Evolution Of Archwire Materials In Orthodontics

Evolution Of Archwire In Fixed Appliance Orthodontics
1
Introduction
Wire is one of the important components of all most all orthodontic
appliances. Practically all orthodontic forces for which appliances are used exert
forces by means of wires not just any wire, but a wire properly selected in size,
shape, material, properties and properly bent to exert the desired force. An
understanding of the well balanced relationship that exists between the applied
techniques and the basic principles, leads to a broader application of skills to serve the
need of orthodontics.
An orthodontist spends much of his professional career handling wires and the
success or failure of many forms of treatment depends upon the correct selection of
wires, possessing adequate properties combined with careful manipulation beside
bracket and auxillaries. The search for correct materials has continued from the
beginning of dental art to the present time. Through the ages, dentistry has been
dependent to a great degree on the advances made by the contemporary art and
sciences for improvements in materials.
1
The materials used by orthodontists have changed rapidly in recent years and
will continue to do so in the future. As esthetic composite arch wires are introduced,
metallic arch wires are likely to be replaced for most orthodontic applications in the
same way as metals have been replaced by composites in aerospace industry.
Arch wires are reviewed in the order of their development, with emphasis on
specific properties and characteristics, such as strength, stiffness, range, formability
and weldability. Because an ideal material has not yet been found, arch wires should
be selected within the context of their intended use during treatment.
Over the last century, material science has made rapid progress. This has been
evident in our day to day life also. Orthodontics, particularly, has benefited largely
from this. In this branch of dentistry, not only have the materials been improved, but
also the philosophies have changed. Orthodontics has come a long way since the days
of the E-arch and various removable appliances used in the early 20th century. With
the introduction of the Edgewise appliance, newer materials have introduced in order
to make the most of these appliances. Wires which had good formability, increased
resilience and low cost were obviously favoured. This was probably the reason why
stainless steel (and Elgiloy) prevailed over the noble metal alloys.
The need of the Begg appliance was quite different from that of the traditional
edgewise appliance. This led Begg and Wilcock to produce a variety of stainless steel
that would provide low continuous forces over a long period of time. The NickelTitanium(Ni-Ti) alloys introduced in the 1970s showed some remarkable properties
of superelasticity and shape memory, although these could not be exploited clinically
at that time. The wires had limited formability, but could still be used in the
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traditional edgewise appliance. The next generation of NiTi wires benefited a lot by
the pre adjusted edgewise appliance.
This appliance required lesser amount of bends incorporated into the wire, and
the A-NiTis perfectly suited this. However, introduction of the TMA wires bridged
the gap between stainless steel and Nickel Titanium alloys wires, with properties that
were intermediate to the two of these alloys.
Thus, one can see how the appliance philosophies and material science
progress is closely interrelated. All these wire alloys that were introduced and the
newer ones have individualistic and unique properties associated with them. In order
to use the newer wires, it is important to know as to why they have specific properties.
Review of Literature
2
Rapid strides have been made in the field of arch wire materials. The urge for
better performance has resulted in the development of newer orthodontic wires with
promising physical properties.
PIERRE FAUCHARD, the father of modern dentistry in 1723 developed
what is probably the first orthodontic appliance in evolution of fixed orthodontic
appliance. It was called as Bandolet or Bow. It was flat piece of metal scalloped out
for the ideal position of the teeth. The teeth were ligated towards their positions. This
appliance was very heavy and unwieldy. It was also designed to expand the arch,
particularly the anterior teeth. FAUCHARD said If the teeth are much out of line and
cannot be corrected by means of thread, it is necessary to use a band of silver or gold.
The width of band should be less than the height of the teeth to which it is applied.
The band should neither be too stiff or too flexible. Two holes are made at each end,
and a thread passing partially forms a loop and by the pressure and support given the
inclined teeth will be made upright.2
4
In 1757, Etienne Bourdet (1722 to 1789), the dentist to the king of France,
advocated the Fauchard method but went a step further by recommending only gold
strips on the labial surface of upper arch and lingual surface of lower arch. He wrote in
his book that The strings should be removed and retightened twice a week, until the
teeth have resumed their proper position that is to say, until the teeth of upper Jaw are
drawn forward so that no part of them is hidden behind those of the lower jaw.2
Leonard Koecker (1728 to 1850) in 1826, practicing in Philadelphia,
advertised that He supplies ligatures to teeth of an irregular position.2
Samuel S. Fitch MD, whose book entitled A system of dental surgery,
published in 1829, devoted a significant amount of information on irregularities of the
teeth. He was also the first one to classify malocclusion. His treatment consists of
Application of an instrument adapted to arch of the mouth, fastening a ligature on the
irregular tooth and removing the resistance of the lower teeth by placing some
intervening substances between the teeth of upper and lower jaw, so as to prevent
them from completely closing.2
Shearjashub Spooner (1809 to 1859) in 1838 found various types of
treatments, such as use of gold and silver plates to exert a gentle and continued
pressure to correct irregularities of teeth.2
William Lintott in 1841 described a bite opening appliance, which consisted
of a labial arch of a light bar of gold or silver passed around front surfaces of teeth by
means of ligatures (known as Indian twist) and the necks of irregular teeth with
pressure applied for movement.2
As early as in 1871 William E. Magill (1825 to 1896), was first to use

cemented bands on the teeth by oxychloride of zinc cement. It was on the foundation
of this cemented tooth band and circumferential arch wires that modern orthodontic
appliance have developed.2
In 1887, Dr. Angle introduced the round labial arch wire which was
supported by clamp bands on molar teeth. It also was an expansion arch and teeth
were ligated towards their preplanned arch. If molar expansion was desired the arch
wire was expanded. The appliance is commonly referred to as E (expansion) arch.
As demand increased for more and better control of the teeth, bands were added to
anterior teeth with vertical tubes placed over them. Like this the pin and tube
appliance was developed.
In 1916 with the advent of ribbon arch, the E arch gave way to flat wire 0.022
x 0.036 placed against the teeth. This flat flexible wire was molded to fit the
malocclusion and was held in close approximation to the teeth by a bracket that opened
occlusally. It has excellent rotating ability but lacked the power to tip the teeth.
In 1908, Dr. P.R. Begg designed an appliance for moving roots of teeth.
In 1929 Dr. Angle introduced an appliance that engages the teeth edge wise
by way of new bracket that opened bucally and used flat wires of 0.028 dimension.
Thus the edgewise appliance was introduced.
It could be observed that in Angles orthodontic appliance, the arch wires in
each succeeding mechanism was thinner than the immediately preceding mechanism;
so that the amount of forces delivered for tooth movement became less in each later
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mechanism. This indicates that Angle was aware that the tooth moving forces
delivered by his earlier forms of orthodontic appliance were too great. This reduction
of tooth moving forces in each new orthodontic mechanism permitted greater control
of tooth movement. It made possible to move the teeth rapidly and reduced the pain
that patient had to bear during treatment.
Up to 1930,s the only orthodontic wire available was made of gold. In 1929
Lucien de Costa a Belgian and editor of Archives of orthodontics introduced
austenitic stainless steel orthodontic wire with greater strength, high modulus of
elasticity, good resistance to corrosion and low cost.
It was in between 1903 and 1921 that Harry Brearley of Sheffield, F.M.
Becket of USA, Beune Strauss and Edward Maurer of Germany shared the honor
for the development of the materials.
In 1937, Atkinson introduced Atkinson, s universal appliance. He used two
different forms of labial wire, one rectangular and one round and was designed to bring
about every tooth movement possible. A significant advancement in orthodontic
materials was made in late 30,s and 40,s when stainless steel wires became widely
available. The cobalt alloys were simultaneously developed in the mid century and this
has physical properties very similar to that of stainless steel. They had an advantage that
they could be supplied in softer and more formable state and then could be hardened by
heat treatment. The procedure increases its strength significantly.
In 1952 Dr. Begg in collaboration with Mr. A.J.Willcock sought to develop
tensile wire materials that were thin enough to distribute forces at an optimum level
for tooth movement over a considerable period of time, over a long distance and with
minimal loss of force intensity. The wire was thick enough to resist masticatory stress.
The diameter of wire initially produced was progressively decreased from the thicker
diameter to 0.018 to 0.014 arch wire.4
Then came the most talked Niti wire which was invented in 60,s by William
F. Buchler, a research metallurgist at the Naval Ordinance Laboratory in Silver
Spring, Maryland (now called as Naval Surface Weapons Center). He did extensive
research and published his findings on the properties and uses of his new alloy. The
name Nitinol is an acronym derived from elements which comprises the alloy, Ni
from nickel, Ti from titanium and nol from Naval Ordinance Laboratory.
Niti was introduced to orthodontics by Andreasen and his associates. They
were attracted to unique properties of Niti alloy, such as high elastic limit and low
modules of elasticity.
In 1971, they reported the results of their investigation for clinical use and
subsequently Unitek Corporation started producing this wire for clinical use under
the trade name of Nitinol. It has an excellent spring back property but does not
possess shape memory or super elasticity because it has been manufactured by a work
hardening process.
Later developments related to Niti alloy came from China in Beijing in
General research institute for Non-ferrous metal in 1978, by DR. Hau-Chang Tien
and his colleagues with Niti a new super elastic orthodontic wire with high spring
back and low stiffness properties.9
In the same year Furukawa electric company Ltd of Japan produced a new
type of Japanese Niti alloy possessing properties of excellent spring back, shape
memory and super elasticity.29
In 1980, Dr. Andreasen tested thermodynamic nitinol wires and introduced
them to clinical orthodontics. These wires can return to previously set shape when
heated to their transition temperature range (TTR). He was the first person to suggest
the use of shape changes in Nitinol wires to apply forces to the teeth in order to move
them orthodontically.
At around the same time in 1980, Charles J. Burstone and A. Jon Goldberg,
introduced new Beta-titanium alloy (Titanium-molybdenum alloy) in clinical use of
orthodontics. It has a unique balance of low stiffness, high spring back, good
formability and weldability which indicates its use in a wide range of clinical
applications.8
In 1985, Dr. C.J. Burstone reported the development of Chinese Niti alloy
and in 1986 Miura Fetal reported Japanese Niti alloy. These two alloys have a basic
austenitic grain structure and have the advantage of a transition in the internal
structure without requiring a significant temperature change to do this.
In 1988 Mr. A.J. Willcock Jr. of Australia developed a much harder, near
alpha-phase titanium alloy comprising of 6% Aluminum and 4% Vanadium for
orthodontic purposes.4 He also started the production of ultra high tensile stainless steel
fine round wire, supreme grade as per the request of Dr.Mollenhauer of Melbourne.
The wire was initially in the0.010 diameter and was further reduced to 0.009.
In 1990 John J. Hudgins, Michael D. Bagby and Leslie C. Erickson studied

the effect of long term deflection on permanent deformation of Nickel- Titanium.17
In 1991 Sunil Kapila, Gary D. Richhold and Etal investigated the Nickel
titanium alloy to determine the effect of clinical recycling on load deflection
characteristics and surface topography of Nickel-titanium alloy.
In 1992 Glen A. Smith, J.A. Von Fraunhofer, Glenn R.Casey studied the
effect of clinical use and various sterilization procedures on three types of Nickeltitanium and one type of Beta-titanium and stainless steel arch wire. The various
procedure included disinfection alone and in conjugation with steam autoclave, dry
heat and cold solution sterilization.26
In 1992, the same year, OPTIFLEX an aesthetic arch wire, was introduced to
orthodontics by Tallas. It is made up of clean optical fiber and has unique mechanical
properties.36
In 1995 Charles J. Burstone demonstrated Titanium molybdenum alloy
(TMA) with ion implantation. A low coefficient of friction is usually desirable in
orthodontic arch wire. Studies have shown that Nickel titanium and TMA have higher
coefficient of friction than stainless steel.
In case of TMA, the friction is probably high due to its relative softness
compared to harder stainless steel bracket. Ion implantation increases its hardness and
reduces coefficient of friction of TMA wire.8
10
In 1995, the same year Rohit Sachdeva and Suchio Miyasaki introduced
copper-Niti alloy in family of Niti. Its an alloy of copper, nickel, titanium and
chromium.
Recently in 2001, Dead Soft Security Arch wires has been introduced by
Binder and Scott. These arches are bend to lie passively in all attachments.5
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Classification
3
Classification
Arch wires can be broadly classified according to chemical composition,
microstructure and mechanical properties.
1)
According to Materials used

GOLD ARCHWIRES
STAINLESS STEEL ARCHWIRES
AUSTRALIAN ARCHWIRES
CHROME COBALT NICKEL ALLOY ARCHWIRES
JAPANESE NITI ARCHWIRES
CHINESE NITI ARCHWIRES
ALPHA-TITANIUM ALLOY ARCHWIRES
COPPER-NITI ALLOY ARCHWIRES
NICKEL SILVER ALLOY ARCHWIRES
FORSTADENT TITANOL ARCHWIRES
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Classification
OPTIFLEX ARCHWIRES
DEAD SOFT SECURITY ARCHWIRES
NICKEL TITANIUM ARCHWIRES
CONVENTIONAL
PSEUDOELASTIC
THERMODYNAMIC
2)
According to Cross- section

ROUND
RECTANGULAR
ROUNDED RECTANGULAR
SQUARE
BRAIDED
MULTISTRANDED
3)
According to Diameter
0.008 to 0.045 FOR INTRA ORAL APPLIANCES
0.045 to 0.60 FOR EXTRA ORAL APPLIANCES
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Terminology / Definitions
4
MECHANICS 34
Is an area of study of physical science, which is concerned with the state of
rest or motion of bodies, subjected to forces.
FORCE
Force is defined as an act upon a body that changes or tends to change the
state of rest or motion of that particular body.
NEWTON, S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

A particle subjected to a balanced system of concentrated forces will remain at rest,
if originally at rest, or will with constant speed in a straight line if originally in motion.
NEWTON, S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

If the particle is subjected to an unbalanced system of forces, the particle will
be accelerated in the direction of net force exerted.
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NEWTON, S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

States that, the paired active and reactive forces are equal in magnitude but are
directly opposite to one another and are exerted on adjacent particles.
STRESS
Stress is the force per unit area acting on millions of atoms in a given plane of
a material OR Displacing forces measured across a given area.
When an external force acts upon a solid body, a reaction force results within
the body that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the external force. The
external force will be called the load on the body. The internal forces divided by the
area over which it acts within the body is the resultant stress. It is measured in terms
of pounds/ square inch or psi.
STRAIN
Change in dimension is called as strain. Although strain is dimensionless
quantity, units such as m/m or cm/cm are often used to remind one of system of units
employed in actual measurements.
Strain may be
Elastic
Plastic
Combination of two
Elastic strain is reversible; it disappears after the strain is removed. Plastic
strain is permanent displacement of the atoms inside the material.
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TYPES OF STRESSES AND STRAINS

