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CONTENTS
1
Glossary of Terms
2500
o
eP
in t
De
w
C1
l
bb 80%
Bu
Po
i
B2
D
2000
40%
20%
1500
u
Liq
m
olu
dV
10%
5%
A2
A1
0%
B3
of Pr
oducti
on
B1
1000
Figure 1
Pressure Temperature
Phase Diagram of a
Reservoir Fluid
Critical
Point
Single Phase
Gas Reservoirs
A
nt
3000
Tc
= 127 F
3500
Dew Point
or
Retrograde
Gas-Condensate
Reservoirs
Path
Bubble Point
or
Dissolved Gas
Reservoirs
Cricondentherm = 250 F
4000
500
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Reservoir Temperature, F
Reservoir
Fluid
Surface
Appearance
GOR
Range
API
Gravity
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6+
Dry gas
Colourless gas
Almost no liquids
100
Wet gas
Colourless gas -
>100 Mscf/bbl
some clear or
straw-coloured
liquid
60o -70o
96
2.7
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.4
Condensate
3-100
Mscf/bbl
(900-18000 m3/m3)
50o-70o
87
4.4
2.3
1.7
0.8
3.8
3000
scf/bbl
3 3
(500 m /m )
40o-50o
64
7.5
4.7
4.1
3.0
16.7
Volatile or
Brown liquid high shrinkage various yellow, red,
oil
or green hues
Black or
low shrinkage
oil
Dark brown
to black viscous
liquid
100- 2500
scf/bbl
(20 - 450 m3/m3)
30 -40
49
2.8
1.9
1.6
1.2
43.5
Heavy oil
Almost no gas
in solution
10o-25o
20
3.0
2.0
2.0
12.0
71
Tar
Black substance
No gas
viscosity >
10,000cp
< 10o
90+
Component
Black Oil
Volatile Oil
Gas-Condensate
Dry Gas
Gas
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7+
48.83
2.75
1.93
1.60
1.15
1.59
42.15
64.36
7.52
4.74
4.12
2.97
1.38
14.91
87.07
4.39
2.29
1.74
0.83
0.60
3.80
95.85
2.67
0.34
0.52
0.08
0.12
0.42
86.67
7.77
2.95
1.73
0.88
....
....
100.00
225
625
34.3
Greenish
Black
100.00
181.00
2000
50.1
Medium
Orange
100.00
112
18,200
60.8
Light
Straw
100.00
157
105,000
54.7
Water
White
100.00
....
Inf.
....
Table 1
Describing various oil types
from dry gas to tar.
Table 2
Mole Composition and
Other Properties of Typical
Single-Phase Reservoir
Fluids.
Glossary of Terms
Component: A single chemical species that may be present in a phase; e.g. in the
aqueous phase there are many components - water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl),
dissolved oxygen (O2) etc.; in the oil phase there can be hundreds of components hydrocarbons based on C1, C2, C3, etc.
Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the (frictional) energy dissipated
when it is in motion resisting an applied shearing force; dimensions [force/area.time]
and units are Pa.s (SI) or poise (metric). The most common unit in oilfield
applications is centiPoise (cP or cp). Typical example are:- water viscosity at
standard conditions, w ~ 1 cP; typical light North Sea oils have o ~ 0.3 0.6 cP at reservoir conditions (T ~ 200oF ; P ~ 4000 - 6000 psi); at reservoir
conditions, medium viscosity oils have o ~ 1 - 6 cP; moderately viscous oils
have o ~ 6 - 50 cP; very viscous oils may have o ~ 50 - 1000s cP and tars
may have o ~ up to 10000 cP.
Formation Volume Factor: The factor describing the ratio of volume of a phase
(e.g. oil, water) in the formation (i.e. reservoir at high temperature and pressure)
to that at the surface; symbols Bw, Bo etc. For oil, a typical range for Bo is ~1.1
- 1.3 since, at reservoir conditions, it often contains large amounts of dissolved gas
which is released at surface as the pressure drops and the oil shrinks; oilfield units
[reservoir barrels/stock tank barrel (RB/STB)].
Gas Solubility Factors (or Solution Gas/Oil Ratios): These factors describe the
volume of gas (usually in standard cubic feet, SCF) per volume of oil (usually stock
tank barrel, STB); symbol, Rso and Rsw; units SCF/STB.
