Second Year Module Psychology

UNIT 1: THEORIES OF LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
As human beings we behave the way we do largely because we have learned to act that way as a
result of our experience and practice. Learning therefore, is a life-long process which may take
place intentionally as in what happens in a classroom situation and unintentionally as in what
happens in our daily activities. The purpose of this unit is to define learning and present
different theories of learning.
Definition of learning
Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of practice or experience (working definition). Changes caused by development (such as
natural/biological process of growing older, mature, taller, etc.) or characteristics of an
individual present at birth time (such as reflex actions of responding to hunger or pain). The
definition here is restricted to the relatively permanent changes and not temporal ones such as
those that happen due to illness, financial deprivation etc.
Learning theory
The problem with educators is not how to get learners to learn but how to help students learn
particular information, skills, and concepts that will be useful in adult life. In educational
psychology, a learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby,
helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.
Basic theories of learning
1. Behaviourism: Behavioural learning theories are based on observable changes in behaviour.
Behaviourism focuses on a new behavioural pattern being arising from stimulation from the
environment and the consequences that are repeated until it becomes automatic. These
theories involve the humanistic perspective that explains how full human potential can be
tapped from all human beings and how they can be self-actualised.
2. Cognitivism: Cognitive learning theories are based on the thought processes behind the
behaviour. Changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening
inside the learner's mind. These theories focus on explaining the mental processes that lead to
a particular outcome (behaviour or attitude change) that an individual experiences.
3. Social Constructivism: Social learning theories are based on the premise that we all
construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema.
Social learning theories emphasize not only the reinforcement but also the effects of cues on
thought on action. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solving in
ambiguous situations.(Schuman, 1996).
1.1: THE HUMANISTIC THEORY OF LEARNING
This is the school of thought that lays emphasis on human behavior and human centred
education. It is concerned with the individuals feelings, perceptions, beliefs and purposes.
Humanist psychologists believe that human beings determine their own behavior. One of the
Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE
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main proponents of this theory are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. The focus will be on Carl
Rogers.
CARL ROGERS HUMANISTIC LEARNING PRINCIPLES
1. The desire to learn
Human beings have a natural desire to learn. Therefore, failure to learn is not due to the persons
inability to learn, but rather it is due to problems with the learning situation or environment. In
the humanistic classroom, learners are given the freedom to satisfy their curiosity, to pursue their
interests and to discover for themselves what is important and meaningful about their
environment. A teacher must therefore, view every learner as having an equal chance to succeed.
2. Significant learning
Significant or meaningful learning takes place when it is perceived by learners as being relevant
to their own needs and purposes. The humanists regard learning as a dual process that involves
both the acquisition of new information and the personalization of this information. Students
learn best when learning is personally significant.
3. Learning without threat
Rogers argued that learning is best acquired and retained in an environment that is free from
threats. The learning process is enhanced when students test their abilities, try new experiences
or even when they make mistakes without experiencing any criticism.
4. Self-initiated learning
Learning makes sense when it is self-initiated and when it involves both the feelings and mind of
the learners. Choosing ones own learning is highly motivating and provides the student
opportunity to learn how to learn and a sense of independence.
5. Whole-person learning
Learning must involve all aspects of the person: the cognitive, practical and affective (emotional
needs) aspects. This creates a feeling of total accomplishment or all round development.
6. Learning and change
Learning must be suitable to the changing environment. Since knowledge is in a constant state of
change every day and that yesterdays learning may not enable a person to function successfully
in the modern world, an individual must be capable of learning in a changing environment.
Carl Rogers identified two categories of learning, namely, meaningless (cognitive) and
meaningful (experiential) learning.
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Meaningless or cognitive learning

It involves academic knowledge and there is no personal learning for the individual. Since it only
involves the mind, this type of learning has no relevance for the whole person.
Meaningful or Significant or Experiential Learning
This learning involves applied knowledge, such as how to repair something (e.g. a car). It is the
learning that addresses the needs and wants of the learner, and thus has the qualities of personal
involvement, self-initiation, self-evaluation and long lasting effects.
To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal development. In his view, all human
beings have the natural propensity to learn. Therefore, it is the teachers role to facilitate
effective learning by encouraging, clarifying and organizing learning resources, but not to
impose their own view of knowledge on their students. Rogers suggested that learning is
facilitated:1. When the student participates in the learning process, having control over its nature and
direction (students remains at the centre of the teaching-learning process);
2. When learning is primarily based on confrontation with real problems, whether they are
social, personal, scientific or practical problems;
3. When learners are required to use self-evaluation to assess their progress.
Experiential education, or learning by doing is the process of actively engaging learners in an
authentic experience that has benefits and consequences. Learners make discoveries and
experiment with knowledge themselves, instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of
others. Learners also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, attitudes and ways
of thinking. Experiential education also empowers learners to take responsibility for their own
learning.
Instructional implications of humanistic theory
Learning should be person centred. The curriculum, content and teaching methods should be
responsive to the learners feelings and personal development. There must be good interaction
between the learners and teachers during the teaching and learning process. In order to further
promote humanistic learning, the following instructional strategies and methods may be used:
Provide learners with a variety of resources that can support and guide their learning
experiences.
Make use of peer tutoring. This involves learners teaching one another for the mutual
benefit of the student tutor and student tutee.
Use discovery learning to allow learners to seek answers to real questions, make their
own discoveries and become involved in self directed learning.
Role of the humanistic teacher

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Carl Rogers made significant contributions to the field of education with his theory of
experiential learning.
Experiential learnings key idea involves engaging student voice in active roles for the purpose
of learning. The experiential learning mindset changes the way the teachers and students view
knowledge. Knowledge is no longer just some information on paper.
It becomes active, something that is dealt with in real life situations. It starts to make teachers
become experience providers, and not just transmitters of the written word. Students become
knowledge creators as well as knowledge gatherers.
Besides changing the roles of students, experiential education requires a change in the role of
teachers. Teachers become active learners too, experimenting together with their students,
reflecting upon the learning activities they have designed, and responding to their students
reactions to the activities.
In humanistic education, the teachers role is mainly that of the facilitator. Teachers have to
create a conducive learning atmosphere by encouraging students, clarifying issues and
organizing learning resources. They also have to have to demonstrate realness or genuineness,
i.e., to be honest in their relationship with learners.
Teachers also need to be trustworthy so that learners can feel free to explore with support from
teachers. Teachers need to be empathetic to the learners, i.e., to put themselves in the place of
learners and experience the learners perceptions and feelings.
To conclude, it should be noted that the humanistic theory of learning emphasizes democratic
and discovery methods of teaching and learning. It encourages the involvement of pupils in the
learning process. There should be unconditional positive regard because people function well
when accepted as they are. Therefore, positive attitudes like love, respect, tolerance and
acceptance are important in the learning-teaching process.
1.1.2
BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES OF LEARNING
Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning, and discounts the
internal processing that might be associated with the activity. For behaviorism, learning is the
acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.
Who are the proponents of behaviorism?
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
- Classical Conditioning
Edward Thorndike(1874 - 1949)
- Law of Effect
John B. Watson(1878 - 1958)
- Emotional Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)
- Operant Conditioning
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Types of conditioning
There are two types of conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning (learning by association) Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning refers to a process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus
with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response ((Slavin, 2009).
Pavlov a Russian physiologist is best known for being the first to have carried out experiments
on stimulus substitution. His famous experiment involved food, a dog and a bell.
Pavlov's Experiment
Pavlov observed that when food was placed in the dogs mouth, the dog salivated. The food is
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits unconditioned response(UCR), salivation. Pairing the
neutral stimulus such as the sound of the bell with the food results in conditioning the dog to
salivate at the sound of the bell. The bell is a conditioned stimulus(CS) that has acquired the
power to elicit what is now the conditioned response(CR) of salivation. Thus neutral stimuli that
accompany (usually precede) unconditioned stimuli often becomes conditioned stimuli.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.
Classical conditioning terms
a) Stimulus any aspect of the environment that directly influences our behaviour or conscious
experience (ie environmental condition that activates the senses)
b) Neutral stimulus (NS) stimulus that has no effect on a particular response.
c) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) a stimulus that naturally (inborn) evokes a particular
response.
d) Unconditioned response (UCR) a behaviour that is prompted automatically by a stimulus
(ie unlearned, inborn reaction to an unconditioned stimulus)
e) Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response
after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
f) Conditioned response (CR) response that the conditioned stimulus elicits
The three phases of classical conditioning.
Phase 1. Before conditioning/Prep-conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (meat) leads to Unconditioned response (salivation)
Neutral stimulus (bell) leads to no response
Phase 2: During Conditioning
Neutral stimulus (sound of bell) paired with Unconditioned stimulus (meat) leads to
Unconditioned response (salivation)
Phase 3: After conditioning/post-conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (sound of bell) triggers conditioned response (salivation)
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Principles in classical conditioning
Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical

conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response, while
others describe the disappearance of a response. These elements are important in understanding
the classical conditioning process.
Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually
strengthened. For example, if you are trying to teach a dog to shake in response to a verbal
command, you can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog shakes in response to
only the verbal command. Once the response has been acquired, you can gradually reinforce the
shake response to make sure the behavior is well learned.
Extinction
Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical
conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (ie when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone). For example, If
you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or
period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no
longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery. Spontaneous
recovery is an increase in the magnitude (size) of conditioned response after a period of time
with no explicit training. This means that some learning was left after extinction.
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses
after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate to
a sound of bell, the dog will salivate to the sound of a siren.
Discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the
conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the
bell tone and other similar sounds (eg siren). In other words it is ability to respond differently to
different stimuli.
Application of classical conditioning theory to teaching and learning situation.
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As long as the pairing of school with childs favourite aspects (eg toys) is done consistently
and repeatedly, the learner will grow to love school.
A child learns to fear the teacher by associating him with punishment (eg beating). Steps
should be taken to remove this childs teacher-fear so that he/she can learn well
A teacher can use classical conditioning principles to extinguish unwanted behaviours in
students. For example, undesired behaviour can be extinguished by the teacher rewarding the
desired behaviour. The student will learn to discriminate between what attract reinforcement
and what does not.
As a teacher you will find that there are children (and some adults) who are afraid of new
experiences. You can help them by providing warm and secure environment in which to try
new things and thus permit their fear to extinguish. As a new experience is encountered
successfully, they will become able to cope with further new experiences.
Another extinction-like procedure which has been used successfully to help people overcome
irrational fears is called desensitisation. In desensitisation, a person is asked to make a list of
situations in which he fears anxious. He is then told to assume a relaxed posture (usually
lying down) and to relax as completely as possible. The therapist then has him imagine
himself in the least threatening situation he has listed. Because being relaxed is incompatible
with feeling anxious, this tends to cause extinction of the emotional reaction to the situation.
As a person goes through a number of sessions such as this, he eventually begins to lose his
fear of the situations which have troubled him.
If teachers are warm and the school environment secure, pupils will definitely form positive
attitudes towards school. If schools experiences are threatening and insecure, the opposite
will occur. We have heard of stories of pupil dropping out of school because of being bullied
or lessons boring and teachers threatening them.
2) Operant conditioning/instrumental conditioning - B.F. Skinner