TENSILE STRESS
A tensile stress is caused by a load that tends to
stretch or elongate a body. A tensile stress is always
accompanied by a tensile strain.
COMPRESSIVE STRESS
If a body is placed under a load that tends to compress or shorten it, the
internal resistance to such a load is called compressive stress. A compressive stress is
always accompanied by a compressive strain. With both tensile and compressive
stress, the forces are applied at right angles to the area over which they act.
SHEAR STRESS
A stress that tends to resist a twisting motion or sliding of one portion of a
body over another is a shear on shearing stress. A shear stress is always accompanied
by shear strain.
COMPLEX STRESSES
It is extremely difficult to induce a stress of a
single type in body. For example, when a wire is stretched,
the experimentally observed stress will be predominantly
tensile, but the shearing stresses and strain will also be present. Furthermore during
16
the deformation, since the volume of wire remains constant, it must decrease slightly
in cross-sectional area, a condition that obviously indicates the presence of
compressive stresses.
An example of complex stresses as shown in figure is produced by bending a
beam in three point loading. As can be seen, compressive, tensile and shear stresses
are present in various parts of structure.
ELASTIC LIMIT
If a small tensile stress is induced in a wire, the resulting strain may be such
that the wire will return to its original length (i.e. the atoms will move into their
regular positions) when the load is removed.
If the load is increased progressively in small increments, and then released
after each addition of stress, a stress value finally will be found at which the wire does
not return to its original length after it is unloaded. In such a case the wire is said to
have been stressed beyond its elastic limit. The elastic limit of a material is the
greatest stress to which a material can be subjected, such that it will return to its
original dimensions when the forces are released.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
If the wire discussed above is loaded in tension in small increments until the
wire ruptures without removal of load each time, and if each stress is plotted on a
vertical coordinate and corresponding strain is plotted on a horizontal coordinate, a
curve is obtained.
17
It can be noted that the curve starts as a straight line but gradually curves after
a certain stress value is exceeded. If a ruler is laid on a straight line portion of the
curve ( from O to P), and if the straight line is extended in a dotted line, the stress at
the point P, at which the curve digresses from a straight line, is known as the
proportional limit.
HOOKE, S LAW
It states that the stress is directly proportional to the strain in elastic
deformation. Since direct proportionality between two quantities is graphically a
straight line, the straight line portion of the graph in figure is confirmation of this law.
Since the proportional limit is the greatest stress possible in accordance with
this law, it may be defined as the greatest stress that may be produced in a material
such that the stress is directly proportional to strain.
YIELD STRENGTH
The yield strength is the stress required to produce the particular offset chosen.
The yield strength will always be greater than the elastic limit or proportional limit
and will vary with the offset chosen.
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The three terms elastic limit, proportional limit and yield strength are defined
differently but their magnitude are so nearly the same that for all practical purpose
the terms can often be used interchangeably.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
If any stress value equal to or less than the proportional limit is divided by its
corresponding strain value, a constant proportionality will result. This constant of
proportionality is known as modulus of elasticity or Youngs Modules (E).
Since the modules of elasticity is the ratio of stress to the strain, it follows that,
the less the strain for the given stress, the greater will be the value of the modulus.
For example, if a wire is difficult to bend, considerable stress must be induced before
a notable strain or deformation results. Such a material would posses a comparatively
high modulus of elasticity.
The formula for modules of elasticity in tension is derived as follows;
Let E = Modules of elasticity
F = Applied force on load
A = Cross- section of material under stress
e= Increase in length
l= Original length
Stress = F/A =s
Strain = e/l =
Then E = Stress = s
Strain = F/A = Fl
e/l
eA
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The unit for modules of elasticity is forces per unit area (Mpa or Psi). This
property is indirectly related to other mechanical properties.
MAXIMAL FLEXIBILITY
It is defined as the strain that occurs when the material is stressed to its
proportional limit. The relation between the maximum flexibility, the proportional
limit and modules of elasticity may be expressed as follows:
Let
E = Modulus of elasticity
P = Proportional limit
m = Maximum Flexibility
From last equation

E = P
m
Or Em = P/E
STATIC AND DYNAMIC FORCES
Forces that are applied constantly for an arbitrarily long time are called as static
forces / static stresses. The stresses in the teeth during mastication are not of this type.
These stresses usually exist for only an instant. They are known as dynamic forces.
Since dynamic forces exits for only very short time, the resulting deformations
or strain cannot be measured.
RESILIENCE
It is defined as amount of energy absorbed by a structure when it is stressed,
not to exceed its proportional limit.
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Properties of Alloys
5
The properties of orthodontic wires are the consequence of two principal
origins.
1)
Basic composition will determine the broad range of inherent general

properties of each wire type.
2)
The particular nature of the drawing process including the heat treatment by
the manufacturers and clinician will have further significant effects on the
specific properties.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELASTIC MATERIALS3,18,19,22,24

The elastic behavior of any material is defined in terms of its stress strain
response to an external load. Both stress and strain refer to the internal state of the
material being studied: stress is the interval distribution of the load, defined as force
21
per unit area, whereas strain is the internal distortion produced by the load, defined as
deflection per unit area.
Orthodontic arch wires and springs
can be considered as beams, supported
either only on one end (e.g. a spring
projecting from a removable appliance) or
from both ends (a segment of an arch wire
spanning between attachments on adjacent
teeth). If a force is applied to such a beam,
its response can be measured as the deflection produced by the force. Force and
deflection are external measurements.
CRITERIA OF AN IDEAL ARCHWIRE
CANTILEVER- A
UPPORTED BEAMS-B
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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
In tension, internal stress and strain can be calculated from force and
deflection by considering the area and length of the beam. For Orthodontic purposes,
three major properties of beam materials are critical in defining their clinical
usefulness i.e. strength, stiffness and range. Each can be defined by appropriate
reference to a force deflection or stress strain diagram.
Three different points on a stress-Strain diagram can be taken as representative
of the strength of a material. Each represents, in a somewhat different way, the
maximal load that the material can resist. The most conservative measurement is the
proportional limit, the point at which any permanent deformation is first observed. A
more practical indication is the point at which a deformation of 0.1% is measured; this
is defined as the yield strength. The maximum load that the wire can sustain- the
ultimate tensile strength is reached after some permanent deformation and is greater
than the yield strength. Since this ultimate strength determines the maximum force the
wire can deliver if used as a spring, it is important clinically, especially since yield
strength and ultimate strength differ much for titanium alloys. Strength is measured in
stress units (gm/cm square)
Stiffness and springiness are reciprocal properties.
Springiness = 1/stiffness
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FORCE DEFLECTION CURVE
STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM
Each is proportional to the slope of the elastic portion of force deflection

curve. The more horizontal the slope, the springier the wire; the more vertical the
slope, the stiffer the wire.
Range is defined as the distance that the wire will bend elastically before
permanent deformation occurs. This distance is measured in mm. If the wire is
deflected beyond its yield strength, it will not return to its original shape, but
clinically useful spring back will occur unless the failure point is reached. This spring
back is measured along the horizontal axis as shown in figure.
In many clinical situations, orthodontic wires are deformed beyond their
elastic limit. Their spring back properties in the portion of the load-deflection curve
24
are between the elastic limit and the ultimate strength, therefore, are important in
determining clinical performance.
These three major properties have an important relationship.
Strength = Stiffness X Range.
Two other characteristics of some clinical importance can also be illustrated
with a stress strain diagram; resilience and formability. Resilience is the area under
the stress- strain curve out to the proportional limit. It represents the energy stored
capacity of the wire, which is a combination of strength and springiness. Formability
is the amount of permanent deformation that a wire can withstand before failing. It
represents the amount of permanent bending the wire will tolerate before it breaks.
The properties of an ideal wire material from orthodontic purposes can be
described largely in terms of these criteria:
High Strength
Low stiffness
High range
High formability.
In addition, the material should be weldable or solderable so that hooks or
stops can be attached to the wire. It should also be reasonable in cost. In
contemporary practice , no one arch wire material meets all these requirements , and
the best results are obtained by using specific arch wire materials for specific
purposes.
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WIRE CHARACTERSTICS OF CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Several characteristics of orthodontic wires are considered desirable for
optimum performance during treatment. These include a large spring back, low
stiffness, high formability, high stored energy, biocompatibility, environment
stability, low surface friction and the capability to be welded or soldered to
auxiliaries and attachments. A brief description of each of these desirable wire
characteristics is provided.
1)
SPRING BACK
This is also referred to as maximum elastic deflection, maximum flexibility
and range of activation or working range.

Spring back is related to the ratio of yield strength to the modules of elasticity
of the material. (Ys/E). Higher spring back values provide the ability to apply large
activation with a resultant increase in working time of the appliance.
This in turn implies that fewer arch wire changes or adjustments will be
required. Spring back is also a measure of how far a wire can be deflected without
causing permanent deformation or exceeding the limits of the material.
2)
STIFFNESS OR LOAD DEFLECTION RATE

This is the force magnitude delivered by an appliance and is proportional to
the modulus of elasticity. Low stiffness provides the ability to apply lower forces, a
more constant force overtime as the appliance experiences deactivation and greater
ease and accuracy in applying a given force.
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3)
FORMABILITY
High formability provides the ability to bend a wire into desired
configurations such as loops, coils and stops without fracturing the wire.
4)
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE OR STORED ENERGY

This property represents the work available to move the teeth. It is reflected by
the area under the line describing elastic deformation of the wire.
5)
BIOCOMPATIBILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STABILITY

Biocompatibility includes resistance to corrosion and tissue tolerance to
elements in the wire. Environmental stability ensures the maintenance of desirable

properties of the wire for extended periods of time after manufacture. This in turn
ensures a predictable behavior of the wire when in use.
6)
JOINABILITY
The ability to attach auxiliaries to orthodontic wires by welding or soldering
provides an additional advantage when incorporating modifications to the appliance.
7)
FRICTION
Space closure and canine retraction in continuous arch wire techniques involve
a relative motion of bracket over wire. Excessive amount of bracket / wire friction
may result in loss of anchorage or binding accompanied by little or no tooth
movement. The preferred wire material for moving a tooth relative to the wire would
be one that produces the least amount of friction at the bracket / wire interface.
27
Manufacturing
6
Manufacturing
All stainless steel orthodontic wires are produced with the help of standard
formulas based on specifications of the American Iron and steel Institute.
The physical properties of metals are influenced at every step in production,
beginning with the selection and melting of alloying metals.
INGOT
Dentists are so used to forget that an orthodontic wire is actually a modified
cast. One of the critical steps in wire making is pouring the molten alloy into a mold
to produce an Ingot.
This Ingot is far from being a uniform chunk of metal. Like any casting it will
have varying degree of porosity and inclusions of slag in different part.
A magnified view of inside of Ingot would show it, to be made up of crystals
of component metals. In metallurgical terminology these crystals are usually called
28
Manufacturing
grains, and it is this granular structure which controls many of the mechanical
properties.
Grains in a crystal are found in definite patterns typical of individual metals,
but they are far from perfect because of conditions under which they must form.
When the Ingot is cooling and solidifying, many different grains are forming at once.
These growing crystals crowd and surround one another, so that the ingot
becomes a mesh work of many irregularly shaped grains of different materials. The
size and distribution of these grains are very dependent on the rate of cooling and the
size of the ingot.
The cooling and pouring processes affect the porosity as well as grain structure.
Porosity in the ingot comes from either of two sources, gases that are either dissolved in
the metal or produced by chemical reactions within the molten mass from bubbles
which are trapped in metal. As the ingot cools and shrinks, the late cooling interior
section shrinks inside an already hardened shell. This shell does not permit the volume
to adjust enough to the shrinkage, so additional voids of the vacuum results. So, before
further processing begins the ingot is trimmed to remove the undesirable parts.
The microstructure of a metal is the very basic of its physical properties and
mechanical performance and every step in production is directed at getting the most
out of the original grain structure of the ingot.
ROLLING
The first mechanical step in processing is rolling the ingot into a long bar. This
is done by a series of rollers which gradually reduce the ingot to a relatively smaller
29
Manufacturing
diameter. Through all this rolling and later processing into the final wire, the different
parts of original ingot never lose their identity.
The metal that was on the outside of the ingot forms the finest wire. Wire is
actually a grossly distorted ingot, thus it is easy to see that different pieces of wires
from the same batch can differ depending upon which part of ingot they came from.
The individual grains of the ingot also keep their identity through the rolling
process until certain heat treatment is applied. Each grain is elongated in the same
proportion as the Ingot. The squeezing, massaging action of rolling the Ingot has a very
important effect on the grain structure, actually increasing the strength of the metal.
Where the original crystal fitted together rather indifferently with gaps and
voids scattered among them, the mechanical action of rolling, forces them into long,
finger like shapes that are closely meshed together. This causes an increase in the
hardness or brittleness of the metal, as the grains are forced to interlock even more
highly with one another. This is a form of work hardening. Even the atoms which
make up the crystal structure are forced into new positions, filling in gaps and
irregularities that may have been left in original crystals.
Each pass through the rollers, increases this work hardening and finally the
structure becomes so locked up that it can no longer adjust enough to adapt to the
squeezing of the rollers. If rolling is continued beyond this point the surface will start
to show many small cracks and begin to crumble. Before this happens the rolling
process is stopped and the metal is annealed by heating to a suitable high temperature.
At annealing temperature the atoms become mobile enough to move about within the
30
Manufacturing
mass, breaking up the tight crystalline structure. When the metal is cooled again, the
annealed structure resembles that of the original casting but in more uniform form.
Grains size can be controlled in annealing by adjustment of the time and temperature
of annealing and rate of cooling.
DRAWING
After the ingot has been reduced to a fairly small diameter by rolling, it is
reduced to its final size by drawing. This a more precise process in which the wire is
pulled through a small hole in a die. This hole is slightly smaller than the original
diameter of the wire so that the walls of the die squeeze the wire uniformly from all
sides, as it passes through. This reduces the wire to the diameter of the die. Drawing
the wire subjects the entire surface of the wire to the same pressure instead of
squeezing from only two sides as in rolling.
Drawing is much precise process than rolling, but the effect on grain structure
is much the same. Before it is reduced to orthodontic wire/size, the wire must be
drawn through many series of dies and annealed several times along the way to
relieve work hardening.
These intermediate annealing is very important for strength and especially to
resistance to breakage. The purpose of heating and cooling a large coil of wire so that
all parts are treated alike is not as easy as it may seem. It must be done slowly to
prevent the outer coils from being heated more than those on the inside and
temperature must be carefully controlled.
31
Manufacturing
Even with the most careful procedures, situations can arise in which one side
of the coil or the inner or outer part will be affected differently. Variations such as
these can create many problems in sampling for quality control.
The actual no of drafts through the dies as well as frequency of annealing
depends on the alloy being drawn. Gold is extremely ductile and can be reduced
considerably with each draft. Ordinary carbon steel requires many more steps than
gold and stainless steel requires many more than carbon steel. Gold work hardness
slowly, so that it also needs less frequent annealing than the more rapidly work
hardening steel.
Hardness and spring properties of orthodontic wires depend almost entirely on
the effect of work hardening during manufacture. This means that the entire drawing
and annealing schedule must be carefully planned with the final size in mind. If the
metal is almost in need of another annealing at its final size, it will have maximum
work hardening and spring properties. If drawing is not carried out for enough time
after the last annealing, there will be too much residual softness.
Wires can be reduced through much of the range of orthodontic size without
an intermediate annealing. When wire is annealed in processing at one size and
different parts of the batch are then drawn to different final sizes, the smaller of these
wires will be subjected to more hardening. This effect is usually rather small and
because of different drawing schedules that are used, it is not consistent. Differences
in these cases make the smaller wire proportionally harder, which is desirable as long
as brittleness does not become excessive.
32
Manufacturing
RECTANGULAR WIRES
Rectangular wire can be made by drawing the materials through a rectangular
die or by rolling round wires to a rectangular shape. There appears to be no significant
difference in the wires formed by the two processes but is difficult to evaluate. Round
wires made by drawing, vary as much in physical properties as most of rectangular
wires. Therefore it would be unrealistic to attribute specific differences to rolling and
drawing process.
Drawing can however produce a sharper corner on a rectangular wire and this
can be an advantage in the application of torque.
33
Ideal Orthodontic Alloy
7
The ideal orthodontic wire for an active member is one that gives a high
maximal elastic load and low load deflection rate. The mechanical properties that
determine these characteristics are elastic limit and modules of elasticity. The ratio
between the elastic limit and modules of elasticity (EL/E) determines the desirability
of the alloy. The higher the ratio, the better will be the spring properties of wire. The
orthodontist should look for alloys that have high EL,s and low E,s . For an alloy to be
superior in spring properties, it must possess a significantly higher ratio.12
By contrast, in the reactive member of an appliance not only is a sufficiently
high elastic limit required but a high modulus of elasticity is also desirable. Since it is
common practice to use the same size of slot or tube opening throughout the
treatment, it is possible to use different alloys combined in the same appliance so that
the needs of both the active and reactive members can be served.
34
Four other properties of wire should be mentioned in evaluating an

orthodontic wire.
1)
The alloy must have a reasonable resistance to corrosion caused by the fluids
of the mouth.
2)
It should have sufficient ductility so that it will not fracture under accidental
loading in the mouth or during fabrication of an appliance.
3)
It is desirable to have a wire that can be fabricated in a soft state and later heat
treated to a hard temper.
4)
A desirable alloy is one to which attachments can easily be soldered.