Compressibility: The compressibility (c) of a fluid (oil, gas, water) or rock
formation can be defined in terms of the volume (V) change or density ()
change with pressure as follows:
c =
1 V 1
=
V P P
3
2
5
900
50
10
4
100
1300
200
N .( Bt Bti ) +
c .S + c f
N .m. Bti
.( Bg Bgi ) + (1 + m). N . Bti . w wi
Bgi
1 Swi
.p + We
= N p . Bt + ( Rp Rsoi ). Bg + Bw .Wp
Where the terms have the following meaning:
N = initial reservoir oil, STB;
Np = cumulative produced oil, STB
Boi = initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bgi = initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Rsoi = initial solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rp = cumulative produced gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rso = solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
We = water influx into the reservoir, bbl
Wp = cumulative produced water, bbl
cw = water isothermal compressibility, psi-1
crock = formation isothermal compressibility, psi p = change in average reservoir pressure, psi
Swi = initial water saturation
m = (Initial hydrocarbon vol. of gas cap)/(Initial hydrocarbon vol. of oil)
In practice the material balance equation is often applied in the linear form of
Havlena and Odeh (J. Pet. Tech., pp896-900, Aug. 1963; ibid, pp815-822, July 1964);
see discussion in Craft & Hawkins (Terry revision, 1991).
In the above formulation of the Material Balance Equation, the various terms
have the following interpretation.
Glossary of Terms
The following terms account for the expansion of any oil and/or gas zones
that may be present in the reservoir:
N .(Bt Bti ) +
N.m.Bti
.(Bg Bgi )
Bgi
The following term accounts for the change in void space volume which is
the expansion of the formation and the connate water:
c .S + c f
(1 + m). N . Bti . w wi
1 Swi
.p
The next term is the amount of water influx that has occurred into the
reservoir:
We
Right-Hand Side of the Material Balance Equation
The first term of the RHS represents the production of oil and gas:
= N p . Bt + ( Rp Rsoi ). Bg
Porosity: the fraction of a rock that is pore space; common symbol, Porosity varies
from 0.25 for a fairly permeable rock down to 0.1 for a very low permeability
rock; there may be an approximate correlation between k and .
Pores & pore throats: The tiny connected passages that exist in permeable rocks;
typically of size 1m to 200 m; easily visible in s.e.m. (scanning electron microscopy).
Pores may be lined by diagenetic minerals e.g. clays. The narrower constrictions
between pore bodies are referred to as Pore Throats. See Figure 2:
illite
illite
quartz
quartz
10mm
~1mm
Figure 2
k/ Correlations:
It has been found in many systems that there is a relationship
between permeability, k, and porosity, . This is not always the case and much scatter
can be seen in a k/ crossplot. Broadly, higher permeability rocks have a higher
porosity and some of the relationships reported in the literature are shown below.
Some examples of k/ correlations which have appeared in the literature are shown
in figure 3:
100.0
50.0
10.0
5.0
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
6
10,000
1,000
md)
10
12
14
16
Core Porosity (%)
18
20
22
Figure 3
Permeability/Porosity
Correlation for Cores from
the Bradford Sandstone
0.1
0.05
Glossary of Terms
0.01
8
10
12
14
16
Core Porosity (%)
18
20
22
10,000
1,000
100
10
Figure 4
Permeability/Porosity
Correlation for Cores from
the Brent Field
1
0
10
20
30
Darcys Law: Originally a law for single phase flow that relates the total volumetric
flow rate (Q) of a fluid through a porous medium to the pressure gradient (P/x) and
the properties of the fluid ( = viscosity) and the porous medium (k = permeability;
A = cross-sectional area); can be used to define permeability:
k.A P
Q =
x
Darcy Velocity: This is the velocity, u, calculated as, u = Q/A; this may be
expressed as,
u=
k P
Q
=
A
x
v=
Q
u
=
A.
Q
L
Q = .
Figure 5
Schematic of the Single
Phase Darcy Law
k.A P
.
