual_type is compatible with desired_type. For example, this allows character and byte types, or int and long types, to match. This is now equivalent to
PyArray_EquivTypenums().
obj_to_array_no_conversion()
1431
Return type: PyArrayObject*

Arguments:
PyObject* input, a general Python object.
int typecode, the desired NumPy typecode.
Cast input to a PyArrayObject* if legal, and ensure that it is of type typecode. If
input cannot be cast, or the typecode is wrong, set a Python error and return NULL.
obj_to_array_allow_conversion()
Arguments:
int typecode, the desired NumPy typecode of the resulting array.
int* is_new_object, returns a value of 0 if no conversion performed, else 1.
Convert input to a NumPy array with the given typecode. On success, return a valid
PyArrayObject* with the correct type. On failure, the Python error string will be set and
the routine returns NULL.
make_contiguous()
Arguments:
PyArrayObject* ary, a NumPy array.
int min_dims, minimum allowable dimensions.
int max_dims, maximum allowable dimensions.
Check to see if ary is contiguous. If so, return the input pointer and flag it as not a new object.
If it is not contiguous, create a new PyArrayObject* using the original data, flag it as a
new object and return the pointer.
make_fortran()
Arguments
Check to see if ary is Fortran contiguous. If so, return the input pointer and flag it as not a
new object. If it is not Fortran contiguous, create a new PyArrayObject* using the original
data, flag it as a new object and return the pointer.
obj_to_array_contiguous_allow_conversion()
Arguments:
1432

Convert input to a contiguous PyArrayObject* of the specified type. If the input object
is not a contiguous PyArrayObject*, a new one will be created and the new object flag
will be set.
obj_to_array_fortran_allow_conversion()
Arguments:
Convert input to a Fortran contiguous PyArrayObject* of the specified type. If the input
object is not a Fortran contiguous PyArrayObject*, a new one will be created and the new
object flag will be set.
require_contiguous()
Return type: int
Arguments:
Test whether ary is contiguous. If so, return 1. Otherwise, set a Python error and return 0.
require_native()
Return type: int
Arguments:
PyArray_Object* ary, a NumPy array.
Require that ary is not byte-swapped. If the array is not byte-swapped, return 1. Otherwise,
set a Python error and return 0.
require_dimensions()
Return type: int
Arguments:
int exact_dimensions, the desired number of dimensions.
Require ary to have a specified number of dimensions. If the array has the specified number
of dimensions, return 1. Otherwise, set a Python error and return 0.
require_dimensions_n()
Return type: int
Arguments:
int* exact_dimensions, an array of integers representing acceptable numbers of
dimensions.
int n, the length of exact_dimensions.
1433
Require ary to have one of a list of specified number of dimensions. If the array has one of
the specified number of dimensions, return 1. Otherwise, set the Python error string and return
0.
require_size()
Return type: int
Arguments:
npy_int* size, an array representing the desired lengths of each dimension.
int n, the length of size.
Require ary to have a specified shape. If the array has the specified shape, return 1. Otherwise,
set the Python error string and return 0.
require_fortran()
Return type: int
Arguments:
Require the given PyArrayObject to to be Fortran ordered. If the the PyArrayObject
is already Fortran ordered, do nothing. Else, set the Fortran ordering flag and recompute the
strides.
7.1.6 Beyond the Provided Typemaps

There are many C or C++ array/NumPy array situations not covered by a simple %include "numpy.i" and
subsequent %apply directives.
A Common Example
Consider a reasonable prototype for a dot product function:
double dot(int len, double* vec1, double* vec2);
The Python interface that we want is:

def dot(vec1, vec2):
"""
dot(PyObject,PyObject) -> double
"""
The problem here is that there is one dimension argument and two array arguments, and our typemaps are set up for
dimensions that apply to a single array (in fact, SWIG does not provide a mechanism for associating len with vec2
that takes two Python input arguments). The recommended solution is the following:
%apply (int DIM1, double* IN_ARRAY1) {(int len1, double* vec1),
(int len2, double* vec2)}
%rename (dot) my_dot;
%exception my_dot {
$action
if (PyErr_Occurred()) SWIG_fail;
}
%inline %{
1434
double my_dot(int len1, double* vec1, int len2, double* vec2) {

if (len1 != len2) {
PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
"Arrays of lengths (%d,%d) given",
len1, len2);
return 0.0;
}
return dot(len1, vec1, vec2);
}
%}
If the header file that contains the prototype for double dot() also contains other prototypes that you want to
wrap, so that you need to %include this header file, then you will also need a %ignore dot; directive, placed
after the %rename and before the %include directives. Or, if the function in question is a class method, you will
want to use %extend rather than %inline in addition to %ignore.
A note on error handling: Note that my_dot returns a double but that it can also raise a Python error. The resulting
wrapper function will return a Python float representation of 0.0 when the vector lengths do not match. Since this is
not NULL, the Python interpreter will not know to check for an error. For this reason, we add the %exception
directive above for my_dot to get the behavior we want (note that $action is a macro that gets expanded to a valid
call to my_dot). In general, you will probably want to write a SWIG macro to perform this task.
Other Situations
There are other wrapping situations in which numpy.i may be helpful when you encounter them.
In some situations, it is possible that you could use the %numpy_typemaps macro to implement typemaps for
your own types. See the Other Common Types: bool or Other Common Types: complex sections for examples.
Another situation is if your dimensions are of a type other than int (say long for example):
%numpy_typemaps(double, NPY_DOUBLE, long)
You can use the code in numpy.i to write your own typemaps. For example, if you had a five-dimensional
array as a function argument, you could cut-and-paste the appropriate four-dimensional typemaps into your
interface file. The modifications for the fourth dimension would be trivial.
Sometimes, the best approach is to use the %extend directive to define new methods for your classes (or
overload existing ones) that take a PyObject* (that either is or can be converted to a PyArrayObject*)
instead of a pointer to a buffer. In this case, the helper routines in numpy.i can be very useful.
Writing typemaps can be a bit nonintuitive. If you have specific questions about writing SWIG typemaps for
NumPy, the developers of numpy.i do monitor the Numpy-discussion and Swig-user mail lists.
A Final Note
When you use the %apply directive, as is usually necessary to use numpy.i, it will remain in effect until you tell
SWIG that it shouldnt be. If the arguments to the functions or methods that you are wrapping have common names,
such as length or vector, these typemaps may get applied in situations you do not expect or want. Therefore, it is
always a good idea to add a %clear directive after you are done with a specific typemap:
%apply (double* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1) {(double* vector, int length)}
%include "my_header.h"
%clear (double* vector, int length);
In general, you should target these typemap signatures specifically where you want them, and then clear them after
you are done.
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7.1.7 Summary
Out of the box, numpy.i provides typemaps that support conversion between NumPy arrays and C arrays:
That can be one of 12 different scalar types: signed char, unsigned char, short, unsigned
short, int, unsigned int, long, unsigned long, long long, unsigned long long,
float and double.
That support 74 different argument signatures for each data type, including:
One-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and four-dimensional arrays.
Input-only, in-place, argout, argoutview, and memory managed argoutview behavior.
Hard-coded dimensions, data-buffer-then-dimensions specification, and dimensions-then-data-buffer specification.
Both C-ordering (last dimension fastest) or Fortran-ordering (first dimension fastest) support for 2D,
3D and 4D arrays.
The numpy.i interface file also provides additional tools for wrapper developers, including:
A SWIG macro (%numpy_typemaps) with three arguments for implementing the 74 argument signatures for
the users choice of (1) C data type, (2) NumPy data type (assuming they match), and (3) dimension type.
Fourteen C macros and fifteen C functions that can be used to write specialized typemaps, extensions, or inlined
functions that handle cases not covered by the provided typemaps. Note that the macros and functions are coded
specifically to work with the NumPy C/API regardless of NumPy version number, both before and after the
deprecation of some aspects of the API after version 1.6.
7.2 Testing the numpy.i Typemaps

7.2.1 Introduction
Writing tests for the numpy.i SWIG interface file is a combinatorial headache. At present, 12 different data types
are supported, each with 74 different argument signatures, for a total of 888 typemaps supported out of the box.
Each of these typemaps, in turn, might require several unit tests in order to verify expected behavior for both proper
and improper inputs. Currently, this results in 1,427 individual unit tests that are performed when make test is run
in the numpy/docs/swig subdirectory.
To facilitate this many similar unit tests, some high-level programming techniques are employed, including C and
SWIG macros, as well as Python inheritance. The purpose of this document is to describe the testing infrastructure
employed to verify that the numpy.i typemaps are working as expected.
7.2.2 Testing Organization

There are three indepedent testing frameworks supported, for one-, two-, and three-dimensional arrays respectively.
For one-dimensional arrays, there are two C++ files, a header and a source, named:
Vector.h
Vector.cxx
that contain prototypes and code for a variety of functions that have one-dimensional arrays as function arguments.
The file:
Vector.i
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is a SWIG interface file that defines a python module Vector that wraps the functions in Vector.h while utilizing
the typemaps in numpy.i to correctly handle the C arrays.
The Makefile calls swig to generate Vector.py and Vector_wrap.cxx, and also executes the
setup.py script that compiles Vector_wrap.cxx and links together the extension module _Vector.so or
_Vector.dylib, depending on the platform. This extension module and the proxy file Vector.py are both
placed in a subdirectory under the build directory.
The actual testing takes place with a Python script named:
testVector.py
that uses the standard Python library module unittest, which performs several tests of each function defined in
Vector.h for each data type supported.
Two-dimensional arrays are tested in exactly the same manner. The above description applies, but with Matrix
substituted for Vector. For three-dimensional tests, substitute Tensor for Vector. For four-dimensional tests,
substitute SuperTensor for Vector. For the descriptions that follow, we will reference the Vector tests, but the
same information applies to Matrix, Tensor and SuperTensor tests.
The command make test will ensure that all of the test software is built and then run all three test scripts.
7.2.3 Testing Header Files

Vector.h is a C++ header file that defines a C macro called TEST_FUNC_PROTOS that takes two arguments:
TYPE, which is a data type name such as unsigned int; and SNAME, which is a short name for the same data type
with no spaces, e.g. uint. This macro defines several function prototypes that have the prefix SNAME and have at
least one argument that is an array of type TYPE. Those functions that have return arguments return a TYPE value.
TEST_FUNC_PROTOS is then implemented for all of the data types supported by numpy.i:
signed char
unsigned char
short
unsigned short
int
unsigned int
long
unsigned long
long long
unsigned long long
float
double
7.2.4 Testing Source Files

Vector.cxx is a C++ source file that implements compilable code for each of the function prototypes specified
in Vector.h. It defines a C macro TEST_FUNCS that has the same arguments and works in the same way as
TEST_FUNC_PROTOS does in Vector.h. TEST_FUNCS is implemented for each of the 12 data types as above.
7.2. Testing the numpy.i Typemaps
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7.2.5 Testing SWIG Interface Files

Vector.i is a SWIG interface file that defines python module Vector. It follows the conventions for using
numpy.i as described in this chapter. It defines a SWIG macro %apply_numpy_typemaps that has a single
argument TYPE. It uses the SWIG directive %apply to apply the provided typemaps to the argument signatures
found in Vector.h. This macro is then implemented for all of the data types supported by numpy.i. It then does
a %include "Vector.h" to wrap all of the function prototypes in Vector.h using the typemaps in numpy.i.
7.2.6 Testing Python Scripts

After make is used to build the testing extension modules, testVector.py can be run to execute the tests. As
with other scripts that use unittest to facilitate unit testing, testVector.py defines a class that inherits from
unittest.TestCase:
class VectorTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
However, this class is not run directly. Rather, it serves as a base class to several other python classes, each one specific
to a particular data type. The VectorTestCase class stores two strings for typing information:
self.typeStr
A string that matches one of the SNAME prefixes used in Vector.h and Vector.cxx. For
example, "double".
self.typeCode
A short (typically single-character) string that represents a data type in numpy and corresponds
to self.typeStr. For example, if self.typeStr is "double", then self.typeCode
should be "d".
Each test defined by the VectorTestCase class extracts the python function it is trying to test by accessing the
Vector modules dictionary:
length = Vector.__dict__[self.typeStr + "Length"]
In the case of double precision tests, this will return the python function Vector.doubleLength.
We then define a new test case class for each supported data type with a short definition such as:
class doubleTestCase(VectorTestCase):
def __init__(self, methodName="runTest"):
VectorTestCase.__init__(self, methodName)
self.typeStr = "double"
self.typeCode = "d"
Each of these 12 classes is collected into a unittest.TestSuite, which is then executed. Errors and failures are
summed together and returned as the exit argument. Any non-zero result indicates that at least one test did not pass.
1438
CHAPTER
EIGHT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Large parts of this manual originate from Travis E. Oliphants book Guide to Numpy (which generously entered Public
Domain in August 2008). The reference documentation for many of the functions are written by numerous contributors
and developers of Numpy, both prior to and during the Numpy Documentation Marathon.
Please help to improve NumPys documentation! Instructions on how to join the ongoing documentation marathon
can be found on the scipy.org website
1439
1440
Chapter 8. Acknowledgements
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[R48] : G. H. Golub and C. F. van Loan, Matrix Computations, 3rd ed., Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1996, pg. 8.
Press, 1996, pg. 8.
[R50] Wikipedia, Curve fitting, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve_fitting
[R51] Wikipedia, Polynomial interpolation, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_interpolation
[R243] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754
[R32] Wikipedia, Twos complement, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twos_complement
[R1] Press, Teukolsky, Vetterling and Flannery, Numerical Recipes in C++, 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press,
2002, p. 31.
[R243] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754
[CT] Cooley, James W., and John W. Tukey, 1965, An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier
series, Math. Comput. 19: 297-301.
[CT] Cooley, James W., and John W. Tukey, 1965, An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier
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[NR] Press, W., Teukolsky, S., Vetterline, W.T., and Flannery, B.P., 2007, Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific
Computing, ch. 12-13. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
[WRW] Wheeler, D. A., E. Rathke, and R. Weir (Eds.) (2009, May). Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument)v1.2, Part 2: Recalculated Formula (OpenFormula) Format - Annotated Version, PreDraft 12. Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). Billerica, MA, USA.
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Bibliography
INDEX
Symbols
__abs__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 290
__abs__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__add__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__add__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__and__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__and__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__array__() (in module numpy), 119
__array__() (numpy.generic method), 86
__array__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 294
__array__() (numpy.ndarray method), 69
__array_finalize__() (in module numpy), 119
__array_interface__ (built-in variable), 419
__array_interface__ (numpy.generic attribute), 75
__array_prepare__() (in module numpy), 119
__array_priority__ (in module numpy), 119
__array_priority__ (numpy.generic attribute), 75
__array_priority__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute),
258
__array_struct__ (C variable), 421
__array_struct__ (numpy.generic attribute), 75
__array_wrap__() (in module numpy), 119
__array_wrap__() (numpy.generic method), 76, 86
__array_wrap__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method),
294
__array_wrap__() (numpy.ndarray method), 70
__call__() (numpy.poly1d method), 1120
__call__()
(numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
method), 982
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1064
__call__()
(numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
method), 1092
__call__()
(numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre
method), 1037
__call__()
(numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
method), 1010
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
method), 957
__call__() (numpy.vectorize method), 643
__contains__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 295
__contains__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70