A thorough knowledge of the mechanical and physical properties of an alloy is
important in the design of an orthodontic appliance.
WIRE CROSS SECTION TYPE

(ROUND, FLAT, SQUARE, RECTANGULAR)
A most critical factor in the design of an orthodontic appliance/wire is the

crosssection of the wire to be used. Small changes in cross-section can dramatically
influence both the maximal elastic load and the load deflection rate. The maximal
elastic load varies directly as the third power of the diameter of round wire, and the
load deflection rate varies directly as the fourth power of the diameter. It may seem
that the most obvious method of reducing the load deflection rate of an active member
is to cut down the size of the wire. The problem in reducing the size of cross-section
is that the maximal elastic load is also reduced at an high rate (d3). In the design of the
active member it is good policy to use as small as cross section as possible consistent
35
with a safety factor, so that undue permanent deformation will not occur. Beyond this,
any attempt to reduce the size of cross- section to improve spring properties may well
lead to undesirable permanent deformation.
The fact that the load deflection rate varies as the fourth power of the diameter
in round wire suggest the critical nature of selection of proper cross-section. A piece
of 0.018 wire is not interchangeable with 0.020 wire, for with a similar activation,
the 0.20 wire will deliver almost twice as much force. In the selection of proper
cross-section for the rigid reactive members of an appliance, load deflection rate
rather than maximal elastic load is the prime consideration. Under normal
circumstances it is necessary to select a large enough wire cross- section, beyond the
needed maximal elastic load to have sufficient rigidity, so that a sufficiently high load
deflection rate exists.
Factors influencing load deflection
LOAD
DEFILATION RATE
MAXIMUM
INCREASE
MAXIMUM
DEFLECTION
Activation of wire
without changing length
decreased
No change
Increase
Activation in direction of
original bending
Increase
Increase
Alteration of cross
section to rectangular
form
If rate is maintained
as constant
Increase as 1/h
Increase as 1/h
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF
WIRE
MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY
PROPORTIONAL
LIMIT
SP/E
Cross section(round)
1/d
Cross section(rectangle)
1/h
1/L
1/L
DESIGN FACTOR
Length/cantilever
36
A):
Optimal Cross section for flexible member

Generally for multi directional activations in which the structural axis is bent
in more than one plane, a circular cross-section is the choice. The mechanical
properties of the round wire and cross-section tolerances are far superior to those of
other cross-sections. One of the problems of round wire is that, unless it is properly
oriented, activations may not rotate in the intended plane. Moreover, round wire may
rotate in the bracket and if certain loops are incorporated in wire, these can roll into
either the gingival or the check.
In cases of unidirectional activations, flat wire is the cross-section of choice as
more energy can be absorbed into a spring made of flat wire than of any other crosssection. Flat or ribbon wire can deliver lower load-deflection rates without permanent
deformation than can any other type of cross-section. Another advantage of flat wire
is that the problems of orientation of the wire can be more simply solved than with a
round cross-section.
Flat wire can be definitely anchored into a tube or a bracket so that it will not
spin during the deactivation of given spring. Flat wire can also be used in certain
situations when considerable tooth movement is required in one plane, while limited
tooth movement in other plane.
B):
Optimal Cross section for reactive member

With respect to reactive member, a square or rectangular wire would appear
superior to a round one because of the ease of orientation and greater multi directional
rigidity. This leads to more definite control of anchorage units also.
37
SELECTION OF PROPER WIRE

(CROSS SECTION SIZE & ALLOY USED)
The selection of proper wire is based primarily on the load deflection rate
required in the appliance. Secondarily, it is dependent on the magnitude of the forces
& moments required. Sometimes 2 other factors can be used in selecting wire cross
section size.
1)
It may be believed that increasingly heavier wires are needed in a replacement

technique to eliminate the play in a first order direction between wire and the
bracket. In an edgewise appliance, the ligature wire minimizes a great amount
of play in a first order direction, since it can fully seat in the brackets.
Therefore the clinician does not select a 0.18 wire over 0.016 wire primarily
because of the difference in play.
2)
A wire may also be selected because it is believed that the smaller the wire the
greater will be the amount of maximum elastic deflection possible; in other
words the smaller the wire the greater it will get deflected without permanent
deformations, but maximum elastic deflection varies inversely with the
diameter of wire.
The major reason why the orthodontist should select a particular wire size is
the stiffness of the wire or its load deflection rate. In a replacement technique, for
instance, the orthodontist might begin with a 0.014 wire that deflected over 2 mm
would give the desired force. After the tooth had moved 1 mm, the wire could be
replaced with a 0.018 which would give almost the same force with 1 mm of
activation.
38
Small differences in cross-section produces large changes in load deflection

rates, since in round wires load deflection rate varies as the fourth power of diameter.
Clinicians are interested in the relative stiffness of the wire that they use, but they
have neither the time nor the inclination to use engineering formulas to determine
their stiffness.
Therefore a simple numbering stuff has been developed, based on engineering
theory that gives the relative stiffness of wires of different cross-sections if the
material composition of wire is the same.
The cross-sectional stiffness no (Cs) uses .1 mm (0.004) round wire as a base
of a 0.006 wire has a Cs of 5, which means that for the same activation five times as
much form is delivered. Manufacturing variations in wires or mislabeling of wires
obviously can significantly alter the actual Cs number.
CROSS SECTIONAL STIFFNESS NUMBER OF ROUND WIRE

Cross section
Cs
(m)
(mm)
0.004
0.102
1.00
0.010
0.254
39.06
0.014
0.356
150.06
0.016
0.406
256.00
0.018
0.457
410.06
0.020
0.508
625.00
0.022
0.559
915.06
0.030
0.762
3164.06
0.036
0.994
6561.00
39
CROSS SECTIONAL STIFFNESS NUMBER OF RECTANGULAR

AND SQUARE WIRE
Cross section
Shape
RECTANGULAR
RECTANGULAR
RECTANGULAR
RECTANGULAR
RECTANGULAR
Shape
SQUARE
SQUARE
SQUARE
CS
mm
0.010 X 0.020
0.254X0.508
0.016X0.022
0.406X0.550
0.018X0.025
0.457X0.035
0.021X0.025
0.535X0.035
0.0215X0.028
0.546X0.711
Cross section
M
mm
0.016X0.016
0.406X0.406
0.018X0.018
0.457X0.457
0.021X0.021
0.531X0.531
FIRST
ORDER
130.52
1129.79
1805.10
2173.95
3129.83
SECOND
ORDER
132.63
297.57
966.87
1535.35
1845.37
CS
434
646.14
1289.69
Wires with a cross-section of 0.016has a Cs of 256, which means that for an

identical activation it will deliver 256 times as much force as a 0.004 round wire. For
purposes of comparison both the wire configuration and the alloy are identical and
only the cross-section varies.
In the past, wire cross-section has been varied to produce different stiff nesses.
The overall stiffness of an appliance (S) is determined by two factors; one relates to
the wire itself (Ws), and one is the design of an appliance (As):
S = Ws x As
Where
S = Appliance load deflection rate

Ws = The wire stiffness
As = Design stiffness factor
In general terms,
Appliance stiffness = Wire stiffness x Design stiffness
40
As the appliance design is changed by increasing wire between the brackets or

adding loops, the stiffness can be reduced as the design stiffness factor changes.
However, the orthodontist is not concerned only with ways by which wire stiffness
can be altered. Wire stiffness is determined by two factors- the cross-section and
material of the wires.
Ws = Ms x Cs
Where
Ws is wire stiffness number
Ms is material stiffness number
Cs is cross sectional stiffness number.
In general terms
Wire stiffness = Material stiffness x Cross sectional stiffness
Previously, since most orthodontists used only stainless steel with identical
modulus of elasticity, only the size of the wire was varied and no concern was given
to the material property, which determines wire stiffness.
With the availability of new materials, it is now possible to maintain the same
cross-section of wire but use different materials with different stiff nesses to produce
a wide range of forces and load deflection rates required for comprehensive
orthodontics.
A numbering system can be used to compare relative stiff nesses based on the
material. The material stiffness number (Ms) is based on the modulus of elasticity of
the material.
41
Since, steel is currently the most commonly used alloy in orthodontics, its Ms
Number has been arbitrarily set at 1. Typical stiffness numbers for other alloys are
given in table. Although the modulus of elasticity is considered a constant, the history
of the wire (drawing process) may have some influence on the modulus. For practical
clinical purposes, however, the material stiffness number (Ms) can be used to
determine the relative amount of force that a wire will give per unit activation.
In addition to new alloys, braided wires have been used in orthodontics. Braids
take advantage of smaller cross-sections, which have higher maximum elastic
deflections, and in process produce wires that have relatively low stiffness. The
material stiffness numbers of representative braided wires is given in table.
MATERIAL STIFFNESS NUMBER OF ORTHODONTIC ALLOYS &

BRADED STEEL
MS
ALLOYS
S.S
1.00
TMA
0.42
Nitinol
0.26
Elgiloy blue
1.19
Elgiloy blue(Heat treated)
1.22
Braids
Twist-hex
0.18-0.20
Force -9
0.14-0.16
D-rect
0.04-0.08
Respond
0.07-0.08
The load deflection rate can be changed by maintaining wire size and varying
the load deflection rate as significantly as by altering the cross-section. Using the
principle of variable cross-section orthodontics, the amount of play between the
42
attachments and the wire can be varied, depending on the stiffness required. With
small low-stiffness wires, excessive play may lead to lack of control over tooth
movement.
On the other hand if the principle of variable modulus orthodontics is
employed, the clinician determines the amount of play required before selecting the
wire. In some instances more play is needed to allow freedom of movements of
brackets along the arch wire. In other situations little play is required to allow good
orientation and effective third-order movements. Once the desired amount of play has
been established, the stiffness of wire can be produced by using a material with a
proper material stiffness. In this way the play between the wire and the attachment is
not dictated by the stiffness required but is under the full control of the operator.
The variable modulus principle allows the orthodontist to use oriented
rectangular wires or square wires in light force, as well as heavy force applications
and stabilizations. A rectangular wire orients in the bracket and hence offers greater
control in delivering the desired force system. More important, when placed in the
brackets, the wire will not turn or twist to allow the forces to be dissipated in
improper directions.
WIRE LENGTH
The length of a member may influence the maximum elastic load and the load
deflection in a number of ways depending upon the configuration and loading of the
spring. The cantilever has been chosen to demonstrate the effect of length, since the
cantilever principle is widely used in orthodontic mechanisms.
43
The figure shows a cantilever attached at B with vertical force applied at A.

The distance L represents the length of the cantilever measured parallel to its
structural axis.
In this type of loading the load deflection rate will very inversely as the third
power of the length; in other words, the longer the cantilever the lower the load
deflection rate. The maximal elastic load varies inversely as the length of the
cantilever. Once again, the longer the cantilever the lower the maximal elastic load.
Increasing the length of cantilever is a better way to reduce the load deflection
rate than is reducing the cross-section. Increasing the length of the cantilever
markedly reduces the load deflection rate; yet the maximal elastic load is not radically
altered, since it varies linearly with the length. Adding length within the practical
confines of the oral cavity is an excellent way of improving spring properties.
Increasing the length of a wire with vertical loops is one of the more effective means
of reducing load deflection rates for flexible members and at the same time, only
minimally altering their maximal elastic loads. However there are limitations in how
much the length can be increased. The distance between brackets in a continuous arch
is predetermined by tooth and bracket width. Vertical segments in the wire are limited
by occlusion and the extension of the muco-buccal fold.
44
AMOUNT OF WIRE
Additional length of wire may be incorporated in the form of loops and helices
or some other configuration. This tends to lower the load deflection rate and increases
the range of action of the flexible member. The maximal elastic load may or may not
be affected.
When a member is designed that incorporates additional wire, it is necessary
to locate properly the parts of the configuration where additional wire should be
placed and to determine the form that the additional wire should take.
If location and formation are properly done, it should be possible to lower the
load deflection rate without altering the maximal elastic load merely by adding the
least amount of wire that will achieve these ends.
The optimal place for additional wire is at cross-sections where bending
moment is largest. In the case of cantilever the position for additional wire would be at
the point of support, since here the bending moment is the greatest, almost 1000 gm.
Helical coils can be used to reduce the load deflection rate. The figure
illustrates the proper positioning of helical coil for this purpose. The load deflection
rate is maximally lowered for the given amount of wire used if the helix is placed at
the point of support rather than anywhere else along the length of wire.
45
The placement of additional coils at the point of support in a cantilever does

not alter the maximal elastic load.
A straight wire of a given length and a wire with numerous coils at the point of
support have identical maximal elastic loads, provided they have the same lengths
measured from the force to the point of support.
This should not be surprising since the maximal elastic load is a function of
this length of the configuration rather than the amount of wire incorporated in it. It is
also true for many other configurations: load deflection rate can be lowered without
altering the maximal elastic load if additional wire is properly incorporated. From the
point of view of design, this is important because for the first time, method of
lowering the load deflections rate without subsequently reducing the maximal elastic
load has been discussed.
To achieve this objective with the minimal amount of wire, the optimal
placement of additional wire is at cross-sections where the bending moment is the
greatest. A practical way of deciding where these parts of a wire might be, is to
activate a configuration and see where most of the bending or torsion occurs. These
are the sections where the bending moments or torsion moments are the greatest: the
cross-sections of wire that have the greatest stress.In short it is not the amount of wire
used that is important in achieving a desirably flexible member, but rather it is the
placement of additional wire and its form.
Although additional wire is quite helpful in the design of flexible members of
an orthodontic appliance, it should be avoided in the reactive or rigid members. Loops
46
and other types of configurations decrease the rigidity of wire and hence may be
responsible for some loss of control over the anchor units.
STRESS RAISERS
From a theoretical point of view, the force or stress required to permanently
deform a given wire can be calculated; however, in many instances the wire will
deform at values much lower than predicted ones because the presence of certain local
stress raisers increases the stress values in a wire far beyond what might be
predictable by commonly used engineering formulas.
Two common stress raisers are sudden changes in cross-sections and sharp
bends.
A:
Any nick in a wire will tend to raise the stress at that cross-section and hence
may be responsible for permanent deformation or fracture at this point. It is
therefore desirable to mark wires by other means than a file, particularly the
wires of smaller cross-sections used in the flexible member of an appliance.
B:
A sharp bend in a wire also may result in higher stress than those might be
predicted for a given cross-section of wire. A sudden sharp bend will far more
easily deform than a more rounded or gradual bend. Unfortunately, with a
continuous arch wire, the orthodontist is somewhat limited in space between
brackets and many times is required to make sharp bends because of this
limitation. Flexible member should be designed with gradual bends so that
they will be more free from permanent deformations than comparable ones
with sharp or sudden bends.
47
For example, three vertical loops might be compared: a squashed one, a plain
one and one with a helical coil. In terms of permanent deformation, the poorest design
would be loop A, which because of its squashed state has a very sharp bend at its
apex. The plain vertical loop B would be slightly superior, since the bending is more
gradual. Nevertheless a fairly sharp bend occurs at its apex.
The configuration with the most gradual bending is the loop with a helical coil
C. Not only would the helical coil enhance the flexible properties of the spring
because of its additional wire, but the each of gradual bend would further increase its
range of action without permanent deformation.
There are certain sections along a wire where stresses are maximal.
These may be called as critical sections. It has already been seen that in
sections where the bending moments are the largest, areas of high stress exist. These
critical sections are important from the point of view of design, for it is here that
permanent deformation is most likely to occur.
A number of precautions should be observed at critical sections. First stress
raisers should be avoided in these sections at all costs. A nick in a wire, for instance,
might not be so disastrous where the stresses are low, but might will lead to
48
deformation or fracture where the stress level is high. Second, the elastic limit of the
wire should be carefully watched at a critical section, lowering the elastic limit at
another place in the wire where the stresses are low, might not be too undesirable but
could be responsible for failure at a critical section.
Therefore in high stress areas it is desirable to use other means of attaching an
auxiliary than soldering or if soldering is to be used as a method of attachment, it
should be done with considerable care.
There are three rules to be kept in mind as far as designs of critical sections.
1)
All stress raisers should be eliminated as completely as possible.
2)
A large cross-section can be used to strengthen this part of the appliance.
3)
The appliance may be so designed that it will elastically rather than

permanently deform under normal loading.
DIRECTION OF LOADING
Not only is the manner of loading important, but the direction in which a
member is loaded can markedly influence its elastic properties. If a straight piece of
wire is bent so that permanent deformation occurs and an attempt is made to increase
the magnitude of the bend, bending in the same direction as had originally been done,
the wire is more resistant to permanent deformation than if an attempt had been made
to bend in the opposite direction. The wire is more resistant to permanent deformation
because certain residual stresses remain in it after the placement of the first bend. If a
bend is made in an orthodontic appliance, the maximal elastic load will not be the
same in all directions. It will be greatest in the direction that is identical to original
49
direction of bending or twisting. The phenomenon responsible for this difference is

referred to as BAUSCHINGER EFFECT.
The figure demonstrates a vertical loop with the coil at the apex and a number
of turns in the coil under different directions of loading. The loading in A tends to
wind the coil, increasing the no of turns in the helix and shortening the length. The
type of loading seen in B tends to unwind the helix, reducing the no of coils and
lengthening the spring. The loading in A tends to activate the spring in the same
direction as it was originally wound and hence is the correct method of activation.
ACTIVATION OF HELICAL COIL