L
Small Scale
Fabric Anistropy
kh
kv
Hi k lamina
Rock Grains
Lo k lamina
Lamination
kh
Heterogeneity
Anisotropy
Low Perm Lenses
or Shales
(kv/kh) = 1
Saturation: The saturation of a phase (oil, water, gas) is the fraction of the pore
space that it occupies (not of the total rock + pore space volume); symbol Sw, So
10
Figure 6
Permeability anistropy at
different scales
Glossary of Terms
1,000
3
500
12
13
100
10
50
11
10
11A
5
4
1.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
% Connate water
Figure 7
Correlation between (air)
permeability and the
connate water (Swc) for a
range of reservoir rocks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Hawkins
Magnolia
Washington
Elk Basin
Tangely
Creole
Synthetic Alundum
Lake St John
10 =
11 =
11A =
12 =
13 =
11
on the saturation - for two phases capillary pressure, Pc(Sw) = Po- Pw (for a water wet
porous medium). The following figures show schematic figures for Capillary Pressure
(Pc(Sw)) and Relative Permeability (krw(Sw) and kro(Sw)) for a water wet system:
Capillary Pressure
Swc
Relative Permeability
Sor
Swc
Pc
Sor
krel
kro
krw
Sw
Sw
Figure 8
Schematics of capillary
pressure and relative
permeability for a water-wet
system
A schematic of the Two Phase Darcy Law showing the definition of Relative
Permeability is presented in figure 9.
At steady-state flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out, Qo
and QwAt
, are
the same:
steady-state
flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out, Qo and Qw
are the same
Po
Qw
Qo
Pw
Qw
Qo
1
kro
Rel.
Perm.
0
krw
Sw
12
Figure 9
The two-phase Darcy Law
and relative permeability
Glossary of Terms
NB the Units for the two-phase Darcy Law are exactly the same as those in Figure
2 chapter 2.
Mobility and Mobility Ratio: the mobility of a phase (e.g. w or o) is defined as
the effective permeability of that phase (e.g. kw = k . krw ; ko = k . kro) divided by the
viscosity of that phase;
k.k rw
k.k ro
w =
; o =
w
o
M=
o k ro . w
=
w k rw . o
Fractional Flow: The Fractional Flow of a phase is the volumetric flow rate
of the phase under a given pressure gradient, in the presence of another phase.
The symbols for water and oil fractional flow are fw and fo and they depend
on the phase saturation, Sw:
fw =
Qw
Q
; fo = o ; where Q T = Q o + Q w
QT
QT
The fractional flows play a central part in Buckley-Leverett (B-L) theory of linear
displacement which starts from the conservation equation:
Sw
f
= w ;
t
x
So
f
= o
t
x
f
vSw = v. w
Sw
where v is the fluid velocity, v = Q/(A) and (dfw/dSw) is the slope of the fractional
flow curve. The relationship between the fractional flow and Buckley Leverett theory
is illustrated in Figure 10.
13
Fractional Flow
Welge Tangent
Fractional
Flow
of Water,
Sor
fw
Sw
Flood Front
Height
Sor
Swf
Swc
Length, (x/L)
Swc
Swf
Water Saturation, Sw
14
Figure 10
Relationship between the
fractional flow function and
the Buckley-Leverett front
height
Glossary of Terms
Qo
Qo
Oil Injection
Figure 11
Drainage.
Water Injection
Q
w
Figure 12
Imbibtion.
Water Injection
Core at swc
Core at swc
Oil
Water
Water
Figure 13
Spontaneous Imbibition.
Figure 14
Intermediate wettability.
Both water and oil may
spontaneously imbibe into
the core displacing the other
phase. Shows both water wet
and oil wet character.
Water
Core at swc
Core at sor
Oil
Water
Sor
15
Core at swc
Core at sor
Oil
Primary drainage: is oil --> water from a core at 100% water saturation to Swr.
Secondary imbibition: is water --> oil
from a core at Swr and mobile oil to Sor.