(Learning from the consequences of ones behaviour)
The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner. Skinner used the term
operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate
consequences". It is based upon learning from the consequences of ones behaviour. The idea is
that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an
individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a
consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a mathematical problem. When a
particular stimulus response pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to
respond.
Skinner proposed a class of behaviour labeled as operant behaviour because subjects (learners)
operated on the environment in the absence of unconditioned stimulus (such as food). Behavior
is learned or avoided as a result of its consequences ie if an individuals behavior is immediately
followed by a pleasurable consequence, the individual will engage in that behavior more
frequently.
Skinners Experiment
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In his experiment, Skinner studied the behaviour of rats and pigeons. He placed subjects
(rats and pigeons) in controlled situations (skinner boxes) and observed changes in their
behaviour produced by systematic changes in the consequences of their behavior.
The skinner boxes consisted of a bar that was easy for rats to press. One being the food
dispenser that could give a rat food pellets and the other a water dispenser that could give a
rat water, once pressed
After a few trials/incidental presses, the rat would start pressing the bar frequently, receiving
food pellets each time
The food reward conditioned the rats behaviour, strengthening bar pressing and weakening
all other behaviour (of wandering around the box)
Note!
If our actions result in people getting angry and disliking us, we are being operant
conditioned to believe that the world is a dangerous and threatening place
If the environment rewards us when we perform certain acts, then we tend to repeat them eg
if you study hard and get a note of praise, you will tend to study hard again
Voluntary
response
Followed by
Reinforceme
nt
will result into
Same voluntary
response again
Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of
children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing
projects to receive praise or promotions.
Components of Operant Conditioning
Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. Reinforcers can
be primary and secondary. Primary reinforcer is food, water or other consequence that satisfies a
basic need (teachers are a source of primary reinforcement in learners lives). Secondary
reinforcer is any consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary
reinforce. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
a) Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the
addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.
b) Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the
display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases.
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Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of aversive stimulation following a response
ie the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows. Punishment is a stimulus which diminishes the probability or strength of a response
preceding it. There are two kinds of punishment:
a) Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the
presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
b) Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an unfavorable
event or outcome is removed after a behaviuor occurs.
Sometimes negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. Negative reinforcement
increases the likelihood of the behaviour it follows. Whereas Punishment decreases the
likelihood of the behaviour it follows. The following illustrates punishment:
Behaviour (you
touch a hot iron)
Presentation of an
Frequency of
unpleasant
behaviour
stimulus (your hand
decreases (you no
is burnt)
touch
hotserves
Thus, if a pupil reports late for class,
the teacher gives the pupil a stern longer
reprimand,
which
as punishment. The response of reporting late for class was followed by the aversive stimulation
of the teachers disapproval.
Activity 1
Examples of negative reinforcement and punishment.
Classify the following as an example of negative reinforcement
i.
Taking a panadol relieves a headache. Taking a panadol is.........................
ii.
Being slapped by your parent for talking back decreases future talking back. Talking
back is................................................
iii.
A prefect booking a pupil for late coming increases future ate coming. Late coming
is........................................
iv.
Pretending to be ill to avoid going to school increases future pretence sick days.
Pretending to be ill is...............................................................
How can teachers get pupils to exhibit behaviors they want using principles of operant
conditioning?
Shaping
Shaping is the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer
approximations of it. Shaping is the teaching of a new skill or behaviour by means of reinforcing
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for small steps towards the desired goal. Shaping is an important tool in classroom instruction
where student behaviours are modified
If sometimes the desired behaviour is exhibited by the pupils, then teachers can increase
frequency through positive or negative reinforcement. For behaviour to be reinforced there must
be a response first. You may not reinforce a pupil for doing his homework if he does not take his
books home.
Schedules of reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement refers to when or how often a response is reinforced. Reinforcement
can be continuous or intermittent: as a teacher you can reinforce correct responses given by your
pupils each time or periodically. If you use an intermittent schedule of reinforcement, you have
two choices. Reinforcing a proportion of responses (a ratio schedule) or reinforcing responses
following lapse of time from previous reinforcement (an interval schedule).
Types of ratio and interval schedules
(i) A fixed ratio schedule: a fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur. This is based on presenting the subject with a reinforcer after
the subject emits a specified number of responses eg teacher tells pupils to go for break
after completing four (4) more problems
(ii) A variable-ratio schedule: is based on presenting a subject with a reinforcer after an
average number of responses. You may vary the number of responses from one reinforcer
after every three responses to one reinforcer after every 20 responses. In this schedule
your pupil may not know how many responses are required for reinforcement.
(iii)
A fixed interval schedule: the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount
of time has passed since the last reinforcement. This is based on a constant unit of time
between reinforcements.
(iv)A variable interval schedule: here you provide reinforcement following the first correct
response after a lapse of time. As in variable-ratio schedule, the subject never knows
when the next reinforcer is due.
Once the desired behavioural response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be
100%; In fact it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial
reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio
schedules.
Extinction (learning when to quit): Responses that are not reinforced are likely to be repeated.
(Ignoring student misbehaviour should extinguish that behaviour.)
Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but
may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing
privileges should stop their lateness.)
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Differences between classical and operant conditioning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV)
OPERANT CONDITIONING (SKINNER)
Unconditioned stimulus(food)
response (salivation)
Response (press lever)
unconditioned
stimulus (reward)
Involves reflective involuntary behaviours

(salivation, fear)
Involves more complicated voluntary behaviours
Conditioned stimulus (bell) elicits conditioned

response 9salivation)
Conditioned response (press lever) leads to

conditioned stimulus (reward/food)
Involves the association of two stimuli (eg meat

and bell)
Involves an association between a response

(studying hard) and the resulting consequence
(getting an A grade)
The unconditioned stimulus is paired with the

conditioned stimulus independent of the
individuals behaviour
The reinforcing consequence occurs only if the

response being conditioned has just been emitted
(ie the reinforcing consequence is contingent on
the occurrence of the response)
Application of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is more applicable in learning situations than classical conditioning

especially for the fact that it the learner should be actively involved in the learning process
(discovery or learning by doing).
Material in the course should be divided into small units, so that each of which must be
mastered by learners at a high level of proficiency before the next unit is attempted.
Applications of reinforcement principles by the teacher increases students productivity (hard
work) ie in teaching a new task, reinforce immediately rather than permit a delay between
responses and reinforcement. In the early stages of the task reinforce every correct response.
As learning occurs, request for more correct responses prior to reinforcement and gradually
shift to intermittent/partial reinforcement. Reinforce improvement or steps in the right
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3).
direction. Do not insist on perfect performance on the first try. Do not reinforce undesirable
behaviour.
Operant conditioning helps in behavior therapy ie helps in eliminating bad habits by
applying negative punishments
The law of effect (law of connectionism) - Edward Thorndike
Thorndikes experiment
Edward Thorndike did research in animal behaviour before becoming interested in human
Psychology. He used cats as his subjects that he placed in a puzzle box (a small cage with a door
that would open if the cat pulled a string hanging inside). In his experiment, Thorndike put a
hungry cat inside the box with a closed door, placed food outside and the cats effort to escape to
get the food were observed. The cats task was to get out of the cage to obtain food (reward)
placed outside the cage. It went through the process of walking around, clawing at the floor,
jumping at the sides of the cage until by chance it pulled the string opening the cage door. With
each trial, the cat became more efficient at opening the door of the box.
From the experiments observations, Thorndike formulated the law of effect which states that the
consequences of a response determine whether the response will be performed in future or that
the connections between stimuli and responses are strengthened by satisfying outcomes. His
theory (Connectionism) emphasised that learning was the formation of a connection between
stimulus and response.
In Thorndikes view, the main factor influencing all learning is reward or the satisfying state of
affairs. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike
found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance. Thorndike's
laws were based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. He believed that a neural bond would be
established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. Learning takes
place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behaviour
4)
Emotional Conditioning John B.Watson
John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Like
Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study
of human behaviour. (He is credited with coining the term "behaviourism")
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions
of love and rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations
through conditioning.
Watson's Experiment
Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert)
and a white rat. Originally, little Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud
noise whenever Albert touched the rat and because Little Albert was frightened by the loud noise,
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he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was generalized to other small
animals. Watson then "extinguished" the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. Some
accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it
really was. (Harris, 1979; Samelson, 1980, in Brophy, 1990). Here is the situation;
Loud sound (UCS)
Fear (UCR), followed by the association phase;
Rat (CS)
Loud sound (UCS)
Rat (CS)
Fear (CR)
Fear (UCR), which becomes;
Certainly Watson's research methods would be questioned today because we do not learn to be
startled or afraid; this happens automatically. However, his work did demonstrate the role of
conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may explain
certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.
Implications of behavioural theories for learning
Teachers should reward learners desirable outcomes e.g. praise, recognition, privileges, etc.
Teachers should ensure responses to stimuli are examined in order to enable them guide the
learners behaviour toward a behavioural goal (shaping).
Behaviourist urge the use of instructional objectives (i.e. objectives stated in terms of actual
behaviours such as list, recite, define, compare, etc.) because both the educators and learners
must know what they are trying to accomplish at the end of each task.
Educators should provide reinforcement (reward) immediately after the learner responds.
This is because behaviour changes according to immediate consequences e.g. praise will
encourage the learner to contribute during the lesson while punishment discourage the learner
in engaging in undesirable behaviour.
Teachers should give timely feedback on each step of the task as this becomes an effective
teaching practice
UNIT 1.1.3: COGNITIVE THEORY OF LARNING
Introduction
As early as the 1920's people began to find limitations in the behaviourist approach to
understanding learning. Edward Tolman found that rats used in an experiment appeared to have a
mental map of the maze he was using. When he closed off a certain portion of the maze, the rats
did not bother to try a certain path because they "knew" that it led to the blocked path.
Visually, the rats could not see that the path would result in failure, yet they chose to take a
longer route that they knew would be successful (Operant conditioning).
Behaviourists were unable to explain certain social behaviours. For example, children do not
imitate all behaviour that has been reinforced. Furthermore, they may model new behaviour days
or weeks after their first initial observation without having been reinforced for the behaviour.
What is cognitive learning?
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Cognitive learning is learning that takes place as a result of changes in cognition (Louw &
Edwards, 1997:257). Cognition includes our thoughts, ideas, beliefs, understanding and
knowledge.
Cognitive Psychologists have developed information-processing models to identify how human
obtain information, store and apply information.
The information processing system.
Three-Stage Information Processing Model - input first enters a sensory register, then is
processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and
retrieval.
1. Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four
seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. Much of the information never
reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if
necessary.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM) - sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from
the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained here for up to 20 seconds or more if
rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM
capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts.
3. Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM for long term use.
Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are "forced" into LTM by rote
memorization and over learning. Deeper levels of processing such as generating linkages
between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material.
Aspects of the model to note
Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. If a learner links
relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain.
Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather
than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different.
Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed
practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts
rather than the one context afforded by mass practice.
Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material. Interference
Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new material.
Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is easier to
remember.
Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of their
physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their meaning. The more deeply a
word is processed the easier it will be to remember.
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State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will
be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.
Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to organize relatively meaningless
input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. For example, the notes of a musical
scale can be remembered by the rhyme: Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit.
Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it may be more
difficult for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it
may also be affected by their prior schema.
Advance Organizers - advance organizers prepare the learner for the
material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines of the material, but
are material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.
1.1.4 Banduras Social Learning Theory

Introduction
Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning focuses on learning that
occurs within a social context. It argues that people learn from one another through
observational learning, modelling and vicarious experience. Modelling is the imitation of
others behaviour while vicarious experience is learning from others successes or failures and
observational learning is learning by observation and imitation of others.
Bandura (1986) described the following four processes of social cognitive theory: attention
processes, retention process, motor reproduction processes and motivational:
a) Attention phase it is the first phase and it involves paying attention to the model. What a
learner observes or attends depends on characteristics of the model and character. Students
pay attention to role models who are attractive, successful, interesting and popular. Thus, the
student who performs well in college academic activities is more likely to be observed. The
leader of the gang is much more likely to be watched and imitated than someone who is not
respected by gang members.
b) Retention phase the observer must be able to remember the behaviour that has been
observed. Once the teacher has the learners attention, it is time to model the behaviour they
want learners to imitate and then give learners a chance to practice or rehearse. Thus
processes, such as imagery and rehearsal that enhance memory are mediators of
observational learning e.g. a teacher must show how to write the letter A.
c) Reproduction phase is the ability to replicate what the model has just demonstrated.
Learners try to match their behaviour to the models (after practicing several times, can the
learners reproduce what the teacher had modelled?).
d) Motivational phase learners must want to demonstrate what they have learnt. Learners
will imitate the model because they believe that doing so will increase their own chances to
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be reinforced (In a classroom situation, this often entails praise, good grades given for
matching the teachers model).
Vicarious learning is an important concept in observational learning where individuals
(learners) learn by seeing others reinforced or punished for engaging in certain behaviours e.g. in
class when one pupil is fooling around, teachers often single out others who are working very
well and reinforce them for the good job. The misbehaving student sees that working hard is
reinforced and gets back to work.
Self-regulation learning is an important concept in social learning theory. Self-regulation is
when individuals have their own ideas about what is appropriate or inappropriate behaviour and
chooses action accordingly or rewarding or punishing ones own behaviour.
Application of the Social Learning theory to teaching and learning