__copy__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 293
__copy__() (numpy.ndarray method), 69
__deepcopy__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 293
__deepcopy__() (numpy.ndarray method), 69
__delitem__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 294
__div__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__div__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__divmod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 290
__divmod__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__eq__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__eq__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 289
__float__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__float__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259
__floordiv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__floordiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__ge__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 289
__ge__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__getitem__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__getitem__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 294
__getslice__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__getslice__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295
__getstate__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 293
__gt__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 289
__gt__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__hex__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 259
__hex__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__iadd__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__iadd__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 291
__iand__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 292
__iand__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__idiv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__idiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__ifloordiv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__ifloordiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__ilshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 292
__ilshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__imod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 292
__imod__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__imul__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__imul__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__int__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
1449
__int__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259

__invert__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__ior__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 292
__ior__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__ipow__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__ipow__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__irshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 292
__irshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__isub__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__isub__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 291
__itruediv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__itruediv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__ixor__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 292
__ixor__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 68
__le__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 289
__le__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 65
__len__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 294
__len__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__long__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 259
__long__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__lshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__lshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__lt__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 289
__lt__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 65
__mod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 290
__mod__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__mul__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__mul__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__ne__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__ne__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 289
__neg__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__new__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray static method), 294
__new__() (numpy.ndarray static method), 69
__nonzero__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 289
__nonzero__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__oct__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 259
__oct__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__or__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__or__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__pos__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 66
__pow__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__pow__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 291
__radd__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__rand__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__rdiv__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 290
__rdivmod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 290
__reduce__() (numpy.dtype method), 102
__reduce__() (numpy.generic method), 87
__reduce__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 293
__reduce__() (numpy.ndarray method), 69
__repr__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 71
__repr__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__rfloordiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__rlshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
1450
__rmod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 290

__rmul__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__ror__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__rpow__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 291
__rrshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__rshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__rshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__rsub__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__rtruediv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__rxor__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__setitem__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__setitem__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 294
__setmask__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295
__setslice__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 70
__setslice__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295
__setstate__() (numpy.dtype method), 102
__setstate__() (numpy.generic method), 87
__setstate__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 293
__setstate__() (numpy.ndarray method), 69
__str__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 71
__str__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
__sub__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__sub__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__truediv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
__truediv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 290
__xor__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 291
__xor__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 67
A
A (numpy.matrix attribute), 120, 121
A1 (numpy.matrix attribute), 121
absolute (in module numpy), 930
abspath() (numpy.DataSource method), 702
accumulate
ufunc methods, 1417
accumulate() (numpy.ufunc method), 442
add (in module numpy), 917
add() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 532
add_data_dir() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1309
add_data_files() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1307
add_extension() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1310
add_headers() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1310
add_include_dirs() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1310
add_installed_library() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1311
add_library() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1311
add_npy_pkg_config() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
method), 1312
Index
add_scripts()
(numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration argmax() (numpy.ndarray method), 15, 62
method), 1311
argmax() (numpy.recarray method), 198
add_subpackage() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration argmax() (numpy.record method), 219
method), 1307
argmin() (in module numpy), 1249
aligned, 35
argmin() (in module numpy.ma), 391, 847
alignment (numpy.dtype attribute), 101
argmin() (numpy.generic method), 79
all (in module numpy.ma), 307, 763
argmin() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 269, 393,
all() (in module numpy), 736
849
all() (numpy.generic method), 78
argmin() (numpy.matrix method), 130
all() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 278, 315, 771
argmin() (numpy.ndarray method), 15, 63
all() (numpy.matrix method), 129
argmin() (numpy.recarray method), 198
all() (numpy.ndarray method), 14, 65
argmin() (numpy.record method), 219
all() (numpy.recarray method), 198
argpartition() (in module numpy), 1246
all() (numpy.record method), 219
argpartition() (numpy.matrix method), 131
all_strings() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306 argpartition() (numpy.ndarray method), 15, 60
allclose() (in module numpy), 748
argpartition() (numpy.recarray method), 199
allclose() (in module numpy.ma), 413, 869
argsort() (in module numpy), 1242
allequal() (in module numpy.ma), 412, 869
argsort() (in module numpy.ma), 395, 851
allpath() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
argsort() (numpy.generic method), 79
alterdot() (in module numpy), 946
argsort() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 269, 397,
amax() (in module numpy), 1256
853
amin() (in module numpy), 1255
argsort() (numpy.matrix method), 131
angle() (in module numpy), 925
argsort() (numpy.ndarray method), 15, 59
anom (in module numpy.ma), 372, 828
argsort() (numpy.recarray method), 199
anom() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 278, 383, 840 argsort() (numpy.record method), 219
anomalies (in module numpy.ma), 372, 829
argwhere() (in module numpy), 1249
any (in module numpy.ma), 307, 763
arithmetic, 65, 288
any() (in module numpy), 737
around (in module numpy.ma), 410, 867
any() (numpy.generic method), 79
around() (in module numpy), 890
any() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 279, 315, 771
array
any() (numpy.matrix method), 130
C-API, 1340
any() (numpy.ndarray method), 14, 65
interface, 418
any() (numpy.recarray method), 198
protocol, 418
any() (numpy.record method), 219
array iterator, 228, 1412
append() (in module numpy), 516
array scalars, 1413
appendpath() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306 array() (in module numpy), 458
apply_along_axis() (in module numpy), 640
array() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 187, 470
apply_along_axis() (in module numpy.ma), 414, 870
array() (in module numpy.core.records), 469
apply_over_axes() (in module numpy), 641
array() (in module numpy.ma), 234, 298, 754
arange (in module numpy.ma), 415, 871
array_equal() (in module numpy), 750
arange() (in module numpy), 472
array_equiv() (in module numpy), 750
arccos (in module numpy), 878
array_repr() (in module numpy), 693
arccosh (in module numpy), 889
array_split() (in module numpy), 508
arcsin (in module numpy), 878
array_str() (in module numpy), 693
arcsinh (in module numpy), 888
as_array() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 576
arctan (in module numpy), 880
as_ctypes() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 576
arctan2 (in module numpy), 882
asanyarray() (in module numpy), 461, 499
arctanh (in module numpy), 890
asanyarray() (in module numpy.ma), 236, 352, 808
argmax() (in module numpy), 1247
asarray() (in module numpy), 459, 498
argmax() (in module numpy.ma), 391, 847
asarray() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 471
argmax() (numpy.generic method), 79
asarray() (in module numpy.ma), 235, 351, 807
argmax() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 268, 393, ascontiguousarray() (in module numpy), 462
849
asfarray() (in module numpy), 501
argmax() (numpy.matrix method), 130
asfortranarray() (in module numpy), 501
Index
1451
asmatrix() (in module numpy), 155, 462, 500

asscalar() (in module numpy), 502
assert_allclose() (in module numpy.testing), 1287
assert_almost_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1284
assert_approx_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1285
assert_array_almost_equal() (in module numpy.testing),
1286
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp()
(in
module
numpy.testing), 1288
assert_array_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1289
assert_array_less() (in module numpy.testing), 1290
assert_array_max_ulp() (in module numpy.testing), 1288
assert_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1291
assert_raises() (in module numpy.testing), 1292
assert_string_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1292
assert_warns() (in module numpy.testing), 1292
astype() (numpy.chararray method), 170
astype() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
559
astype() (numpy.generic method), 79
astype() (numpy.lib.user_array.container method), 227
astype() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 261
astype() (numpy.matrix method), 131
astype() (numpy.ndarray method), 15, 48
astype() (numpy.recarray method), 199
astype() (numpy.record method), 220
at() (numpy.ufunc method), 445
atleast_1d (in module numpy.ma), 325, 781
atleast_1d() (in module numpy), 492
attributes
ufunc, 438
average() (in module numpy), 1263
average() (in module numpy.ma), 373, 829
axis, 61
B
bartlett() (in module numpy), 1296
base, 3
base (numpy.chararray attribute), 162
base (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 551
base (numpy.dtype attribute), 90, 589
base (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
base (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 253
base (numpy.matrix attribute), 121
base (numpy.ndarray attribute), 13, 39
base (numpy.recarray attribute), 190
base (numpy.record attribute), 217
base_repr() (in module numpy), 701
baseclass (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 252
1452
basis() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev static

method), 982
basis()
(numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite
static
method), 1064
basis() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE static
method), 1092
basis() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre static
method), 1037
basis() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre static
method), 1010
basis() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial static
method), 957
beta() (in module numpy.random), 1141
beta() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1183
binary_repr() (in module numpy), 530, 700
bincount() (in module numpy), 1281
binomial() (in module numpy.random), 1141
binomial() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1184
bitwise_and (in module numpy), 524
bitwise_or (in module numpy), 524
bitwise_xor (in module numpy), 525
blackman() (in module numpy), 1297
blue_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
bmat() (in module numpy), 155, 484
broadcast (class in numpy), 230, 494
broadcast_arrays() (in module numpy), 496
broadcastable, 431
broadcasting, 431, 1412
buffers, 432
busday_count() (in module numpy), 581
busday_offset() (in module numpy), 579
busdaycalendar (class in numpy), 577
byteorder (numpy.dtype attribute), 98
bytes() (in module numpy.random), 1139
bytes() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1185
byteswap() (numpy.generic method), 79, 87
byteswap() (numpy.lib.user_array.container method), 227
byteswap() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 261
byteswap() (numpy.matrix method), 132
byteswap() (numpy.ndarray method), 16, 49
byteswap() (numpy.recarray method), 200
byteswap() (numpy.record method), 220
C
C-API
array, 1340
iterator, 1379, 1395
ndarray, 1340, 1379
ufunc, 1395, 1401
C-order, 35
c_ (in module numpy), 648
can_cast() (in module numpy), 582
capitalize() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 532
Index
cast() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev static

method), 983
cast()
static
method), 1064
cast() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE static
method), 1092
cast()
static
method), 1037
cast()
static
method), 1010
cast() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial static
method), 958
casting rules
ufunc, 435
ceil (in module numpy), 893
center() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 533
char (numpy.dtype attribute), 98
character arrays, 160
chararray (class in numpy), 160
chararray (class in numpy.core.defchararray), 549
cheb2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1007
chebadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1001
chebcompanion()
(in
module
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 1006
chebder() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 999
chebdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1003
chebdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1006
chebfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 995
chebfromroots()
(in
module
chebgauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1004
chebgrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
992
chebgrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
993
chebint() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1000
chebline() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1007
chebmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1002
chebmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1003
chebone (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 1006
chebpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1004
chebroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
994
chebsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
Index
1002
chebtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1006
chebval() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 990
chebval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
991
chebval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
991
chebvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
997
chebvander2d()
(in
module
chebvander3d()
(in
module
chebweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1005
chebx (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 1006
Chebyshev (class in numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 981
chebzero (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1006
chisquare() (in module numpy.random), 1142
chisquare() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1185
choice() (in module numpy.random), 1137
choice() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1186
cholesky() (in module numpy.linalg), 715
choose() (in module numpy), 663
choose() (in module numpy.ma), 416, 872
choose() (numpy.generic method), 79
choose() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 270
choose() (numpy.matrix method), 133
choose() (numpy.ndarray method), 17, 58
choose() (numpy.recarray method), 201
choose() (numpy.record method), 220
clip (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 279, 412, 868
clip() (in module numpy), 928
clip() (in module numpy.ma), 411, 867
clip() (numpy.generic method), 80
clip() (numpy.matrix method), 133
clip() (numpy.ndarray method), 17, 63
clip() (numpy.recarray method), 201
clip() (numpy.record method), 220
code generation, 1317
column-major, 35
column_stack (in module numpy.ma), 328, 334, 784, 790
column_stack() (in module numpy), 503
common_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 367, 823
common_type() (in module numpy), 586
comparison, 65, 288
compress() (in module numpy), 665
compress() (numpy.generic method), 80
compress() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 270
compress() (numpy.matrix method), 133
compress() (numpy.ndarray method), 17, 61
compress() (numpy.recarray method), 201
1453
compress() (numpy.record method), 220