Water
Examples: The figures 15 and 16 show schematics of typical Drainage and Imbibition
capillary pressure (Pc) and relative permeability (krw and kro) curves for a water wet
system. Primary Drainage (oil --> water from core at 100% water) and Secondary
Imbibition (water --> oil from core at Swr) processes are illustrated:
Drainage and Imbibition
Capillary Pressure
Sor
krel
Pc
Drainage
kro
Imbibition
krw
Sw
Sw
Figure 15
Relative Permeability, %
100
80
60
Drainage
40
Imbibition
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV
16
Figure 16
Drainage and imbibition
relative permeability
characteristics
Glossary of Terms
80
80
60
60
OilOil
Figure 17
Typical water-oil relative
permeability characteristics,
strongly water-wet rock
Relative
Relative
Permeability,
Permeability,
Fraction
Fraction
100
100
40
40
20
20
0
00
0
Water
Water
20
40
60
80
20Water 40
60 %PV
80
Saturation,
Water Saturation, %PV
100
100
1.0
1.0
0.01
0.01
WaWtearter
Relative
Relative
Permeability,
Permeability,
Fraction
Fraction
il il
O O
Figure 18
Typical water-oil relative
permeability characteristics,
strongly water-wet rock
0.1
0.1
0.001
0.001
0.0001
0.0001 0
0
20
40
60
80
20 Saturation,
40
60 %PV
80
Water
Water Saturation, %PV
100
100
80
60
Wa
te
Oil
Figure 19
Typical water-oil relative
permeability characteristics,
strongly oil-wet rock
100
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
1.0
il
O
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
100
17
r
Wa
te
Relative Permeabilit
Oil
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
1.0
100
Wate
r
il
0.1
0.01
0.001
Figure 20
0.0001
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
100
18
Glossary of Terms
Water Wet
Venango core VL-2
k = 28.2 md
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
40
32
24
16
2
8
0
0
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation - %
40
24
16
20
32
16
24
8
4
0
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation - %
100
20
40
60
80 100
Oil Saturation - %
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
32
0
0
100
12
Oil Wet
48
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
48
Intermediate Wet
16
1
8
0
-8
-16
-24
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation - %
100
Figure 21
19
40
20
0
Water
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
60
40
20
0
100
Wa
te
60
80
Oil
80
Oil
100
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
100
1.0
1.0
O
il
0.001
0.0001
0.01
0.001
0.0001
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
100
20
0.1
Wate
r
0.01
Water
il
O
0.1
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %PV
100
Figure 22
Glossary of Terms
OIL WET
Sw where
krw = kro
(Point A on figure 23)
krw at Sor
Sw > 50%
Sw < 50%
100
Water-Wet
Reservoir
80
Oil-Wet
Reservoir
80
Relative Permeability,
% of Air Permeability
Oil
60
40
40
20
Figure 23
Influence of wettability on
relative permeability (after
Fertl, OGJ, 22 May 1978)
Oil
60
Swi
20
r
Wate
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %
20
Swi
Wa
100
20
te
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %
In Water-Wet System
Sw mostly > 20%
In Oil-Wet System
Sw < 15%
100
Secondary Recovery - where reservoir pressure is supported by injection usually of water in waterflooding but early gas injection may be considered
also as secondary recovery In addition to supporting the pressure (maintaining
reservoir energy), water or gas injection also displaces oil directly;
21
Waterflood Pattern: On-land Waterflooding is often carried out with the producers
and injectors in a particular pattern. This is known as pattern flooding and examples
of such patterns are: Five Spot, Nine Spot, Line Drive etc.. as shown schematically
in the figure 24
.
Injection Well
Production Well
Pattern Boundary
Two-Spot
Regular Four-Spot
Five-Spot
Three-Spot
Normal Nine-Spot
Skewed Four-Spot
Seven-Spot
Inverted Nine-Spot
Inverted Seven-Spot
Areal Sweep Efficiency: The Areal Sweep Efficiency refers to the fraction of
areal reservoir that is swept at a given pore volume throughput of displacing fluid.
For example, the Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough for various processes
(Waterflooding, Gas Displacement and Miscible flooding) is shown as a function of
mobility ratio in the figure 26:
22
Figure 24
Examples of areal patterns
of injectors and producers
(pattern flooding)
Glossary of Terms
Injector (I)
Injector (I)
Injector (I)
Figure 25
Schematic of areal sweep
efficiency
Injector (I)
100
Figure 26
Areal sweep efficiency at
breakthrough in a five spot
pattern for various
displacement processes
100
90
80
90
80
70
70
60
50
0.1
60
50
0.1
WaterOil
GasOil
Miscible
1.0
Mobility Ratio
1.0
10.0
10.0
Mobility Ratio
WaterOil The Vertical Sweep Efficiency refers to the fraction of
Vertical Sweep Efficiency:
vertical section (orGasOil
cross-section) of reservoir that is swept at a given pore volume
Miscible
throughput of displacing fluid. This is function of the heterogeneity of the system
(e.g. stratification), the fluid displacement process (e.g. waterflooding, gas injection)
and the balance of forces (e.g. importance of gravity). Figure 27.