In applying Banduras Social Learning theory, the following principles should be kept in minds:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modelled behaviour symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modelled behaviour
into words, labels, or images results in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behaviour if the model is similar to the
observer and has admired status and the behaviour has functional value.
Educational implications
Teachers fall in the category of the significant others to be modelled and therefore, must
strive to be exemplary in their conduct.
Describing the consequences of behaviour can effectively increase appropriate behaviours

and decrease inappropriate ones.
Modelling can provide a faster and more efficient means of teaching new behaviour (a
teacher must ensure that the four essential conditions prevail: attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation).
Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and take care that they do not
model inappropriate behaviours.
Learners often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. Teachers should expose
learners to a variety of models, this technique is important to break down traditional
stereotypes. A teacher can invite respectable people (eg professors, female doctors etc) to the
class as a way of inspiring the students
Learners must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Teacher can
promote such by having learners watch others be successful and experience success on their
own.
Teachers should help students make realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
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Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behaviour
Teachers need to be consistent when applying reinforcement or punishment.
UNIT 2: ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Teachers view assessment and evaluation as an important part of their teaching profession. They
need to know something about pupils attainment and achievement because parents, other
teachers, school authority, education authority, employers the list is endless, would like to
know how pupils are performing (Child, 1998).
The pupils also like to know how they are performing and their progress. Formative as well as
summative feedbacks are not possible without some form of assessment.
DEFINITIONS
Assessment According to Farrant (1964) assessment is defined as the process by which the
quality of an individuals work or performance is judged. In Zambian Schools, assessment of
learning is usually carried out by teachers on the basis of impressions gained as they observe
their pupils at work or by various kinds of work and tests given periodically. When different tests
are given as an on-going process, such assessment is known as continuous assessment.
Child (1973) defines assessment as an omnibus term which includes all the processes and
products which describe the nature and extent of the childs learning, its degree of
correspondence with the aims and objectives of teaching and its relationship with the
environments which are designed to facilitate learning.
Evaluation is what follows once an assessment has been made. It involves the judgment about
the effectiveness and worth of something for which the assessment has already been made
usually a teaching objective. Evaluation in the context of education is a process used to obtain
information from testing, from direct observations of behavior, from essays and from other
devices to assess a students overall progress towards some pre-determined goals or objectives. It
includes both a qualitative and a quantitative description and involves a value judgment or
overall students behavior (Brown, 1982).
PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
People do not do anything without purpose; the same thing goes with assessment and evaluation.
These have purposes in the teaching profession. Assessment and Evaluation have main purposes
as follows:
1. To discover the knowledge and skills possessed by someone before embarking on a learning
task. This is done through pre-task assessment.
2. To assess the progress and development of knowledge and skills during the process of
learning. Formative assessment is suitable for this kind of work.
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3. To locate particular difficulties in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Diagnostic or

remedial assessment is quite effective in this area.
4. To measure the outcome of learning. Summative assessment plays a major role in this
direction.
5. One of the teachers objectives in his/her teaching, amongst others, is to stimulate the
acquisition, understanding and application of knowledge. It therefore seems perfectly
reasonable and desirable that the teacher should also want to explore the extent to which
these objectives have been achieved.
6. Beyond the classroom there are employers and professions who require some assurances
about the level of competences reached by prospective students or pupils. These assurances
must be expressed as accurately as possible and in terms which are readily and easily
understood by all the people concerned. For example, examination marks in high schools are
used to provide one such criterion.
7. To foster learning and improve teaching
8. To motivate the learners and learning process.
9. To evaluate the teaching and learning process.
10. To help build a positive and realistic self-image.
11. To provide information to parents about the achievements of their children.
Activity
Distinguish clearly between Assessment and Evaluation.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS
A. Formative Assessment
This is when assessment gives information and evidence about learners learning. Formative
assessment is an on-going process. Observations are made and information is collected about the
learners.
The information collected is used to guide the teachers and the learners, help them and direct the
teaching and learning.
Formative assessment can be both formal and informal
Role of Formative Assessment
1.
2.
3.
4.
To motivate the learners extend their knowledge and skill and establish sound values.
To provide healthy habits of study
To help learners solve problems by using what they have learned.
To help the teacher improve teaching methods and learning materials.
B. Summative Assessment
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This sums up progress and achievement of the learners. Summative Assessment consists of both
continuous assessment and formal assessment.
C. Criterion-Referenced Assessment
This type of assessment gives specific information about what an individual learner knows,
understands and can do regardless of the performance of others. In short, it measures the
learners performance against pre-determined expectations. It focuses on what a learner can do or
not do in relation to a given objective.
The diploma programme stresses the use of criterion-referenced level of achievement in relation
to the basic competencies.
Percentage marks must be related to criteria for assessing a learners achievement. These criteria
are meant to measure the learners performance clearly. Example: 50% is passing mark for
primary schools and 40% is a passing mark for Tertiary.
D. Norm-Reference Assessment
This is when you compare a learners performance against the performance of the class as a
whole. Certain norms are established and the learners are judged against those norms and
classified according to the set norm or the performance as pass or fail.
N.B: The grade seven external examinations for instance are both summative and normreferenced.
The performance of each candidate is judged against those who take the examination that year.
The average performance of the pupils is taken into account. Cut off points can be determined by
each province.
E. Informal Continuous Assessment
This is when you assess and record the progress of the learners as you teach. This is normally
structured in a subjective way. What this means is that the progress can be gathered from a
number of situations in the classroom.
F. Formal Continuous Assessment
In this case an assessment situation is set up. An activity is organized to specifically assess
certain competences in the learners. This can be done through projects, presentations, tests,
puzzles, etc.
Principles of Continuous Assessment
1. It should be based on the basic competences contained in the syllabus and should relate to the
real life of the learners.
2. It should go beyond the recall of knowledge
3. It should monitor progress in relation to the learning outcomes.
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Activity
Discuss merits and demerits of Continuous Assessment.
EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
According to Kakkar (1993) the terms measurement and evaluation represent concepts that
are often used by educational workers while studying children and also while studying individual
differences involving academic achievement and aptitude, special abilities, emotional and social
adjustment, as well as physical strength and skill.
Measurement involves the gathering of descriptive date that can be related to an appropriate
standard of norm.
Evaluation and measurement are not the same, although evaluation involves measurement.
Example, if we assess students knowledge and understanding in a subject by means of an essay
of objective type of test, which is measurement. If on the other hand the teacher puts a value on
the students work, example talents, attitudes and other characteristics of behavior, that is
evaluation. Evaluation should in part involve testing that is non-subjective on the part of the
teacher; otherwise, it is likely to be erratic and not reliable.
Evaluation, on the other hand, consists of much more than mere collection and recording of data
and is more comprehensive than measurement.
It includes informal and intuitive judgment about pupils progress as well as the act of valuing
which means expressing what kind of behavior is desirable and good. Thorndike and Hagen
(1955) are the opinion that good measurement techniques provide the solid foundation for sound
evaluation.
Why Evaluate
Evaluation, like assessment, has many purposes. It can be used in the following ways:
1. Evaluation as basis for school marks or grades:
The educational system requires that teachers occasionally submit marks or grades for
students. These marks or grades can be arrived at through formal examinations, regular
tests, assignments, laboratory work, observational data or a combination of these.
2. Evaluation as means of informing parents:
Students parents want and have the right to know how their children are progressing in
school. Student evaluation is the most important way of providing them with this
information.
3. Evaluation for promotion to higher grades:
Students evaluation is sometimes used to determine whether a student has made enough
progress to be in the next grade or class in the school.
4. Evaluation for Student Motivation:
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Success in the test and examinations as well as other school activities can give great
encouragement to students. Similarly, failure to do well can make students work harder or
strive to do better. Teachers should try to give their students feedback on the evaluation of
all aspects of their learning and behavior so that both those who do well and those who
do not do well be motivated to improve on their performance.
5. Evaluation for guidance and counseling purposes:
All students need to be advised to help them solve their own personal problems, whether
academic or emotional. So evaluation is needed in this direction.
6. Evaluation to assess the effectiveness of teaching:
If the teacher does not in some way assess the students knowledge and skills, she/he will
not be able to evaluate the success of her/his teaching. For example, a high failure rate in
a subject is more often due to poor teaching than to the lack of intelligence of the
students.
7. Evaluation for employment purpose:
Not all students who pass grade nine and twelve examinations, for instance, will proceed
to Universities and Colleges. Some students may decide to join a company or business.
Employers normally require information on potential employees with reference to
academic ability, attitude to work, moral character, personality and so on.
8. Evaluation for University and College entrance:
University and Colleges often require evaluation reports from schools upon receiving
applications.
What to Evaluate
For the organized teacher who has been teaching for a number of years and has worked well with
planned lessons and clearly stated behavioral objectives, the question of obtaining data in the
case of what to evaluate is not too difficult to answer. However, from experience even such
teachers have problems.
The national objectives of Zambia clearly stated in the Educating our Future, the national
policy on education (1996) maintain that attitudes, values, physical skills and abilities and
cognitive skills are important for students. The teacher should take all areas of students progress
into account.
How to Evaluate
The different methods of evaluating students can be classified under three main areas:
1. Teacher made tests and exercises
2. Other evaluation devices
3. Continuous evaluation or assessment
One way of obtaining data in the case of pupils is to use tests and examinations. Such
measurements permit comparison of the performance of children and groups in terms of
numerical scores. Tests and examinations also indicate the degree to which an education
programme is succeeding.
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Activity
Outline some methods of evaluation. Which ones are often used by teachers and why?
2.1: TESTS
What is a test?
A test is an instrument or tool that is used to assess or measure the learners progress and
achievement in terms of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.
What is testing?
Testing refers to a systematic procedure of measuring or assessing the learners progress and
achievement. In other words, testing refers to the administration of a test.
TYPES OF TESTS
The tests are in various types. Some of the types include objectives tests, subjective tests,
aptitude tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests, etc.
1. OBJECTIVE TESTS
These are tests whose answers can be scored more objectively. Objective tests can be divided
into three main groups as follows:
(a) Supply item tests.
(b) Selection-item tests.
(c) Rank-order item tests
(a) Supply item tests
The aim of this form of test is to determine the learners ability to recall or recognize the
appropriate term, concept or phrase to complete a given statement. The learner is presented
with incomplete statements and has to supply a term, word, name, date or phrase which
either completes the statement or answers the question. Such test items are also call fill in
items. Example: The.of Zambia is over 10 million people. In this example, the
correct term would be population.
(b) Selection-item tests
The learner is required to select the most suitable response from several alternatives
provided. The selection-item tests can be divided into the following sub-groups:
True/False items
Matching items
Multiple choice test items
Pictorial-test items
True/False item test
Example: Zambia has a sea-coast: True or False.
Matching item test
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This required the learner to match the corresponding options or make a choice from
corresponding options. Usually, this test has two columns of items which are to be associated
directly. Consider the following example:
(A) The capital city of South Africa
1. U.S.A
(B) Barak Obama is president of this country
2. School
(C) A place where learning takes place
3. Pretoria
In the example above, the correct answer would be to match (a) with 3, (b) with 1 and (c)
with 2 sot that in the blank spaces there is B, C, A.
Multiple choice items test
The learner chooses the best answer out of several alternatives. A multiple choice item may
be in the form of a question or an incomplete statement (known as a stem). Examples:
Which of the following cities is the capital city of Zambia?
(A) Lilongwe
(B) Mbabane
(C) Harare
(D) Lusaka
The first president of Zambia was .

(A) Kenneth Kaunda
(B) Harry Nkumbula
(C) Simon Kapwepwe
(D) Levy Mwanawasa
Pictorial-test items
These are pictures or drawings. They are very suitable for learners with difficulties in reading
ability. They test such abilities as to recall information, to complete parts missing in a picture
or drawing or to interpret the picture or drawing.
(c) Rank-order item tests
The learner is required to indicate the appropriate order of items presented, e.g., in
chronological order, alphabetical order, ascending order or descending order. A learner may
be asked to arrange the following dates in a chronological order or happening:
(A) 2007
(B) 1964
(C) 1800
(D) 1902
In the task above, the correct way to arrange these dates in chronological order (from the
earliest to the latest) would be like this:
(C) 1800
(D) 1902
(B) 1964
(A) 2007
A learner may also be asked to arrange the names of countries in alphabetical order:
Page 23
Angola, Mozambique, Uganda, Somalia, Botswana. The answer will be:

Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Somalia, Uganda.
Advantages of Objective tests
They allow for the coverage of many topics
Answers can be scored quickly and more objectively since there is only one correct
answer and the answer is not open to interpretation. This enables learners to respond
quickly to questions.
They are easy to mark
Less able pupils have chance to pass
Disadvantages of Objective tests
Time consuming in setting
Costly in terms of paper and effort
They may lead to guessing (e.g. multiple choice questions and true/false items)
Not effective in testing the learners ability to organize their thoughts or to write
coherently
They sometimes tend to test recall of specific facts rather than creativity
A lot of skill may be required when setting.
2. SUBJECTIVE TESTS (ESSAY TEST QUESTIONS)
These are also known as essay tests. Essay test questions are recommended when assessing
higher-order mental processes such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. They
should not be used to measure knowledge of facts or principles. There are two types of essays,
long essays and short essays. Long essay tests involve long descriptive writing. They use terms
like discuss, explain, comment, describe. Short essay tests require the learner to write as briefly
as possible.
Merits of essay tests
Essay tests have some advantages over objective tests because they enable learners to:
Use their own words, style and organization in answering
Demonstrate the degree to which they can analyse a problem
Creatively select relevant information
Give evidence of substantial understanding of the content
Organize answers in a logical and comprehensive manner
Bring out a lot of information they know on the topic since there is no absolutely wrong or
right answer.
Improve skills in writing and logical organization of the content
They are easy to set and leave less room for guessing.
Demerits of essay tests
They sometimes encourage learners to recall information rather than understand it.
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They present a problem of content validity. An adequate sampling of the content and
objectives of a topic by essay questions is very difficult. The essay questions take more time
to answer than objective questions, thus limiting the number of questions that can be asked
and also the topics that can be examined.
There is the problem of subjective scoring. Subjectivity makes essay test results lower in
reliability than objective tests. Extraneous factors can influence a teachers scoring or making
of an essay, e.g., poor handwriting, grammatical, spelling errors, teachers mood, etc. The
teachers first impression of the learner (known as hallo effect) affects the marking either
positively or negatively.
They require a lot of time and concentration when marking. This tends to limit essay testing
to very specific objectives where a teacher is handling large classes.
Activity
Give some suggestions of how essay testing can be improved to minimize its disadvantages.
3. APTITUDE TEST
An aptitude test is a one that is designed to measure what a person can learn to perform or
whether he/she can perform the job after training.
An aptitude test predicts future ability on the basis of present ability.
Attitude is the ability to acquire knowledge and skills.
4. ACHIEVEMENT TEST
A test designed to measure what an individual has mastered or achieved
It measures the extent to which a person has acquired certain information or mastered
certain skills, usually as a result of specific instruction.
In other words, an achievement test measures the effects of learning or training.
5. DIAGNOSTIC TEST
A test which is used to identify or detect weaknesses or strengths of the learner in specific
areas of achievement in order to put corrective measures.
Activity
(a) What functions do tests perform?
(b) Sometimes pupils are taught to merely pass tests and examinations. Discuss.
PLANNING A TEST
In order to measure the learners skill, ability or knowledge, test questions, exercises or practical
activities can be administered.
PURPOSE OF TESTS
1. Tests play a very important role in evaluating pupils learning and also the teachers
teaching.
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2. Tests provide relevant measures of learning outcomes and direct evidence concerning
learners achievement
3. A test can be used as a continuous assessment strategy.
4. Tests are used to reinforce learning.
5. Tests are a powerful source of student motivation.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN TEST DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
Test scores are always and in some degree subject to error caused by poor measuring
instruments, lack of skill in using these tools or recording the results. To minimize errors, certain
factors should be considered:
1. Consider the pupils abilities when designing the tests. A good number of tests are beyond
pupils comprehension.
2. Language use the language should not be too hard or too simple. Use your vocabulary
properly.
3. Consider the work covered (syllabus). Do not test pupils out of the syllabus.
4. Readability Question should be easy to read. A typed test is far much better than a handwritten one.
5. The test should be well timed. In other words pupils should be given enough time to answer
the questions. Do not give pupils too much time or too little time.
6. Check also the siting arrangement in your class. Enough space should be created between
candidates.
7. It is important to inform pupils in good time as to when the test will be given and the place
where it will be written.
8. Check the room where the test will be conducted to ensure that the lighting system and
ventilation are good.
TABLE OF TEST SPECIFICATIONS
When setting test questions, you need to come up with a test plan or table of specifications.
Making a table of test specifications requires that you first of all identify the outcomes or skills
to be measured by the test. Take into account Blooms Taxonomy of Educational objectives
(cognitive domain) when identifying these outcomes.
Importance of a table of specification.
The table of test specifications allows you to widely spread the learning outcomes or skills to
the test questions so that your learners are tested on various learning outcomes.
The table of test specifications ensures that the teacher does not only stick to the testing of
instructional outcomes based on the knowledge level but includes other outcomes as well. It
also ensures that the teacher sets questions drawn from different topics.
A test specification prioritizes the objectives, indicating the relative importance of the
different areas of the syllabus and describes the way the questions on the test will be matched
to the instructional objectives. The amount of detail in the table of test specification is
determined by the type of test, purpose of test or examination and coverage of content.
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Finally, proportional contributions of the themes or topics to the overall length of the test are
decided upon and a test blue print is completed. The final distribution of items in the table
should reflect the amount of content and emphasis given during instructions.
The table has mainly two parts: one part contains the learning outcomes while the other part
contains the subject topics.
In the boxes or cells in the table, the teacher puts the number of questions at each learning
outcome per topic examined. This is obtained by making a tally in the corresponding cell or box
as you write each test item or question.
LEAR N I N G O U T C O M E S O R S K I LLS
SUBJECT
TOPIC
EVALUATION
SYNTHESIS
ANALYSIS
APPLICATION
COMPREHENSION
KNOWLEDGE
TOTAL
2
1
2
1
2
8
1
2
1
2
1
7
2
0
2
2
3
9
3
2
1
3
3
12
3
2
2
1
3
11
3
4
2
2
2
13
14
11
10
11
14
60
TOPIC 1
TOPIC II
TOPIC III
TOPIC IV
TOPIC V
TOTAL
Activity
Study the above table of test specifications and understand how it works. What ate the
advantages of using this table? Are there any disadvantages?
BLOOMS TAXONOMY (cognitive domain)
The table of specification uses the Blooms taxonomy to indicate the levels of test items.
According to Bloom, cognitive skills are arranged in order of increasing degree of complexity
and comprises six levels..
For item writers, it is important to understand the levels of cognition so that they design good
test/examination items. The following are examples of appropriate instructions used to reflect
the different levels of cognition.
DEFINITION
INSTRUCTION
KNOWLEDGE: This is the ability to recall

previously learned facts.
Identify, name, list, reproduce, define,

label, select.
COMPREHENSION: This is understanding.

The ability to understand previously learned
Give examples, describe, estimate,

illustrate, paraphrase, translate, convert,
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material, facts and figures.
explain, interpret, summarize.
APPLICATION: The ability to apply acquired

knowledge, understanding and skills to new
situation or problem.
Apply, construct, discover, operate,

prepare, relate, solve, calculate,
demonstrate, modify, predict, produce,
show, use.
ANALYSIS: The ability to identify and

understand the component parts and structure of
materials.
Analyze, determine, discriminate, infer,

differentiate, distinguish, outline.
SYNTHESIS: The ability to use acquired,

knowledge, understanding and skills to develop
new ideas, techniques or situations.
Organize, compile, develop, modify, plan,

revise, combine, compose, design,
integrate
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST

Characteristics that a test should have if it is to be real trustworthy and informative are.
(a) Reliability
Reliability is defined as an indication of the consistency of assessment scores across
evaluators over time. This means that the test should give similar results even though
different testers administer it. A reliable test should be able to give a consistent score from
one occasion to another for the individual or group irrespective of the person who
administers it.
(b) Validity
Test Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
If the test achieves what the originators intended it to achieve, it is a valid test.
Types of validity
i.
content validity measures the degree to which the content of a test samples
broadly across the domain of interest
ii.
predictive validity measures the degree to which the test can predict some future
outcome, such as job performance or school success eg high student grade can
predict future good performance
iii.
construct validity measures how well the test applies to particular theoretical
scheme or construct.
iv.
Criterion validity - measures the how well test scores correlate with an
independent measure (criterion) of whatever the test is supposed to assess
Activity
If the test is unreliable then it cannot be valid for any purpose. Discuss by giving examples.
(c) Discrimination
Discrimination is the drawing of distinctions between levels of attainment. A good test
should be able to discriminate good pupils from the bad ones in terms of performance.
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(d) Comparability
The test should be able to compare the achievement of one pupil to another.
The comparability of standards in examinations is very important. This would bring
consistency in examination results and hence instill public confidence
(e) Norm/standard
In addition to reliability and validity, good tests need norms. Norms are sets of scores or
standards obtained by representative groups of people for whom the test is intended.
These should be the same eg everyone who takes the test receives the same instructions,
uses the same answer sheet, and has to complete the test within the same specified period
of time.
UNIT 3
EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS
Definitions
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data and
drawing conclusions from it.
OR
Statistics is the application of mathematical principles to the collection, analysis, and
presentation of data.
Data - information, especially facts or numbers that are collected to be examined or processed or
are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume. When data is
collected in its original form, it is called raw data or unprocessed information. When data is
ordered, it is called a data array
There are two basic types of statistics; descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics are used to summarize results of research or to help the teacher give the
best description of examination results in the school. For example, the Grade 12 results for 2011
were the best at David Livingstone High because for the first time the school recorded 25% of
those who got 10 points and below [ 25 % of DDE students got below 40 % during CW
moderations; you have to know the number of DDE students].
Inferential Statistics are used to arrive at general conclusions from research results and to test
hypotheses. Inferential statistics could be used by the teacher to draw general conclusions from
test results in a particular subject about how the performance of learners could be in that subject
during the final examination [the pass rate for promo exams would be a good indicator for 2014
diploma exams].
Variable is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values [b can be equal to 1, 2 or
3]. The variable can be independent or dependent.
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An independent variable is one that can be manipulated by the researcher during the
experiment while the dependent variable is the factor that is expected to be affected or
influenced by the independent variable. [A reward might be considered as an independent
variable while behaviour could be considered as a dependent variable. The more one behaviour is
being rewarded, the more that behaviour would recur. If the reward is withheld the said
behaviour will extinct].
Population consist of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied or a universal set
of subjects (human or otherwise) under consideration. For example, Tehila, a Grade 9A pupil at
St Marys Secondary School could be drawn from a population of either Grade 9A or all Grade 9
classes at St Marys School.
A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.
Frequency In any population two or more members may have the same value. For example, the
height (to the nearest cm) of several members of a school may be the same. The number of
members with the same value is known as the frequency and is generally denoted by f. [The
number of times an event would occur in a given space of time].
Frequency Distributions
This is a table that summarizes how often each score on a test occurs.
Importance of statistics
Statistics tell us how often something happens and in education, statistics are used among
other things:
(a) To help educators summarize educational results using the most desirable options during
the teaching and learning process.
(b) To manipulate educational results, educators need to be knowledgeable about the
vocabulary, concepts, and statistical procedures used in statistical studies.
(c) Statistics are also used to help describe the results of studies and to reach feasible
conclusion based on the results.
Descriptive Statistics
The three most important descriptive statistics are:
Measures of central tendency - which describe the typical (average) score (or value) in a set
of data. These are mean, median and mode.
Measures of variability which describe the spread[ing] or dispersion among the scores in a
set of data. These are the range and standard deviation
Correlation coefficients which describe relationships between variables.
Page 30
Under descriptive statistics, the focus will be mainly on Measures of Central Tendency and
Measures of Variability.
Measures of Central Tendency
These measures describe the trend or tendency of scores or data in a frequency distribution to
cluster around a central value. After giving assessments, often teachers or educators want to find
out about the central tendency of the examination results or what is commonly known as the
average score. The three most commonly used measures of central tendency are: the arithmetic
mean, the median and the mode.
The arithmetic Mean
It is the number you arrive at when you add up all scores and divide by the number of scores. To
arrive at this number, you will need to be introduced to some elementary statistical symbols.
A score for a subject is called X or Y, this could be the test score, height or weight. Sigma () is a
short hand symbol for add up these scores. Therefore, X means add up the X scores or Y
means add up the Y scores. N symbolizes the number of score. Mean of x =
X
.
N
For example, the following scores were recorded in a geography test (figure 1).
Figure 1
Learners Name
X (test Score)
Mululwe
50
Mwanza
70
Mupulanga
84
Musiwe
90
Musuku
65
Mukuyu
55
The mean of X scores is
x =
X
N
X = 414
414
=69
6
After giving back the test papers, Mululwe and Mwaanza asked the teacher how the group
performed as a whole on the Geography test. The teacher simply reported using the value of the
x . It was much simpler than listing all the scores of the group and it helped Mululwe and
Mwaanza to know the general ability of the group.
Page 31
Observations
Generally, mean gives the best average of test scores. However, it is easily affected by very high
or very low values (called outliers) and it cannot be measured or checked graphically. It may
also not correspond to any actual value in the distribution (as in the above example).
Mean For Grouped Data
For a grouped frequency distribution, the mean cannot be determined exactly and so must be
estimated. This will be illustrated in the following example.
Example .
Given the distribution of ages of students at DALICE as shown in the table below: calculate the
mean
Age
15 to 19
20 to 24
25 to 29
30 to 34
35 to 39
Number of Students
3
15
30
45
8
x
i)
In a frequency distribution, the mean

interval.
fx where x
f
is the middle point of the class
We construct the following table for calculation of the mean