compress_cols() (in module numpy.ma), 361, 817
compress_rowcols() (in module numpy.ma), 361, 817
compress_rows() (in module numpy.ma), 362, 818
compressed() (in module numpy.ma), 362, 818
compressed() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 261,
363, 819
concatenate() (in module numpy), 504
concatenate() (in module numpy.ma), 328, 334, 784, 791
cond() (in module numpy.linalg), 726
Configuration (class in numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1307
conj (in module numpy), 926
conj() (numpy.generic method), 80
conj() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 279
conj() (numpy.matrix method), 133
conj() (numpy.ndarray method), 17, 63
conj() (numpy.recarray method), 201
conj() (numpy.record method), 220
conjugate (in module numpy.ma), 374, 830
conjugate() (numpy.generic method), 80
conjugate() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 279
conjugate() (numpy.matrix method), 133
conjugate() (numpy.ndarray method), 17
conjugate() (numpy.recarray method), 201
conjugate() (numpy.record method), 220
construction
from dict, dtype, 96
from dtype, dtype, 93
from list, dtype, 96
from None, dtype, 93
from string, dtype, 94
from tuple, dtype, 95
from type, dtype, 93
container (class in numpy.lib.user_array), 227
container class, 227
contiguous, 35
convert()
method), 983
convert() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1065
convert()
method), 1093
convert() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1038
convert()
method), 1011
convert()
(numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
method), 958
convolve() (in module numpy), 927
coords (numpy.flatiter attribute), 679
copy (in module numpy.ma), 299, 755
copy (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 276, 301, 757
copy() (in module numpy), 463
copy() (numpy.chararray method), 171
1454
copy() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 560

copy() (numpy.flatiter method), 680
copy() (numpy.generic method), 80
copy() (numpy.lib.user_array.container method), 227
copy() (numpy.matrix method), 134
copy() (numpy.ndarray method), 18, 50
copy() (numpy.nditer method), 676
copy()
method), 984
copy() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1065
copy() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
1093
copy() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1038
copy() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1011
copy()
method), 959
copy() (numpy.recarray method), 201
copy() (numpy.record method), 221
copysign (in module numpy), 913
copyto() (in module numpy), 485
corrcoef() (in module numpy), 1273
corrcoef() (in module numpy.ma), 374, 830
correlate() (in module numpy), 1274
cos (in module numpy), 876
cosh (in module numpy), 887
count() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 544
count() (in module numpy.ma), 308, 764
count() (numpy.chararray method), 171
count() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 560
count() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 297, 315, 771
count_masked() (in module numpy.ma), 308, 764
count_nonzero() (in module numpy), 1254
cov() (in module numpy), 1274
cov() (in module numpy.ma), 375, 831
cpu (in module numpy.distutils.cpuinfo), 1315
cross() (in module numpy), 902
ctypes (numpy.chararray attribute), 162
ctypes (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 551
ctypes (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 253
ctypes (numpy.matrix attribute), 122
ctypes (numpy.ndarray attribute), 11, 42, 43
ctypes (numpy.recarray attribute), 191
ctypes_load_library() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 576
cumprod (in module numpy.ma), 376, 833
cumprod() (in module numpy), 898
cumprod() (numpy.generic method), 80
cumprod() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 279, 384,
840
cumprod() (numpy.matrix method), 134
cumprod() (numpy.ndarray method), 18, 65
cumprod() (numpy.recarray method), 202
Index
cumprod() (numpy.record method), 221

cumsum (in module numpy.ma), 376, 832
cumsum() (in module numpy), 899
cumsum() (numpy.generic method), 80
cumsum() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 280, 384,
841
cumsum() (numpy.matrix method), 134
cumsum() (numpy.ndarray method), 18, 64
cumsum() (numpy.recarray method), 202
cumsum() (numpy.record method), 221
cutdeg()
method), 984
cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1066
cutdeg()
method), 1093
cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1038
cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1011
cutdeg()
method), 959
cyan_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
cyg2win32() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
D
data (numpy.chararray attribute), 163
data (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 553
data (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
data (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 251, 314, 770
data (numpy.matrix attribute), 123
data (numpy.ndarray attribute), 6, 38
data (numpy.recarray attribute), 192
data (numpy.record attribute), 217
DataSource (class in numpy), 702
debug_print() (numpy.nditer method), 677
decode() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 533
decode() (numpy.chararray method), 171
decode() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
560
decorate_methods() (in module numpy.testing), 1295
default_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 367, 823
deg2rad (in module numpy), 885
degree()
method), 984
degree() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1066
degree()
method), 1094
degree() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1039
degree() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1012
Index
degree()
method), 959
degrees (in module numpy), 883
delete() (in module numpy), 514
deprecated() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1293
deriv() (numpy.poly1d method), 1120
deriv()
method), 984
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1066
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
1094
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1039
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1012
deriv()
method), 959
descr (numpy.dtype attribute), 90, 101, 589
det() (in module numpy.linalg), 727
diag() (in module numpy), 479, 666
diag() (in module numpy.ma), 399, 856
diag_indices() (in module numpy), 656
diag_indices_from() (in module numpy), 657
diagflat() (in module numpy), 480
diagonal (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 271
diagonal() (in module numpy), 667
diagonal() (numpy.generic method), 81
diagonal() (numpy.matrix method), 134
diagonal() (numpy.ndarray method), 18, 61
diagonal() (numpy.recarray method), 202
diagonal() (numpy.record method), 221
dict_append() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),
1305
diff() (in module numpy), 900
digitize() (in module numpy), 1282
dirichlet() (in module numpy.random), 1143
dirichlet() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1187
distutils, 1305
divide (in module numpy), 918
dot() (in module numpy), 704
dot() (in module numpy.ma), 400, 856
dot() (numpy.matrix method), 135
dot() (numpy.ndarray method), 19
dot() (numpy.recarray method), 202
dot_join() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
dsplit() (in module numpy), 508
dstack (in module numpy.ma), 329, 335, 785, 791
dstack() (in module numpy), 505
dtype, 1411
construction from dict, 96
construction from dtype, 93
construction from list, 96
construction from None, 93
1455
construction from string, 94

construction from tuple, 95
construction from type, 93
field, 88
record, 88
scalar, 88
sub-array, 88, 96
dtype (class in numpy), 89, 587
dtype (numpy.chararray attribute), 163
dtype (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 553
dtype (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
dtype (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 254
dtype (numpy.matrix attribute), 123
dtype (numpy.ndarray attribute), 6, 40
dtype (numpy.recarray attribute), 192
dtype (numpy.record attribute), 217
dump() (in module numpy.ma), 366, 822
dump() (numpy.chararray method), 171
dump() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 560
dump() (numpy.generic method), 81
dump() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 277
dump() (numpy.matrix method), 135
dump() (numpy.ndarray method), 19, 48
dump() (numpy.recarray method), 203
dump() (numpy.record method), 221
dumps() (in module numpy.ma), 366, 822
dumps() (numpy.chararray method), 172
dumps() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
561
dumps() (numpy.generic method), 81
dumps() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 277
dumps() (numpy.matrix method), 135
dumps() (numpy.ndarray method), 19, 48
dumps() (numpy.recarray method), 203
dumps() (numpy.record method), 221
E
ediff1d() (in module numpy), 901
ediff1d() (in module numpy.ma), 417, 873
eig() (in module numpy.linalg), 719
eigh() (in module numpy.linalg), 721
eigvals() (in module numpy.linalg), 722
eigvalsh() (in module numpy.linalg), 723
einsum() (in module numpy), 710
ellipsis, 103
empty (in module numpy.ma), 302, 758
empty() (in module numpy), 451
empty() (in module numpy.matlib), 939
empty_like (in module numpy.ma), 302, 758
empty_like() (in module numpy), 452
enable_external_loop() (numpy.nditer method), 677
encode() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 534
encode() (numpy.chararray method), 172
1456
encode() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),

561
endswith() (numpy.chararray method), 172
endswith() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
561
equal (in module numpy), 753
equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 542
error handling, 432
errstate (class in numpy), 605
exists() (numpy.DataSource method), 703
exp (in module numpy), 905
exp2 (in module numpy), 907
expand_dims() (in module numpy), 496
expand_dims() (in module numpy.ma), 327, 783
expandtabs() (numpy.chararray method), 172
expandtabs()
(numpy.core.defchararray.chararray
method), 561
expm1 (in module numpy), 906
exponential() (in module numpy.random), 1144
exponential() (numpy.random.RandomState method),
1188
extract() (in module numpy), 1254
eye() (in module numpy), 453
eye() (in module numpy.matlib), 941
F
f() (in module numpy.random), 1145
f() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1189
fabs (in module numpy), 932
fft() (in module numpy.fft), 609
fft2() (in module numpy.fft), 612
fftfreq() (in module numpy.fft), 626
fftn() (in module numpy.fft), 614
fftshift() (in module numpy.fft), 627
field
dtype, 88
field() (numpy.recarray method), 203
fields (numpy.dtype attribute), 90, 99, 589
fill() (numpy.chararray method), 172
fill() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 561
fill() (numpy.generic method), 81
fill() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 271
fill() (numpy.matrix method), 135
fill() (numpy.ndarray method), 19, 53
fill() (numpy.recarray method), 203
fill() (numpy.record method), 221
fill_diagonal() (in module numpy), 671
fill_value (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 252, 371,
827
filled() (in module numpy.ma), 362, 818
filled() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 262, 363, 819
filter_sources() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),
1306
find() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 545
Index
find() (numpy.chararray method), 172

find() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 561
find_common_type() (in module numpy), 597
finfo (class in numpy), 592
fit() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev static
method), 985
fit() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite static method),
1066
fit()
static
method), 1094
fit()
static
method), 1039
fit()
static
method), 1012
fit() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial static
method), 960
fix() (in module numpy), 892
fix_invalid() (in module numpy.ma), 237, 352, 808
flags (numpy.chararray attribute), 164
flags (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 553
flags (numpy.dtype attribute), 100
flags (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
flags (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 255
flags (numpy.matrix attribute), 123
flags (numpy.ndarray attribute), 7, 36
flags (numpy.recarray attribute), 192
flags (numpy.record attribute), 217
flat (numpy.chararray attribute), 165
flat (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 554
flat (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
flat (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 258
flat (numpy.matrix attribute), 124
flat (numpy.ndarray attribute), 8, 41, 228, 488
flat (numpy.recarray attribute), 193
flat (numpy.record attribute), 217
flatiter (class in numpy), 678
flatnonzero() (in module numpy), 1251
flatnotmasked_contiguous() (in module numpy.ma), 343,
799
flatnotmasked_edges() (in module numpy.ma), 344, 800
flatten (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 265, 321, 777
flatten() (numpy.chararray method), 172
flatten() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
561
flatten() (numpy.generic method), 81
flatten() (numpy.matrix method), 136
flatten() (numpy.ndarray method), 20, 56, 489
flatten() (numpy.recarray method), 203
flatten() (numpy.record method), 222
fliplr() (in module numpy), 519
flipud() (in module numpy), 520
floor (in module numpy), 892
floor_divide (in module numpy), 922
flush() (numpy.memmap method), 159, 696
Index
fmax (in module numpy), 934

fmin (in module numpy), 935
fmod (in module numpy), 922
format_parser (class in numpy), 591
Fortran-order, 35
frexp (in module numpy), 914
from dict
dtype construction, 96
from dtype
from list
from None
from string
from tuple
from type
fromarrays() (in module numpy.core.records), 469
frombuffer (in module numpy.ma), 299, 755
frombuffer() (in module numpy), 463
fromfile() (in module numpy), 464
fromfile() (in module numpy.core.records), 470
fromfunction (in module numpy.ma), 300, 756
fromfunction() (in module numpy), 465
fromiter() (in module numpy), 466
frompyfunc() (in module numpy), 643
fromrecords() (in module numpy.core.records), 469
fromregex() (in module numpy), 690
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
static method), 986
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite static
method), 1068
fromroots()
static method), 1095
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre static
method), 1040
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre static
method), 1013
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
static method), 961
fromstring() (in module numpy), 466, 691
fromstring() (in module numpy.core.records), 470
fv() (in module numpy), 630
G
gamma() (in module numpy.random), 1146
gamma() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1190
generate_config_py()
(in
module
numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
generic (class in numpy), 76
genfromtxt() (in module numpy), 687
1457
geometric() (in module numpy.random), 1147

getT() (numpy.matrix method), 138
geometric() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1191 gradient() (in module numpy), 901
get_build_temp_dir() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
greater (in module numpy), 751
method), 1313
greater() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 543
get_cmd() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
greater_equal (in module numpy), 752
get_config_cmd() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration greater_equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray),
method), 1313
543
get_dependencies()
(in
module green_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
gumbel() (in module numpy.random), 1148
get_distribution() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration gumbel() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1192
method), 1307
get_ext_source_files()
(in
module H
H (numpy.matrix attribute), 120, 121
get_fill_value() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 296, hamming() (in module numpy), 1298
370, 827
hanning() (in module numpy), 1300
get_info() (in module numpy.distutils.system_info), 1314 harden_mask (in module numpy.ma), 349, 805
get_info()
(numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration harden_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295,
method), 1314
350, 806
get_numpy_include_dirs()
(in
module hardmask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 252
has_cxx_sources() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),
get_printoptions() (in module numpy), 699
1306
get_script_files() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), has_f_sources() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),
1306
1306
get_standard_file()
(in
module has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
numpy.distutils.system_info), 1314
method), 986
get_state() (in module numpy.random), 1233
has_samecoef()
get_state() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1192
method), 1068
get_subpackage() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
method), 1307
method), 1096
get_version() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre
method), 1314
method), 1041
getA() (numpy.matrix method), 136
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
getA1() (numpy.matrix method), 137
method), 1014
getbuffer() (in module numpy), 945
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
getbufsize() (in module numpy), 946
method), 961
getdata() (in module numpy.ma), 311, 767
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
geterr() (in module numpy), 603
method), 987
geterrcall() (in module numpy), 605
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite
geterrobj() (in module numpy), 607
method), 1068
getfield() (numpy.chararray method), 173
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
getfield() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
method), 1096
562
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre
getfield() (numpy.generic method), 81
method), 1041
getfield() (numpy.matrix method), 138
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
getfield() (numpy.ndarray method), 20, 52
method), 1014
getfield() (numpy.recarray method), 204
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
getfield() (numpy.record method), 222
method), 961
getH() (numpy.matrix method), 137
has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
getI() (numpy.matrix method), 137
method), 987
getmask() (in module numpy.ma), 309, 341, 765, 797
has_sametype()
getmaskarray() (in module numpy.ma), 310, 342, 766,
method), 1069
798
has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
getslice
method), 1096
ndarray special methods, 103
1458
Index
has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre hermeint() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),

