1.Whatisanion?Howdoesacationdifferthanananion?

Answer:Anatomormoleculeinwhichthetotalnumberofprotonsdonotequalthetotalnumberof
electrons.Acationisapositivelychargedatominwhichthetotalnumberofprotonsaregreaterthanthe
totalnumberofelectronswhereasanelectronisanegativelychargedatominwhichthetotalnumberof
electronsaregreaterthanthetotalnumberofprotons.
2.Whatisthelipidbilayer?Andwhatisthesignificanceofthechannelswithinit?Areionsabletomove
acrossthelayerwithoutthesechannels?Ifnot,pleaseexplainwhyandhow?
Answer:Thelipidbilayerinacellsmembraneismadeupofphospholipids.Theselipidscontaina
hydrophilic(orwettable)polarheadregionandhydrophobic(oroily)nonpolartailregion.
Withouttheionchannels,thelipidbilayerisimpermeabletoions.Proteinchannelshaveporesthations
canpassthroughandwithoutthemthereisnomovementofionsacrossthemembrane.
3.Howarethesechannelsselective?whatpropertydotheypossesthatallowsforionselectivity?
Answer:Achannelporeforcationsislinedwithnegativelychargedaminoacidgroupsthatrepulse
anionsandviceversaforanionchannels.Ionselectivityisalsorelatedtowatermoleculesthatstickto
theionsolution.Someionsshedtheirhydratedshell,othersenterporesthatcanaccommodatetheshell
(acomplicatedprocess).
4.Whatisaconcentrationgradient?Andhowdoesitinfluenceionmovementacrossthemembrane?
Answer:Aconcentrationgradientisformedwhenthereisadifferenceinsoluteconcentration(ion
concentration)inasolutionbetweentworegions(acrossthemembrane).Ionsdiffusefromahigh
concentrationgradientdowntoalowconcentrationgradient.
5.Howistherestingmembranepotentialcreated?Whatistheroleofimpermeableionsand
ionselectiveK+channelsincreatingthemaintenanceofthismembranepotential?
Answer:Restingmembranepotentialoccurswhentherearenoactionpotentials,postsynaptic
potentials,orotheractivechangesinthemembranepotential.Thepolarizedmembraneconsistsofan
unequaldistributionofionsoneithersideofit,wheretheinsideofthecellisnegativelychargedrelative
totheoutside.Impermeableionsandselectivepumpscontributetothemaintenanceofthispotential.
TheNa+/K+pumptransportsthreeK+intothecellandtwoNa+outofthecellwhiletheK+selective
channelallowssomemovementofK+outofthecell.Na+selectivechannelsareclosedandtherefore
donotallowanymovementofNa+throughitatrestingmembranepotential.
6.Atrestingmembranepotential,istheinteriorofthecellpositiveornegative?isthecellexterior
positiveornegative?

Answer:Theinsidehasanetnegativechargeandtheoutsidehasanetpositivecharge.
7.Whenanionisatitsequilibriumpotential,whattwogradientsareinbalance?
Answer:Concentrationandelectricalgradient.
8.WritetheNernstPotentialEquationforanions:K+,Na+,Cl,andCa++.Besuretoincludeunitsin
youranswer.
Answer:Na+=+55mV
K+=90mV
Cl=65mV.
Ca++=+134mV
9.IstheNa+/K+pumpisessentialforneurons?Ifso,why?
Answer:Yes,withouttheNa+/K+pumptheconcentrationdifferencesacrossthemembraneforsodium
andpotassiumdifferenceswouldeventuallydisappear.Thishasdisastrousconsequencesforneuronal
signaling.
10.Drawagraphforaglialandneuronsmembranepotential(ordinateorYaxis)asachanging
extracellularpotassiumconcentration(usealogscalefortheabscissaorXaxis).Isthereadifference
betweenthesetwographs?Ifso,why?

Answer:TherestingmembranepotentialofglialcellsispermeabletoonlyK+whiletherestingpotential
forneuronispermeabletoNa+,K+,Cl.
11.Howdoeselectricityinthenervoussystemdifferformelectricityinwires,listthreeways.
Answer:1)Ionatomsthatarepositivelychargedornegativelychargedarewhatmovesaroundversus
electronsinwires.2)Theioniccurrent(chargemovement)mainlyflowsacrossmembranesratherthan
thewayelectronsmovealongwires.3)Thiscurrentflowistheresponsetodifferencesinthenetcharge
betweentheinsideandtheoutsideoftheneuronknownasthemembranepotentialwhichhasnoanalog
onwires.
12.Whatpropertiesinthecellmembraneallowittobehavelikeacapacitor?
Answer:So,weknowthatinthecell,wehavetwoconductiveregionsoffluid,separatedbyan
insulatingmembrane,withavoltageacrosseithersideofthemembrane.
13.Doesconductancemeananythinginneurobiology?Ifso,whatdoesitmean?
Answer:Yes,conductanceisaquantitythatdescribeshowmuchaconductorallowstheflowofcharge
throughit.TheunitofconductanceistheinverseofresistanceknownasSiemens
14.Whatisdrivingforce?Howdodrivingforceandconductancecontributetothecurrentthatpasses
throughionchannels?BesuretousetheOhmslawrelationship.