A- CORRECT
B-INCORRECT
PLACING A REVERSE CURVE OF SPEE
50
The same principles can be applied to less complicated configurations such as

in a continuous arch wire. The operator should be sure that the last bend made in an
arch wire is in the same direction as the bending produced during its activation. For
example, if a reverse curve of spee is to be placed in an arch wire, the curve should be
first over bent and than partly removed. Only then will the activation of the arch wire
be in the same direction as the last bend.
FATIGUE OF METALS
Fatigue is the result of repeated stresses at a level, below that which would
normally cause failure. These stresses, usually in the low plastic deformation range,
gradually bring about additional work hardening until the metal finally fails in a
brittle fracture.
Below a certain stress level, a material can be subjected to repeated stresses
without fracture. But fatigue of metal is hastened tremendously by flaws of any kind,
even minute scratch. If there is a defect in the material, such as a scratch or an internal
flaw, the metal remaining around the defect will have to carry an added load and may
lead to failure.
PREVENTION OF FATIGUE FAILURE

Broken wire can add time to treatment. So, it is important that all possible
preventive measures be taken. Care should be taken in wire selection, even though
most suppliers offer wires in which every effort has been made to keep breakage low.
Metals that work hardens rapidly may fatigue more easily. Hard wires are
more brittle than soft wires of the same materials. Hardness level should be selected
51
on the basis of individual demands. Experience with specific materials is often the
only criteria in this regard.
During arch designing careful handling should be done. A wire should never
be marked or notched with a file or other sharp instrument. Smooth beaked pliers
should be used to avoid unnecessary damage to the surface, and pliers should be
selected and manipulated so as to avoid marking the wire with the sharp edge of the
beaks.
Smaller diameter wire have a broader working range and may not be so easily
stressed to the proportional limit, as a larger stiffer and seemingly stronger wire. For
this reason change to smaller diameter wire may be the only answer in some cases of
recurrent breakage.
Repeated bending at the same spot should be avoided. All adjustments should
be made away from high stress areas and previous bends at soldered joints should be
avoided, as wire adjacent to solder joints may be subjected to intergranular corrosion
initiated by heat soldering. This can be minimized by careful soldering but additional
protection will be provided by careful cleaning and electro polishing after the
procedure. Good surface finish eliminates many of the small stress raiser that can
initiate the process of failure.
52
Gold Wires
8
Gold Wires
Pure Gold is the noblest of all dental metals, rarely tarnishing and corroding in
the oral cavity. It is inactive chemically, and it is not affected by air, heat, moisture
and most solvents. It is the most ductile of all metals, as demonstrated by its ability
for a 1oz cylinder to be drawn into a wire 100 km long in length. It is the most
malleable of all metals, as shown by its ability to be hammered to a thickness of
0.00013 mm, about one third of thinnest gold foil used in dentistry.34,39
Pure gold is extremely soft, but after cold working, its hardness
( 52 to 75
Vickers hardness no [VHH]) is equivalent to and may exceed that of conventional

Type I gold alloy (50 VHN) in its softened state, and after work hardening, its
hardness approaches that of Type II Gold alloy (90 VHN).
Although its ductility decreases after cold working, wire is the principal form
in which wrought gold dental alloy is used. Before 1950,s Gold and other precious
53
Gold Wires
metal alloys were used routinely for orthodontic purpose because nothing else was
able to tolerate oral conditions.
COMPOSITION
There are two types of Gold wires recognized in American Dental Association
(ADA) specification no 7, year 1984.
Type I: They must contain at least 75% gold and platinum group metals.
Type II: They must contain at least 65% gold and platinum group metals.
In addition to Type I and II Gold wires used in orthodontics before 1950,s two
other types of wires were also used with high content of Gold in at least one of them.
Palladium-Gold-Platinum (P-G-P)
Because of their high fusion temperature and therefore high crystallization
temperature, they are especially useful as wires to be cast against and meet the
composition requirements for an ADA type I wire.
Palladium-Silver-Copper (P-S-C)
These wires are neither Type I nor Type II gold wires, but their mechanical
properties would meet the requirements for an ADA Type I or Type II alloy. The
corrosion resistance of palladium-silver dental alloy, both in cast and wrought forms,
is generally satisfactory.
The basic composition of alloys consists of Gold, platinum, palladium, silver,
copper, nickel and zinc. [Detail in Table]
54
Gold Wires
WIRE
TYPE
GOLD
PLATINUM
PALLIDUM
SILVER
COPPER
NICKEL
ZINC
ADA-I
54-66
7-18
0-8
9-12
10-15
0-2
0-0.6
ADA-II
60-67
0-7
0-10
8-21
10-20
0-6
0-1.7
P-G-P
25-30
40-50
25-30
16-17
P-S-C
0-1
42-44
38-41
16-18
GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE CONSTITUENTS

1)
Gold: Provides Malleability and Ductility.
2)
Platinum: It is used to convey greater strength and toughness to assist in

obtaining controllable hardness in the finished wire and contributes
substantially to the resistance of the alloy to tarnish and corrosion by oral
fluids.
3)
Palladium: It is the most effective element known for raising, without

widening the melting range of gold alloys. The increased palladium and
platinum content ensures that the wire does not melt or recrystallize during
soldering process. Also these two metals ensure a fine grain structure.
4)
Copper: Copper contributes to the ability of the alloy to age harden. When
Copper is present, silver may be added to balance the colour.
5)
Nickel: Nickel is sometimes included in small amounts as a strengthener of the

alloy, although it tends to reduce the ductility. The presence of large quantity
of nickel tends to decrease the tarnish resistance and change its response to
age hardening.
6)
Zinc: Zinc acts as a scavenger agent to obtain oxide free ingots, from which
the wires are drawn.
55
Gold Wires
FUSION TEMPERATURE
The minimum fusion temperature of an alloy is usually taken as a temperature
halfway between the liquidus and solidus temperature. Fusion temperature of wrought
wires must be known to ensure that the wires do not melt or lose their wrought
structure during normal soldering procedures.
According to ADA specification no 7, for a type I wire, this temperature is
9550 C (17510 F) or higher, for the type II wire the minimum fusion temperature
should be 8710 C (16000 F).
MECHANICHAL PROPERTIES
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Elongation
Fusion Temperature
TYPE
MPa
1000psi
MPa
1000PSI
ADA
TYPE I
582
125
991
117
13
995
1750
ADA
TYPE II
690
100
862
125
15
971
1400
Strength
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Elongation
Fusion Temperature
P-G-P
5921034
80-150
4621241
125-180
11-15
1300-1530
27307750
P-B-C
640-793
100-115
9651170
140-155
16-24
8-15
1050-1080
17101970
A wire of a given composition is generally superior in mechanical properties

to a casting of same composition. The casting contains unavoidable porosity which
has a weakening effect. When the cast ingot is drawn into a wire, the small pores and
surface projections may be collapsed, and welding may occur so that such defects
disappear. Any defects of this type that are not eliminated will weaken the wire.
56
Gold Wires
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ARE LISTED IN TABLE

The modulus of elasticity of wrought gold wires is in the range of 97,000 to
117,000 Mpa (14,000,000 to 17,000,000 Psi) which is slightly higher than that for
gold casting alloys. It increases by approximately 5% after a hardening heat treatment.
HEAT TREATEMENT OF GOLD ALLOY

All gold alloy wires that contain copper are heat treatable as the Gold casting
alloys. Type I and II alloys usually do not harden, or they harden to a lesser degree
than do the type III and IV alloys.
The actual mechanism of hardening is probably the result of several different
solid state transformations. Although the precise mechanism may be in doubt, the
criteria for successful hardening are time and temperature.
Alloys that can be hardened, can of course, also be softened. In metallurgic
terminology the softening heat treatment is referred to as solution heat treatment. The
hardening heat treatment is termed as age hardening
SOFTENING HEAT TREATMENT

Gold alloy is placed in an electric furnance for 10 min at a temperature of 7000
C or 12920 F. This is called as annealing. Then it is quenched in water. During this
period all intermediate phases are presumably changed to a disordered solid solution,
and the rapid quenching prevents ordering from occurring during cooling.
57
Gold Wires
The tensile strength, proportional limit and hardness are reduced by such a
treatment but the ductility is increased.
The softening heat treatment is indicated for structures that are to be ground,
shaped, or otherwise cold worked, either in or out of the mouth. Although 7000 C is
an adequate average softening temperature, each alloy has its optimum temperature
and manufacturer should specify the most favorable temperature and time.
HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT

The age hardening or hardening heat treatment of dental alloys can be
accomplished in several ways. One of the must practical hardening treatments in by
soaking or ageing the alloy at a specific temperature for definite time, usually 15-30
minutes, before it is water quenched. The ageing temperature depends upon the alloy
composition but is generally between 2000 C (4000 F) to 4500 C (8400 F). The proper
time and temperature are specified by the manufacture.
Ideally, before the alloy is given an age-hardening treatment, it should be
subjected to a softening heat treatment to relieve all strain hardening, if it is present,
and to start the hardening treatment with the alloy as a disordered solid solution.
Otherwise, there would not be a proper control on the hardening process, because the
increase in strength, proportional limit, hardness, and the reduction in ductility are
controlled by the amount of solid-state transformations. The transformations in turn,
are controlled by the temperature and time of age-hardening treatment.
COLD WORKING OR WORK HARDENING
58
Gold Wires
Cold working is also the usual method of hardening gold alloy. Much more
cold working is required for Gold alloys than Steel to harden it. This is to adjust the
drawing and annealing schedule to compensate. Cold working is defined as deforming
a metal at temperature that are low compared with its melting temperatures i.e. any
plastic deformation of metal by hammering, drawing, cold forging, cold rolling or
bending. Gold alloy work hardens much more slowly and to lesser degree than Steel.
To the manufacturer, this low work hardening means that drawing is much easier,
with fewer intermediate anneals required to orthodontist. it means that these metals
are less brittle and will need much more manipulation before they have hardened
excessively.
Some special alloys such as those that are high in platinum, can be harden
materially by temperature manipulation, usually by heating to about 8000 F to 10000 F
and cooling slowly. The slow cooling permits optimum grain growth for the
production of a hard material.
59
Gold Wires
MICROSTUCTURE
The micro-structural appearance of cold-worked on wrought alloys is fibrous
with extremely elongated crystals. It results from the deformation of the grains during
the drawing operation to form the wire. Such a structure generally exhibits enhanced
mechanical properties as compared with corresponding cast structure. There is a
tendency for wrought alloys to recrystallize during heating operations. The extent of
crystallization is related directly to the duration of heating, the temperature employed,
and the cold work or strain energy imparted to the alloy when the wire was drawn.
Recrystallization is inversely related to the fusion temperature of the wire when
heating temperature and time are constant.
Because there is concomitant decrease in the mechanical properties of alloys
as recrystallization increases, so sufficient platinum and palladium should be present
to increase the fusion temperature of the wrought gold alloy wire. Therefore of all
those wires, the P-G-P wires are the most resistant to recrystallization.
Now a days the use of Gold alloys is markedly reduced because it is too soft to
use as an orthodontic appliance, its high cost, recent advances in the wire materials,
mechanical properties of the same and due to their low yield strength.
60
Stainless Steel Arch Wires
9
CARBON STEELS
Stainless steel is the most widely used and accepted material in orthodontics.
It is the major alloy system used in orthodontics. In the mid century stainless steel was
applied to dentistry and orthodontics. Although it was around 1920, that HARRY
BREALY OF SHEFFIELD, F.M.BECKET OF U.S.A. and BENNO STRAUSS
EDWARD MAURS of Germany shared the honor for the development of materials.
61
The metallurgy and terminology of these alloys are intimately connected to

those of the simpler binary iron - carbon alloy system and to carbon steel alloys.
Therefore this discussion begins with a brief outline of the metallurgy of the ironcarbon system.10,26,34,39
Steels are iron based alloys that usually contain less than 1.2% carbon. The
different classes of steel are based on three possible lattice arrangements of iron. Pure
iron at room temperature has a Body Centered Cubic (BCC) structure and is referred
to as FERRITE. This phase is stable at temperatures as high as 9120 C. The spaces
between atoms in the BCC structure are small and oblate; hence, carbon has a very
low solubility in ferrite (maximum of 0.02 Wt %).
At temperatures between 9120 C and 13940 C, the stable form of iron is a Face
Centered Cubic structure (FCC) called AUSTENITE. The interstices in the FCC
lattice are larger than those in the BCC structure. However, the size of the carbon
atom limits the maximum carbon solubility to 2.1 Wt%.
When AUSTENITE is cooled slowly from high temperatures, the excess
carbon that is not soluble in ferrite, forms iron carbide (Fe3C). This hard, brittle phase
adds strength to the relatively soft and ductile ferritic and austenitic forms of iron.
However, this transformation requires diffusion and a definite period of time. If the
AUSTENITE is cooled rapidly (Quenched), it will undergo a spontaneous, diffusion
less transformation to a Body-Centered Tetragonal (BCT) structure called
MARTENSITE. This lattice is highly distorted and strained, resulting in an extremely
hard, strong, brittle alloy.
62
The formation of martensite is an important strengthening mechanism for

carbon steels. The cutting edges of carbon steel instruments are ordinarily martensitic,
because the extreme hardness allows for grinding a sharp edge that is retained in use.
Martensite decomposes to form ferrite and carbide. This process can be accelerated by
appropriate heat treatment to reduce the hardness, but this is counter balanced by an
increase in toughness. Such a heat treatment process is called as tempering.
STAINLESS STEELS / CHROMIUM CONTAINING STEELS
When 12 to 30% chromium is added to steel, the alloy is commonly called
stainless steel. Elements other than iron, carbon and chromium may also be present,
resulting in a wide variation in composition and properties of stainless steels.
These steels resist tarnish and corrosion primarily because of the passivating
effect of the chromium. For passivation to occur, a thin, transparent but tough and
impervious oxide layer of Cr2O3 forms on the surface of the alloy when it is subjected
to an oxidizing atmosphere such as room temperature. This protective oxide layer
prevents further tarnish and corrosion. If the oxide layer is ruptured by mechanical or
chemical means, a temporary loss of protection against corrosion will occur. However,
the passivating oxide layer, eventually forms again in an oxidizing environment.
There are essentially three types of stainless steels, evolving from the possible
lattice arrangement of iron previously described.
TYPE
(SPACE LATTICE)
CHROMIUM
NICKEL
CARBON
Ferratic(BCC)
11.5-27
0.20 max
Austantic(FCC)
16.0-26
7-22
0.25 max
Martenstic(BCT)
11.5-17
0-2.5
0.15-1.20
63
1.
FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