method), 1041
1110
has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre hermeline() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 1014
1116
has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomialhermemul() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 962
1112
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
hermemulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 987
1113
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite hermeone (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 1069
1116
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteEhermepow() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 1096
1114
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre hermeroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 1041
1103
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre hermesub() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 1014
1112
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
hermetrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
method), 962
1116
hasobject (numpy.dtype attribute), 91, 100, 589
hermeval() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
have_f77c()
(numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
1099
method), 1313
hermeval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
have_f90c()
1100
method), 1314
hermeval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
herm2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1101
1089
hermevander() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
hermadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1084
1107
hermcompanion()
(in
module hermevander2d()
(in
module
numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1088
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 1107
hermder() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1081 hermevander3d()
(in
module
hermdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1086
hermdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), hermeweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
1088
1115
herme2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermex (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 1116
1117
hermezero (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
hermeadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
1116
1111
hermfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1077
hermecompanion()
(in
module hermfromroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1076
hermeder() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermgauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1109
1087
hermediv() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermgrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1113
1074
hermedomain (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermgrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1116
1075
hermefit() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermint() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1082
1104
Hermite (class in numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1063
hermefromroots()
(in
module HermiteE (class in numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 1091
hermline() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1089
hermegauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1085
1114
hermmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
hermegrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
1085
1102
hermone (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1088
hermegrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1086
1102
hermroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
Index
1459
1075
hermsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1084
hermtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1088
hermval() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1072
hermval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1073
hermval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1073
hermvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1079
hermvander2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1080
hermvander3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1080
hermweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1087
hermx (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1088
hermzero (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 1088
hfft() (in module numpy.fft), 625
histogram() (in module numpy), 1277
histogram2d() (in module numpy), 1278
histogramdd() (in module numpy), 1280
holidays (numpy.busdaycalendar attribute), 578
hsplit (in module numpy.ma), 331, 787
hsplit() (in module numpy), 509
hstack (in module numpy.ma), 330, 336, 786, 792
hstack() (in module numpy), 506
hypergeometric() (in module numpy.random), 1150
hypergeometric() (numpy.random.RandomState method),
1194
hypot (in module numpy), 881
I
I (numpy.matrix attribute), 120, 121
i0() (in module numpy), 911
identity (in module numpy.ma), 400, 857
identity (numpy.ufunc attribute), 440
identity() (in module numpy), 454
identity() (in module numpy.matlib), 942
identity()
static method), 987
identity() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite static
method), 1069
identity() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE static
method), 1097
identity() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre static
method), 1042
identity() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre static
method), 1015
identity()
static method), 962
ids() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 292
ifft() (in module numpy.fft), 610
ifft2() (in module numpy.fft), 613
1460
ifftn() (in module numpy.fft), 616

ifftshift() (in module numpy.fft), 628
ihfft() (in module numpy.fft), 625
iinfo (class in numpy), 593
imag (numpy.chararray attribute), 166
imag (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 555
imag (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
imag (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 258
imag (numpy.matrix attribute), 125
imag (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9, 41
imag (numpy.recarray attribute), 194
imag (numpy.record attribute), 217
imag() (in module numpy), 926
import_array (C function), 1373
import_ufunc (C function), 1401
in1d() (in module numpy), 1236
index (numpy.broadcast attribute), 231, 495
index() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 545
index() (numpy.chararray method), 173
index() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 562
indexing, 102, 107, 1413
indices() (in module numpy), 653
indices() (in module numpy.ma), 417, 873
info() (in module numpy), 646
inner() (in module numpy), 706
inner() (in module numpy.ma), 401, 857
innerproduct() (in module numpy.ma), 402, 858
insert() (in module numpy), 514
integ() (numpy.poly1d method), 1120
integ()
method), 988
integ() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1069
integ() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
1097
integ() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1042
integ() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1015
integ()
method), 962
interface
array, 418
interp() (in module numpy), 938
intersect1d() (in module numpy), 1237
inv() (in module numpy.linalg), 733
invert (in module numpy), 526
ipmt() (in module numpy), 635
irfft() (in module numpy.fft), 620
irfft2() (in module numpy.fft), 621
irfftn() (in module numpy.fft), 623
irr() (in module numpy), 637
is_busday() (in module numpy), 578
Index
is_local_src_dir() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),

1306
isalignedstruct (numpy.dtype attribute), 91, 589
isalnum() (numpy.chararray method), 174
isalnum() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
isalpha() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 546
isalpha() (numpy.chararray method), 174
isalpha() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
isbuiltin (numpy.dtype attribute), 91, 100, 589
isclose() (in module numpy), 749
iscomplex() (in module numpy), 743
iscomplexobj() (in module numpy), 743
iscontiguous() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 293
isdecimal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 546
isdecimal() (numpy.chararray method), 174
isdecimal() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
isdigit() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 546
isdigit() (numpy.chararray method), 174
isdigit() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
isfinite (in module numpy), 739
isfortran() (in module numpy), 744
isinf (in module numpy), 740
islower() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 546
islower() (numpy.chararray method), 174
islower() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
isnan (in module numpy), 741
isnative (numpy.dtype attribute), 91, 101, 590
isneginf() (in module numpy), 741
isnumeric() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 547
isnumeric() (numpy.chararray method), 174
isnumeric() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
isposinf() (in module numpy), 742
isreal() (in module numpy), 745
isrealobj() (in module numpy), 745
isscalar() (in module numpy), 746
issctype() (in module numpy), 595
isspace() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 547
isspace() (numpy.chararray method), 174
isspace() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
563
issubclass_() (in module numpy), 597
issubdtype() (in module numpy), 596
issubsctype() (in module numpy), 596
istitle() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 547
istitle() (numpy.chararray method), 174
istitle() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 563
isupper() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 548
isupper() (numpy.chararray method), 175
Index
isupper() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),

564
item() (numpy.chararray method), 175
item() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 564
item() (numpy.generic method), 81
item() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 272
item() (numpy.matrix method), 139
item() (numpy.ndarray method), 21, 45
item() (numpy.recarray method), 205
item() (numpy.record method), 222
itemset() (numpy.generic method), 82
itemset() (numpy.matrix method), 140
itemset() (numpy.ndarray method), 21, 46
itemset() (numpy.recarray method), 205
itemset() (numpy.record method), 222
itemsize (numpy.chararray attribute), 166
itemsize (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute),
555
itemsize (numpy.dtype attribute), 98
itemsize (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
itemsize (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256
itemsize (numpy.matrix attribute), 125
itemsize (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9, 39
itemsize (numpy.recarray attribute), 194
itemsize (numpy.record attribute), 217
iterator
C-API, 1379, 1395
iternext() (numpy.nditer method), 677
iters (numpy.broadcast attribute), 231, 495
ix_() (in module numpy), 654
J
join() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 534
join() (numpy.chararray method), 175
join() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 564
K
kaiser() (in module numpy), 1301
keyword arguments
ufunc, 437
kind (numpy.dtype attribute), 98
knownfailureif() (in module numpy.testing.decorators),
1293
kron() (in module numpy), 714
L
lag2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1062
lagadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1056
lagcompanion() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1060
lagder() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1054
lagdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1058
lagdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1061
lagfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1049
1461
lagfromroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),

1049
laggauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1059
laggrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1047
laggrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1047
lagint() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1055
lagline() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1061
lagmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1057
lagmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1058
lagone (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1061
lagpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1059
lagroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1048
lagsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1057
lagtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1061
Laguerre (class in numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1036
lagval() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1044
lagval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1045
lagval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1046
lagvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1052
lagvander2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1052
lagvander3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1053
lagweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
1060
lagx (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1061
lagzero (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1061
laplace() (in module numpy.random), 1151
laplace() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1196
ldexp (in module numpy), 915
left_shift (in module numpy), 527
leg2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1034
legadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1028
legcompanion() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1033
legder() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1026
legdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1031
legdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1033
Legendre (class in numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1008
legfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1022
legfromroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1021
leggauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1032
leggrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1019
leggrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1020
legint() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1027
legline() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1034
legmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1030
legmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1030
1462
legone (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1033

legpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1031
legroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1021
legsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1029
legtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1033
legval() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1017
legval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1018
legval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1019
legvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1024
legvander2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1025
legvander3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1025
legweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
1032
legx (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1033
legzero (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1033
less (in module numpy), 752
less() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 544
less_equal (in module numpy), 752
less_equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 543
lexsort() (in module numpy), 1241
LinAlgError, 736
linspace() (in module numpy), 473
linspace()
method), 988
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1070
linspace()
method), 1097
linspace()
method), 1042
linspace()
method), 1015
linspace()
method), 963
ljust() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 534
ljust() (numpy.chararray method), 175
ljust() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 564
load() (in module numpy), 680
load() (in module numpy.ma), 366, 822
load_library() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 576
loads() (in module numpy.ma), 366, 823
loadtxt() (in module numpy), 467, 684
log (in module numpy), 907
log10 (in module numpy), 908
log1p (in module numpy), 909
log2 (in module numpy), 908
logaddexp (in module numpy), 910
logaddexp2 (in module numpy), 910
logical_and (in module numpy), 746
logical_not (in module numpy), 747
logical_or (in module numpy), 747
Index
logical_xor (in module numpy), 747

logistic() (in module numpy.random), 1152
logistic() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1197
lognormal() (in module numpy.random), 1153
lognormal() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1198
logseries() (in module numpy.random), 1155
logseries() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1200
logspace() (in module numpy), 474
lookfor() (in module numpy), 645
lower() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 535
lower() (numpy.chararray method), 176
lower() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 565
lstrip() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 535
lstrip() (numpy.chararray method), 176
lstrip() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 565
lstsq() (in module numpy.linalg), 732
masked_inside() (in module numpy.ma), 239, 354, 810

masked_invalid() (in module numpy.ma), 239, 355, 811
masked_less() (in module numpy.ma), 240, 355, 811
masked_less_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 240, 355,
812
masked_not_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 240, 356,
812
masked_object() (in module numpy.ma), 241, 356, 812
masked_outside() (in module numpy.ma), 242, 357, 813
masked_print_options (in module numpy.ma), 251
masked_values() (in module numpy.ma), 242, 358, 814
masked_where() (in module numpy.ma), 243, 359, 815
MaskedArray (class in numpy.ma), 251
MaskType (in module numpy.ma), 298, 754
mat() (in module numpy), 483
matrix, 119
matrix (class in numpy), 120
M
matrix_power() (in module numpy.linalg), 713
max (numpy.iinfo attribute), 594
MachAr (class in numpy), 594
make_config_py() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration max() (in module numpy.ma), 391, 848
max() (numpy.generic method), 82
method), 1314
max() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 281, 394, 850
make_mask() (in module numpy.ma), 338, 794
max() (numpy.matrix method), 140
make_mask_descr() (in module numpy.ma), 340, 797
max() (numpy.ndarray method), 22
make_mask_none() (in module numpy.ma), 339, 795
max() (numpy.recarray method), 206
make_svn_version_py() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
max() (numpy.record method), 222
method), 1314
mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev maximum (in module numpy), 933
maximum_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 368, 369,
method), 989
824, 825
mapparms()
mean (in module numpy.ma), 377, 833
method), 1070
mapparms()
(numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE mean() (in module numpy), 1265
mean() (numpy.generic method), 82
method), 1098
mapparms()
(numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre mean() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 281, 385, 841
mean() (numpy.matrix method), 141
method), 1043
mapparms()
(numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre mean() (numpy.ndarray method), 22, 64
mean() (numpy.recarray method), 206
method), 1016
mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial mean() (numpy.record method), 222
median() (in module numpy), 1262
method), 963
median() (in module numpy.ma), 378, 834
mask (numpy.ma.masked_array attribute), 343, 799
mask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 251, 315, 771 memmap (class in numpy), 156, 694
memory maps, 156
mask_cols() (in module numpy.ma), 346, 802
memory model
mask_indices() (in module numpy), 657
ndarray, 1411
mask_or() (in module numpy.ma), 340, 347, 796, 803
meshgrid() (in module numpy), 476
mask_rowcols() (in module numpy.ma), 347, 803
metadata (numpy.dtype attribute), 91, 590
mask_rows() (in module numpy.ma), 348, 805
methods
masked (in module numpy.ma), 251
accumulate, ufunc, 1417
masked arrays, 233
reduce, ufunc, 1417
masked_all() (in module numpy.ma), 303, 759
reduceat, ufunc, 1417
masked_all_like() (in module numpy.ma), 304, 760
ufunc, 440
masked_array (in module numpy.ma), 235, 298, 754
mgrid
(in module numpy), 477
masked_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 238, 353, 809
min
(numpy.iinfo
attribute), 594
masked_greater() (in module numpy.ma), 238, 353, 810
min()
(in
module
numpy.ma),
392, 848
masked_greater_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 238,
min()
(numpy.generic
method),
82
354, 810
Index
1463
min() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 282, 394, 850

min() (numpy.matrix method), 141
min() (numpy.ndarray method), 22, 62
min() (numpy.recarray method), 206
min() (numpy.record method), 222
min_scalar_type() (in module numpy), 584
minimum (in module numpy), 934
mintypecode() (in module numpy), 599
mirr() (in module numpy), 638
mod (in module numpy), 923
mod() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 532
modf (in module numpy), 924
mr_ (in module numpy.ma), 332, 788
msort() (in module numpy), 1244
multinomial() (in module numpy.random), 1156
multinomial() (numpy.random.RandomState method),
1201
multiply (in module numpy), 918
multiply() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 532
multivariate_normal() (in module numpy.random), 1157
multivariate_normal()
(numpy.random.RandomState
method), 1201
ndim (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77

