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Proof by Induction
Section 1.6
1.6: Proof by Mathematical Induction
Purpose of Section:
Section To introduce the Principle of Mathematical Induction, both
weak and the strong versions, and show how certain types of theorems can be
proven using this technique.
Introduction
The Principle of Mathematical Induction is a method of proof normally
used to prove that a proposition is true for all natural numbers 1,2,3,
, although there are many variations of the basic method. The method is
particularly important in discrete mathematics, and one often sees theorems
proven by induction in areas like computer science. The technique is so
intuitive and familiar that it sometimes is used without reference to its use.
For example, suppose someone tells you they are going to color the natural
numbers 1,2,3,
with some color and that the number 1 will be colored
blue, and that if a given number is colored blue, then the next number will also
be colored blue. Is there any doubt in your mind that all the numbers will be
colored blue? Of course not. This is the induction axiom. And the good thing
is you dont have to proof it. It is an axiom1.
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
1 3 5
2n 1
1
i Base Case:
Case: Prove that P (1) is true.
i Induction Step: Assume that P (n) is true for an arbitrary n , then
prove that P ( n + 1) is true.
Note: There are several; modifications of the basic induction proof stated
here. For example, there is no reason the base case starts with P (1) . If the
base case is replaced by the verification of P ( a ) , where " a " is any integer
(positive or negative), one would conclude P ( n) true for all n a . Also, if the
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
Margin Note:
Note: Induction works like dominos. You tip over the first domino; the
first domino tips over the second one; the second one tips over the third one;
and so on. You get the idea. Eventually, all dominoes are tipped over.
Theorem 1 (Famous Identity by Induction
Induction)
nduction)
If n is a positive integer, then 1 + 2 + + n =
n ( n + 1)
.
2
Proof:
We denote P ( n) as the statement to be proved:
P ( n) : 1 + 2 + + n =
Base Case:
Case:
n ( n + 1)
2
P (1) says 1 =
1 (2)
2
Induction Step:
Step: We assume P (n) true for an arbitrary n :
P ( n) : 1 + 2 + + n =
n ( n + 1)
2
(assume true)
1 + 2 + + n + (n + 1) =
n ( n + 1)
+ (n + 1)
2
n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)
=
2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
2
The reader can verify that P(2) and P(3) are also true, but that isnt relevant to proof by induction.
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
Note:
Do we have to prove that the principle of mathematical induction
holds? The answer is no. We accept mathematical induction as a logical axiom
in much the same way as we accept the classical rules of Aristotelian logic.
1+ 2 + + n =
n ( n + 1)
2
can also be proven using the idea Gauss had when he was 9 years old and
impressed his teacher by summing 1 + 2 + + 100 = 5050.
Indeed: 1 + 2 + + 100 = (1 + 100 ) + ( 2 + 99 ) + + ( 50 + 51) = 50 101 = 5050.
Theorem 2 (Induction in Calculus)
we have
P ( n) :
d n ( xe x )
dx n
= ( x + n) ex
d ( xe x )
dx
=x
d x x
e + e = ( x + 1) e x .
dx
P ( n) :
d n ( xe x )
dx
= ( x + n) ex
Section 1.6
P(n + 1) :
d n +1 ( xe x )
dx n +1
Proof by Induction
n
x
d d ( xe )
=
dx dx n
d
= ( x + n ) e x
dx
= ( x + n) ex + ex
(induction assumption)
(product rule)
= x + ( n + 1) e x
which proves P (n + 1) . Hence the theorem is proved.
Theorem 3 (Proving Closed Forms of Series by Induction)
integer n :
x n +1 1
x 1+ x + x + + x =
x 1
k =0
n
Proof:
Letting P (n) be the statement
x n +1 1
P ( n) : 1 + x + x + + x =
x 1
2
we verify
Base Case:
Case: In this problem the initial step starts at n = 0 due to the way P (n)
is defined. It is not necessary, but we evaluate both P (0) and P (1) .
P(0) : 1 =
Induction Step:
x 0 +1 1 x 1
=
=1
x 1
x 1
P(1) : 1 + x =
x2 1
= x +1
x 1
1 + x + x2 + + xn =
x n +1 1
x 1
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
x n +1 1 n +1
+x
x 1
x n +1 1 + x n +1 ( x 1)
=
x 1
n +1
x 1 + x n + 2 x n +1
=
x 1
n+2
x 1
=
x 1
1 + x + x 2 + + x n + x n +1 =
P(5) : 25 = 32 > 25 = 52 .
Induction Step:
2n > n 2 2 n +1 = ( n + 1) , n 5 . We write
2n +1 = 2 2n
> 2n 2
2
=n +n
(induction hypothesis)
2
n 2 + 5n
(we assume n 5)
= n 2 + 2n + 3n
> n 2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1) 2
Hence P (n + 1) is true and so by induction P (n) true for all n 5 .
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
The Tower of Benares3 puzzle (or tower of Hanoi) consists moving a collection of disks
from one peg onto another, where one is only allowed to move one disk at a time and no
larger disk can ever be above a smaller disk.