Age
No. of Students (f)
Mid-class point
(x )
fx
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
Totals
3
15
30
45
8
101
17
22
27
32
37
51
330
810
1440
296
2927
fx 2927 and f
Here
101
Therefore, mean number of ages:
Page 32
fx
f
2927
101
28.98
The Median
The median is the middle most score in a group of test scores. The scores are ordered from
smallest to the largest. Median is also called the 50th percentile because 50% of the scores are
under or above it. It should divide the distribution such that 50% have higher and 50% have
lower scores. In the distribution with an odd number of scores, there is one middle value,
whereas, in a distribution with an even number of score, there are two middle values. To find the
middle value, add the two middle scores and divide them by 2.
For example, from the Scores: 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 23, 32, Median is 13 since it is a distribution
with an odd number.
The table below however, shows a distribution with an even number of Geography test scores
(figure 2).
Figure 2
Learners Name
X (test Score)
Mululwe
50
Mwaanza
70
Mupulanga
84
Musiwe
90
Musuku
65
Mukuyu
55
Firstly, the scores have to be ordered (from the lowest to the highest score).
Figure 3
Learners Name
X (test Score)
Mululwe
50
Mukuyu
55
Musuku
65
Mwaanza
70
the middle is between 65 and 70
Page 33
Mupulanga
84
Musiwe
90
The median is the mean of the two test scores nearest to the middle point. These are 65 and 70.
x
65+ 70
2
135
2
= 67.5
Observations
The median is less affected than the mean by extremely high or extremely low values. The mean
and the median are usually close in value. Like in the example involving the test scores in
geography, the mean was 69 while the median rounded off to the nearest whole number was 68.
The Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring score. For example, from the Scores: 8, 10, 12, 13,
16, 16, and 23. Mode is 16. The data must firstly be ordered.
When a distribution has two most frequency occurring scores, it is a bimodal distribution. From
the following data array: 1,2,4,6,7,8,8,8,9,10,10,10, the values 8 and 10 have the same frequency
and therefore is a bimodal distribution.
When the data has more than two values that occur with the same frequency it is called
multimodal.
Observations
The mode is often used when there are many identical scores. It is the easiest average to
compute.
The mean and the median will be the same if the distribution of scores is symmetrical or
balanced around the mean.
The diagram below shows a symmetric distribution of scores with the mean, median and mode
at the centre of the distribution.
Figure 4
Mode
Median
Mean
Page 34
Symmetrical
When the mean is different from the median due to the effect of outliers, the distribution of
scores or values is asymmetrical or skewed. For example, the table below shows the distribution
of marks in a Mathematics test at Linda High School.
Figure 5
Name
Cheelo
Makukisi
Chinyama
Chilala
Choonya
Median is 45
Mean
Marks (x)
95
50
45
40
35
X
x =
N
=
265
5
= 53
Which value, the mean or median, do you think is more representative of the general
performance of pupils at Linda High in this Mathematics test?
Skewedness
Skewedness can either be positive or negative (as shown in the diagrams below).
In a positively skewed or right-skewed distribution, the majority of the data values fall to the left
of the mean. Both the mean and median fall to the right of the mode. The tail of the curve
indicates the direction of skewness (right is positive).
Figure 6
Positively Skewed
Mode
Median
Mean
Positive skew
When the majority of the data values fall to the right of the mean, the distribution is said to be
negatively skewed or left skewed. The mean and the median are to the left of the mode. The tail
is to the left of the distribution. In terms of an examination, the scores will cluster to the right of
the distribution implying that the examination was easy for majority students.
Page 35
Figure 7
Negatively Skewed
Tail
Mode
Median
Mean
Negative skew
Frequency
In any population two or more members may have the same value. For example, the height (to
the nearest cm) of several members of a school may be the same. The number of members with
the same value is known as the frequency and is generally denoted by f.
Frequency Distributions
This is a table that summarizes how often each score on a test occurs. Using this table, a teacher
can get a better picture of how well the class achieved on the test. The most convenient method
of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution. When data are collected in their
original form, they are called raw data. Any data not arranged in a given order is an array. Data
can also be arranged in class.
Each raw data value is placed into a quantitative or qualitative category called class. The
frequency of the class then is the number of date values contained in a specific class
Example
The following data record the number of children under the age working in a certain company
1
Construct an array and also a frequency distribution.

The data array is as follows: The data is arranged in increasing order.
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
2 2 3 4 4 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 8
Page 36
To construct a frequency distribution start with a tally chart.

Tally Chart
Data Value
Tally Marks
0
III
1
IIII
2
II
3
I
4
II
6
II
7
II
8
IIII
8
IIII
9
Total
3
4
2
1
2
2
2
5
5
Figure.8 Tally chart
Frequency Distribution Table

No. of Children
No. of Children
Under Age
working (f)
Figure 9. Frequency distribution table

Grouped frequency distribution
When the number of distinct data values in a set of raw data is large (say 20 or more), a
simple frequency distribution is not appropriate, since there will be too much
Page 37
information, not easily assimilated. In this type of situation, a grouped frequency

distribution is used. An example of a grouped distribution is given below.
Scores obtained in RE
Test
No. of Students
5 and 10
10 and 15
15 and 20
20 and 25
Figure 10. Frequency for Grouped Distribution for RE scores.
Cumulative Frequency Distributions

In a data set, the cumulative frequency for a value x is the total number of scores that are
less than or equal to x. A cumulative frequency distribution describes the number of items
that have values either above or below a particular level. Cumulative frequency
distributions come in two different forms:
i)
less than distributions
ii)
more than distributions.
Example
From figure 10, construct
i)
ii)
less than distribution,

more than distribution
Scores obtained
in RE Test
No. of
students
Scores
5 and 10
10
10 and 15
15
11
15 and 20
20
19
20 and 25
25
22
No. of students
(Cumulative)
Page 38
Here, a set of items values is listed (normally the class upper boundaries), with
each one showing the number of items in the distribution having values less than
this item value.
ii)
Here, a set of item values is listed (normally the class lower boundaries) with
each one showing the number of items in the distribution having values greater
than this item value. See the table below.
Scores obtained
in RE Test
No. of
students
Scores
No. of students
(cumulative)
5 and 10
22
10 and 15
10
17
15 and 20
15
11
20 and 25
20
( ie 22 minus 5=17, 17minus 6=11, 11minus 8=3)

Results Presentation
One of the most effective ways of presenting information, particularly numerical information, is
to construct a chart or a graph.
The choice depends on the type of data. A set of data is discrete if we only need to make a count,
like the number of customers entering a shop. A set of data is continuous if measurement is
made on a continuous scale, such as time, weight etc.
For discrete data, we use bar charts, and pie charts while for continuous data, we use a
histogram.
However, a disadvantage of graphs may be that values may not be read accurately. But graphs
are not meant to show up quantitative details as tables do, graphs are meant to show effects.
Example
The following information shows total pupil enrolment at Mukulumpe Secondary School,
analyzed by Student teacher.
Grade
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
2010
82
81
80
82
325
2011
78
81
88
80
327
2012
45
48
47
45
185
Show this as a bar chart.

In a simple bar chart, the number observed (counts) whether by geographical segment, or
years or some other category can be represented as vertical bars. The height of each bar is
Page 39
drawn in proportion to the number (amounts) by a vertical ruler scale. Figure 3.1 shows the sales
of each geographical segment.
Bar chart
Total
400
School enrolment
(4 grades)
300
200
100
2010
2011
2012
Year
Figure 4 Pupil enrolments at Mukulumpe Secondary school.
Multiple Bar Charts
These are similar to component bar charts but here the components are shown side by side. As
this does not give an immediate impression of the change in totals, they should be used where we
want to demonstrate the change in size of the components.
Example
The following information shows total pupil enrolment at Mukulumpe Secondary School,
analyzed by Student teacher.
Grade
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
2010
82
81
80
82
325
2011
78
81
88
80
327
2012
45
48
47
45
185
Show the above data as a multiple bar chart.

90
School
enrolment
60
Page 40
30
2010
2011
2012
Years
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
Histogram
A Histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the
frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the frequencies of classes.
This is appropriate where there is need to show grouped data which is continuous. There are no
gaps between the bars. The total area of each bar represents the frequency of the event.
Example
The marks obtained by students in an Educational Psychology paper were as follows:
Percentage (%)
25 29
30 34
35 39
40 44
45 - 49
No. of Students
10
15
12
20
3
Show this as a histogram

20
No of students
16
12
8
4
0
25 - 29
30 34
35 39
40 - 44
45 - 49
Marks
The Difference between Bar Charts and Histograms
Here is the main difference between bar charts and histograms.
Page 41
With bar charts, each column represents a group defined by a categorical variable; and with
histograms, each column represents a group defined by a quantitative variable.
One implication of this distinction:
It is always appropriate to talk about the skewness of a histogram; that is, the tendency of the
observations to fall more on the low end or the high end of the X axis.
With bar charts, however, the X axis does not have a low end or a high end; because the labels on
the X axis are categorical - not quantitative. As a result, it is less appropriate to comment on the
skewness of a bar chart.
The Frequency Polygon
The Frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted
for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points
Example
Using the details from the example above:
The marks obtained by students in an Educational Psychology paper were as follows:
Percentage (%)
25 29
30 34
35 39
40 44
45 - 49
No. of Students
10
15
12
20
3
Step 1.
Find the midpoints of each class by adding the upper and lower boundaries and
dividing by 2 eg 25+29 = 27
2
Class boundaries
midpoints
frequency
25-29
27
10
30-34
32
15
35-39
37
12
40-44
42
20
45-49
47
3
Step 2 .
Draw the X and Y axes and label the X axis with the mid-points of each
class and then use suitable scale on the Y axis for the frequencies. Using the midpoints for the x
axis values the frequencies as the y axis values, plot the points. Connect the adjacent points with
line segments. Draw a line back to x axis at the beginning and end of the
y
s
20
.
t
u
15
.
Page 42
d
e
n
t
s
.
10
5
.
x
27 32 37 42 47
Student performance (%)
Cumulative frequency polygons

A cumulative frequency polygon (or ogive) is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies
fort the classes in a frequency distribution. The cumulative frequency is the sum of the
frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in the distribution. Cumulative
frequency graphs are used to visually represent how many values are below a certain upper class
boundary. For example, to find out how many record high temperatures are less than 30.5 0c,
locate 30.50c on the x-axis, draw a vertical line up until it intersects the graph and then draw a
horizontal line that point to the y-axis. The y-axis value is 15
Class
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5
10.5 - 15.5
15.5 - 20.5
20.5 25.5
25.5 30.5
30.5 35.5
35.5 40.5
Cumulative
Frequency
1
3
6
11
15
18
20
frequency
1
2
3
5
4
3
2
20
25
20
15
.
.
10
5
.
.
5.5
10.5
15.5
20.5
25.5
30.5
35.5
40.5
Pie Charts
Page 43
A pie chart is a circle or pie, divided radically into sectors which represent component parts of
the total. The 360o at the centre of the circle are divided in proportion to the data thus giving
sectors with areas proportional to the values of the components parts.
Pie charts can be used to show changes in components where the number of components is too
great for a bar chart, though a pie chart with more than seven or eight components would become
too clouded for ready interpretation.
Example
Shupikai is a trainee teacher at DALICE and obtained the following marks in respective subjects:
SUBJECT
MARK
SOCILOG
Y
61%
PSYCHOLOGY
ENGLISH
82%
RLIGIOUS
EDUCATION (RE)
20%
41%
Construct a pie chart to represent the above information.
Student Performance
61
82
20
41
Figure 5. A Pie Chart showing student performance at DALICE.

Calculations
61
Psychology
82
360 o 295.2
100
Sociology
360 o 219.6 o
100
Page 44
Religious Education
41
360 o 147.6
100
English
20
360 o 72 o
100
ACTIVITY
1.
The data below give the scores obtained in an aptitude test by a group of 40 applicants for
a particular post in a company
8
12
12
9
9
9
8
8
9
12
9
10
10
6
11
9
11
8
9
8
9
9
12
10
10
8
7
9
8
10
11
8
9
9
9
9
11
8
8
10
Construct a frequency distribution from this information.

2.
Shown below are marks obtained by students from an Education test conducted and a miterm assessment. Construct a histogram of this distribution.
Marks
No. of Students
3.
1-10
24
11-20
28
21-30
22
31-40
16
41-50
6
51-60
4
Draw a multiple bar chart to illustrate the performances of three Colleges in terms of
graduating students over a four year period.
NO. OF GRADUANDS
2000
2001
2002
2003
DALICE
400
380
365
350
MUCE
285
340
355
340
CLCE
180
200
220
230
Mid-range
This is a rough estimate of the middle and it is found by adding the lowest and the highest values
in the data set and dividing by 2. For instance from the scores: 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 16, 23
Midrange = 8+23 = 5.5
2
ACTIVITY
1.
2.
Find the arithmetic mean of the following data sets.

a)
560, 520, 540, 720, 650, 470, 680, 600
b)
8.8, 9.3, 9.8, 7.9, 10.2, 8.5
The following marks were obtained by students during a Psychology test: 63, 45, 52,
76, 37, 28, 14, 82, 63, 45, 37 and 18.
Estimate:
Page 45
i)
ii)
iii)
4.
The average
The median
The mode.
Using the graphical method, estimate:

i)
ii)
The median
The mode of the distribution given below.,
x
f
5.
1
28
2
6
3
3
4
3
The total price of units ordered from a warehouse of a certain commodity is shown in the
distribution below.
Cost of units ordered per day (Kwacha) No. of days
0 and under 50
3
50 and under 100
8
100 and under 150
9
150 and under 200
17
200 and under 250
10
250 and under 300
9
a)
b)
6.
0
25
Compute the mean

Using both the graphical and formula method, estimate:
i)
the median
ii)
the mode
Which measure of central tendency would most effectively describe?

a)
The weight of a person?
b)
The most popular make of television set?
c)
Earnings of part time workers in Zambia?
d)
Cost of typical food item at a market?
e)
Holiday destinations?
f)
Learning days lost through class boycotts
Measures of Variation/Dispersion
Variability/Dispersion is way of describing the spread of the scores.
Having obtained a measure of location or position of a distribution, we need to know how the
data is spread about that point. Information about the spread can be given by one or more
measures of dispersion.
The Range
This is the simplest measure of dispersion available in statistical analysis. It uses only two
extreme values. The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum
values of a given data set. The range of the interval between the highest and the lowest scores,
gives a rough idea of the spread of measures.
Page 46
Its advantage lies in its simplicity and its independence of the measure of position. However, it
is distorted by the extreme values and tells us nothing between the maximum and minimum
values.
Example
Find the range for the given data set: 1, 3, 4, 10.
The range is 10 1 = 9
The Quartile Deviation.
The median divides the area under the frequency curve in two. The quartiles divide the area in
four.
Frequency
QL
The position of the lower quartile

3
(n 1).
4
by
QU
Median
QL
is given by
(n 1)
4
QU
. That of the upper quartile
is given
QU QL
The interquartile range is the distance between the quartiles =
middle 50% of the distribution.
i.e the range of the
The quartile deviation or semi-quartile range is half of the interquartile range.