These alloys are often designated as American Iron and Steel institute (AISI)
series 400 stainless steels. This series no is shared with the martensitic alloys. The
ferritic alloys provide good corrosion resistance at a low cost, provided that high
strength is not required.
Because temperature change induces no phase change in the solid state, the
alloy is not hardenable by heat treatment. Also, ferritic stainless steel is not readily
work hardenable. This series of alloys finds little application in dentistry.
2.
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

As noted in above paragraph, martensitic stainless steel alloys share the AISI
400 designation with the ferritic alloys. They can be heat treated in the same manner
as plain carbon steels, with similar results. Because of their strength and hardness,
martensitic stainless steels are used for surgical and cutting instruments.
Corrosion resistance of martensitic stainless steel is less than that of the other
types and is reduced further following a hardening heat treatment. As usual, when the
strength and hardness increases, ductility decreases. It may decrease to as low as 2%
elongation for a high carbon martensitic stainless steel.
3.
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

The austenitic stainless steel alloys are the most corrosion resistant of the
stainless steels. AISI 302 is the basic type with composition:

Chromium ....... 18%
Nickel ................ 8%
Carbon ........... .15%
64
Type 304 stainless steel has a similar composition, but the chief difference is
its reduced carbon content (0.08%).
Both 302 and 304 stainless steel may be designated as 18-8 stainless steel. They
are the types most commonly used by the orthodontist in the form of bands and wires.
Generally austenitic stainless steel is preferable to ferritic stainless steel
because of the following characteristics:
Greater ductility and ability to undergo cold work without fracturing.
Substantial strengthening during cold working.
Greater ease of welding.
Ability to fairly and readily overcome sensitization.
Less critical grain growth.
Comparative ease in forming.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The property of readily strain hardened is a characteristic of austenitic
stainless steel. Part of this increase in hardness is ordinary strain hardening. But a
considerable amount is the result of phase change from a face centered to a body
centered lattice. This phase change can be readily demonstrated, since the body
centered lattice are ferromagnetic at room temperature, austenitic is non magnetic. It
is unfortunate that after strain hardening, a stainless steel wire can become fully
annealed in few seconds at a temperature of 7000 C to 8000 C. After such an
annealing, it has lost much of the range of elasticity or working range, so necessary to
a satisfactory orthodontic appliance. Because the annealing temperature involved in
65
the soldering and welding temperature ranges, normally employee an unavoidable

softening of the wire during normal heating, it is a decided disadvantage.
TYPE
(SPACE LATTICE)
CHROMIUM
NICKEL
CARBON
Ferratic(BCC)
11.5-27
0.20 max
Austantic(FCC)
16.0-26
7-22
0.25 max
Martenstic(BCT)
11.5-17
0-2.5
0.15-1.20
The large modulus of elasticity of stainless steel and its associated high
stiffness necessitate the use of smaller wire for alignment of moderate and severely
displaced teeth. A reduction in wire size results in poorer fit in the bracket and may
cause loss of control during tooth movements. However, high stiffness is
advantageous in resisting deformation caused by extra oral and intra oral tractional
forces.
The yield strength to elastic modulus ratio indicates a lower spring back of
stainless steel than those of newer alloys. The stored energy of activated stainless steel
is substantially less than that of beta titanium and Nitinol wires. This implies that
stainless steel wire produces higher forces that dissipate over shorter periods than
nitinol wires, thus requiring more frequent activation or arch wire changes.
RARK and SHEARER have demonstrated the release of nickel and
chromium from stainless steel appliances.
Low levels of bracket/wire friction have been reported with experiments using
stainless steel wires. This signifies that stainless steel wire offer lower resistance to
tooth movement than other orthodontic alloys.
66
HEAT TREATMENT OF AUSTENITIC STEEL

Austenite cannot be hardened like carbon steel by quenching or similar heat
treatment. The only way by which these steels can be hardened is by cold working.
Austenite steel hardens rapidly by cold working with the usual realignment of the
crystalline structure.
Work hardening also brings about some transformation of parts of the
austenite into martensite which adds to the hardening effect.
1.
ANNEALING AUSTENITIC STEEL

Stainless steel requires a higher temperature for annealing (18000 F to 20000 F)
than does carbon steel. At this temperature all of the effects of cold working are
eliminated and the metal returns to its softest, most workable state. Orthodontic bands
and ligature wires are usually supplied fully annealed. Cooling from the annealing
temperature must be rapid, usually by quenching. This rapid cooling is not an essential
part of the annealing process, but it is important for corrosion control.
2.
STRESS RELIEF OF STAINLESS STEEL

The most important heat treatment process for orthodontic stainless steel is the
relatively low temperature process of stress relieving which is used both in

manufacturing and in orthodontists office.
Work hardening steel is hardened by the interlocking of grains and atoms are
locked in situations in which, they are under stress, even when the piece as a whole is
not stressed.
67
When a wire with such internal stresses is bend to produce a spring action,
there previously stressed areas can not do their full share.
If the applied force must be resisted by the stressed regions, a part of their
reserve of strength has already been used up by their limit of strength. If the internal
stress is in the same direction as the new load, the two actually augment each other. In
either case, action of the wire is weakened by the internal stress.
Stress relief eliminates such areas of stress within the wire and puts it into the
condition to work most effectively. As internal stresses are relieved, there may also be
some change in the shape of the wire. This is the second reason for stress relieving in
orthodontics. A wire that is bend to form an arch is full of residual stresses which tend
to return it towards its original form. This goes on gradually at ordinary temperature
causing a slow change in arch form (elastic memory). A stress relieving heat
treatment accelerates this change in shape so that the wire will be more stable. When
this treatment is applied to an arch, the form should always be checked and arch
reshaped if necessary after the heat treatment.
Stress relieving changes depend on both time and temperature, and they can be
controlled by the adjustment of either of these factors. In general, low temperature
treatment (4000 F to 7000 F) over a long period of time is most desirable. But, the arch
formed for a patient in the chair cannot be treated for hours or even for too many
minutes. Fortunately, most of the benefits of heat treatment can be produced in few
minutes or less at temperature of 8000 F. This is especially true if the wires have been
previously stress relieved in manufacturing to eliminate the stress in wire making
process.
68
The oven is the most reliable method for heat treatment because of relatively
uniform temperature.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION OF STAINLESS STEEL

Carbon is an undesirable property in austenitic stainless steel, but it is difficult
to remove it completely. The 18-8 stainless steel may lose its resistance to corrosion if
it is heated between 4000 C to 9000C, the exact temperature depending upon carbon
content. Such temperatures are definitely within the range used by the orthodontist in
brazing, soldering and welding.
The reason for decrease in corrosion resistance is the precipitation of
chromium carbide at the grain boundaries at high temperatures. The small rapidly
diffusing carbon atoms migrate to the grain boundaries from all parts of the crystal to
combine with the large, slowly diffusing chromium atoms at the periphery of the
grain, where the energy is highest, and forms chromium carbide (Cr3C).
The formation of chromium carbide is highest at 6500C. Below this
temperature the diffusion rate is less, whereas, above it, a decomposition of chromium
carbide occurs. When the chromium combines with carbon in this manner, its
passivating qualities are lost, and as a consequence, the corrosion resistance of steel is
reduced.
Because that portion of grain adjacent to grain boundary is generally depleted
to produce chromium carbide, intergranular corrosion occurs, and a partial
disintegration of the metal may result with a general weakening of the structure.
The formation of chromium carbide is called as sensitization.
69
PREVENTION OF INTERGRANULAR CORROSION

There are several methods by which this condition can be minimized. Two
most commonly used methods are:
1.
Keeping out of the sensitizing temperature range.

Speed in handling the metals in the sensitizing temperature range, as during
soldering can be very effective means of minimizing sensitization.

Stainless steel should always be quenched immediately after soldering to bring
it down to a safe temperature as soon as possible. This is also the reason for
quenching after annealing. At annealing temperature the chromium carbide is broken
up. If a metal is cooled rapidly from annealing to room temperature there is no
opportunity for chromium carbide to form.
Both low temperature and high temperature solders can be used to control
intergranular corrosion. If they are used properly with low temperature solder (silver
solder that melts below 11000 F) the objective is to heat it to soldering temperature,
solder, and then quench as quickly as possible. This is the most commonly used
procedure in soldering stainless steel.
High temperature solder (Gold solder that melts above 12000F ) also can be
used, but only if the entire piece of steel can be heated to this high temperature. The
metal is then above the sensitizing range, while it is being soldered, and thus it is
perfectly safe. Of course, it must be quenched immediately after soldering. If only
part of the steel is heated to this high soldering temperature, there will be a zone
70
outside the soldering area which is in the sensitizing temperature range. Therefore this
method is useful only for small pieces.
2.
Controlling the carbon content (stabilization)

The second method for control of intergranular corrosion is introduction of
some elements which tie up with chromium or by keeping the carbon content
exceptionally low (below .08%). Titanium is often used for this purpose.
If titanium is introduced in an amount approximately six times the carbon
content, the precipitation of chromium carbide can be inhibited for a short period at
the temperatures ordinarily encountered in soldering procedures. Stainless steel that
have been treated in this manner are said to be stabilized. Stabilized steel is less
susceptible to intergranuler corrosion but it is still not 100% safe. Proper handling by
orthodontist can modify the advantage completely.
BRAIDED, TWISTED OR MULTISTRANDED WIRES

Very small diameter stainless steel wires can be braided or twisted together by
the manufacturer to form larger wires for clinical orthodontics. In terms of
performance, the wire is delivering higher forces per unit of activation over a greater
distance and strength is also increased. The result is an inherently high elastic
modulus material with low stiffness because of its co-axial spring like nature.
The separate strands may be as small as 0.178 mm, but the final intertwined
wires may be either round or rectangular in shape, and their cross-sectional dimension
is in between .406 mm and .635 mm.
71
Because of their low apparent elastic modulus in bending, these types of

wires apply low forces for a given deflection when compared to solid stainless steel
wires.
Kusy and Dilley investigated the strength, stiffness and springback properties
of multistranded wires in a bending mode of stress. They noted that the stiffness of a
triple stranded 0.0175 (3 x 0.008) stainless steel arch wire was similar to that of
0.010 single stranded stainless steel wire. The 0.0175multi stranded wire was 25%
stronger than 0.010 stainless steel wire.
The 0.0175 multi stranded wire and 0.016 nitinol showed similar stiff
nesses. However Nitinol tolerated 50% greater activation than the multi stranded
wires. The triple stranded wire was also half as stiff as a 0.016 beta titanium wire.26
Ingram, Gipe and Smith noted that titanium alloy wires and multi stranded
stainless steel wires have low stiffness when compared with solid stainless steel wires.
72
The investigators also found that most multi stranded wires had a spring back
similar to that of nitinol, but a larger spring back when compared with solid stainless
steel or beta-titanium wires and they have spring back properties that are relatively
independent of wire size.
ADVANTAGES OF STAINLESS STEEL

Lowest cost of the wire alloys.
Proven biocompatibility from extensive clinical use
Excellent formability for fabrication into orthodontic appliances.
Can be soldered and welded, although welded joints may require solder
reinforcement.
DISADVANTAGES OF STAINLESS STEEL

High force delivery
Relatively low spring back in bending compared to beta-titanium and Nickel
titanium alloys.
Can be susceptible to intergranular corrosion after heating to temperatures
required for joining.
73
Chrome - Cobalt - Nickel Alloy Archwire
111
Chrome-Cobalt -Nickel Alloy Archwire
Cobalt Chromium Nickel Orthodontic wires are very similar in
appearance, mechanical properties and joining characteristics to stainless steel wires,
but have a much different composition and considerably greater heat treatment
response.34,39 These alloys were originally developed for use as watch springs
(ELGILOY), but their properties are also excellent for orthodontic purpose. These
wires are available in four tempers: soft, ductile, semi resilient and resilient. The
differences in mechanical properties arise from proprietary variations in the wire
manufacturing process.
The wires are furnished to orthodontist in different gauges and cross-sectional
shapes with differing physical properties. Their resistance to tarnish and corrosion in
the mouth is excellent. They can be subjected to same welding and soldering
procedures as described for stainless steel orthodontic wires.
74
COMPOSITION:
COBALT
40%
CHROMIUM
20%
NICKEL
15%
MOLYBDENUM
7%
MANGANESE
2%
CARBON
.15%
BERYLLIUM
.04%
IRON
15.8%
The soft temper wires are popular with clinicians because they are easily
deformed and shaped into appliances, then heat treated to provide substantially
increased values of yield strength and resilience. The other tempers are less popular
than the soft temper because wires made from them have lower formability and are
somewhat higher in cost than stainless steel
HEAT TREATMENT
Cobalt-Chromium-Nickel alloy may be softened by heat soaking at 11000C to
12000C, followed by a rapid quench. The age hardening temperature range is 2600C to
6500C. For the alloy Elgiloy the alloy should be held at 4820C for 5 hours.
Ordinarily, the wires are heat treated before supplied to the user and may be
ordered in several degrees of hardness. In addition, the orthodontist can heat treat the
wires by placing them in an oven or by passing an electric current through them with
certain types of spot welders. A typical cycle would be 4820C for 7 to 12 minutes.
This heat treatment would increase the yield strength and decrease the ductility.
75
Alloys
Modulus of
Elasticity
(103 MPa [GPa]
0.2% Offset
yield strength
(MPa)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
Number of 90
degree cold
bends without
fracture
S.S
179
1579
2117
Co-Cr
184
1413
1682
NiTi
41.4
427
1489
B-TITANUM
71.7
931
1276
Wires made from this alloy should not be annealed. The resulting softening
effect cannot be reversed by subsequent heat treatment. Moreover, if only a portion of
a wire is annealed, severe embrittlement of adjacent sections may occur.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Tarnish and corrosion resistance are excellent. Hardness, yield strength and
tensile strength are approximately the same as those of 18-8 stainless steel. Typical
mechanical properties of orthodontic wires are shown in table. Ductility in the
softened condition is greater than that of 18-8 stainless steel alloys and less than the
alloys in the hardened condition.
RECOVERY HEAT TREATMENT