23
P
I
24
Figure 27
Schematic showing vertical
sweep efficiency
Glossary of Terms
Producer
Water Injector
Figure 28
A 3D Cartesian grid for
reservoir simulation
z
(Variable)
2D Areal Grid: This is a 2D grid structure which is imposed looking down onto
the reservoir. For a Cartesian system, it would divide up the x and y directions in
the reservoir into increments of x and y.
y
W1
W2
W3
Figure 29
Perspective view of a 2D
areal (x/y) reservoir
simulation grid: W = well.
x
y
Just 1 x z-block in 2D Areal Grid
25
Injector
Producer
Figure 30
Block i
Sw i
Block i+1
Qw
krw i (kA)i
Sw i+1
krw i+1 (kA) i+1
Figure 31
k
(P Pi )
Q w = ( kA )i +1/ 2 rw
. i +1
x
w Bw i +1/ 2
where the inter-grid block quantities are averages at the interfaces. The single phase
Transmissibility, Ti+1/2 , is given by:
Ti +1/ 2 =
( kA)i +1/ 2
x
and the full Water Transmissibility, Tw,i+1/2, between the two grid blocks is given
by:
Tw, i +1/ 2 =
( kA)i +1/ 2 k rw
x
k
= Ti +1/ 2 . rw
w Bw i +1/ 2
w Bw i +1/ 2
Qw = Tw, i +1/ 2 ( Pi +1 Pi )
The water transmissibility is clearly made up of two parts each of which is an
average between the blocks. The single phase part is (k.A)av and the two phase part
is [krw/(w.Bw)]av
26
Glossary of Terms
(k.A)av - a Harmonic Average between blocks is taken for the single phase part of
the transmissibility.
[krw/(w.Bw)]av - this term is more complicated. For the average relative permeability
term, [krw]av an Upstream Weighting is used; For [(w.Bw)]av the Arithmetic Average
between blocks is taken. (See notes on this topic)
Spatial Discretisation: This is the process of dividing the grid in space into divisions
of x, y and z. In reservoir simulation, we always chop up the reservoir into
blocks as shown in the gridded examples above and then we model the block
block flows.
Temporal Discretisation: This is the process of dividing up the time steps into
divisions of t.
Numerical Dispersion: The spreading of a flood front in a displacement process
such as waterflooding, which is due to numerical effects, is known as Numerical
Dispersion. It is due to both the spatial (x) and time (t) discretisation or truncation
error that arises from the gridding. This spreading of flood fronts tends to lead to
early breakthrough and other errors in recovery. How bad the error is depends
on several factors including the actual fluid recovery process being simulated e.g.
waterflooding, water-alternating-gas (WAG) etc.
Grid Orientation: The Grid Orientation problem arises when we have fluid flow both
oriented with the principal grid direction and diagonally across this grid. Numerical
results are different for each of the fluid paths through the grid structure. This
problem arises mainly due to the use of 5-point difference schemes (in 2D) in the
Spatial Discretisation. It may be alleviated by using more sophisticated numerical
schemes such as 9-point schemes (in 2D). Figure 32.
Figure 32
Flow arrows show the fluid
paths in oriented grid and
diagonal flow leading to
grid orientation errors
I = Injector
P = Producer
27
Coarse Grid
in Aquifer
Hybrid Grid
Distorted Grids: A Distorted Grid is a grid structure that is bent to more closely
follow the flow lines or the system geometry in a particular case.
Corner Point Geometry: In some simulators (e.g. Eclipse), the option exists to
enter the geometry of the vertices of the grid blocks. This allows the user to define
complex geometries which better match the system shape. This option is known as
Corner Point Geometry and it requires that the block block transmissibilities are
modified accordingly.
The idea of Corner Point Geometry is illustrated schematically in figure 34:
28
Figure 33
Schematic of local grid
refinement (LGR).