1
QD (QU QL )
2
The advantage of the quartiles is that they are easy to understand and are not affected by extreme
values. However, they do not cover the whole of the distribution. They give no indication of
QU
QL
how many items are dispersed between
and
.
Example
Calculate the first and third quartiles for the following data set:
Page 47
44, 76, 49, 52, 52, 48, 51.

We first arrange the data set in ascending order: 44, 48, 49, 51, 52, 52, 76.
7 1
th
Q1
4
is the value of the
2nd item, which is 48.
3
(7 1)th
Q3
4
is the value of the
6th item, which is 52.
Notice that if there had been, say, more items in the set, the values of (n+1)/4 and 3(n+1)/4
would not have been whole numbers, which would have necessitated some sort of interpolation
formula to obtain (untypical) values. This is beyond this manual.
Example
Compute the interquartile range and the quartile deviation in previous example.
Q3 Q1 52 48 4
Interquartile range =
Q3 Q1 4
2.
2
2
Deviation =
The quartile
Variance
The variance is the average of the sequence of squares of the distance each value is from the
mean
( x x)2
2
N
Where x= individual value
X = sample mean
N= population size
Example
For the following sample of 7 observations, find the variance.
4, 5, 10, 13, 9, 7 and 8
x
Step 1. Find the mean
=4+5+10+13+9+7+8 = 56 = 8
7
Step 2. Subtract the mean from each value and place the result in column B
Step 3. Square each result and place the squares in column C
Page 48
Step 4. Find the sum of the squares in column C

A
x
4
5
10
13
9
7
8
N=7
xx
C
( x x) 2
-4
-3
2
5
1
-1
0
16
9
4
25
1
1
0
( x x)
56
Step 5. Divide the sum by N to get the variance

( x x) 2 56
8
N
7
ie
The Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion, since it is directly related
to the mean. If you chose the mean as the most appropriate measure of central location, then the
standard deviation would be the natural choice for a measure of dispersion.
The standard deviation measures the differences from the mean; a larger value indicates large
variation. The standard deviation is in the same units as the actual observations. For example if
the observations are in cm, even the standard deviation will be in cm.
Its weakness lies in its calculation and understanding which is more difficult than for other
measures. Moreover by squaring, it gives more than proportional weight to extreme values.
To calculate the standard deviation, we follow the following steps.
1)
Compute the mean
x
( x x)
2)
Calculate the differences from the mean

( x x) 2
3)
Square the differences
Page 49
( x x)
4)
Sum the squared difference i.e.
5)
Take the average of the sum of the squared differences in (4) to find the variance i.e.
S2
6)
( x x)
n 1
( x x)
for a sample and
for a population.
Square root of the variance gives the standard deviation

S
( x x)
n 1
( x x)
for a sample and
for a population.
Example
For the following sample of 7 observations, find the standard deviation.
4, 5, 10, 13, 9, 7 and 8
The calculations are shown in the table below.
xx
( x x) 2
4
5
10
13
9
7
8
-4
-3
2
5
1
-1
0
16
9
4
25
1
1
0
N=7
56
x 56,
S
( x x)
n 1
n 7,
therefore
x 56 8
n
56
6
3.055 (3 decimal places ).
ACTIVITY
1.
Explain the meaning of standard deviation to someone who doesnt know anything about
statistics.
Page 50
2.
The number of new orders received by a company over the past 30 working days was
recorded as follows;
4
5
5
4
5
0
3
6
0
3
2
1
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
4
2
4
6
3
5
3
5
4
2
6
Determine the range, quartile deviation, variance and standard deviation.

3.
For the following results of I.Q test, estimate:

a)
b)
c)
4.
5.
The mean
The standard deviation
The interquartile range
Mark
65
85
90
95
99
No. of students
10
20
45
40
10
0
18
Using the figures given below, calculate:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
The range
The arithmetic mean
The median
The lower quartile
The upper quartile
The Variance
The standard deviation
3
6
8
9
12
16
18
19
23
27
31
33
37
40
41
44
46
48
52
54
56
59
61
65
67
For the given frequency distribution, find

i)
mean
ii)
Mode
iv)
Range
v)
Standard deviation
x
Page 51
6.
Explain the term measure of dispersion and state briefly the advantages of using the
following measures of dispersion.
h)
Range
ii)
Quartile deviation
iii)
Variance
iv)
Standard Deviation
CORRELATION
Correlation refers to a co-relationship between two sets of value. For instance, there is
relationship between sickness and ill-performance. Investigative question here include; do high
scores on an intelligence test go along with high scores on a reading test?
Correlation Coefficient
A correlation coefficient is used to determine the strength of a relationship between two
variables.
There are several correlation coefficients but the common ones are the Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient (named after Karl Pearson) and the Spearman Correlation Coefficient
(Rho) (named after Charles Spearman)
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r), or correlation coefficient for short is
a measure of the degree of linear relationship between two variables, usually labeled X
and Y. In correlation the emphasis is on the degree to which a linear model may describe
the relationship between two variables. in correlation the interest is non-directional, the
relationship is the critical aspect.
The computation of the correlation coefficient is most easily accomplished with the aid of
a statistical calculator. The value of r was found on a statistical calculator during the
estimation of regression parameters.
The correlation coefficient may take on any value between plus and minus one.
The sign of the correlation coefficient (+ , -) defines the direction of the relationship, either
positive or negative. A positive correlation coefficient means that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other variable increases; as one decreases the other decreases. A
negative correlation coefficient indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases, and
vice-versa.
Taking the absolute value of the correlation coefficient measures the strength of the relationship.
A correlation coefficient of r =.50 indicates a stronger degree of linear relationship than one of r
=.40. Likewise a correlation coefficient of r = -.50 shows a greater degree of relationship than
one of r = .40. Thus a correlation coefficient of zero
Page 52
(r =0.0) indicates the absence of a linear relationship and correlation coefficients of

r =+1.0 and r =-1.0 indicate a perfect linear relationship.
Computing the correlation coefficient (Pearson Product Method)

Formula for Correlation Coefficient
r=
n(xy) (x)(y)
[n(x2) (x)2][n(y2)- (y)2]
Where n is the number of data pairs
This formula may look complicated to use in computing the values of the correlation coefficient,
but using a table is much easier and less tasking. Follow the following steps:
Step 1. Make a table
Step 2. Find the values of xy, x2, y2and place them in the corresponding columns of the table:
Student no. of absences (x)
Final Grade% (y)
xy
Chushi
6
82
492
36
Chisi
2
86
172
4
Changu
15
43
645
225
Chungu
9
74
666
81
Chamusana 12
58
696
144
Habasimbi
5
90
450
25
Walilowa
8
78
624
64
2
x=57
y=511
xy=3745 x = 579
x2
y2
6,724
7,396
1,849
5,476
3,364
8,100
6,084
2
y =38,993
Step 3. Substitute in the formula and solve for r

r=
n(xy) (x)(y)
[n(x2) (x)2][n(y2)- (y)2]
=
7(3745) (57)(511)
[7(579) (57][7(38,993)- (511)2]
= -0.944
The value of r suggests a strong negative relationship between a students final grade and the
number of absences a student has. That is, the more absences a student has, the lower is his/her
grade.
UNIT 4: MEMORY
Learning occupies a very important place in ones life. It is the basis of our survival as well as
the development and progress of society. However, our best effort in learning may turn into a
Page 53
futile exercise if the products of learning are not utilized by us soon after or at a later stage. For
making use of material learnt, it must remain in our minds, stored up somehow, to be used when
need arises. In the world of Psychology, this ability or power of our mind to store the past
experiences of learning and utilize them at a later stage is known as `memory.
Every human being has power to store his/her experiences, and to bring them into the field of
consciousness sometime after the experiences have happened. The power to store experiences
differs from one person to another and it is affected by many factors.
In this way, memory is a special ability of the human mind to conserve or store what has been
previously experienced or acquired through learning ( formal and informal ) and then, at some
stage, to enable us to make use of its reproduction or retrieval.
However, term memory or the process of memorization cannot be termed in so simple a manner
as to be viewed merely in terms of reproduction or retrieval of past experiences or learning. It is
quite a complex process which involves factors like learning, retention, recall and recognition.
THE PROCESS OF MEMORIZATION
Our mind possesses a special ability by virtue of which every experience or learning leaves
behind memory images or traces which are conserved in the form of `engrams. Thus, what is
learned leaves its after-effect which is conserved in the form of engrams composed of memory
traces. This preservation of the memory traces by our central nervous system or brain is known
as retaining (or retention) of the learned or experienced act. How long we can retain the learned
material depends upon the strength and quality of the memory traces. When we try to recollect
or repeat our past experiences or learning, we make use of the memory traces.
If we are successful in the retrieval of our memory traces, our memory is said to be good. But if,
somehow, the memory traces have died out, we will not be able to reproduce or make use of our
past experiences or learning. In this case, it is said that we are not able to retain what has been
learned or in other words we have forgotten.
THEORY OF GENERAL MEMORY FUNCTIONS
One theory, a simple one agreed on by most psychologists, was used in the explanation of
memory. Three distinct processes of memory have been identified. These are an encoding
process, storage process, and a retrieval process.
Page 54
Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form, or code,
which can be stored; Storage is the process of actually putting coded information into memory;
and Retrieval is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when is needed.
ENCODING..STORAGE.
RETRIEVAL
(Input to memory)
(Held in memory)
(Take
from memory)
ENCODING
The stimuli we receive from our surroundings are in the form of sight, sound, tactile (or touch),
taste and smell sensations. In memory research, the most common has been sight and sound
giving rise to visual and phonological coding. We certainly have memories for touch, taste and
smell; particular materials have a definite feel` to them which we could identify while blind
folded. We do not have to be told what they are and so we obviously have firm established
memories of these in our brains.
The most popular theory is that by rehearsing the sound (phonological code) or looking at the
same scene repeatedly (visual code), we in some way implant in the brain tissue a trace which
when triggered will be retrieved. But we must first attend to stimulus we want remember. That is
why we repeat things so that the trace becomes established.
STORAGE
STIMULUS.SENSORY REGISTERWORKING MEMORYLONG TERM
MEMORY (STORE)
(Short- Term Memory)
SENSORY REGISTER
When our sense organs pick up a signal from the environment, there is a momentary image
registration. Sperling (1960) describes research into visual registry and decay of information as
follows:
Page 55
The corresponding process of attention and selective perception ensures that only particular
stimulation is conveyed to the next structure, the Short- Term or Working Memory. The
remaining patterns of stimulation are thought to die away from the register. The period over
which the image is registered is very short (a few hundred milli-seconds) before completely
decayed.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM) OR WORKING MEMORY
Information entering Short-term memory also decays rapidly, but in seconds rather than in milliseconds as with the Sensory register. If information is not selectively attended to and encoded so
as to pass to the long-term store, it decays.
The Short- term memory is seen as a temporary store for a limited amount of information.
Unattended information occurring simultaneously with that to which we are attending can be
retrieved with diminishing accuracy as time goes by.
A number of studies have suggested that the Working memory (STM) has a limited capacity. For
example, these are exemplified in studies of span of attention` or apprehension where a person
is required to recall a stimulus exposed for a brief interval. On average, people can recall
between six and ten objects, numbers or letters arranged at random.
In an amusing discussion by Miller (1956), it suggested that our span of absolute judgement,
which about seven objects at once, can be improved radically by a process known as chunking.
This consists of grouping items into chunks, remembering about seven. The technique is used in
learning subjects like Morse, Typing and Chemistry, where items, dots and dashes, letters or
chemical symbols are brought together and learned as a group.
LONG- TERM MEMORY (LTM)
The information entering the long term store, unlike that in the previous store, does not decay
but seems to be permanent in most circumstances. Information flow between the three
hypothetical structures is believed to be under the control of the individual.
And how is the information encoded for storage in the long term memory? Contemporary
views of storage of information as a non-verbal representation i. e sight, sound, touch; the second
involves the storage of word meanings.
Page 56
The storage capacity for long-term memory must be enormous when one considers the amount of
information we use each day. Memories from long ago can be recalled, in some cases in great
detail probably through constant repetition. The question of whether we completely forget
anything once it has been transferred satisfactorily to LTM is problematic. It raises the question
of whether forgetting is complete loss from storage or an inability to retrieve what is there.
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORY
Much of what teachers do in school work is quite explicit. Teachers work with a syllabus
requiring knowledge of specified areas, they encourage pupils to acquire knowledge and then
assess what they know.
In explicit or declarative memory, two kinds of learning have been postulated. They involve
semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory is the capacity to recall facts and knowledge
about the environment established in the memory using, for example, letters, numbers and
musical notation codes. Episodic memory, as the word implies, is the capacity to collect past
experiences in time and space-events or episodes in ones life. Both require the recall of
information which has meaning.
There is another kind of memory which does not appear to depend on actively recalling earlier
learning. This is called implicit memory (sometimes referred to as non declarative or procedural
memory). These memories require no conscious awareness. Several kinds have been postulated
of which three are of interest-skill acquisition, verbal perceptual priming and conditioning
(classical).
RETRIEVAL
Retrieval is the process of recovering information from memory. The term is used synonymously
with recall and remembering. It is applied to either the short or long-term memory. Retrieval
from the LTM consists of returning information to the STM from the LTM store i.e. into the
working memory. To initiate retrieval, a cue is needed, either from an external stimulus or by a
persons conscious effort to search` through the memory store for a link with material already in
the working memory.
Page 57
Three ways in which we can recover information have been described and they are recall,
recognition and relearning. Recall depends upon the active remembering of performance
learnt previously. In the case of recognition, we need a clue or there should be information from
which we can remember something learned on a previous occasion.
Relearning simply means repeating what was learned earlier. Note that relearning something
which has been forgotten gets easier on each successive occasion, and this is why regular
revision is a vital aspect of studying. Retrieval is aided where the original learning has been
systematic, thorough and understood by the learner.
TRAINING IN MEMORY
Whether memory can be improved by training or not is a controversial issue. But its
improvement or training is a commonly expressed desire on the part of every individual. Every
human being is keen to improve his/her sense organs or muscles etc. But the improvement of
memory as such is not possible. In this connection, the advice given by Morgan and Gilliland
seems to be quite valuable. They write: Memory training is not like muscle training. You can
make a muscle develop by any kind of exercise; memory is not helped by any kind of exercise
(1942).
Therefore, mere repetition of material for the sake of memorization in the form of mental
exercise does not yield enduring and effective results. The question is, is it possible through any
means to have some improvement in our memory? If possible, what are the specific points
which should be kept in mind in order to achieve best results in the task of memorization?
As emphasized earlier, memory consists of four factors-learning, retention, recognition and
recall. Improvement in any one or more of these constituents is likely to improve the memory as
a whole. Therefore, the question regarding the improvement of memory, for its logical answer,
can be broken into the following four questions;
Can learning be improved?
Can the power of retention be improved?
Can recall be improved?
Can recognition be improved?
Page 58
1. Retention
For retention it is said that it is, by all means, native and inherited, and therefore cannot be
improved by training. At the most, retention can be protected by some measures but it is hardly
possible to improve it by training.
2. Recognition
It is also difficult to say whether it can be improved by training as it happens to be a very prompt
and spontaneous act and situations change from time to time.
3. Recall
Recall can be improved in the following ways:
(a) While trying to recall something, make yourself free from excessive anxiety, fear and other
emotional factors that try to block memory.
(b) Never think that you would not be able to recall something. Have confidence in yourself and
be positive. Be quite normal and avoid nervousness. After that, apply your energies to the task
of recalling with full concentration.
(c) Remember that association of ideas, connection and systematic thinking, help very much in
the task of recalling.
(d) Do not engage yourself in fighting to recall a thing for a long time. If you find it difficult to
recall, then give up for the time being and attempt if afresh, after you have relaxed for some
time.
4. Learning
Improvement in the area of learning depends on the seriousness of the learner. The following
can prove to be helpful in this direction:
(a) Will to learn
There must be firm determination or strong will to learn in order to achieve success. Materials
read, heard, or seen without the mood to concentrate are difficult to remember later on.
Page 59
(b) Interest and attention