Answer:Electricaldrivingforceisthedifferencebetweenthemembranepotentialandtheions
equilibriumpotential.Ioniccurrent(I)=conductance(g)xdrivingforce(VE)
15.WhatdidLuigiGalvanidiscover?
Answer:LuigiGalvaniwasanItalianphysicianandphysicist.Oneoftheearlypioneersof
electrophysiology,heisknownforhisworkonthenatureandeffectsofelectricityinananimaltissue.

16.Ifamembraneofacellispermeabletoallions,isthereapointwhenionsfinallystopflowingacross
themembrane?Why?
Answer:Yes,theionsconcentrationgradientandelectricgradientacrossthemembraneeventually
counterbalance.TheNernstequationcanbeusedtocalculatethemembranepotentialatwhichanions
fixedconcentrationgradientisinequilibrium.
17.Thenetmovementofionsacrossamembranemayalterboththemembranepotentialaswellasthe
relativeconcentrationoftheiononeachsideofthemembrane.Comparetheseeffects.
Answer:Inordertocalculatetherestingpotentialinaneuronweneedtotakeintoaccounttherolesof
multipleionsthathavepermeabilities,theGHKequationisonewaytodothis.Inneuronsthereisa
smallbutsignificantpermeabilitytoNa+andClsotheirequilibriumpotentialsneedtobetakeninto
account:P(K+):P(Na+):P(Cl)=1:0.025:0.45
18.WhataretheinsideandoutsideconcentrationofK+,Na+,ClandCa++foratypicalcell,besure
toincludeunitsinyouranswer.

19.WritetheGoldmanHodgkinKatz(GHK)equation.Whyisituseful?Whatdoesithavetodowith
therestingpotential?

Answer:GHKequationisusedtodeterminethereversalpotentialacrossaneuron'smembrane.Ittakes
intoaccountalltheionsthatpermeatethroughthemembrane:Na+,K+,Cl,Ca++.TheGHKequation
representsasteadystate
20.Whatisthedifferencebetweenastateofequilibrium(asinNernst)andsteadystate(asinGHK)?
Answer:ThereisasubtledifferencebetweentheNernstandGHKequations:unlikeaNernst
potentialwhichdescribesanequilibriumwheretheneteffluxandinfluxofanionequal,theGHK
representsasteadystateratherthananequilibriumcondition.Anequilibriumoccurswhenthenetaction
ofprocessescancelsout.At*steadystate*,however,concentrationsarestableandsteady,evenif
thereisquiteabitofmovementbehindthescenes.
21.Whatistherelationbetweenvolts,ampsandohms?
Answer:Currentbetweentwopointsisequaltothevoltagedifferencebetweenthosesametwopoints
dividedbyresistance:I=V/RwhereI=current(amp),V=voltageandR=resistance(ohm)
22.Brieflydescribethestructureofavoltagegatedsodiumchannel.
Answer:Thisquestionwasabitadvancedsincewehadnotyetcoveredvoltagegatedsodiumchannel.
ThevoltagegatedNa+channelismadeupofasinglelongpolypeptidethatcontainsfourdomains.Each
domainhassixtransmembranehelixes(S1S6).ThevoltagesensorisS4andittwistsawayfromthe
insidewhenthecellisdepolarized.
23.WhatisthedifferencebetweenaclosedNa+channelandaninactiveNa+channel?
Answer:Inaninactivestate,theNa+channelisblockedoffwiththeinactivegateenteringthechannel.
Theinactivegatefunctionslikeaplugthatentersthechannelandblocksit.Inaclosedstate,theNa+
channeldoesnotinvolvetheinactivegateandinsteadutilizeditsactivationgateinstead.Theactivation
gatedoesnotenterthechannelandinsteaditblocksitfromtheoutside.
24.Howandwhydoesaxoncaliberaffectconductivevelocity?
Answer:Axoncaliberisinfluencebyneuronalfactorsaswellasextrinsicfactorsrelatedtomyelination.
Achangeinaxonproperties,suchasthesizeofthediameter,influencesachangeinconductionvelocity.