Glossary of Terms
Fault
L1
L2
L3
L1
L2
L3
L4
L4
Figure 34
Grid structures for Faults
and Distorted Grids
Distorted Grid
29
1 Extented Refinement
Figure 35
Types of local Grids
30
Glossary of Terms
(a)
1.0
3600
3400
0.8
Final Match
Pressure (psi)
3000
Watercut
0.6
0.4
5
7
Time, Days x 10
2600
2400
2200
0
6 7
Year
9 10 11 12
(b)
Observed Data
1
2800
2000
First Trial
0.2
0.0
0
Calculated
Field Data
3200
3600
11
3400
Calculated
Field Data
3200
Pressure (psi)
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
0
6 7
Year
9 10 11 12
(c)
3600
3400
Calculated
Field Data
3200
Pressure (psi)
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
0
Figure 36
6 7
Year
9 10 11 12
31
S (Si Si 1 )
x i
x
then this is referred to as a Finite Difference approximation. In this example, which
is illustrated below, (S/x)i is the derivative of Saturation (S) with respect to x at grid
point i ; Si and Si-1 are the discrete values of S at grid points i and i-1, respectively;
x is the size of the spatial grid.
Si-1
Slope = s
x
S(x,t)
Si
Si+1
x
x ....
i-1
i+1
Figure 37
Linear Equations: When finite difference methods are applied to the differential
equations of reservoir simulation, a set of linear equations results. These have the
form:
A. x = b
where A is a matrix of coefficients, x is the vector of unknowns and b is the (known)
right hand side. Expanded up, this set of linear equations has the form:
a11 x1
a21 x1
a31 x1
a41 x1
+
+
+
+
a12 x2
a22 x2
a32 x2
a42 x2
+
+
+
+
a13 x3 ....
a23 x3 ....
a33 x3 ....
a43 x3 ....
............
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + an3 x3 ....
+ a1n xn =
+ a2n xn =
+ a3n xn =
+ a4n xn =
b1
b2
b3
b4
+ ann xn = bn
Direct Solution Of Linear Equations: A Direct Solution method is when the linear
equations are solved by an algorithm which has a fixed number of operations (given
N, the number of linear equations [unknowns]). If the equations have a solution,
then, in principle, a direct method will give the exact answer, x(true), to the machine
accuracy. E.g. Gaussian Elimination
Iterative Solution Of Linear Equations: An Iterative Solution method is when the
linear equations are solved by an algorithm which has a variable number of operations.
A first estimate of the solution vector x(0) is made and this is successively refined to
converge to the true solution. In a convergent iterative method, then x(v) x(true) as
v . It is because of this iterative process that a variable number of steps may
be required depending on how accurate the answer must be. Normally, the iterative
32
Glossary of Terms
Low Sw
Oil
Upscaling or Pseudo-Isation
Fine Grid
Coarse Grid
% OOIP
Oil Recovery
Figure 38
Basic idea of upscaling
Time
Upscaling: The process of reproducing the results of a calculation which is carried out
on a fine grid on a coarser grid is known as Upscaling. The basic idea of upscaling
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
33
is shown schematically in the figures on the following pages. The input properties at
the coarser scale must take into account the flow effects of the smaller scale structure.
These coarser scale properties then become pseudo-properties.
Pseudo-Property: This refers to the value of a property or function (e.g. permeability,
relative permeability..) which is an average or effective value at a certain scale usually the grid block scale. For example, we might put the value kx = 150 mD in a
simulator grid block which is 200 ft x 200 ft x 30 ft; clearly, this incorporates a large
amount of geological substructure and permeability may vary very significantly in
different parts of this block.
Pseudo-Relative Permeability: This is probably the most important pseudo-property
that is used in reservoir simulation. It refers to the effective relative permeability in
the simulation model at the grid block scale. It must incorporate the effects of all the
smaller scale geological heterogeneity, the balance of forces (viscous/capillary/gravity)
and certain numerical effects (numerical dispersion). Methods for calculating the
Pseudo-rel perm include: Jacks et al, Kyte and Berry, Stone etc. Newer methods are
based on tensor pseudo-relative permeabilities (Pickup and Sorbie, 1994).
Geopseudos: When the fluid flow upscaling is performed in the correct context of
the sedimentary structure up from the lamina, laminaset, bedform.. scales, then the
approach is known as the Geopseudo Methodology. This has been developed in
work at Heriot-Watt which has extended more conventional approaches by putting
in the geology.
Examples: The above concepts are illustrated schematically on the following pages.
The next page shows an example of a cross-sectional grid used in the generation of
dynamic pseudofunctions in the field. A schematic of the Geopseudo approach as it
has been applied to the Rannoch facies (North Sea) is also shown on the following
pages.