Interest as well as close attention, are essential for effective learning and memorization.
(c) Adopting proper methods of memorization
There are so many economical methods of memorization but all are not suitable on all occasions
for all individuals. Therefore, a judicious selection should be made in choosing a particular
method in a given situation.
(d) Follow the principle of association
It is always good to follow the principle of association in learning. A thing should never be
learnt in a complete water-tight compartment. An attempt should be made to connect it with
ones previous learning on the one hand and with so many related things on the other.
(e) Grouping and rhythm
Grouping and rhythm also facilitate learning and help in remembering. For example, a telephone
number 567345 234 can be easily memorized and recalled if we try to group it as 567 345 234.
Similarly, rhythm also proves as an aid in learning effectively the multiplication tables in the
sing-song fashion.
(f) Utilizing as many senses as possible
Senses are said to be gateways of knowledge and it has been found that things are better learned
and remembered when presented through more than one of the senses.
(g) Arranging better learning situations
Environmental factors also affect the learning process. Therefore, due care should be taken to
arrange better learning situations and environments. A calm and quite atmosphere and
stimulating environment proves effective when learning.
(h) Internal factors within the learner
Besides the external factors, there are things within the learner which affect his/her learning and
reproduction. His physical and mental health and environmental state of his mind at the time of
learning, as well as reproduction, count a lot to improving his/her memory.
Page 60
(i) Provision for change and proper rest