ndim (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256
ndim (numpy.matrix attribute), 126
ndim (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10, 38
ndim (numpy.recarray attribute), 195
ndim (numpy.record attribute), 218
ndincr() (numpy.ndindex method), 678
ndindex (class in numpy), 678
nditer (class in numpy), 672
ndpointer() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 576
negative (in module numpy), 918
negative_binomial() (in module numpy.random), 1158
negative_binomial()
method), 1203
newaxis, 103
newaxis (in module numpy), 104
newbuffer() (in module numpy), 945
newbyteorder() (numpy.dtype method), 92, 101, 590
newbyteorder() (numpy.generic method), 82
newbyteorder() (numpy.matrix method), 142
newbyteorder() (numpy.ndarray method), 23
newbyteorder() (numpy.recarray method), 206
newbyteorder() (numpy.record method), 223
N
next (numpy.broadcast attribute), 232, 496
next (numpy.flatiter attribute), 680
name (numpy.dtype attribute), 91, 98, 590
next (numpy.nditer attribute), 677
names (numpy.dtype attribute), 92, 99, 590
next() (numpy.ndenumerate method), 230, 678
nan_to_num() (in module numpy), 936
next() (numpy.ndindex method), 678
nanargmax() (in module numpy), 1248
nin (numpy.ufunc attribute), 438
nanargmin() (in module numpy), 1249
NO_IMPORT_ARRAY (C macro), 1373
nanmax() (in module numpy), 1259
NO_IMPORT_UFUNC (C variable), 1401
nanmean() (in module numpy), 1269
nomask (in module numpy.ma), 251
nanmin() (in module numpy), 1258
non-contiguous, 35
nanstd() (in module numpy), 1270
noncentral_chisquare() (in module numpy.random), 1159
nansum() (in module numpy), 897
noncentral_chisquare()
nanvar() (in module numpy), 1271
method), 1203
nargs (numpy.ufunc attribute), 438
noncentral_f() (in module numpy.random), 1161
nbytes (numpy.chararray attribute), 166
nbytes (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 555 noncentral_f() (numpy.random.RandomState method),
1206
nbytes (numpy.generic attribute), 77
nonzero (in module numpy.ma), 312, 768
nbytes (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256
nonzero() (in module numpy), 650, 1250
nbytes (numpy.matrix attribute), 126
nonzero() (numpy.chararray method), 176
nbytes (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10, 39
nonzero() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
nbytes (numpy.recarray attribute), 195
565
nbytes (numpy.record attribute), 217
nonzero() (numpy.generic method), 83
ndarray, 107
nonzero() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 272, 316,
C-API, 1340, 1379
772
memory model, 1411
nonzero()
(numpy.matrix method), 142
special methods getslice, 103
nonzero()
(numpy.ndarray method), 23, 61
special methods setslice, 103
nonzero()
(numpy.recarray method), 207
view, 104
nonzero()
(numpy.record method), 223
ndarray (class in numpy), 4
norm()
(in
module numpy.linalg), 724
ndenumerate (class in numpy), 229, 677
normal()
(in
module numpy.random), 1162
ndim (numpy.chararray attribute), 166
normal()
method), 1207
ndim (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 555
1464
Index
not_equal (in module numpy), 753

not_equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 542
notmasked_contiguous() (in module numpy.ma), 344, 801
notmasked_edges() (in module numpy.ma), 345, 801
nout (numpy.ufunc attribute), 438
nper() (in module numpy), 638
npv() (in module numpy), 633
NPY_1_PI (C variable), 1405
NPY_2_PI (C variable), 1405
NPY_ALLOW_C_API (C macro), 1376
NPY_ALLOW_C_API_DEF (C macro), 1376
NPY_ANYORDER (C variable), 1378
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED (C variable), 1344, 1355
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED_NS (C variable), 1346, 1357
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS (C variable), 1344,
1355
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY_RO (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_ELEMENTSTRIDES (C variable), 1347
NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY (C variable), 1344,
1356
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY (C variable), 1344, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS (C variable), 1344,
1355
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY_RO (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST (C variable), 1345, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_IN_ARRAY (C variable), 1345
NPY_ARRAY_IN_FARRAY (C variable), 1345
NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_ARRAY (C variable), 1345
NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_FARRAY (C variable), 1345
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED (C variable), 1346, 1356
NPY_ARRAY_OUT_FARRAY (C variable), 1345
NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA (C variable), 1355
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATE_ALL (C variable), 1356
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY (C variable), 1345,
1356
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE (C variable), 1344, 1355
NPY_AUXDATA_CLONE (C function), 1366
NPY_AUXDATA_FREE (C function), 1366
NPY_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro), 1375
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS (C macro), 1375
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DEF (C macro), 1375
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DESCR (C function), 1376
NPY_BIG_ENDIAN (C variable), 1335
npy_bool (C type), 1339
NPY_BOOL (C variable), 1335
NPY_BUFSIZE (C variable), 1376
NPY_BYTE (C variable), 1335
NPY_BYTE_ORDER (C variable), 1335
NPY_CASTING (C type), 1378
NPY_CDOUBLE (C variable), 1337
Index
NPY_CFLOAT (C variable), 1336

NPY_CLIP (C variable), 1360, 1378
NPY_CLIPMODE (C type), 1378
NPY_CLONGDOUBLE (C variable), 1337
NPY_COMPLEX128 (C variable), 1337
NPY_COMPLEX64 (C variable), 1336
npy_copysign (C function), 1404
NPY_CORDER (C variable), 1378
NPY_CPU_AMD64 (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_IA64 (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_PARISC (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_PPC (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_PPC64 (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_S390 (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_SPARC (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_SPARC64 (C variable), 1334
NPY_CPU_X86 (C variable), 1334
NPY_DATETIME (C variable), 1337
NPY_DEFAULT_TYPE (C variable), 1337
NPY_DISABLE_C_API (C macro), 1376
NPY_DOUBLE (C variable), 1336
npy_double_to_half (C function), 1407
npy_doublebits_to_halfbits (C function), 1408
NPY_E (C variable), 1405
NPY_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro), 1375
NPY_END_THREADS (C macro), 1375
NPY_END_THREADS_DESCR (C function), 1376
NPY_EQUIV_CASTING (C variable), 1378
NPY_EULER (C variable), 1405
NPY_FAIL (C variable), 1377
NPY_FALSE (C variable), 1377
NPY_FLOAT (C variable), 1336
NPY_FLOAT16 (C variable), 1336
npy_float_to_half (C function), 1407
npy_floatbits_to_halfbits (C function), 1408
NPY_FORTRANORDER (C variable), 1378
NPY_FROM_FIELDS (C variable), 1322
NPY_HALF (C variable), 1336
npy_half_copysign (C function), 1408
npy_half_eq (C function), 1407
npy_half_eq_nonan (C function), 1407
npy_half_ge (C function), 1407
npy_half_gt (C function), 1407
npy_half_isfinite (C function), 1408
npy_half_isinf (C function), 1408
npy_half_isnan (C function), 1408
npy_half_iszero (C function), 1407
npy_half_le (C function), 1407
npy_half_le_nonan (C function), 1407
npy_half_lt (C function), 1407
npy_half_lt_nonan (C function), 1407
NPY_HALF_NAN (C variable), 1407
1465
npy_half_ne (C function), 1407

NPY_HALF_NEGONE (C variable), 1407
npy_half_nextafter (C function), 1408
NPY_HALF_NINF (C variable), 1407
NPY_HALF_NZERO (C variable), 1406
NPY_HALF_ONE (C variable), 1407
NPY_HALF_PINF (C variable), 1407
NPY_HALF_PZERO (C variable), 1406
npy_half_signbit (C function), 1408
npy_half_spacing (C function), 1408
npy_half_to_double (C function), 1407
npy_half_to_float (C function), 1407
NPY_HALF_ZERO (C variable), 1406
npy_halfbits_to_doublebits (C function), 1408
npy_halfbits_to_floatbits (C function), 1408
NPY_INFINITY (C variable), 1404
NPY_INT (C variable), 1335
NPY_INT16 (C variable), 1335
NPY_INTP (C variable), 1337
npy_isfinite (C function), 1404
npy_isinf (C function), 1404
npy_isnan (C function), 1404
NPY_ITEM_HASOBJECT (C variable), 1322
NPY_ITEM_IS_POINTER (C variable), 1322
NPY_ITEM_LISTPICKLE (C variable), 1322
NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT (C variable), 1322
NPY_ITER_ALIGNED (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE (C variable), 1387
NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK (C variable), 1387
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED (C variable), 1385
NPY_ITER_C_INDEX (C variable), 1384
NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE (C variable), 1385
NPY_ITER_CONTIG (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_COPY (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES (C variable),
1385
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP (C variable), 1384
NPY_ITER_F_INDEX (C variable), 1384
NPY_ITER_GROWINNER (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX (C variable), 1384
NPY_ITER_NBO (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_NO_BROADCAST (C variable), 1387
NPY_ITER_NO_SUBTYPE (C variable), 1387
NPY_ITER_RANGED (C variable), 1385
NPY_ITER_READONLY (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_READWRITE (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_REDUCE_OK (C variable), 1385
NPY_ITER_REFS_OK (C variable), 1385
NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY (C variable), 1386
NPY_ITER_WRITEMASKED (C variable), 1387
1466
NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY (C variable), 1386

NPY_ITER_ZEROSIZE_OK (C variable), 1385
NPY_KEEPORDER (C variable), 1378
NPY_LITTLE_ENDIAN (C variable), 1335
NPY_LOG10E (C variable), 1405
NPY_LOG2E (C variable), 1405
NPY_LOGE10 (C variable), 1405
NPY_LOGE2 (C variable), 1405
NPY_LONG (C variable), 1336
NPY_LONGDOUBLE (C variable), 1336
NPY_LONGLONG (C variable), 1336
NPY_LOOP_BEGIN_THREADS (C macro), 1396
NPY_LOOP_END_THREADS (C macro), 1396
NPY_MASK (C variable), 1337
NPY_MAX_BUFSIZE (C variable), 1376
NPY_MAXDIMS (C variable), 1377
NPY_MIN_BUFSIZE (C variable), 1376
NPY_NAN (C variable), 1404
NPY_NEEDS_INIT (C variable), 1322
NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI (C variable), 1322
npy_nextafter (C function), 1405
NPY_NO_CASTING (C variable), 1378
NPY_NOTYPE (C variable), 1337
NPY_NSCALARKINDS (C variable), 1378
NPY_NSORTS (C variable), 1378
NPY_NTYPES (C variable), 1337
NPY_NUM_FLOATTYPE (C variable), 1377
NPY_NZERO (C variable), 1404
NPY_OBJECT (C variable), 1337
NPY_OBJECT_DTYPE_FLAGS (C variable), 1322
NPY_ORDER (C type), 1378
NPY_OUT_ARRAY (C variable), 1345
NPY_PI (C variable), 1405
NPY_PI_2 (C variable), 1405
NPY_PI_4 (C variable), 1405
NPY_PRIORITY (C variable), 1376
NPY_PZERO (C variable), 1404
NPY_RAISE (C variable), 1360, 1378
NPY_SAFE_CASTING (C variable), 1379
NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING (C variable), 1379
NPY_SCALAR_PRIORITY (C variable), 1376
NPY_SCALARKIND (C type), 1378
NPY_SHORT (C variable), 1335
npy_signbit (C function), 1404
NPY_SIZEOF_DOUBLE (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_FLOAT (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_INT (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_LONGLONG (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_INTPTR_T (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_LONG_LONG (C variable), 1334
NPY_SIZEOF_SHORT (C variable), 1334
NPY_SORTKIND (C type), 1378
Index
npy_spacing (C function), 1405

NPY_STRING (C variable), 1337
NPY_SUBTYPE_PRIORITY (C variable), 1376
NPY_SUCCEED (C variable), 1377
NPY_TIMEDELTA (C variable), 1337
NPY_TRUE (C variable), 1377
NPY_UBYTE (C variable), 1336
NPY_UINT (C variable), 1336
NPY_UINT16 (C variable), 1336
NPY_UINTP (C variable), 1337
NPY_ULONG (C variable), 1336
NPY_ULONGLONG (C variable), 1336
NPY_UNICODE (C variable), 1337
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING (C variable), 1379
NPY_USE_GETITEM (C variable), 1322
NPY_USE_SETITEM (C variable), 1322
NPY_USERDEF (C variable), 1337
NPY_USHORT (C variable), 1336
NPY_VERSION (C variable), 1377
NPY_VOID (C variable), 1337
NPY_WRAP (C variable), 1360, 1378
NpyAuxData (C type), 1365
NpyAuxData_CloneFunc (C type), 1366
NpyAuxData_FreeFunc (C type), 1366
NpyIter (C type), 1383
NpyIter_AdvancedNew (C function), 1387
NpyIter_Copy (C function), 1388
NpyIter_CreateCompatibleStrides (C function), 1392
NpyIter_Deallocate (C function), 1389
NpyIter_EnableExternalLoop (C function), 1389
NpyIter_GetAxisStrideArray (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GetBufferSize (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray (C function), 1395
NpyIter_GetDescrArray (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GetFirstMaskNAOp (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GetGetMultiIndex (C function), 1394
NpyIter_GetIndexPtr (C function), 1395
NpyIter_GetInitialDataPtrArray (C function), 1395
NpyIter_GetInnerFixedStrideArray (C function), 1395
NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr (C function), 1395
NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray (C function), 1395
NpyIter_GetIterIndex (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GetIterIndexRange (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GetIterNext (C function), 1393
NpyIter_GetIterSize (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GetIterView (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GetMaskNAIndexArray (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GetMultiIndexFunc (C type), 1383
NpyIter_GetNDim (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GetNOp (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GetOperandArray (C function), 1392
Index
NpyIter_GetReadFlags (C function), 1392