An increase in the measured elastic properties of a wire can be affected by
heating it to comparatively low temperatures (3700C to 4800C) after it has been cold
worked. The stress relief heat treatment removes residual stresses during recovery
without pronounced alteration in mechanical properties. Such a treatment also
stabilizes the shape of the appliance.
Cobalt-Chromium-Nickel wires are more responsive than the 18-8 stainless
steel wires to the low temperature heat treatment. A reduction in ductility
76
accompanies the increase in yield strength. A phase change as well as stress relief is
probably responsible. Caution must be used to avoid excessive embrittlement.
Although the optimum temperature range for the stress relief heat treatment is
most often reported at 3700C to 4800C, there appears to be no reason to exceed the
low temperature limit of 3700C when the wire is in nonstabilized grade of austenitic
stainless steel. Eleven minutes at approximately 3700 C results in a maximum
proportional limit for a severely cold worked appliance. This temperature is also
below the lower limit (4250 C) of the sensitization temperature range.
The softest Elgiloy (Blue) cannot be heat treated to become as brittle or hard
as the high spring temper, or hardest Elgiloy (Red) wire. To use Elgiloy properly the
user must be thoroughly familiar with it. A stress relief heat treatment not only
improves the working elastic properties of a wire appliance but also can reduce failure
caused by corrosion, which may occur in areas of high localized stress.
With the exception of red temper Elgiloy, non heat treated co-cr wire have a
smaller spring back than stainless steel wires of comparable size, but this property can
be improved by adequate heat treatment. Optimum levels of heat treatment can be
confirmed by a dark straw colored wire or by use of temperature indication paste.
77
The advantage of co-cr wire over stainless steel wires includes greater
resistance to fatigue and distortion and longer function as a resilient spring. In most
other respects, the mechanical properties of co-cr wires are very similar to those of
stainless steel wires. Therefore stainless steel wires may be used instead of co-cr wires
of same size in clinical situations in which heat hardening capability and added
torsional strength of co-cr wires are not required.The high modulus of elasticity of cocr wires suggest that these wire deliver twice the force of Beta-titanium wires and four
times the force of Nitinol wires for equal amount of activation.
Co-cr wires have good formability and can be bent into many configurations
relatively easily. Caution should be exercised when soldering attachments to these
wires, since high temperature can cause annealing with resultant loss in yield and
tensile strength. Low fusing solder is recommended for this purpose.
ADVANTAGES
Relatively low cost, although greater than stainless steel
Proven biocompatibility from extensive clinical use
Outstanding formability in as-received condition.
Can be soldered and welded.
Excellent corrosion resistance in mouth.
DISADVANTAGES
High elastic force delivery
Lower spring back than stainless steel.
78
RECENT ADVANCES IN COBALT-CHROMIUM

1.
G and H WIRE COMPANY

Combining ductility and strength, colboloy, nickel-cobalt wires can be heat
treated in bend areas and easily soldered without annealing. They are highly flexible
and resistant to set, fatigue and corrosion. The wire also offers reduced bracket
friction and greater spring efficiency than typical stainless steel wires.
A true arch form is available in sizes from 0.014 to 0.018 round and 0.016
x 0.022 to 0.019 x 0.025 rectangular.
2.
MASAL ORTHODONTICS INTERNATIONAL

Heat treatable blue Masiloy chrome-cobalt arches can accept sharp bends
without breakage. Heat treatment increases the resiliency by 20%. The wires are
available in natural arch sizes of 0.016 x 0.016, 0.016 x 0.022 and 0.017 x
0.025.
79
Australian Archwires
11
In collaboration with an Australian metallurgist, Begg sought to develop a

wire material which met his paradoxical requirements. After several years of
experimentation they produced a wire which is thus enough to distribute forces at an
optimal level for tooth movement over a considerable distance for a long period of
time and with a minimal loss of force and intensity while doing so. It is also thick
enough to resist weakening and distortion due to the wear and tear exerted on
appliances within the mouth.4,38
80
In addition to variables like wire drawing and heat treatment, slight fluctuation in
the speed at which the wire is drawn through the dies affects its physical properties.
Additional variations can be caused by fluctuations in the rate at which the wire passes
the heat source, and this may combine to aggravate the variations introduced previously.
This quality control problem may result in a wire that is too soft or too brittle.
Another problem is that the wire may seem satisfactory, yet contains flaws which
cause breakage during arch fabrication.
One of the outstanding property of Australian wire is its resilience or ability to
spring back after having been deflected. This property can be checked by bending the
wire with the fingers while holding it with the pliers.
Australian wires are available in the following forms.
1.
Regular grade
White
2.
Regular plus
Green
3.
Special
Black
4.
Special plus
Orange
5.
Extra special plus
Blue
6.
Supreme
Blue
REGULAR GRADE
Lowest grade and easiest to bend. Used for forming auxiliaries and can be
used for forming arch wires when distortion and bite opening is not a problem.
Available in sizes of 0.012, 0.014, 0.016, 0.018 and 0.020
81
REGULAR PLUS GRADE

Relatively easy to form, yet more resilient than regular grade. Used for auxiliaries
and arch wires when more pressure and resistance to deformation is desired.
Available in sizes 0.014, 0.016, 0.018 and 0.020.
SPECIAL GRADE
Highly resilient, yet can be formed into intricate shapes with little danger of
breakage. The 0.016 is often used for starting arches.
Available in sizes 0.014, 0.016, 0.018 and 0.020.
SPECIAL PLUS GRADE
Special plus wire is routinely used by experienced operators. Hardness and
resiliency of 0.016 wire is excellent for supporting anchorage and reducing deep over
bites.
Available in sizes 0.014, 0.016, 0.018, 0.020 and 0.022.
EXTRA SPECIAL PLUS

This grade is unequated in resilience. It is more difficult to bend and more
subject to fracture. However many orthodontists feel that the ability of this wire to
move teeth, open deep overbites and resist deformation far outweighs the
inconvenience caused by an occasional breakage while bending. This wire can be
easily broken if not bent properly; there is no margin for bending errors. Each 25 foot
spool is pretested, an intermaxillary hook is bent in the wire and left as evidence that
the wire is of proper quality.
Available in size of 0.016only.
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SUPREME GRADE / PREMIUM PLUS

Primarily used only in treatment of rotations, alignment and leveling. It is
intended for use in either short sections or full arches where sharp bends are not
required.
Available in 0.010, 0.012 and 0.016.
Due to extreme hardness of Australian wire, special attention must be given to
bend it successfully.
1.
Pre-warm the wire by sliding between the thumb and forefinger. Do not
attempt to straighten the wire by stripping between the plier beaks.
2.
Hold pliers very lightly when bending the wire. Do not squeeze or pull the
wire. Pliers must have smooth beaks, carbide tips are not recommended.
3.
Bend the wire very slowly pressing with the thumb or forefinger. Do not rotate
the pliers while beading loops and circles should be formed against the square
beak and beaks should be apart slightly.
4.
Never pinch the wire with the pliers before or during bending.
5.
Do not scratch the wire to locate bends.

Australian wires become hard from bending (work hardening). Hence, there is
no need for heat treatment and no margin for back bending to correct mistakes.
83
USE OF NEWER AUSTRALIAN WIRES

The supreme grade of sizes 0.008- 0.011 are used for
-
Relieving
crowding.-For
making
different
auxiliaries
like
MAA
(Mollenhauer,s aligning auxiliary), Spec auxiliary, Udder arch etc.

-
For making mini uprighting springs.
0.011" wire can be used for aligning second molar towards the end of stage
III.
MANUFACTURING OF A.J. WILCOCK ARCH WIRES

SPINNER STRAIGHTENING
It is a mechanical process of straightening resistant materials, usually in the

cold drawn condition. The wire is pulled through rotating bronze rollers which
torsionally twist the wire into straight condition. The disadvantage of this process is
-
Resultant deformation
Decrease yield stress value.
PULSE STRAIGHTENING
In pulsed straightening, the wire is pulsed in a special machine which permits

high tensile wires to be straightened and into lower diameters than possible earlier
with spinner straightening. The material yield strength is not altered and surface has a
smoother finish and therefore causes low friction.
84
Nickel Titanium Arch Wires
12
A significant advancement in orthodontic materials was made in the late

1930,s and 1940,s when stainless steel wire became widely available. Since that time
there has been continuous evolutionary improvement in the strength and resiliency of
wires used for orthodontic treatment. The development of Nitinol wire was another
improvement which emerged from the orthodontic search for lighter force and greater
working range.1,6,7,10,11,13,14,15,16,17,20,33,34,35,37,39
85
Titanium, a metal discovered by M.H.KLAPROTH in 1795, has changed very

rapidly from a rare metal to an important structural metal because of its high weight,
high strength and corrosion resistance. It has an atomic number 22 and atomic weight
47.9 and occupies ninth place in abundance of metals in earths crust. 98% of all
rocks examined contained titanium besides sand, clay and other soils. Many minerals
contain titanium, the main ones being Ilmenite and Rutile. Ilmenite is a non-titanium
oxide ore or Iron titanate which contains 32% titanium. Rutile is titanium oxide and is
richer in titanium content.
Nitinol was invented in early 1960,s by WLLIAM F. BUEHLER, a research
metallurgist at the Naval Ordinance Laboratory in Silver Spring, Maryland. (Now
called as Naval Surface Weapons Centre). He did extensive research and published
his findings on the properties and uses of this new alloy.
The name Nitinol is an acronym derived from the elements which comprises
the alloy, Ni from nickel, Ti from titanium and Nol from Naval ordinance laboratory.
CONVENTIONAL NITINOL
Niti was introduced to orthodontics by Dr. GEORGE ANDREASEN and his
associates. Largely through his efforts and those of the Unitek Company, the first
Nitinol alloy was marketed to orthodontists as Nitinol. Ironically, this first 50:50
composition of Nickel and titanium was a shape memory alloy in composition only.
Indeed this alloy was passive, as the shape memory effect had been suppressed
by cold working the wire during drawing. What was so attractive about this
martensitic stabilized alloy was its low force per unit of deactivation, i.e., its low
86
stiffness. Compared with the competition of the day, this wire was quite springy,
delivering only 1/5th to 1/6th the force per unit of deactivation and better meeting the
criteria of light, continuous force. When this stiffness was combined with its
outstanding range and high spring back, one might presume that this wire was the
ideal. It did not take long, however, before its lack of formidability was recognized as
limitation, especially when wires broke.
The lack of formability largely remains today, but the initial brittleness that
plagued the early nitinol product has long since been rectified.
PSEUDOELASTIC NITINOL
In addition to conventional Martensitic stabilized alloy, two other generic
nitinol type alloys are available today that are active, i.e. they undergo some form of
shape memory effect (SME) and are super elastic.
Two generic alloys are
1.
Austenitic active alloy
2.
Martensitic active alloy

In the austenitic active alloy, both the martensitic and austenitic phases play an
important role during its mechanical deformation. Martensite represents the low
stiffness phase and austenite represents the high stiffness phase. Thus on loading, the
austenitic active alloy produces some three times the force per activation of the
conventional martensitic stabilized nitinol alloy. Fortunately this effect is short lived.
At first glance one would suspect that the mechanical properties are dismal, but
presenvence prevails, wherein the stiffness is comparable to that of martensitic
87
nitinol. In fact a stress induced phase transformation has occurred in which the
austenitic phase has transformed to the martensitic phase. Upon deactivation the
reverse occurs and martensitic phase is gradually transformed to the austenitic phase.
Because the spring back is nearly total, this series of clinical events is elastic despite
the fact that the appearance is quite non linear. Here the martensite reversibly
transforms to austenite and thereby changes shape to maintain force, represent the key
attribute to this nonlinear but nonetheless elastic alloy and is called pseudo elasticity.
Today several alloys are being marketed that utilize pseudo elasticity. Most common
of these is 270C super elastic copper niti described later.
THERMOELASTIC NITINOL
The third Nitinol type alloy in the market today is a martensitic active alloy
that ultimately exhibits a thermally induced Shape Memory Effect (SME). This is the
long awaited Nitinol alloy that Dr. ANDREASEN hoped to someday employ in
orthodontics. For many years the alloy compositions simply could not be controlled
precisely enough to make a uniform wire product. Transition temperature from
Martensitic to Austenitic had to occur in the region of ambient oral temperature, and
yet it was known that for every 150 parts per million variations in composition, a 1oC
change in transition temperature occurred. After a 20 years delay, MIURA showed
that surgical cases could be treated by preparing a series of arches in which the
desired shape was set by heat. Upon distortion and insertion into patients mouth, the
appliance would be activated by the warmth of oral cavity and return to its
predetermined shape. By capitalizing on thermo elasticity, a series of final arch forms
could be generated and thereby the practitioner could maintain control. Today the
thermo elastic effect is demonstrated in GAC internationals alloy, Sentalloy light.
88
COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The composition of Nickel-Titanium used in dentistry is as follows:
NICKEL
54%
TITANIUM
44%
COBALT
2%
This composition results in a 1 to 1 atomic ratio of the major components. As

with other systems, this alloy can exist in various crystallographic forms.
At high temperatures a body centered cubic lattice (BCC), referred to as
austenitic phase is stable, whereas appropriate cooling can induce transformation to a
close packed hexagonal martensitic lattice. This characteristic transformation of
austenitic to martensitic phase results in two unique features of potential clinical
relevance i.e. shape memory and super elasticity or pseudo elasticity.
SHAPE MEMORY WIRE
Most orthodontists are aware of Nitinol because of unique property of the
alloy called shape memory. Nitinol has the characteristics of being able to return to
a previously manufactured shape when it is heated through a transition temperature
range. To use this property, the wire must first be set into the desired shape and held
while undergoing a high-temperature heat treatment. After the wire has cooled to
room temperature, it may be deformed within certain strain limits.When heated to its
unique transition temperature range, it will remember its shape and return to the
original configuration. Though the orthodontic wires available today do not fully
utilize this characteristic, research into orthodontic application for the memory
aspects of Nitinol wire are continuing at the University Of Iowa and at unitek.
89
The memory effect is achieved by first establishing a shape at temperature

near 4820C (9000 F). The wire is then cooled and formed into a second shape.
Subsequent heating through a lower transition temperature causes the wire to return to
its original shape. The cobalt content is used to control the lower transition
temperature which can be near mouth temperature 370C (98.40 F).
90
SUPER ELASTICITY
Inducing the austenitic to martensitic transition by stress can produce super
elasticity, a phenomenon which is employed with some Nickel orthodontic wires. If
alloy is stressed, it initially results in the strandard proportional stress-strain behavior.
However at a stress, sufficient to induce phase transformation, there is sufficient
increase in strain, referred to as super elasticity or pseudo elasticity.
This additional strain is due to the volume change that results from change in
crystal structure.
Nickel titanium alloy, therefore can be produced with either the austenitic or
mastensitic structure having varying degree of cold work and variations in transition
temperature. In general Nickel-titanium wire has relatively low modulus values and
larger working range. They are difficult to join and have to be joined by mechanical
crimps, since the alloy can neither be soldered nor welded.
OTHER PROPERTIES
Clinch back distal to molar buccal tube can be obtained by resistance or flame
annealing the end of the wire. This makes the wire dead soft and can be bent into
preferred configuration. A dark blue color indicates the desired annealing
temperature. Care should be taken not to overheat the wire because this makes it
brittle.
Findings on resistance to corrosion of nitinol wires have been inconsistent.
Although some investigators reports that nitinol is resistant to corrosion as stainless
steel, various authors have found nitinol to be more susceptible to corrosion than other
91
orthodontic alloys. SCHWANINGER, SARKAR and FOSTER have noted that

corrosion does not affect flexibility properties of nitinol wires. Some reports indicates
an increase in permanent deformation and decrease in elasticity caused by corrosion
or the cumulative effects of cold working.
Nitinol has been reported to be more susceptible to electrolytic dissolution
than stainless steel. The examination of unused wires revealed large variation in
surface texture of nitinol wire when compared to stainless steel. With small metallic
prominences Nitinol wire frequently exhibits an undulating bubbling or mottled cake
appearance. The electrolytically corroded Nitinol wires have either obvious pits which
occurs along the sharp edges of rectangular wires where the electric field would be
greatest or have very irregular surfaces with loosely bound corrosion products.
Used unclean wires are frequently covered with organic layer which possesses
significant elements such as Na, P, S, Cl, K and Ca. These layers are not usually
present on cleaned surfaces. Because of the variation of unused Nitinol surface and
possible organic contamination, it is difficult to assess the degree of corrosion existing
on surfaces by visual inspection.
The most important benefit from Nitinol wires are realized when a rectangular
wire is inserted early in treatment. Simultaneous rotation, leveling, tipping and
torquing can be achieved with a resilient rectangular wire such as nitinol. Clinicians
have been successful in beginning treatment of certain carefully selected cases with
full size rectangular wires that nearly fills the bracket slot. In few instances the active
case has been treated with just one arch wire.
92
It is ideally suited for use with most pretorque and preangulated appliances
because tipping and up righting of the teeth can be initiated in the early stages of
treatment. When the case is nearing completion with a nitinol arch wire, there is very
little to be done in the way of placing compensating bends to upright roots, once the
spaces have been closed. In the treatment of extraction cases with pretorqued and
preangulated twin brackets and Nitinol, conventional auxiliary method of closing
spaces may be used along with headgear when needed. The use of nitinol with
pretorqued and preangulated brackets, require careful monitoring of tooth movements
because of wires high elasticity and more continuous force. Therefore time intervals
between appointments cannot be extended.
The modulus of elasticity of nitinol is 41.4 x 103 Mpa, (6 x 106 psi), the yield
strength is 427 Mpa (62,000 psi), and the ultimate tensile strength is 1489 Mpa
(216,000 psi). These properties results in very low orthodontic forces when compared
with similarly constructed and activated stainless steel. The low stiffness in
combination with moderately high strength accounts for wires large elastic deflection
or working range. The alloy has limited formability.
Alloys
Modulus of
Elasticity
(103 MPa [GPa]
0.2% Offset
yield strength
(MPa)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
Number of 90
degree cold
bends without
fracture
S.S
179
1579
2117
Co-Cr
184
1413
1682
NiTi
41.4
427
1489
B-TITANUM
71.7
931
1276
93
CLINICAL APPLICATION OF NITI