Adequate provision for change of task, rest and sleep should be made as it helps in removing
fatigue and monotony. A fresh mind is able to learn more and retain more for a long time than a
tired one.
(j) Repetition and practice
Repetition and continuous practice promote effective memorization. An intelligent repetition
with full understanding always helps in making learning effective and enduring. The things
repeated and practiced frequently are remembered for a long time.
FORGETTING
Definitions:
Munn(1967) defines forgetting as the loss, permanently or temporarily, of the ability to recall or
recognize something learned.
Drever (1952): Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to
do so or to perform an action previously learned.
Bhatia (1968): Forgetting is the failure of the individual to retrieve in consciousness an idea or
group of ideas without the help of the original stimuli.
In all these definitions, forgetting is termed as a failure to recall the information previously
learned.
Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to the apparent loss of information
already encoded and stored in the long-term memory. Much of what we think we have forgotten
does not really qualify as forgotten because it was never encoded and stored in the first place.
With information-processing theories in mind, some information, due to lack of attention, may
not have reached short-term memory from the sensory register, or, due to inadequate encoding
and rehearsal, the information may not have been transferred from short-term memory.
Ebbinghaus curve of forgetting
Page 61
The studies made by the Psychologist Ebbinghaus (1885) present the earliest systematic work in
studying the phenomenon of forgetting. He himself worked as a subject for studies and
described his results by sketching a curve of forgetting. The results were as follows:
Time elapsed
Amount of
information forgotten
20 minutes
47%
One day
66%
Two days
72%
Six days
75%
Thirty one days
79%
Activity
Use the information above and draw the curve of forgetting.
TYPES OF FORGETTING
There are certain types of forgetting and these may be described in a number of ways based on
their nature and functioning. In one way, forgetting is classified as natural and morbid or
abnormal forgetting. One deliberately tries to forget something. This type of forgetfulness, as
Freud explains, results from repression and is wishful as one happens to forget the things which
he does not wish to remember.
According to some other view, forgetting may be classified as general or specific. In general
forgetfulness, one suffers a total loss in when recalling some previous learning while in specific
forgetfulness, the individual forgets only one or the other specific part of his earlier learning.
THEORIES OF FORGETTING
The trace decay theory
According to many psychologists, time is the cause of much forgetting. What is learnt or
experienced is forgotten with the lapse of time.
Page 62
The second theory of forgetting holds the mechanism of interference as responsible for
forgetting. Interference is caused due to the negative inhibiting effect of ones learning
experience on another. We forget things because of such interference.
The interference effect of things previously learnt and retained in our memory with the things of
recent
The psychological terms used for these types of interference are retroactive inhibition and
proactive inhibition.
Retroactive inhibition
This is when new information interferes with the recalling of old information (previously
acquired information).
The repression theory
The explanation for the abnormal or morbid forgetting may be given with the help of the
repression theory as put forward by the Freuds psychoanalysis school of psychology.
Repression, according to Freud, is a mental function that safeguards the mind from the impact of
painful experience. As a result of this function, we actually push the painful experiences or
memories into the unconscious and try to avoid at least consciously the conflicts that bother us.
This kind of forgetfulness is well motivated and intentional.
Implications for the Teachers
1. The role of memory in the process of learning is central to most aspects of learning and
teaching.
2. The concepts of short-term and long-term memory have proved useful to the teachers.
3. Much of our work as teachers hinges on the careful design of materials to exploit short-term
and long-term memory.
4. There is much that teachers can do to encourage the retrieval of useful information.
5. Systematic lessons for pupils or how to study, including organization, place and length of
study sessions and revision techniques are helpful to pupils.
Page 63
UNIT 4: MEMORY
Introduction
Learning occupies a very important place in ones life. It is the basis of our survival as well as
the development and progress of society. However, our best effort in learning may turn into a
futile exercise if the products of learning are not utilized by us soon after or at a later stage. For
making use of material learnt, it must remain in our minds, stored up somehow, to be used when
need arises. In the world of Psychology, this ability or power of our mind to store the past
experiences of learning and utilize them at a later stage is known as memory.
Every human being has power to store their experiences, and to bring them into the field of
consciousness sometime after the experiences have happened. The power to store experiences
differs from one person to another and it is affected by many factors.
Definition of Memory
Memory may be viewed as the ability of the human mind to conserve or store what has been
previously experienced or acquired through learning ( formal and informal ) and then, at some
stage, enable us to make use of its reproduction or retrieval.
Or Memory is a mental record of past experiences. The memory record is cumulative, that is,
each new experience adds to the existing record. Memory is part of what we do. Our actions are
always affected by what we remember, consciously or not. Some memories are unique and
personal to individuals while some memories are shared by others such as world events. Some of
the memories still are facts while others are beliefs about individuals experiences.
However, the process of memorization is quite a complex process which implies three processes
of encoding, storage and retrieval as well as involving factors like learning, retention, recall and
recognition.
THE PROCESS OF MEMORIZATION
Page 64
Our mind possesses a special ability by virtue of which every experience or learning leaves
behind memory images or traces which are conserved in the form of engrams. Thus, what is
learned leaves its after-effect which is conserved in the form of engrams composed of memory
traces. This preservation of the memory traces by our central nervous system or brain is known
as retaining (or retention) of the learned or experienced act. The length of the retention of the
learned material depends upon the strength and quality of the memory traces. When individuals
try to recollect or repeat our past experiences or learning, we make use of the memory traces.
If we are successful in the retrieval of our memory traces, our memory is said to be good. But if,
somehow, the memory traces have died out, we will not be able to reproduce or make use of our
past experiences or learning. In this case, it is said that we are not able to retain what has been
learned or in other words we have forgotten.
THEORY OF GENERAL MEMORY FUNCTIONS
One theory, a simple one agreed on by most psychologists, was used in the explanation of
memory. Three distinct processes of memory have been identified. These are an encoding
process, storage process, and a retrieval process.
Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form, or code,
which can be stored; Storage is the process of actually putting coded information into memory;
and Retrieval is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when is needed.
ENCODING..STORAGE.
RETRIEVAL
(Input to memory)
(Held in memory)
(Take
from memory)
ENCODING
The stimuli we receive from our surroundings are in the form of sight, sound, tactile (or touch),
taste and smell sensations. In memory research, the most common has been sight and sound
giving rise to visual and phonological coding. We certainly have memories for touch, taste and
smell; particular materials have a definite feel` to them which we could identify while blind
Page 65
folded. We do not have to be told what they are and so we obviously have firm established
memories of these in our brains.
The most popular theory is that by rehearsing the sound (phonological code) or looking at the
same scene repeatedly (visual code), we in some way implant in the brain tissue a trace which
when triggered will be retrieved. But we must first attend to stimulus we want remember. That is
why we repeat things so that the trace becomes established.
STORAGE
STIMULUS.SENSORY REGISTERWORKING MEMORYLONG TERM
MEMORY (STORE)
(Short- Term Memory)
SENSORY REGISTER
When our sense organs pick up a signal from the environment, there is a momentary image
registration. Sperling (1960) describes research into visual registry and decay of information as
follows:
The corresponding process of attention and selective perception ensures that only particular
stimulation is conveyed to the next structure, the Short- Term or Working Memory. The
remaining patterns of stimulation are thought to die away from the register. The period over
which the image is registered is very short (a few hundred milli-seconds) before completely
decayed.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM) OR WORKING MEMORY
Information entering Short-term memory also decays rapidly, but in seconds rather than in milliseconds as with the Sensory register. If information is not selectively attended to and encoded so
as to pass to the long-term store, it decays.
The Short- term memory is seen as a temporary store for a limited amount of information.
Unattended information occurring simultaneously with that to which we are attending can be
retrieved with diminishing accuracy as time goes by.
Page 66
A number of studies have suggested that the Working memory (STM) has a limited capacity. For
example, these are exemplified in studies of span of attention` or apprehension where a person
is required to recall a stimulus exposed for a brief interval. On average, people can recall
between six and ten objects, numbers or letters arranged at random.
In an amusing discussion by Miller (1956), it suggested that our span of absolute judgement,
which about seven objects at once, can be improved radically by a process known as chunking.
This consists of grouping items into chunks, remembering about seven. The technique is used in
learning subjects like Morse, Typing and Chemistry, where items, dots and dashes, letters or
chemical symbols are brought together and learned as a group.
LONG- TERM MEMORY (LTM)
The information entering the long term store, unlike that in the previous store, does not decay
but seems to be permanent in most circumstances. Information flow between the three
hypothetical structures is believed to be under the control of the individual.
And how is the information encoded for storage in the long term memory? Contemporary
views of storage of information as a non-verbal representation i. e sight, sound, touch; the second
involves the storage of word meanings.
The storage capacity for long-term memory must be enormous when one considers the amount of
information we use each day. Memories from long ago can be recalled, in some cases in great
detail probably through constant repetition. The question of whether we completely forget
anything once it has been transferred satisfactorily to LTM is problematic. It raises the question
of whether forgetting is complete loss from storage or an inability to retrieve what is there.
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORY
Much of what teachers do in school work is quite explicit. Teachers work with a syllabus
requiring knowledge of specified areas, they encourage pupils to acquire knowledge and then
assess what they know.
In explicit or declarative memory, two kinds of learning have been postulated. They involve
semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory is the capacity to recall facts and knowledge
about the environment established in the memory using, for example, letters, numbers and
musical notation codes. Episodic memory, as the word implies, is the capacity to collect past
Page 67
experiences in time and space-events or episodes in ones life. Both require the recall of
information which has meaning.
There is another kind of memory which does not appear to depend on actively recalling earlier
learning. This is called implicit memory (sometimes referred to as non declarative or procedural
memory). These memories require no conscious awareness. Several kinds have been postulated
of which three are of interest-skill acquisition, verbal perceptual priming and conditioning
(classical).
RETRIEVAL
Retrieval is the process of recovering information from memory. The term is used synonymously
with recall and remembering. It is applied to either the short or long-term memory. Retrieval
from the LTM consists of returning information to the STM from the LTM store i.e. into the
working memory. To initiate retrieval, a cue is needed, either from an external stimulus or by a
persons conscious effort to search` through the memory store for a link with material already in
the working memory.
Three ways in which we can recover information have been described and they are recall,
recognition and relearning. Recall depends upon the active remembering of performance
learnt previously. In the case of recognition, we need a clue or there should be information from
which we can remember something learned on a previous occasion.
Relearning simply means repeating what was learned earlier. Note that relearning something
which has been forgotten gets easier on each successive occasion, and this is why regular
revision is a vital aspect of studying. Retrieval is aided where the original learning has been
systematic, thorough and understood by the learner.
TRAINING IN MEMORY
Whether memory can be improved by training or not is a controversial issue. But its
improvement or training is a commonly expressed desire on the part of every individual. Every
human being is keen to improve his/her sense organs or muscles etc. But the improvement of
memory as such is not possible. In this connection, the advice given by Morgan and Gilliland
seems to be quite valuable. They write: Memory training is not like muscle training. You can
Page 68
make a muscle develop by any kind of exercise; memory is not helped by any kind of exercise
(1942).
Therefore, mere repetition of material for the sake of memorization in the form of mental
exercise does not yield enduring and effective results. The question is, is it possible through any
means to have some improvement in our memory? If possible, what are the specific points
which should be kept in mind in order to achieve best results in the task of memorization?
As emphasized earlier, memory consists of four factors-learning, retention, recognition and
recall. Improvement in any one or more of these constituents is likely to improve the memory as
a whole. Therefore, the question regarding the improvement of memory, for its logical answer,
can be broken into the following four questions;
Can learning be improved?
Can the power of retention be improved?
Can recall be improved?
Can recognition be improved?
1. Retention
For retention it is said that it is, by all means, native and inherited, and therefore cannot be
improved by training. At the most, retention can be protected by some measures but it is hardly
possible to improve it by training.
2. Recognition
It is also difficult to say whether it can be improved by training as it happens to be a very prompt
and spontaneous act and situations change from time to time.
3. Recall
Recall can be improved in the following ways:
(a) While trying to recall something, make yourself free from excessive anxiety, fear and other
emotional factors that try to block memory.
Page 69
(b) Never think that you would not be able to recall something. Have confidence in yourself and
be positive. Be quite normal and avoid nervousness. After that, apply your energies to the task
of recalling with full concentration.
(c) Remember that association of ideas, connection and systematic thinking, help very much in
the task of recalling.
(d) Do not engage yourself in fighting to recall a thing for a long time. If you find it difficult to
recall, then give up for the time being and attempt if afresh, after you have relaxed for some
time.
4. Learning
Improvement in the area of learning depends on the seriousness of the learner. The following
can prove to be helpful in this direction:
(a) Will to learn
There must be firm determination or strong will to learn in order to achieve success. Materials
read, heard, or seen without the mood to concentrate are difficult to remember later on.
(b) Interest and attention
Interest as well as close attention, are essential for effective learning and memorization.
(c) Adopting proper methods of memorization
There are so many economical methods of memorization but all are not suitable on all occasions
for all individuals. Therefore, a judicious selection should be made in choosing a particular
method in a given situation.
(d) Follow the principle of association
It is always good to follow the principle of association in learning. A thing should never be
learnt in a complete water-tight compartment. An attempt should be made to connect it with
ones previous learning on the one hand and with so many related things on the other.
(e) Grouping and rhythm
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Grouping and rhythm also facilitate learning and help in remembering. For example, a telephone
number 567345 234 can be easily memorized and recalled if we try to group it as 567 345 234.
Similarly, rhythm also proves as an aid in learning effectively the multiplication tables in the
sing-song fashion.
(f) Utilizing as many senses as possible
Senses are said to be gateways of knowledge and it has been found that things are better learned
and remembered when presented through more than one of the senses.
(g) Arranging better learning situations
Environmental factors also affect the learning process. Therefore, due care should be taken to
arrange better learning situations and environments. A calm and quite atmosphere and
stimulating environment proves effective when learning.
(h) Internal factors within the learner
Besides the external factors, there are things within the learner which affect his/her learning and
reproduction. His physical and mental health and environmental state of his mind at the time of
learning, as well as reproduction, count a lot to improving his/her memory.
(i) Provision for change and proper rest
Adequate provision for change of task, rest and sleep should be made as it helps in removing
fatigue and monotony. A fresh mind is able to learn more and retain more for a long time than a
tired one.
(j) Repetition and practice
Repetition and continuous practice promote effective memorization. An intelligent repetition
with full understanding always helps in making learning effective and enduring. The things
repeated and practiced frequently are remembered for a long time.
FORGETTING
Definitions:
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Munn(1967) defines forgetting as the loss, permanently or temporarily, of the ability to recall or
recognize something learned.
Drever (1952): Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to
do so or to perform an action previously learned.
Bhatia (1968): Forgetting is the failure of the individual to retrieve in consciousness an idea or
group of ideas without the help of the original stimuli.
In all these definitions, forgetting is termed as a failure to recall the information previously
learned.
Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to the apparent loss of information
already encoded and stored in the long-term memory. Much of what we think we have forgotten
does not really qualify as forgotten because it was never encoded and stored in the first place.
With information-processing theories in mind, some information, due to lack of attention, may
not have reached short-term memory from the sensory register, or, due to inadequate encoding
and rehearsal, the information may not have been transferred from short-term memory.
Ebbinghaus curve of forgetting
The studies made by the Psychologist Ebbinghaus (1885) present the earliest systematic work in
studying the phenomenon of forgetting. He himself worked as a subject for studies and
described his results by sketching a curve of forgetting. The results were as follows:
Time elapsed
Amount of
information forgotten
20 minutes
47%
One day
66%
Two days
72%
Six days
75%
Thirty one days
79%
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Activity
Use the information above and draw the curve of forgetting.
TYPES OF FORGETTING
There are certain types of forgetting and these may be described in a number of ways based on
their nature and functioning. In one way, forgetting is classified as natural and morbid or
abnormal forgetting. One deliberately tries to forget something. This type of forgetfulness, as
Freud explains, results from repression and is wishful as one happens to forget the things which
he does not wish to remember.
According to some other view, forgetting may be classified as general or specific. In general
forgetfulness, one suffers a total loss in when recalling some previous learning while in specific
forgetfulness, the individual forgets only one or the other specific part of his earlier learning.
THEORIES OF FORGETTING
The trace decay theory
According to many psychologists, time is the cause of much forgetting. What is learnt or
experienced is forgotten with the lapse of time.
The second theory of forgetting holds the mechanism of interference as responsible for
forgetting. Interference is caused due to the negative inhibiting effect of ones learning
experience on another. We forget things because of such interference.
The interference effect of things previously learnt and retained in our memory with the things of
recent
The psychological terms used for these types of interference are retroactive inhibition and
proactive inhibition.
Retroactive inhibition
This is when new information interferes with the recalling of old information (previously
acquired information).
The repression theory
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The explanation for the abnormal or morbid forgetting may be given with the help of the
repression theory as put forward by the Freuds psychoanalysis school of psychology.
Repression, according to Freud, is a mental function that safeguards the mind from the impact of
painful experience. As a result of this function, we actually push the painful experiences or
memories into the unconscious and try to avoid at least consciously the conflicts that bother us.
This kind of forgetfulness is well motivated and intentional.
Implications for the Teachers
1. The role of memory in the process of learning is central to most aspects of learning and
teaching.
2. The concepts of short-term and long-term memory have proved useful to the teachers.
3. Much of our work as teachers hinges on the careful design of materials to exploit short-term
and long-term memory.
4. There is much that teachers can do to encourage the retrieval of useful information.
5. Systematic lessons for pupils or how to study, including organization, place and length of
study sessions and revision techniques are helpful to pupils.
REFERENCES
Bernstein,D.A., Penner, L.A.,etal.(2008),Psychology. (8th Ed).New York:Houghton
Mifflin Company
Bluman, A.G. (2007), Elementary Statistics. (6th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill
Dembo, M., (1994).Applying Educational Psychology. (5th Ed). London: Longman.
Lahey, B.B(2009), Psychology:An Introduction. (10th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill
Slavin,R.E. (2009), Educational Psychology:Theory and Practice (9th Ed).
New Jersey:Pearson
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UNIT 1: THEORIES OF LEARNING

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Meaningless or cognitive learning

Role of the humanistic teacher

BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES OF LEARNING

Edward Thorndike(1874 - 1949)

John B. Watson(1878 - 1958)

B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Principles in classical conditioning

Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical

2) Operant conditioning/instrumental conditioning - B.F. Skinner

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

will result into

Examples of Operant Conditioning

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Taking a panadol relieves a headache. Taking a panadol is.........................

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Differences between classical and operant conditioning

OPERANT CONDITIONING (SKINNER)

Response (press lever)

Involves reflective involuntary behaviours

Involves more complicated voluntary behaviours

Conditioned stimulus (bell) elicits conditioned

Conditioned response (press lever) leads to

Involves the association of two stimuli (eg meat

Involves an association between a response

The unconditioned stimulus is paired with the

The reinforcing consequence occurs only if the

Application of operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is more applicable in learning situations than classical conditioning

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

The law of effect (law of connectionism) - Edward Thorndike

Emotional Conditioning John B.Watson

Fear (UCR), followed by the association phase;

Loud sound (UCS)

Fear (UCR), which becomes;

1.1.4 Banduras Social Learning Theory

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Application of the Social Learning theory to teaching and learning

Describing the consequences of behaviour can effectively increase appropriate behaviours

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behaviour

Teachers need to be consistent when applying reinforcement or punishment.

UNIT 2: ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

3. To locate particular difficulties in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Diagnostic or

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

The first president of Zambia was .

Angola, Mozambique, Uganda, Somalia, Botswana. The answer will be:

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

KNOWLEDGE: This is the ability to recall

Identify, name, list, reproduce, define,

COMPREHENSION: This is understanding.

Give examples, describe, estimate,

Educational Psychology Second Year Module - DALICE

material, facts and figures.

explain, interpret, summarize.

APPLICATION: The ability to apply acquired

Apply, construct, discover, operate,

ANALYSIS: The ability to identify and