NpyIter_GetShape (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GetWriteFlags (C function), 1392
NpyIter_GotoIndex (C function), 1390
NpyIter_GotoIterIndex (C function), 1391
NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex (C function), 1390
NpyIter_HasDelayedBufAlloc (C function), 1391
NpyIter_HasExternalLoop (C function), 1391
NpyIter_HasIndex (C function), 1391
NpyIter_HasMultiIndex (C function), 1391
NpyIter_IsBuffered (C function), 1391
NpyIter_IsFirstVisit (C function), 1393
NpyIter_IsGrowInner (C function), 1391
NpyIter_IterNextFunc (C type), 1383
NpyIter_MultiNew (C function), 1384
NpyIter_New (C function), 1383
NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex (C function), 1389
NpyIter_RequiresBuffering (C function), 1391
NpyIter_Reset (C function), 1389
NpyIter_ResetBasePointers (C function), 1390
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange (C function), 1389
NpyIter_Type (C type), 1383
ntypes (numpy.ufunc attribute), 439
num (numpy.dtype attribute), 98
numpy (module), 1
numpy.distutils (module), 1305
numpy.distutils.exec_command (module), 1315
numpy.distutils.misc_util (module), 1305
numpy.doc.internals (module), 1418
numpy.dual (module), 600
numpy.fft (module), 608
numpy.lib.scimath (module), 601
numpy.numarray (module), 945
numpy.oldnumeric (module), 945
O
obj2sctype() (in module numpy), 586
offset, 35
ogrid (in module numpy), 478, 654
ones (in module numpy.ma), 305, 761
ones() (in module numpy), 454
ones() (in module numpy.matlib), 941
ones_like() (in module numpy), 455
open() (numpy.DataSource method), 703
operation, 65, 288
operator, 65, 288
outer() (in module numpy), 707
outer() (in module numpy.ma), 403, 859
outer() (numpy.ufunc method), 444
outerproduct() (in module numpy.ma), 404, 860
P
packbits() (in module numpy), 529
pad() (in module numpy), 947
1467
pareto() (in module numpy.random), 1163

pareto() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1208
partition() (in module numpy), 1245
partition() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 536
partition() (numpy.matrix method), 142
partition() (numpy.ndarray method), 23, 59
partition() (numpy.recarray method), 207
paths() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration method),
1313
percentile() (in module numpy), 1261
permutation() (in module numpy.random), 1139
permutation() (numpy.random.RandomState method),
1209
piecewise() (in module numpy), 644
pinv() (in module numpy.linalg), 734
place() (in module numpy), 669
pmt() (in module numpy), 634
poisson() (in module numpy.random), 1164
poisson() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1210
poly() (in module numpy), 1121
poly1d (class in numpy), 1118
poly2cheb() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
1008
poly2herm() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
1090
poly2herme() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
1117
poly2lag() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 1062
poly2leg() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 1035
polyadd() (in module numpy), 1128
polyadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
977
polycompanion()
(in
module
numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 980
polyder() (in module numpy), 1126
polyder() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
975
polydiv() (in module numpy), 1129
polydiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 978
polydomain (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
980
polyfit() (in module numpy), 1123
polyfit() (in module numpy.ma), 408, 864
polyfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 970
polyfromroots()
(in
module
polygrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
967
polygrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
968
polyint() (in module numpy), 1127
polyint() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 975
polyline() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
981
1468
polymul() (in module numpy), 1130

polymul() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
978
polymulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
978
Polynomial (class in numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 956
polyone (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 980
polypow() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
979
polyroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
969
polysub() (in module numpy), 1131
polysub() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
977
polytrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
980
polyval() (in module numpy), 1120
polyval() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 965
polyval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
966
polyval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
967
polyvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
973
polyvander2d()
(in
module
polyvander3d()
(in
module
polyx (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 980
polyzero (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 980
power (in module numpy), 920
power() (in module numpy.ma), 379, 835
power() (in module numpy.random), 1166
power() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1211
ppmt() (in module numpy), 635
pprint() (numpy.record method), 223
prod (in module numpy.ma), 379, 835
prod() (in module numpy), 894
prod() (numpy.generic method), 83
prod() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 282, 386, 842
prod() (numpy.matrix method), 143
prod() (numpy.ndarray method), 24, 64
prod() (numpy.recarray method), 208
prod() (numpy.record method), 223
product() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 283
promote_types() (in module numpy), 584
protocol
array, 418
ptp() (in module numpy), 1260
ptp() (in module numpy.ma), 392, 848
ptp() (numpy.generic method), 83
ptp() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 284, 395, 851
ptp() (numpy.matrix method), 144
ptp() (numpy.ndarray method), 24, 63
Index
ptp() (numpy.recarray method), 208

ptp() (numpy.record method), 223
put() (in module numpy), 670
put() (numpy.chararray method), 176
put() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 565
put() (numpy.generic method), 83
put() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 274
put() (numpy.matrix method), 144
put() (numpy.ndarray method), 24, 58
put() (numpy.recarray method), 208
put() (numpy.record method), 224
putmask() (in module numpy), 670
pv() (in module numpy), 632
PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL (C macro), 1373
PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL (C variable), 1401
PyArray_All (C function), 1362
PyArray_Any (C function), 1363
PyArray_Arange (C function), 1343
PyArray_ArangeObj (C function), 1344
PyArray_ArgMax (C function), 1361
PyArray_ArgMin (C function), 1361
PyArray_ArgPartition (C function), 1361
PyArray_ArgSort (C function), 1360
PyArray_ArrayDescr.base (C member), 1323
PyArray_ArrayDescr.shape (C member), 1323
PyArray_ArrayType (C function), 1353
PyArray_ArrFuncs (C type), 1323
PyArray_ArrFuncs.cancastscalarkindto (C member),
1326
PyArray_ArrFuncs.cancastto (C member), 1326
PyArray_ArrFuncs.castdict (C member), 1326
PyArray_ArrFuncs.compare (C member), 1325
PyArray_ArrFuncs.copyswap (C member), 1324
PyArray_ArrFuncs.fill (C member), 1325
PyArray_ArrFuncs.fromstr (C member), 1325
PyArray_ArrFuncs.getitem (C member), 1324
PyArray_ArrFuncs.listpickle (C member), 1326
PyArray_ArrFuncs.nonzero (C member), 1325
PyArray_ArrFuncs.scalarkind (C member), 1326
PyArray_ArrFuncs.scanfunc (C member), 1325
PyArray_ArrFuncs.setitem (C member), 1324
PyArray_ArrFuncs.sort (C member), 1325
PyArray_AsCArray (C function), 1363
PyArray_AxisConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_BASE (C function), 1341
PyArray_BoolConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_Broadcast (C function), 1367
PyArray_BroadcastToShape (C function), 1366
PyArray_BufferConverter (C function), 1371
PyArray_ByteorderConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_BYTES (C function), 1340
PyArray_Byteswap (C function), 1358
PyArray_CanCastArrayTo (C function), 1352
PyArray_CanCastSafely (C function), 1352
Index
PyArray_CanCastTo (C function), 1352

PyArray_CanCastTypeTo (C function), 1352
PyArray_CanCoerceScalar (C function), 1370
PyArray_Cast (C function), 1352
PyArray_CastingConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_CastScalarToCtype (C function), 1369
PyArray_CastTo (C function), 1352
PyArray_CastToType (C function), 1352
PyArray_CEQ (C function), 1377
PyArray_CGE (C function), 1377
PyArray_CGT (C function), 1377
PyArray_Check (C function), 1349
PyArray_CheckAxis (C function), 1348
PyArray_CheckExact (C function), 1349
PyArray_CheckFromAny (C function), 1346
PyArray_CheckScalar (C function), 1349
PyArray_CheckStrides (C function), 1364
PyArray_CHKFLAGS (C function), 1357
PyArray_Choose (C function), 1360
PyArray_Chunk (C type), 1331
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.base (C member), 1332
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.flags (C member), 1332
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.len (C member), 1332
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.ptr (C member), 1332
PyArray_Chunk.PyObject_HEAD (C macro), 1331
PyArray_CLE (C function), 1377
PyArray_CLEARFLAGS (C function), 1341
PyArray_Clip (C function), 1362
PyArray_ClipmodeConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_CLT (C function), 1377
PyArray_CNE (C function), 1377
PyArray_CompareLists (C function), 1365
PyArray_Compress (C function), 1361
PyArray_Concatenate (C function), 1363
PyArray_Conjugate (C function), 1362
PyArray_ContiguousFromAny (C function), 1347
PyArray_ConvertClipmodeSequence (C function), 1372
PyArray_Converter (C function), 1371
PyArray_ConvertToCommonType (C function), 1353
PyArray_CopyAndTranspose (C function), 1364
PyArray_CopyInto (C function), 1348
PyArray_Correlate (C function), 1364
PyArray_Correlate2 (C function), 1364
PyArray_CountNonzero (C function), 1361
PyArray_CumProd (C function), 1362
PyArray_CumSum (C function), 1362
PyArray_DATA (C function), 1340
PyArray_DESCR (C function), 1341
PyArray_Descr (C type), 1321
PyArray_Descr.alignment (C member), 1323
PyArray_Descr.byteorder (C member), 1322
PyArray_Descr.elsize (C member), 1323
PyArray_Descr.f (C member), 1323
PyArray_Descr.fields (C member), 1323
1469
PyArray_Descr.flags (C member), 1322

PyArray_Descr.kind (C member), 1322
PyArray_Descr.subarray (C member), 1323
PyArray_Descr.type (C member), 1322
PyArray_Descr.type_num (C member), 1323
PyArray_Descr.typeobj (C member), 1322
Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter (C function), 1371
Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter2 (C function), 1371
PyArray_DescrConverter (C function), 1371
PyArray_DescrConverter2 (C function), 1371
PyArray_DescrFromObject (C function), 1370
PyArray_DescrFromScalar (C function), 1370
PyArray_DescrFromType (C function), 1370
PyArray_DescrNew (C function), 1370
PyArray_DescrNewByteorder (C function), 1370
PyArray_DescrNewFromType (C function), 1370
PyArray_Diagonal (C function), 1361
PyArray_DIM (C function), 1341
PyArray_DIMS (C function), 1340
PyArray_Dims (C type), 1331
PyArray_Dims.PyArray_Dims.len (C member), 1331
PyArray_Dims.PyArray_Dims.ptr (C member), 1331
PyArray_DTYPE (C function), 1341
PyArray_Dump (C function), 1358
PyArray_Dumps (C function), 1358
PyArray_EinsteinSum (C function), 1364
PyArray_EMPTY (C function), 1343
PyArray_Empty (C function), 1343
PyArray_ENABLEFLAGS (C function), 1341
PyArray_EnsureArray (C function), 1347
PyArray_EquivArrTypes (C function), 1351
PyArray_EquivByteorders (C function), 1351
PyArray_EquivTypenums (C function), 1351
PyArray_EquivTypes (C function), 1351
PyArray_FieldNames (C function), 1371
PyArray_FillObjectArray (C function), 1354
PyArray_FILLWBYTE (C function), 1343
PyArray_FillWithScalar (C function), 1358
PyArray_FLAGS (C function), 1341
PyArray_Flatten (C function), 1359
PyArray_Free (C function), 1363
PyArray_free (C function), 1375
PyArray_FROM_O (C function), 1348
PyArray_FROM_OF (C function), 1348
PyArray_FROM_OT (C function), 1348
PyArray_FROM_OTF (C function), 1348
PyArray_FROMANY (C function), 1348
PyArray_FromAny (C function), 1344
PyArray_FromArray (C function), 1347
PyArray_FromArrayAttr (C function), 1347
PyArray_FromBuffer (C function), 1347
PyArray_FromFile (C function), 1347
PyArray_FromInterface (C function), 1347
PyArray_FromObject (C function), 1347
1470
PyArray_FromScalar (C function), 1369

PyArray_FromString (C function), 1347
PyArray_FromStructInterface (C function), 1347
PyArray_GetArrayParamsFromObject (C function), 1345
PyArray_GetCastFunc (C function), 1352
PyArray_GETCONTIGUOUS (C function), 1348
PyArray_GetEndianness (C function), 1335
PyArray_GetField (C function), 1358
PyArray_GETITEM (C function), 1341
PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion (C function),
1374
PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion (C function), 1374
PyArray_GetNumericOps (C function), 1374
PyArray_GetPriority (C function), 1376
PyArray_GetPtr (C function), 1342
PyArray_GETPTR1 (C function), 1342
PyArray_HasArrayInterface (C function), 1349
PyArray_HasArrayInterfaceType (C function), 1349
PyArray_HASFIELDS (C function), 1351
PyArray_INCREF (C function), 1354
PyArray_InitArrFuncs (C function), 1354
PyArray_InnerProduct (C function), 1363
PyArray_IntpConverter (C function), 1371
PyArray_IntpFromSequence (C function), 1372
PyArray_IS_C_CONTIGUOUS (C function), 1357
PyArray_IS_F_CONTIGUOUS (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISALIGNED (C function), 1357
PyArray_IsAnyScalar (C function), 1349
PyArray_ISBEHAVED (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISBEHAVED_RO (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISBOOL (C function), 1351
PyArray_ISBYTESWAPPED (C function), 1351
PyArray_ISCARRAY (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISCARRAY_RO (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISCOMPLEX (C function), 1350
PyArray_ISEXTENDED (C function), 1351
PyArray_ISFARRAY (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISFARRAY_RO (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISFLEXIBLE (C function), 1350
PyArray_ISFLOAT (C function), 1350
PyArray_ISFORTRAN (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISINTEGER (C function), 1350
PyArray_ISNOTSWAPPED (C function), 1351
PyArray_ISNUMBER (C function), 1350
PyArray_ISOBJECT (C function), 1351
PyArray_ISONESEGMENT (C function), 1357
PyArray_ISPYTHON (C function), 1350
PyArray_IsPythonScalar (C function), 1349
PyArray_IsScalar (C function), 1349
PyArray_ISSIGNED (C function), 1349
PyArray_ISSTRING (C function), 1350
Index
PyArray_ISUNSIGNED (C function), 1349