25.Isthereadifferencebetweenaneuronandanerve?Ifso,whatisthedifference?
Answer:Aneuronisasinglecellandanerveisabundleofmanydifferentaxonsfromdifferentneurons.
26.HowdoestheNa+/K+pumpprovidetransport?
Answer:TheNa+/K+pumpusesATPtodrivetransportagainstagradientthisisprimaryactive

transport.
27.Areneuronstheonlycellsinthehumanbodywitharestingmembranepotential?
Answer:No,allcellshavetherestingmembranepotential.Neuronsandmuscletissueareuniqueinthat
theyusetherestingpotentialtogenerateactionpotential.
28.Whathappenstotherestingmembranepotentialwhenthepotassiumchannelsareblocked?
Answer:Theflowofpotassiumoutofthecellmakestheinteriorofthecellmorenegativelycharged.
Blockingthepotassiumleakchannelswouldreducetherestingmembranepotential,makingtheinterior
ofthecelllessnegative.
29.IfNa+wereallowedtoflowdowntheirconcentrationgradient,whatwouldhappentothe
membranepotential?
Answer:ThepotentialacrosstheplasmamembranewouldbereducedifNa+wouldflowintothecell.
Theinteriorofthecellwillbecomelessnegativeandevenrelativelypositiveifenoughionsflowintothe
cell.
30.WhathappenstothemembranepotentialwhenvoltagegatedNa+channelsareopened?
Answer:Na+flowintothecell,downitsconcentrationgradient,makingtheinteriorofthecellless
negativelycharged,orevenpositivelycharged.
31.Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthephysicalcharacteristicsofphospholipids?
A.NegativelychargedatpH7andthereforeentirelyhydrophilic.
B.PositivelychargedatpH7andthereforeentirelyhydrophobic.
C.Partiallyhydrophobicandpartiallyhydrophilic
D.Hydrophobic.
Answer:C.Phospholipidshavehydrophobiccomponents(fattyacidacylchains)andhydrophilic
components(phosphateandcholine).
32.Whatwillhappentoacellwhenitisplacedinahypotonicsolution(soluteconcentrationlowerthan
inthecell)?
Answer:Waterwillflowintothecellthroughtheplasmamembrane,increasingcellvolumetothepoint
thatthecellwillburst.
33.Canionchannelsmoveionsagainstanelectrochemicalgradient?
Answer:No,ionchannelsareonlyinvolvedinfacilitateddiffusion.Themovementofmoleculesdownan

electrochemicalgradientinvolvesthehelpofaprotein.
34.WhichofthefollowingwilloccurifaninhibitorofNa+/K+pumpisaddedtoacell.
A.Thecellwillbegintoproliferate.
B.Theinteriorofthecellwillbecomelessnegativelycharged.
C.Thecellwillshrinkandlosewater.
D.Secondaryactivetransportprocesseswillcompensateforthelossofprimaryactivetransport.
Answer:B.Yes,theNa+/K+pumpisrequiredtoestablishtherestingmembranepotentialinwhichthe
cellularinteriorhasanegativecharge.
35.Whatarethethreebasicelectricalpropertiestotheneuron?
Answer:Twoofthemarepropertiesofthemembrane:membranecapacitanceandmembrane
resistance.Twoofthemarepropertiesofthemembrane:membranecapacitanceandmembrane
resistance.
36.Whatisthelengthconstant?
Answer:Thelengthconstantisamathematicalconstantusedtoquantifythedistancethatagraded
electricalpotentialwilltravelalonganaxonviapassiveelectricalconduction.
37.WhatisOhmslaw?
Answer:Ohmslawtellsustherelationshipbetweenresistance,currentandvoltage.Ohmslawtellsus
thatI=V/RwhereVisvoltage,Iiscurrentmeasuredinamperes,andRisresistancemeasuredinohms.
38.Whichoneofthefollowingcationshasanexceedinglylowconcentrationinsideneurons(<<1
mM)?Circlethecorrectanswer.
[K+][Na+][Ca++][Cl]
Answer:[Ca++]
39.Experimentallyspeaking,whathappenstoresistancewhenadditionalionchannelsareputintothe
membrane,doesitincreaseordecrease?
Answer:Resistancedecreases.
40.Foraglialcell:whatdoestheNernstcalculationsuggestistherestingpotentialwhenthe
extracellularpotassiumconcentrationis0mM?Showyourwork.Canyouprovideasentencethat
explainsorrationalizesthestrangeanswer?

Answer:EK+=60mVxlog0.00=negativeinfinitymV.Onlyifthemembranepotentialwerenegative
infinitycouldtheflowofpotassiumoutofacellbepreventedifthereisnopotassiumintheextracellular
space.