34
Glossary of Terms
"Rock"
Relative Permeabilities
krel
Low Sw
Sw
Oil
Upscaling or Pseudo-Isation
Pseudo-Relative
Permeabilities
krel
Sw
Coarse Grid Layered Model
Fine Grid
Coarse Grid
% OOIP
Oil Recovery
Figure 39
Basic idea of upscaling or
pseudo-isation
Time
Water Flow
Rel Perms.
Sor
Sw
Swc
No Water Flow
Sor
Figure 40
A simple example of a
pseudo relative permeability
krw
kro
Sw
Rel Perms.
kro
Sw
krw
Swc
Sw
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
35
36
Glossary of Terms
Dispersion
x k
R L = . z
z k x
1/ 2
and kz and kx are the vertical and horizontal permeabilities, respectively. In practice,
if RL is > 10, then VE is a very good assumption.
A: Equality of Layer Pressure Gradients (Where x >> z)
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
x
P P P
x
x
x
2
3
1
B: Instantaneous/Infinite Vertical Crossflow
Figure 41
Schematic views of vertical
equilibrium
Miscible Displacement: Whereas oil and water are immiscible fluids (i.e. they do not
mix and are separated by an interface), some fluids are fully Miscible (i.e. they mix
freely in all proportions). When a gas (or other fluid) is injected into an oil reservoir
and the fluids are miscible, this is referred to as a Miscible Displacement. When a
miscible solvent (s) displaces an oil (o), the pressure in each and the local pressure
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
37
gradients are the same (there is no capillary pressure since there is no interface).
The mixing between the solvent and the oil can occur locally by Dispersion and by
Fingering (see Viscous Fingering in Glossary). The displacement is described by
a generalised Convection-Dispersion Equation where the mixing viscosity, (c) is
a function of the concentration of the solvent, c (or oil). Often, the solvent viscosity
is below that of the oil (i.e. s < o) which tend to cause an instability to develop in
the displacement known as Viscous Fingering.
The Miscible Flow Equations: These comprise of a Pressure Equation and a Transport
Equation. The pressure equation is derived by inserting Darcys Law (with a viscosity
dependent on solvent concentration) into the continuity equation. The transport
equation is a generalised convection-dispersion (or convection-diffusion) equation.
Continuity equation:
u=
k
.P
( c)
where u is the Darcy velocity, c is the miscible solvent concentration and v is the
permeability tensor.
The pressure equation is then given by:
.u = .
.P = q
(c )
or
k
.P = q
.
(c )
c
= .(D.c) v.c
t
where D is the dispersion tensor and v is the pore velocity ( v =
u
).
38
Glossary of Terms
which the fluid can flow along at the pore scale. This mixing is a diffusive process
since the growth of the mixing zone, Lf , tend to vary as t varies. In a tracer core flood
experiment, the Dispersion Coefficient, D, may be measured by fitting the effluent
profile to an analytical solution of the Convection-Dispersion Equation (see figure
42). Units of D (cm2/s - at lab scale).
Dispersive mixing behaviour can also be seen from the mixing effect of
heterogeneities at larger scales in a porous medium. D, has been found to depend
linearly on velocity through the relationship: D = . v; where is the Dispersivity
and has dimensions of length. Dispersion is actually a tensor in rather the same way
that permeability ( v ) in its general form is a tensor.
Dispersive
Mixing Zone
C(x,t1)
Lf
Ce 1
Effluent
Concentration
Ce(1,t)
C
0
Figure 42
Schematic illustration of
dispersion and the
convection-dispersion
equation for simple tracer
flow
1
time (pv)
Viscous Fingering: When a high mobility (low viscosity) fluid displaces a low
mobility (high viscosity) fluid, a type of instability may develop known as Viscous
Fingering. For such a displacement, the Mobility Ratio (see above) is high and the
process may be observed in either miscible or immiscible displacements, although
it occurs more readily in miscible systems. Results from an experiment are shown
below where the dark fluid is high viscosity and the light fluid is low viscosity.
Clearly, viscous fingering leads to a poorer sweep efficiency in such floods.
Example: Experimental demonstration of Viscous Fingering. (Figure 43).
39
Figure 43
Viscous Fingering
40
Glossary of Terms
41