PyArray_ISUSERDEF (C function), 1351
PyArray_ISWRITEABLE (C function), 1357
PyArray_IsZeroDim (C function), 1349
PyArray_Item_INCREF (C function), 1354
PyArray_Item_XDECREF (C function), 1354
PyArray_ITEMSIZE (C function), 1341
PyArray_ITER_DATA (C function), 1367
PyArray_ITER_GOTO (C function), 1367
PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D (C function), 1367
PyArray_ITER_NEXT (C function), 1366
PyArray_ITER_NOTDONE (C function), 1367
PyArray_ITER_RESET (C function), 1366
PyArray_IterAllButAxis (C function), 1366
PyArray_IterNew (C function), 1366
PyArray_LexSort (C function), 1360
PyArray_malloc (C function), 1375
PyArray_MatrixProduct (C function), 1363
PyArray_MatrixProduct2 (C function), 1363
PyArray_MAX (C function), 1377
PyArray_Max (C function), 1361
PyArray_Mean (C function), 1362
PyArray_MIN (C function), 1377
PyArray_Min (C function), 1361
PyArray_MinScalarType (C function), 1352
PyArray_MoveInto (C function), 1348
PyArray_MultiIter_DATA (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO1D (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXTi (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIter_NOTDONE (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIter_RESET (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiIterNew (C function), 1367
PyArray_MultiplyIntList (C function), 1365
PyArray_MultiplyList (C function), 1364
PyArray_NBYTES (C function), 1341
PyArray_NDIM (C function), 1340
PyArray_NeighborhoodIterNew (C function), 1368
PyArray_New (C function), 1343
PyArray_NewCopy (C function), 1358
PyArray_NewFromDescr (C function), 1342
PyArray_NewLikeArray (C function), 1342
PyArray_Newshape (C function), 1359
PyArray_Nonzero (C function), 1361
PyArray_ObjectType (C function), 1353
PyArray_One (C function), 1354
PyArray_OrderConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_OutputConverter (C function), 1371
PyArray_Partition (C function), 1361
PyArray_Prod (C function), 1362
PyArray_PromoteTypes (C function), 1353
PyArray_Ptp (C function), 1362
PyArray_PutMask (C function), 1360
Index
PyArray_PutTo (C function), 1360

PyArray_PyIntAsInt (C function), 1372
PyArray_PyIntAsIntp (C function), 1372
PyArray_Ravel (C function), 1359
PyArray_realloc (C function), 1375
PyArray_REFCOUNT (C function), 1377
PyArray_RegisterCanCast (C function), 1354
PyArray_RegisterCastFunc (C function), 1354
PyArray_RegisterDataType (C function), 1354
PyArray_RemoveSmallest (C function), 1367
PyArray_Repeat (C function), 1360
PyArray_Reshape (C function), 1359
PyArray_Resize (C function), 1359
PyArray_ResultType (C function), 1353
PyArray_Return (C function), 1369
PyArray_Round (C function), 1362
PyArray_SAMESHAPE (C function), 1377
PyArray_Scalar (C function), 1369
PyArray_ScalarAsCtype (C function), 1369
PyArray_ScalarKind (C function), 1369
PyArray_SearchsideConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_SearchSorted (C function), 1361
PyArray_SetBaseObject (C function), 1344
PyArray_SetField (C function), 1358
PyArray_SETITEM (C function), 1341
PyArray_SetNumericOps (C function), 1374
PyArray_SetStringFunction (C function), 1374
PyArray_SHAPE (C function), 1340
PyArray_SimpleNew (C function), 1343
PyArray_SimpleNewFromData (C function), 1343
PyArray_SimpleNewFromDescr (C function), 1343
PyArray_SIZE (C function), 1341
PyArray_Size (C function), 1341
PyArray_Sort (C function), 1360
PyArray_SortkindConverter (C function), 1372
PyArray_Squeeze (C function), 1359
PyArray_Std (C function), 1362
PyArray_STRIDE (C function), 1341
PyArray_STRIDES (C function), 1341
PyArray_Sum (C function), 1362
PyArray_SwapAxes (C function), 1359
PyArray_TakeFrom (C function), 1360
PyArray_ToFile (C function), 1358
PyArray_ToList (C function), 1358
PyArray_ToScalar (C function), 1369
PyArray_ToString (C function), 1358
PyArray_Trace (C function), 1362
PyArray_Transpose (C function), 1359
PyArray_TYPE (C function), 1341
PyArray_Type (C variable), 1320
PyArray_TypeObjectFromType (C function), 1369
PyArray_TypestrConvert (C function), 1373
PyArray_UpdateFlags (C function), 1357
PyArray_ValidType (C function), 1354
1471
PyArray_View (C function), 1358

PyArray_Where (C function), 1364
PyArray_XDECREF (C function), 1354
PyArray_XDECREF_ERR (C function), 1377
PyArray_Zero (C function), 1353
PyArray_ZEROS (C function), 1343
PyArray_Zeros (C function), 1343
PyArrayDescr_Check (C function), 1370
PyArrayDescr_Type (C variable), 1321
PyArrayFlags_Type (C variable), 1330
PyArrayInterface (C type), 1332
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.data (C member),
1333
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.descr (C member),
1333
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.flags (C member),
1332
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.itemsize (C member),
1332
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.nd (C member), 1332
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.shape (C member),
1333
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.strides (C member),
1333
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.two (C member),
1332
PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.typekind (C member), 1332
PyArrayIter_Check (C function), 1366
PyArrayIter_Type (C variable), 1328
PyArrayIterObject (C type), 1328
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.ao (C member),
1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.backstrides
(C
member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.contiguous
(C
member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.coordinates
(C
member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.dataptr (C member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.dims_m1 (C member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.factors (C member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.index (C member),
1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.nd_m1 (C member), 1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.size (C member),
1329
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.strides (C member), 1329
PyArrayMapIter_Type (C variable), 1333
1472
PyArrayMultiIter_Type (C variable), 1329

PyArrayMultiIterObject (C type), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.dimensions
(C member), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.index
(C member), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.iters (C
member), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.nd (C
member), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.numiter
(C member), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.size (C
member), 1330
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyObject_HEAD (C macro),
1330
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next (C function), 1369
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset (C function), 1369
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Type (C variable), 1330
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject (C type), 1330
PyArrayObject (C type), 1320
PyArrayObject.base (C member), 1321
PyArrayObject.data (C member), 1320
PyArrayObject.descr (C member), 1321
PyArrayObject.dimensions (C member), 1321
PyArrayObject.flags (C member), 1321
PyArrayObject.nd (C member), 1320
PyArrayObject.PyObject_HEAD (C macro), 1320
PyArrayObject.strides (C member), 1321
PyArrayObject.weakreflist (C member), 1321
PyDataMem_FREE (C function), 1374
PyDataMem_NEW (C function), 1374
PyDataMem_RENEW (C function), 1375
PyDataType_FLAGCHK (C function), 1323
PyDataType_HASFIELDS (C function), 1351
PyDataType_ISBOOL (C function), 1351
PyDataType_ISCOMPLEX (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISEXTENDED (C function), 1351
PyDataType_ISFLEXIBLE (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISFLOAT (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISINTEGER (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISNUMBER (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISOBJECT (C function), 1351
PyDataType_ISPYTHON (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISSIGNED (C function), 1349
PyDataType_ISSTRING (C function), 1350
PyDataType_ISUNSIGNED (C function), 1349
PyDataType_ISUSERDEF (C function), 1351
PyDataType_REFCHK (C function), 1323
PyDimMem_FREE (C function), 1375
PyDimMem_NEW (C function), 1375
PyDimMem_RENEW (C function), 1375
Python Enhancement Proposals
PEP 3118, 419
Index
PyTypeNum_ISBOOL (C function), 1351

PyTypeNum_ISCOMPLEX (C function), 1350
PyTypeNum_ISEXTENDED (C function), 1351
PyTypeNum_ISFLEXIBLE (C function), 1350
PyTypeNum_ISFLOAT (C function), 1350
PyTypeNum_ISINTEGER (C function), 1349
PyTypeNum_ISNUMBER (C function), 1350
PyTypeNum_ISOBJECT (C function), 1351
PyTypeNum_ISPYTHON (C function), 1350
PyTypeNum_ISSIGNED (C function), 1349
PyTypeNum_ISSTRING (C function), 1350
PyTypeNum_ISUNSIGNED (C function), 1349
PyTypeNum_ISUSERDEF (C function), 1350
PyUFunc_checkfperr (C function), 1398
PyUFunc_clearfperr (C function), 1398
PyUFunc_Loop1d (C type), 1333
PyUFunc_PyFuncData (C type), 1401
PyUFunc_Type (C variable), 1326
PyUFuncLoopObject (C type), 1333
PyUFuncObject (C type), 1326
PyUFuncObject.PyObject_HEAD (C macro), 1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.check_return (C member), 1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.data (C member), 1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.doc (C member), 1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.identity (C member),
1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.iter_flags (C member),
1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.name (C member),
1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.nargs (C member), 1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.nin (C member), 1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.nout (C member), 1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.ntypes (C member),
1327
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.obj (C member), 1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.op_flags (C member),
1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.ptr (C member), 1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.types (C member), 1328
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.userloops (C member),
1328
PyUFuncReduceObject (C type), 1333
Q
qr() (in module numpy.linalg), 716
R
r_ (in module numpy), 648
rad2deg (in module numpy), 885
radians (in module numpy), 883
rand() (in module numpy.matlib), 943
rand() (in module numpy.random), 1132
Index
rand() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1214

randint() (in module numpy.random), 1133
randint() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1214
randn() (in module numpy.matlib), 944
randn() (in module numpy.random), 1132
randn() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1215
random() (in module numpy.random), 1136
random_integers() (in module numpy.random), 1134
random_integers()
method), 1216
random_sample() (in module numpy.random), 1135
random_sample()
method), 1217
RandomState (class in numpy.random), 1182
ranf() (in module numpy.random), 1136
RankWarning, 1131
rate() (in module numpy), 639
ravel (in module numpy.ma), 319, 775
ravel() (in module numpy), 487
ravel() (numpy.chararray method), 176
ravel() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 565
ravel() (numpy.generic method), 83
ravel() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 265, 321, 777
ravel() (numpy.matrix method), 144
ravel() (numpy.ndarray method), 25, 57
ravel() (numpy.recarray method), 208
ravel() (numpy.record method), 224
ravel_multi_index() (in module numpy), 655
rayleigh() (in module numpy.random), 1169
rayleigh() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1218
real (numpy.chararray attribute), 167
real (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 556
real (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
real (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 258
real (numpy.matrix attribute), 126
real (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9, 41
real (numpy.recarray attribute), 195
real (numpy.record attribute), 218
real() (in module numpy), 925
real_if_close() (in module numpy), 937
recarray (class in numpy), 188
reciprocal (in module numpy), 917
record
dtype, 88
record (class in numpy), 217
recordmask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 252,
315, 771
red_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
reduce
ufunc methods, 1417
reduce() (numpy.ufunc method), 440
reduceat
ufunc methods, 1417
reduceat() (numpy.ufunc method), 443
1473
remainder (in module numpy), 924

remove_axis() (numpy.nditer method), 677
remove_multi_index() (numpy.nditer method), 677
repeat (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 275
repeat() (in module numpy), 513
repeat() (numpy.chararray method), 176
repeat() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
565
repeat() (numpy.generic method), 83
repeat() (numpy.matrix method), 144
repeat() (numpy.ndarray method), 25, 58
repeat() (numpy.recarray method), 209
repeat() (numpy.record method), 224
replace() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 536
replace() (numpy.chararray method), 177
replace() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
566
repmat() (in module numpy.matlib), 943
require() (in module numpy), 502
reset() (numpy.broadcast method), 232, 496
reset() (numpy.nditer method), 677
reshape() (in module numpy), 485, 521
reshape() (in module numpy.ma), 320, 776
reshape() (numpy.chararray method), 177
reshape() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
566
reshape() (numpy.generic method), 84
reshape() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 266, 321,
777
reshape() (numpy.matrix method), 145
reshape() (numpy.ndarray method), 25, 54
reshape() (numpy.recarray method), 209
reshape() (numpy.record method), 224
resize() (in module numpy), 517
resize() (in module numpy.ma), 320, 776
resize() (numpy.chararray method), 177
resize() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 566
resize() (numpy.generic method), 84
resize() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 266, 322, 778
resize() (numpy.matrix method), 145
resize() (numpy.ndarray method), 25, 54
resize() (numpy.recarray method), 209
resize() (numpy.record method), 224
restoredot() (in module numpy), 946
result_type() (in module numpy), 585
rfft() (in module numpy.fft), 618
rfft2() (in module numpy.fft), 621
rfftfreq() (in module numpy.fft), 627
rfftn() (in module numpy.fft), 622
rfind() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 548
rfind() (numpy.chararray method), 178
rfind() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 567
right_shift (in module numpy), 528
rindex() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 548
1474
rindex() (numpy.chararray method), 178