High spring back, flexibility, low constant forces, shape memory and elasticity
are important and advantageous properties for clinical application of Niti.
GARHER, ALLAI, MOORE and KAPILA and associates have noted that
bracket/wire frictional forces with nitinol wires are higher than those with stainless
steel wire and lower than those with beta-titanium.
Niti can be successfully used in the treatment of
Cross bite corrections
Up righting impacted canines
Opening the bites.
Nitinol wires can be used in Class I, Class II or class III malocclusions, in both
extraction on non extraction cases. In selecting cases that benefit most from the use of
nitinol wires, the primary criteria is the amount of malalignment of the teeth from the
ideal arch form. The more the wire has to be deflected from the ideal arch form when
ligated into the bracket, the greater benefit nitinol wire has over stainless steel.
USE OF THERMOELASTIC NITINOL

Nitinol has unique property which is of practical use to the orthodontist. That
property is its extreme elasticity when it is drawn into high-strength wire. This wire is
much more difficult to deform during handling and seating in brackets slot than
stainless steel. Its the nitinol extreme elasticity that offers the clinician an
advancement in the application of orthodontic materials.
94
The wire can be used for a longer period of time without changing and it can
shorter the treatment time needed in leveling the dentition. Nitinol has another
remarkable property of returning to a previously manufactured shape, when it is
heated through a transition temperature range. If we were to take advantage of this
property, the wire must first be set into the desired shape while undergoing a high
temperature heat treatment. After the wire has cooled to room temperature, it may be
deformed within certain strain limits. When heated to its unique TTR it will remember
its shape and return to the original configuration.
Nitinol wire after being deformed will spring back to its original shape by either
of two methods. First, it will experience a nearly complete spring back because of its
modulus of elasticity without heat, restoring the desired wire to its original shape.
Second it will experience a complete spring back from the deformed shape by
being placed in the TTR between 31 to 45oC. The average temperature of the mouth is
in this range and triggers the wire to assume the original shape bent into it.
The TTR of Nitinol can be adjusted by varying the Nickel and Cobalt content.
For orthodontic purpose, this thermal nitinol wire is alloyed so that the TTR
corresponds to the approximate temperature in the mouth and therefore allows part of
the wire memory property to be used for moving teeth.
CLINICAL RECYCLING OF NICKEL TITANIUM

Now a days two types of Nickel titanium alloy wires are commercially
available. First of them is Nitinol (Unitek Corporation) and the recent one marked as
Niti Cormaco (Alif) and Sentalloy (GAC International) among others. The two
95
demonstrates several differences in properties. Whereas the original Nitinol wires are
primarily in the martensitic phase at room temperature, the newer Niti wires have an
austenitic grain structure and 1.6 times greater spring back. When compared with
Nitinol, the Niti wires are also 36% stiff at 80% of activations and are not time
dependent with regard to stress relaxation.
The desirable mechanical properties of Nickel Titanium alloy wires and their
relatively high cost has prompted many clinicians to recycle these wires.
Nickel Titanium wires, especially those of newer pseudo elastic type,
undergoes phase changes as a result of heat treatment that substantially alter their
properties. KAPILA, HAUGEN and WATANABE noted that temperatures greater
than 600C increases the susceptibility of these newer austenitic Nickel Titanium wires
to plastic deformation and decreases their spring back. Since various forms of heat
treatment are often used for sterilization, further studies to determine the effects of
recycling in conjuncture with heat sterilizations are indicated.
STERELIZATION OF ORTHODONTIC ARCH WIRES

The relatively high cost of nickel titanium wires and it ability to return to its
original forms had raised concern about the treatment of the wire between patients for
prevention of cross- infection.
BUCKTHAL and KUSY had studied the effects of cold disinfectants on the
mechanical properties and surface topography for 0.17 x .025 Nitinol wires. Three
disinfections approved by the ADA were used at maximum antimicrobial concentration.
2% acidic glutaraldehyde, chlorine di oxide and iodophor were used. Bending and
96
tensile tests were conducted to determine weather the stiffness, strength or range of the
wires changes after disinfectant treatment. Further surface topography was also studied
with laser spectroscopy to see surface changes from tarnish and corrosion.
The result showed no significant changes in fundamental stiffness or inherent
strength of the wires after multiple disinfectant cycles. Wires showed no additional
surface pitting or corrosion.
STAGGERS and MARGESON studied the effects of various types of
sterilization on tensile strength of orthodontic wires. The sterilization methods
investigated were Dry heat using the Dentronix DDS 5000 dry heat sterilizer (3750 F
for 20 min), Autoclaving (2500F for 20 min) and ethylene oxide gas (4 hours). The
tested Niti wire was Sentalloy (GAC International).
Evaluation of sentalloy wire and dry heat sterilization demonstrated a
significant increase in tensile strength when compared after 0, 1 and 5 cycles.
Autoclaving santalloy wire also produced a significant increase in the tensile strength
of the wire after 1 and 5 cycles. Ethylene oxide sterilization of sentalloy wires
demonstrated no significant differences in tensile strength.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN NICKEL TITANIUM ARCHWIRE
/DISADVANTAGES
Expensive, particularly for newest products
Second highest arch wire-bracket friction after TMA
Difficult to place permanent bends and cannot bend wire over sharp edge or into
complete loop
97
Wires cannot be soldered and must be joined by mechanical crimping process.
Lowest in vitro corrosion resistance of wire alloys
Not self limiting frequent visits necessary.
Tendency of arch wire to slide from side to side, sometimes causing them to stick
out beyond the terminal molar.
ADVANTAGES
Lowest force delivery of orthodontic wire alloys.
Excellent spring back in bending, particularly for super elastic and shape memory
alloys.
Super elastic alloys can be heat treated by clinician to vary force delivery
characteristics.
PROPRIETARY ARCH WIRES

A)
A - COMPANY
1.
ALIGN TRUE
These are the only wires preformed in the true arch shape. Align is engineered
with high elasticity to easily engage brackets, even on severely malposed teeth. It
features exceptional shape memory and smooth low frictional surfaces. It also exerts
continuous low forces. The arch wires are available in 0.14 to 0.20 round and 0.016
x 0.016 to 0.021 x 0.025 rectangular sizes, in small, medium and large arches.
2.
ALIGN NICKEL TITANIUM REVERSE CURVE OF SPEE

ARCHWIRES
These wires are made with the same highly elastic material as the regular align
nickel titanium wires. They provide the force needed to open the bite, close spaces
98
and align the curve of spee. These wires are available in 0.016 and 0.018 round and
0.016 x 0.022 to 0.021 x 0.025 rectangular wires.
B)
AMERICAN ORTHODONTICS
1.
TITANIUM MEMORY WIRE

This is super elastic Nickel titanium wire available in several varieties.
Standard memory arches feature natural arch form and two force levels.
Force 1 (super elastic) from 0.016 to 0.020 round.
Force 2 (high force) from 0.014 to 0.018 round.
Gold coated memory arches available only in 0.016 round, are coated with 24
carat gold and are especially cosmetic with ceramic or plastic brackets.
Permanent centre line memory arches have a gable bend at the midline that acts as
permanent reference point and a stop to prevent the wire from sliding through
either central bracket during unscrambling. They come in 0.016 and 0.018 round
sizes.
99
Reverse curve of spee memory arches feature built in leveling and light
continuous force for less wire bending and better control.
C)
DENTAURUM INTERNATIONAL
1.
REMITAN LITE
It is a super elastic nickel titanium wire with high elasticity and nearly
continuous force over a wide deflection range. The smooth surface virtually
eliminates friction and midlines are marked for easy placement. The wire delivers
gentle force, making it particularly suited to leveling phase, can reduce treatment time
and improve patients comfort. It is available in ideal arch form compatible with
preadjusted appliances.
D)
GAC INTERNATIONAL
1.
NEO SENTALLOY
This wire provides the capability of 3 dimensional control with a full size,
single strand arch wire from the beginning of treatment. It offers outstanding shape
memory and elasticity. Its heat activated light continuous forces are designed to
produce the ideal biological tooth movement.
2.
SUPER BRAID
It is eight stranded braided super elastic Nickel titanium wire designed for
initial 3- dimensional leveling of severely malposed teeth. It features low stiffness,

predictable results, reduced chair time and patients comfort.
100
E)
MASAL ORTHODONTICS INTERNATIONAL
1.
BENDABLE MASAL ALLOY (BMA)

BMA arches combine the continuous gentle force of titanium with the
workability of steel. Elastic hooks, tear drop and bayonet bends can be bent into the
wires, eliminating the need for auxiliaries.
BMA arch wires come in 0.016 and 0.018 round and 0.016 x0.016 to
0.019 x 0.025 rectangular sizes.
2.
ELASTINOL NICKEL TITANIUM ARCH WIRES

These wires retain their shape even when drastically deformed. They feature
faster results, reduced chair time, low bracket friction and relatively low cost. They come
in 0.012 to 0.020 round and 0.016 x 0.016 to 0.021 x 0.025 rectangular sizes.
3.
DRIFT FREE ELASTINOL

Drift free elastinol features a permanent 1 mm midline stop that reduces arch
wire drifting and acts as a reference point. It comes in sizes of 0.016, 0.018 and
0.20 round.
4.
ORTHOCOSMETIC ELASTINOL
These arches have an esthetic coating that blends well with ceramic or plastic
brackets and resists staining, discoloration, cracking and chipping.
101
5.
NITINOL
These arch wires are slightly stiffer than Elastinol, making them useful in the
initial leveling stages. The natural shape is designed to reduce the need for contouring.
6.
RETROARCH
Retro arch reverse curve super elastic nickel titanium arch wires have a
rocking chair shape that can open or close the bite quickly, consolidate the arch and
eliminates the excess curve of spee. Toe in bends helps eliminate mesiolingual
rotations and the extra wide form minimizes lingual drift of anterior teeth.
The arch wires are available in sizes of 0.014 to 0.018 round and 0.016 x
0.016 to 0.021 x 0.025 rectangular sizes.
F)
OREC CORPORATION
1.
NICKEL TITANIUM WIRES

Orecs Nickel Titanium wire combines super elasticity with shape memory to
provide optimum force distribution for leveling, aligning and rotation control.
102
It enhances patients comfort and treatment efficiency while reducing bracket

friction. Preformed upper and lower arches come in sizes from 0.014 to 0.020 round
and 0.016 x 0.022 to 0.019 x 0.025 rectangular.
2.
SPEED ARCH WIRES

Nickel titanium and stainless steel speed arch wires have an arch form that
reflects in-out effects of the speed appliance. The wires are designed to facilitate
insertion into bracket and closure of speed bracket spring clips. Midlines are clearly
marked and rounded edge is always directed towards the labial. Speed wires are
available in upper and lower 0.017 x0.022 to 0.020 x 0.025 arch wire sizes.
G)
ORMCO CORPORATION
1.
NITI WIRE
Niti wire has an elastic range so great that it is virtually impossible to put a
permanent set into the wire.

2.
REVERSE CURVE NITI

Reverse curve Niti has a shape that counters the extrusive component of space
closing forces while continuing the bite opening process. It allows retraction without
tipping of adjacent teeth into extraction sites or loss of incisor torque.
The posterior toe-in counteracts undesirable mesiolingual rotation of the
molars. Extra archwidth prevents lingual collapse in the extraction sites.
103
3.
NEW TURBO WIRES

This is a braided Nickel titanium arch wire that permits torque control from
the first wire in treatment.

The braiding process increases the super elastic properties of Niti, so that a full
size wire can be used in a very severe malocclusion without patients discomfort. The
low stiffness of this wire makes it effective with ceramic as well as metallic brackets.
H)
ORTHO ORGANIZERS INTERNATIONAL
1.
NITANIUM ARCHES
Nitanium arches are Nickel titanium wires available in sizes from 0.014 to
0.020 round and 0.016 x 0.022 to 0.019 x 0.025 rectangular.
I)
ROCKY MOUNTAIN ORTHODONTICS
1.
ORTHONOL
Orthonol Nickel Titanium wire features great working range for fewer wire
changes and adjustments, resistance to deformation, excellent shape memory and light
continuous forces for patients comfort.
Its ultra smooth finish reduces bracket friction. Orthonol comes in 11 round
and rectangular sizes of preformed arches and in 5 rectangular sizes of straight
lengths.
J)
TP ORTHODONTICS
1.
REFLEX
Reflex super elastic Nickel Titanium arch wire is available in two arch forms.
104
Curved memory arch (Reverse Curve of spee)
Straight arch (Natural)

Reflex is available in sizes from 0.014 to0.020 round and 0.016 x 0.016 to
0.021 x0.025 rectangular.

K)
UNITEK CORPORATION
1.
FLEXILOY
Flexiloy is made of a cobalt base Nickel alloy. In its initial work hardened
temper, it is especially useful for making complex bends and loops. Heat treatment
approximately doubles its spring temper. Flexiloy is available in two initial tempers,
Blue and Yellow.
2.
NITINOL ACTIVE
Because of its unique formation it delivers the light, continuous forces needed
for efficient tooth movement throughout treatment, yet with a slightly higher stiffness
than most super elastic wires. The added control allows it to hold bends longer than
other Nickel titanium wires.
105
Beta Titanium Arch Wires
13
Beta titanium is the newest alloy to be introduced to orthodontic profession.