The number of steps required to move n disks from one peg to another peg
(either one) is 2 n 1 .
Proof:
Proof Let
P (1) is true
P ( n ) P ( n + 1)
According to legend, the Temple at Benares in ancient India marked the center of the world.
Within the temple priests moved golden disks from one diamond needle to another. God placed
64 gold disks on one needle at the time of creation. It was said that when the temple priests
completed their task the universe would come to an end. Since it takes 264 -1 moves to complete
the task and assuming the priest move one disk per second, it would take roughly 585 billion
years to move the disks from one needle to another..
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
Finally, we move the n disks sitting on peg C to the top of the largest disk
resting on peg B (another 2 n 1 steps) . Hence, we have the n + 1 disks sitting
on pole B in the proper arrangement. We are done. Adding up these steps,
we find
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
Methodology of
of (Strong) Mathematical Induction
To verify a proposition P (n) holds for all natural numbers n , the Principle of
(Strong) Mathematical Induction consists of successfully carrying out the
following steps.
1. Base Case:
Case: Prove that P (1) is true.
2. Induction Step:
Step Show that for all n
Section 1.6
10
Proof by Induction
k < n + 1 ) states they can both be written as the product of primes, say
p = p1 p2 pm
q = q1q2 qn
n + 1 = pq = ( p1 p1 pm )( q1q2 qn ) .
Hence P ( n + 1) is true and so by the principle of strong induction P ( n) is true
for all n 2 .
un +1 = 3un 2un 1
u0 = 2, u1 = 3
Doing a few
u5 = 33 and thus a
11
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
recurrence relation for all n 0 , we use strong induction starting with initial
step n = 0. .
P (0) : u0 = 20 + 1 = 3 (check)
Base Case:
Case:
un
= 2 n + 1, un 1 = 2n 1 + 1
un +1 = 3un 2un 1
= 3 ( 2n + 1) 2 ( 2n 1 + 1)
= 3 2n 2n + 1
= 2n +1 + 1
which
proves
P (n + 1).
Hence,
by
strong
induction
we
have
that
12
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
P(8) = 5 + 3
P(9) = 3 + 3 + 3
P(10) = 5 + 5
P(11) = P(8) + 3 = ( 5 + 3) + 3
P(12) = P(9) + 3 = ( 3 + 3 + 3) + 3
P(13) = P(10) + 3 = ( 5 + 5) + 3
...
...
...
This pattern will serve as an aid in deciding the base and induction steps
which is often the most difficult part in an induction proof.
Base Step: For the base step, we verify the first three propositions:
[ For example
P ( 9 ) = 3 + 3 + 3 and P (12 ) = ( 3 + 3 + 3) + 3 . Hence, we know P (11) is true since
P ( 8 ) is true, and P (12 ) is true since P ( 9 ) is true, and so on. ] Hence if
n 10
n.
There are several variations of the basic method of mathematical
induction. One such variation is double induction.
Double Induction
Sometimes we would like to prove a proposition P ( m, n ) involving two
natural numbers m by iterating the inductive process. This is done by
performing an induction on one of the variables, say m , and then an induction
13
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
on n .
This strategy is called double induction and is carried out by the
following steps.
14
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
Problems
1.
(Proof by Induction)
propositions.
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
6
a)
12 + 22 + 32 + + n 2 =
b)
n3 n is divisible by 3 for n 1 .
c)
( a + ib ) = 2 ( n + 1)( 2a + nb )
i =0
d)
2n < n ! (n 4)
f)
g)
( 4k 3) = n ( 2n 1)
k =1
h)
i)
j)
( cos + i sin )
= cos n + i sin n
k)
sin nx n sin x
l)
a < b an < bn
m)
dn
n +1
ln x = ( 1) ( n 1) ! x n
n
dx
15
Section 1.6
Proof by Induction
colored the same color. Hint: Define P (n) as the proposition it is possible to
draw n lines in the desired manner for arbitrary n .
Figure 1
3. (Clever Mary) To prove the identity
n
k =
k =0
n ( n + 1)
2
Mary evaluated the left-hand side of the equation for n = 0,1, 2 getting
n
F(n)
0
0
1
1
2
3
.
She then fit a polynomial to these three points, getting
f ( n) =
n ( n + 1)
.
2
This problem is based on a problem in the book A = B by Marko Petkovsek, Doron Zeilberger and
Herbert Wilf. (This amazing book, incidentally, can be downloaded free on the internet.)
Section 1.6
4.
a)
16
Proof by Induction
(Proofs
Proofs without Words)
Words) They say a good picture is worth a thousand words,
but in mathematics it might be closer to a million. For the figures below,
describe why the figure provides a visual proof of the statement.
a 2 + b 2 = c3
b)
c)
1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1) = n 2
1+ 2 + + n =
d)
n ( n + 1)
2
x 2 y 2 = ( x y )( x + y )
17
Section 1.6
e)
x 2 y 2 = ( x y )( x + y )
g)
Proof by Induction
a a
x + ax = x +
2 2
f)
h)
ab
(t
0
p/q
a+b
2
+ t q / p ) dt = 1