rindex() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
567
rint (in module numpy), 891
rjust() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 537
rjust() (numpy.chararray method), 178
rjust() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 567
roll() (in module numpy), 522
rollaxis() (in module numpy), 490
roots() (in module numpy), 1122
roots()
method), 989
roots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1071
roots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
1098
roots() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1043
roots() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1016
roots()
method), 964
rot90() (in module numpy), 523
round() (in module numpy.ma), 411, 868
round() (numpy.generic method), 84
round() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 284, 412, 868
round() (numpy.matrix method), 146
round() (numpy.ndarray method), 26, 63
round() (numpy.recarray method), 210
round() (numpy.record method), 224
round_() (in module numpy), 891
row-major, 35
row_stack (in module numpy.ma), 332, 788
rpartition() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 537
rsplit() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 538
rsplit() (numpy.chararray method), 178
rsplit() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 567
rstrip() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 538
rstrip() (numpy.chararray method), 179
rstrip() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 568
run_module_suite() (in module numpy.testing), 1295
rundocs() (in module numpy.testing), 1295
S
s_ (in module numpy), 650
sample() (in module numpy.random), 1137
save() (in module numpy), 681
savetxt() (in module numpy), 685
savez() (in module numpy), 682
savez_compressed() (in module numpy), 683
scalar
dtype, 88
sctype2char() (in module numpy), 599
searchsorted() (in module numpy), 1253
Index
searchsorted() (numpy.chararray method), 179

searchsorted()
(numpy.core.defchararray.chararray
method), 568
searchsorted() (numpy.generic method), 84
searchsorted() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 275
searchsorted() (numpy.matrix method), 146
searchsorted() (numpy.ndarray method), 27, 60
searchsorted() (numpy.recarray method), 210
searchsorted() (numpy.record method), 224
seed() (in module numpy.random), 1233
seed() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1219
select() (in module numpy), 668
set_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 369, 826
set_fill_value() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 296,
371, 827
set_printoptions() (in module numpy), 697
set_state() (in module numpy.random), 1234
set_state() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1219
set_string_function() (in module numpy), 699
set_verbosity() (in module numpy.distutils.log), 1315
setastest() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1293
setbufsize() (in module numpy), 432, 946
setdiff1d() (in module numpy), 1237
seterr() (in module numpy), 432, 602
seterrcall() (in module numpy), 434, 604
seterrobj() (in module numpy), 606
setfield() (numpy.chararray method), 179
setfield() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
568
setfield() (numpy.generic method), 84
setfield() (numpy.matrix method), 146
setfield() (numpy.ndarray method), 27
setfield() (numpy.recarray method), 211
setfield() (numpy.record method), 225
setflags() (numpy.chararray method), 180
setflags() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
569
setflags() (numpy.generic method), 84, 87
setflags() (numpy.matrix method), 147
setflags() (numpy.ndarray method), 27, 52
setflags() (numpy.recarray method), 211
setflags() (numpy.record method), 225
setslice
ndarray special methods, 103
setxor1d() (in module numpy), 1238
shape (numpy.broadcast attribute), 231, 495
shape (numpy.chararray attribute), 167
shape (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 556
shape (numpy.dtype attribute), 92, 100, 590
shape (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
shape (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
shape (numpy.matrix attribute), 126
shape (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10, 37
shape (numpy.recarray attribute), 195
Index
shape (numpy.record attribute), 218

shape() (in module numpy.ma), 313, 318, 769, 774
sharedmask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 252
shrink_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295,
350, 806
shuffle() (in module numpy.random), 1139
shuffle() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1220
sign (in module numpy), 932
signbit (in module numpy), 913
sin (in module numpy), 875
sinc() (in module numpy), 912
single-segment, 35
sinh (in module numpy), 886
size (numpy.broadcast attribute), 232, 495
size (numpy.chararray attribute), 167
size (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 556
size (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
size (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
size (numpy.matrix attribute), 127
size (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9, 39
size (numpy.recarray attribute), 196
size (numpy.record attribute), 218
size() (in module numpy.ma), 314, 318, 770, 774
skipif() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1294
slicing, 102
slogdet() (in module numpy.linalg), 728
slow() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1294
soften_mask (in module numpy.ma), 349, 806
soften_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295,
350, 806
solve() (in module numpy.linalg), 730
sort() (in module numpy), 1239
sort() (in module numpy.ma), 396, 852
sort() (numpy.chararray method), 181
sort() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 570
sort() (numpy.generic method), 84
sort() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 275, 398, 854
sort() (numpy.matrix method), 148
sort() (numpy.ndarray method), 28, 58, 1243
sort() (numpy.recarray method), 212
sort() (numpy.record method), 225
sort_complex() (in module numpy), 1244
source() (in module numpy), 647
special methods
getslice, ndarray, 103
setslice, ndarray, 103
split() (in module numpy), 510
split() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 538
split() (numpy.chararray method), 181
split() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 570
splitlines() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 539
splitlines() (numpy.chararray method), 182
splitlines() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
571
1475
sqrt (in module numpy), 929

square (in module numpy), 930
squeeze (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 267, 328,
784
squeeze() (in module numpy), 497
squeeze() (in module numpy.ma), 327, 783
squeeze() (numpy.chararray method), 182
squeeze() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
571
squeeze() (numpy.generic method), 85, 86
squeeze() (numpy.matrix method), 149
squeeze() (numpy.ndarray method), 29, 57
squeeze() (numpy.recarray method), 213
squeeze() (numpy.record method), 225
standard_cauchy() (in module numpy.random), 1170
standard_cauchy()
method), 1220
standard_exponential() (in module numpy.random), 1170
standard_exponential()
method), 1221
standard_gamma() (in module numpy.random), 1171
standard_gamma()
method), 1221
standard_normal() (in module numpy.random), 1172
standard_normal()
method), 1222
standard_t() (in module numpy.random), 1172
standard_t() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1223
startswith() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 549
startswith() (numpy.chararray method), 182
startswith() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
571
std (in module numpy.ma), 380, 836
std() (in module numpy), 1266
std() (numpy.generic method), 85
std() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 285, 387, 843
std() (numpy.matrix method), 149
std() (numpy.ndarray method), 30, 64
std() (numpy.recarray method), 213
std() (numpy.record method), 225
str (numpy.dtype attribute), 92, 98, 590
stride, 35
strides (numpy.chararray attribute), 167
strides (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 556
strides (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
strides (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
strides (numpy.matrix attribute), 127
strides (numpy.ndarray attribute), 11, 37
strides (numpy.recarray attribute), 196
strides (numpy.record attribute), 218
strip() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 539
strip() (numpy.chararray method), 182
strip() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 571
sub-array
1476
dtype, 88, 96
subdtype (numpy.dtype attribute), 92, 100, 590
subtract (in module numpy), 920
sum (in module numpy.ma), 381, 837
sum() (in module numpy), 895
sum() (numpy.generic method), 85
sum() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 286, 388, 845
sum() (numpy.matrix method), 150
sum() (numpy.ndarray method), 30, 64
sum() (numpy.recarray method), 214
sum() (numpy.record method), 225
svd() (in module numpy.linalg), 718
swapaxes (in module numpy.ma), 323, 779
swapaxes (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 267, 323,
779
swapaxes() (in module numpy), 490
swapaxes() (numpy.chararray method), 182
swapaxes() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
571
swapaxes() (numpy.generic method), 85
swapaxes() (numpy.matrix method), 150
swapaxes() (numpy.ndarray method), 30, 56
swapaxes() (numpy.recarray method), 214
swapaxes() (numpy.record method), 225
swapcase() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 540
swapcase() (numpy.chararray method), 182
swapcase() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
571
T
T (numpy.chararray attribute), 162
T (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray attribute), 551
T (numpy.generic attribute), 75, 77
T (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 268
T (numpy.matrix attribute), 120, 121
T (numpy.ndarray attribute), 6, 40, 491
T (numpy.recarray attribute), 190
T (numpy.record attribute), 217
take() (in module numpy), 662
take() (numpy.chararray method), 182
take() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 571
take() (numpy.generic method), 85
take() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 276
take() (numpy.matrix method), 150
take() (numpy.ndarray method), 30, 58
take() (numpy.recarray method), 214
take() (numpy.record method), 226
tan (in module numpy), 877
tanh (in module numpy), 887
tensordot() (in module numpy), 708
tensorinv() (in module numpy.linalg), 735
tensorsolve() (in module numpy.linalg), 731
terminal_has_colors()
(in
module
Index
Tester (in module numpy.testing), 1295

tile() (in module numpy), 512
title() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 540
title() (numpy.chararray method), 183
title() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 572
todict()
method), 1307
tofile() (numpy.chararray method), 183
tofile() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 572
tofile() (numpy.generic method), 85
tofile() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 262, 364, 820
tofile() (numpy.matrix method), 151
tofile() (numpy.ndarray method), 30, 48, 691
tofile() (numpy.recarray method), 214
tofile() (numpy.record method), 226
toflex() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 262
tolist() (numpy.chararray method), 183
tolist() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 572
tolist() (numpy.generic method), 86
tolist() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 263, 364, 820
tolist() (numpy.matrix method), 151
tolist() (numpy.ndarray method), 31, 46, 692
tolist() (numpy.recarray method), 215
tolist() (numpy.record method), 226
tomaxint() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1224
torecords() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 263, 364,
821
tostring() (numpy.chararray method), 184
tostring() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
573
tostring() (numpy.generic method), 86
tostring() (numpy.lib.user_array.container method), 227
tostring() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 264, 365,
821
tostring() (numpy.matrix method), 151
tostring() (numpy.ndarray method), 31, 47
tostring() (numpy.recarray method), 215
tostring() (numpy.record method), 226
trace (in module numpy.ma), 405, 861
trace() (in module numpy), 729
trace() (numpy.generic method), 86
trace() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 287, 406, 862
trace() (numpy.matrix method), 152
trace() (numpy.ndarray method), 32, 63
trace() (numpy.recarray method), 216
trace() (numpy.record method), 226
translate() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 541
translate() (numpy.chararray method), 184
translate() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
573
transpose (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 267, 323,
406, 779, 862
transpose() (in module numpy), 491
transpose() (in module numpy.ma), 323, 405, 779, 861
Index
transpose() (numpy.chararray method), 184

transpose() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
573
transpose() (numpy.generic method), 86
transpose() (numpy.matrix method), 152
transpose() (numpy.ndarray method), 32, 55
transpose() (numpy.recarray method), 216
transpose() (numpy.record method), 226
trapz() (in module numpy), 904
tri() (in module numpy), 481
triangular() (in module numpy.random), 1174
triangular() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1225
tril() (in module numpy), 481
tril_indices() (in module numpy), 658
tril_indices_from() (in module numpy), 660
trim()
method), 989
trim() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1071
trim() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
1098
trim() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
1043
trim() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
1016
trim()
method), 964
trim_zeros() (in module numpy), 517
triu() (in module numpy), 482
triu_indices() (in module numpy), 660
triu_indices_from() (in module numpy), 661
true_divide (in module numpy), 921
trunc (in module numpy), 893
truncate()
method), 989
truncate() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
1071
truncate()
method), 1099
truncate()
method), 1044
truncate()
method), 1017
truncate()
method), 964
type (numpy.dtype attribute), 98
typename() (in module numpy), 598
types (numpy.ufunc attribute), 439
U
ufunc, 1414, 1417
attributes, 438
C-API, 1395, 1401
casting rules, 435
1477
keyword arguments, 437

methods, 440
methods accumulate, 1417
methods reduce, 1417
methods reduceat, 1417
UFUNC_CHECK_ERROR (C function), 1396
UFUNC_CHECK_STATUS (C function), 1396
uniform() (in module numpy.random), 1175
uniform() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1226
union1d() (in module numpy), 1238
unique() (in module numpy), 518, 1234
unpackbits() (in module numpy), 529
unravel_index() (in module numpy), 656
unshare_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 295,
350, 806
unwrap() (in module numpy), 884
upper() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 541
upper() (numpy.chararray method), 185
upper() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 574
user_array, 227
weibull() (in module numpy.random), 1179

weibull() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1230
where() (in module numpy), 652, 1252
where() (in module numpy.ma), 418, 874
Y
yellow_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1306
Z
zeros (in module numpy.ma), 305, 761
zeros() (in module numpy), 456
zeros() (in module numpy.matlib), 940
zeros_like() (in module numpy), 457
zfill() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 541
zfill() (numpy.chararray method), 186
zfill() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 575
zipf() (in module numpy.random), 1180
zipf() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1231
V
vander() (in module numpy), 482
vander() (in module numpy.ma), 407, 863
var (in module numpy.ma), 382, 838
var() (in module numpy), 1267
var() (numpy.generic method), 86
var() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 287, 389, 845
var() (numpy.matrix method), 153
var() (numpy.ndarray method), 33, 64
var() (numpy.recarray method), 216
var() (numpy.record method), 226
vdot() (in module numpy), 705
vectorize (class in numpy), 641
view, 3
ndarray, 104
view() (numpy.chararray method), 185
view() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 574
view() (numpy.generic method), 86
view() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259
view() (numpy.matrix method), 153
view() (numpy.ndarray method), 33, 50
view() (numpy.recarray method), 217
view() (numpy.record method), 227
vonmises() (in module numpy.random), 1176
vonmises() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1227
vsplit() (in module numpy), 511
vstack (in module numpy.ma), 333, 337, 789, 793
vstack() (in module numpy), 507
W
wald() (in module numpy.random), 1178
wald() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1229
weekmask (numpy.busdaycalendar attribute), 578
1478
Index

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NumPy Reference

Written by the NumPy community

March 26, 2014

Universal functions (ufunc)

Masked array operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Numpy and SWIG

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

1.1 The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

The array can be indexed using Python container-like syntax:

For example slicing can produce views of the array:

1.1.1 Constructing arrays

An array object represents a multidimensional, homogeneous array of fixed-size items.

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

dtype : data-type, optional

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if self.ndim < 2.

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Slicing creates a view, whose memory is shared with x:

Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Table 1.3 continued from previous page

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

casting : {no, equiv, safe, same_kind, unsafe}, optional

To avoid this, one should use

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Arrays of strings are not swapped

ndarray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=raise)

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

Refer to numpy.conjugate for full documentation.

ndarray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

ndarray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

This array method can be conveniently chained:

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1

>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

Chapter 1. Array objects

NumPy Reference, Release 1.8.1