Titanium has been used as structural metal since 1952, and its possible use in
orthodontics has been suggested periodically.8,23,27,31
To compete with stainless steel, a wire must possess at least comparable
formability and spring back, which is proportional to the ratio of yield strength to
modulus of elasticity (Ys/E).
106
The early industrial applications of titanium employed commercially pure

material (99.2% titanium). At temperatures below 1,6250 F this metal has a hexagonal
closed packed (HCP) crystal form and an appliance constructed from pure titanium
would have only 1/3rd the maximum elastic deflection of a comparable stainless steel
appliance.
The second phase of titaniums chronology saw the development of titanium
alloys, but still based on HCP structure.
In the 1960,s an entirely different high temperature form of titanium alloy
became available. At temperatures above 16250 F pure titanium rearranges into a
body centered cubic (BCC) lattice, referred to as Beta phase. With the addition of
elements such as molybdenum or columbium, a titanium based alloy can maintain its
beta structure even when cooled to room temperature. Such alloys are referred to as
beta stabilized titanium. The alloying and body centered cubic structure import a
unique set of properties.
COMPOSITION
Titanium
77.8%
Molybdenum
11.3%
Zarconium
6.6%
Tin
4.3%
The alloy is marketed in the form of straight wire lengths or preformed arches
under the trade name TMA or Titanium molybdenum alloy.
107
The mechanical properties of many titanium alloys can be altered by heat
treatments that use the transformation from the to lattice structure. However, heat
treatment of the current orthodontic -titanium wire is not recommended.
Wrought Beta titanium orthodontic wire has an elastic modulus of 71.7 Gpa
and a yield strength between 860 and 1170 Mpa. These properties produce several
clinically desirable characteristics. The low elastic modulus yields large deflections
for low forces.
The high ratio of yield strength to elastic modulus produces orthodontic
appliances that can sustain large elastic activations when compared with stainless
steel devices of the same geometry.Beta titanium can be highly cold worked. The
wrought wire can be bent into various orthodontic configurations and has formability
comparable to that of austenitic stainless steel.
The modulus of elasticity of beta titanium is approximately twice that of
nitinol and less than one half that of stainless steel. Its stiffness makes its ideal in
applications where less force than steel is required but where lower modulus materials
would be inadequate to develop required force magnitudes.
Alloys
Modulus of
Elasticity
(103 MPa [GPa]
0.2% Offset
yield strength
(MPa)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
Number of 90
degree cold
bends without
fracture
S.S
179
1579
2117
Co-Cr
184
1413
1682
NiTi
41.4
427
1489
B-TITANUM
71.7
931
1276
108
It has been shown that the formability of Beta titanium orthodontic wire, as
measured by the ADA cold bend test, is similar to that of stainless steel. However the
titanium alloy cannot be bent over as sharp a radius as stainless steel, so that some
care in the selection of pliers and bending procedure is required. The Beta titanium
wire can be joined by welding alone and has good corrosion resistance.
WELDING
Clinically, satisfactory joints can be made by electrical resistance welding of
Beta titanium. Beta titanium joints of adequate strength and ductility can be produced
with the standard commercial welders available to the orthodontist. Such joints need
not be reinforced with solder.
A weld made with insufficient heat fails at the interface between the wires,
whereas overheating may cause a failure adjacent to weld joint. Clinically a no of
variables might cause joints of inconsistent strength with a given welder. Foremost
among these factors are the condition of the electrodes, cleanliness of wire surfaces
and proper positioning of the wires between the electrodes.
Flat to flat electronic configuration generally produces joints with
considerably less distortion than is found with point to point arrangement. This
electrode arrangement further stabilizes the wires as suggested by Burstone, and
higher settings can be used with welders to obtain strong joints with less burning
of metals.
109
CLINCAL APPLICATION
Because of its unique and balanced properties, beta titanium wire can be used
in a number of clinical applications. Ideal edge wise arches fabricated of titanium
have significant superiority over stainless steel. They can be deflected approximately
twice as far without permanent deformation, which allows a greater range of action
for either initial tooth alignment or finishing arches. The forces which are produced
are approximately .4 that of steel, producing a more gentle delivery of forces with an
edge wise wire; for example an 0.018 x 0.025 wire in beta-titanium delivers about
the same force as an 0.014 x 0.020 steel wire when activated in a second order
direction. Furthermore, it would have the advantage of full bracket engagement and
third order or torque control if used in a 0.018 slot bracket. Beta titanium is ductile,
which allows for placement of tie-back loops or complicated bends. Spring back
properties are not lost during the bending operation and complicated configurations
can be placed if needed.
The high ductility and formability of titanium allowed the placement of a
vertical loop tie-back mesial to first molar as well as finishing bends with the arch.
The high ductility of Beta-titanium allows it to be formed into arches or
segments with complicated loop configurations. A continuous arch with T, vertical,
helical and L loops can be formed in small round wires.
In many applications, loop placement can better deliver the desired force
system without side affects, than straight continuous wires. One of the advantages of
beta-titanium, as used in loop configuration, lies with loop incorporation in larger
110
cross-sections of edge wise wire which allows the loop to be positively oriented
within the brackets.
Specialized springs or auxiliaries fabricated from beta-titanium allow for
simplification in design in achieving identical force delivery. The low load deflection
rate produced by the low modulus of elasticity and the high spring back allow a 12
mm activation to produce 60 gm of force in the midline without the placement of
helices posteriorly, there by simplifying the design.
A high formability of titanium allows the fabrication of closing loops with or
without helices. The low stiffness of the material and its high spring back improves a
loop of any given design or allow for the maintenance of a given force system with
simpler designs, as in elimination of helices or loops.
ION IMPLANTATION
A low coefficient of friction is usually desirable in an orthodontic arch wire.
However studies have shown that TMA have a higher coefficient of friction than
stainless steel. The friction is probably due to its relative softness compared to the
harder stainless steel bracket. The surface treatment can increase the hardness and
reduce the coefficient of friction of TMA wire while maintaining its desirable
mechanical properties.
Ion Implantation is a process by which various elements or compounds are
ionized and then accelerated towards a target, the orthodontic arch wire.
Ion implantation takes place in a vacuum chamber, where a vapour flux of
ions is generated with an electron beam evaporator and deposited on the substrate.
111
Gas ions (Nitrogen and oxygen) are simultaneously extracted from a plasma and
accelerated in the growing physical vapour deposition film at energies of several
hundred to thousand electrons volts.The ions penetrate the surface of the wire on
impact, building up a structure that consists of both the original wire and a layer of tin
compounds on the surface and immediate subsurface. This layer is extremely hard and
creates considerable amount of compressive forces in the material at the atomic level.
The compressive forces and increased surface hardness improves the fatigue
resistance and ductility and reduce the coefficient of friction of the wire. The
superficial compressive forces also minimize any effects of surface flaws.
Implantation produces no sharp interface between coating and wire which can lead to
bond failure and it does not alter wire dimensions.
Implantation can take place at relatively low temperatures from subzero to
7000C which allows improvement of surface characteristics without degradation of
other mechanical properties. The thickness of the implanted surface can be precisely
controlled.
Two varieties of TMA-low friction and colored wires were produced by
varying the type and thickness of ions. Studies have shown that surface treatment by
ion implantation can maintain all the desirable properties of TMA and can improve its
ductility and its resistance to fracture and fatigue. At the same time it reduces high
coefficient of friction to about the same level as that of stainless steel.
112
Chinese Ni-Ti Wire
14
Chinese Ni-Ti Wire
A new nickel titanium alloy has been developed especially for orthodontic
applications by Dr. TIEN HUA CHENG and associates at the General Research
institute for non ferrous metals in Beijing, China.
This alloy has unique characteristics and offers significant potential in the
design of orthodontic appliances. Its history of little work hardening and a parent
phase, which is austenite, yield mechanical properties that differ significantly from
nitinol wire. In addition, Chinese niti wire has a much lower transition temperature
than nitinol wire.9
This wire is also called as 270 C super elastic copper NiTi. It contains alloy
additions of nominally 5 to 6 % copper and .2 to .5 % chromium. According to its
manufacturer, this product is an austenitic active wire whose copper addition
increases its strength. Unfortunately this occurs at the expense of increasing its phase
transformation temperature above that of the oral cavity. To compensate for this
113
Chinese Ni-Ti Wire
unwanted effect .5 % chromium is added to return the transformation temperature to

270C.
Two other alloys are also available from this family of Nickel Titanium
Copper Chromium alloys. One that has a transformation temperature of 350C and
other that contains .2 % chromium and transforms at 400C.
Because the transformation temperature of these latter two wires are higher
than the before mentioned first wire, they will increasingly be influenced by
temperature as they represent the thermoelastic Nitinol described before.
1)
The wire has a spring back that is 4.4 times that of comparable stainless steel
wire and 1.6 times that of nitinol wire, if spring back is measured at yield
based on a 5 mm span cantilever test.
2)
At 80% of activation, the average stiffness of Chinese Niti wire is 73% that of
stainless steel wire and 36% that of nitinol wire.
3)
Unlike wires of other orthodontic alloys, the characteristic stiffness is

determined by the amount of activation. The load deformation rate at small
activations is considerably higher than that at large activations.
The stiffness is approximately the same between room temperature at 220C
and mouth temperature at 370C.
114
Chinese Ni-Ti Wire
4)
Chinese Niti wire deformation is not particularly time dependent and unlike
Nitinol wire, will not continue to deform a significant amount in the mouth
between adjustments.
5)
Chinese Niti wire is highly suitable if low stiffness is required and large
deflections are needed.
Its higher stiffness at small activations make it more effective than wires of
traditional alloys whose force levels may be too low (as teeth approach the passive
shape of the wire).
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Because of its high range of action or spring back, Chinese niti wire is
applicable in situations where large deflections are required. Applications include
straight wire procedures when teeth are badly malaligned and in appliances designed
to deliver constant forces during major stages of tooth movements. The amount of
deformation without notable permanent set is remarkable 4.4 times that of stainless
steel wire and 1.6 times that of nitinol wire.
Achievement of relatively constant forces has been obtained traditionally by
lowering the load deflection rate of the orthodontic appliance. This has been
accomplished by configurational design; for instance, placing helices or additional
wire in the appliance.
115
Japanese Ni-Ti Alloy Arch Wires
15
In 1978, Furukawa Electric company limited of Japan produced a new type
of Japanese NiTi alloy possessing excellent spring back, shape memory and super
elasticity.
The Japanese niti alloy wire has higher values of elastic modulus than the
nitinol wire. When the stretch exceeds 2 %, the stress value does not change
appreciably. When the strain was induced at 8%, it produces stresses of 55 to 58
kg/mm2. When the wire specimen was then stretched for more than 8%, the stress was
increased further. This property is called as super elasticity.
When strain was reduced, the stainless steel, Co-Cr-Ni and nitinol wires all
exhibit almost straight stress strain curves. In comparison when strain was reduced,
the Japanese Niti alloy wire did not changes proportionally to the stress decrease from
8% to 2%. There was no permanent set when the stress reached zero.
116
Heat treatment of Japanese niti alloy does make a dramatic change in its
mechanical property. To attain optimal use of super elastic property in clinical
orthodontics, the influence of various series of heat treatment was studied. When the
heat application was raised to 5000C, the force level indicating the super elastic
property can be reduced.
Thus, arch wires providing a different magnitude of force can be fabricated
from the wires of same diameter. In addition, in the preformed arch wire, different
magnitude of force can be produced by controlling the temperature and time in the
desired section of arch wire.
Japanese niti possesses three good mechanical properties;
excellent spring back
shape memory
super elasticity
CLINICAL APPLICATION
Since the metallurgical tests have determined that Japanese niti alloy wire is
potentially useful and effective in clinical orthodontics, setting arch wire have been
fabricated to enhance the efficiency of multi bracketed technique.
By evaluating clinical experience with the Japanese niti alloy wire, many
possibilities exist with the use of its super elastic property.
117
Alpha Titanium Alloy Arch Wires
16
Alpha Titanium Alloy Arch Wires
It is the recent alloy in the family of titanium alloys. Its composition is:
Titanium
90%
Aluminum
6%
Vanadium
4%
The alloy is different in that its molecular structure resembles a closely packed
hexagonal lattice as against the BCC lattice of TMA.
The hexagonal lattice possess fewer slip planes. Slip planes are clusters of
atoms in a crystal that glides past one another during deformation. More the slip
planes, the easier it is to deform the material. BCC structures are defined as having
two slip planes where hexagonal lattice has only one active slip plane along its base.
Thus the near alpha phase titanium alloy is less ductile than TMA.
The alloy is strictly near Alpha phase titanium alloy rather than a pure alpha
titanium because there is a certain amount of Beta phase retained in them at room
temperature.
118
Copper Ni-Ti Alloy Arch Wires
17
Copper Niti was introduced by Rohit Sachdeva and Suchio Mriyasaki in
1994.
Its a new quaternary alloy (Nickel, Titanium, Copper and Chromium) with
different advantages over the formerly available Nickel Titanium alloys.
Copper niti is more resistant to permanent deformation compared with other
Nickel-Titanium alloys. It exhibits better spring back characteristics.
It exhibits a smaller drop in tooth driving force than other Nickel titanium alloys.
It generates a more constant force over long activation spans than other Nickel
titanium alloys and does so on a consistent basis.
Addition of copper combined with more sophisticated manufacturing and thermal
processes make possible the fabrication of four different copper niti arch wires
with precise and consistent transformation temperatures
150C, 270C , 350C and
400C. This enables the clinician to select arch wires on a case specific basis.
119
COMPOSITION
Titanium
43%
Nickel
49.86%
Chromium
.5%
Copper
5.64%
Copper niti delivers more constant forces especially for small activations
compared to super elastic wires. It makes possible the insertion of larger size wires,
and better bracket slot engagement early in treatment without causing pain and
discomfort.
The surface of cu-niti is quite porous and rough. It resembles the surface of
untreated TMA wire.
Depending upon transformation temperatures / austenitic finish temperature
cu-niti can be classified into
Type I austenitic finish
150C
Type II
,,
270C
Type III
,,
350C
Type IV
,,
400C
120
VARIABLE TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURE

The stability of the martensite and austenitc phase at a given temperature is
based upon transformation temperature of the alloy. One of the most important
markers is the materials austenitic finish temperature.(Af)
It is the difference between Af temperature and mouth temperature that
determines the force generated by Nickel Titanium alloys. Af temperature can be
controlled over a wider range by affecting the composition, thermo mechanical
treatment and manufacturing process of the alloy.
This alloy has the advantage of generating more constant forces than any other
super elastic Nickel Titanium alloy.
It is more resistant to deformation as a result of thermo mechanical insults in
the mouth.
Type I is not used for clinical applications due to high force level. Type II
produces the optimum force and is indicated in normal patients. Type III is indicated
in patients with a low to normal threshold of pain and also in periodontically
compromised patients. Type IV produces the lowest level of force and are good in
patients who are highly sensitive to pain and periodontically compromised patients.
Quick and simple trick is to apply ice to the section of arch wire and can be
placed into the bracket easily.
121
Cu-Niti is supplied in various sizes.

270 C 0.014, 0.016, 0.018,0.016, 0.022, 0.017 x 0.025, 0.017 x 0.025.
350 C 0.016, 0.018, 0.016 x 0.022, 0.017 x 0.022, 0.017 x 0.025.
400 C 0.016 x 0.022, 0.017 x 0.025, 0.019 x 0.025.
122
Optiflex Arch Wire
18
Optiflex Arch Wire
Optiflex is a recently introduced arch wire by Tallas. It combines highly
aesthetic appearance with unique mechanical properties.
It is made of clean optical fiber and consisof 3 layers.
Silicon-di-oxide core that provides the force for moving teeth.
Silicon resin middle layer that protects the core from moisture and adds strength.
Strain resistant nylon outer layer that prevents damage to the wire and further
increases its strength.
123
Optiflex Arch Wire
The wire is manufactured in various sizes, and can be either round or

rectangular. Sharp bends must be avoided, since they could fracture the core. It is
highly resilient arch wire that is especially effective in the alignment of crowded
teeth. It has got a wide range of action and apply light continuous force. Lee white
arch wire of Lee pharmaceuticals is tooth colored epoxy coated arch wire that has
superior wear resistance.
124
Dead Soft Security Arch Wires
19
Dead Soft Security Arch Wires
It has been introduced recently by Binder and Scott. In a non-extraction case,
an arch wire is usually placed to initiate tooth movement immediately after bonding.
However,in an extraction case a proper arch wire might create undesired tooth
movement before extractions are performed. This problem can be avoided by placing
sectional arches made of dead soft brass wire or twisted double strands of 0.008 or
0.010 dead soft stainless steel ligature wires. These arches are bend to lie passively
in all attachments.
The same type of sectional arches can be used as final arch wires in one or
both arches in conjugation with snake elastics to enhance intercuspation prior to
appliance removal.
125
Conclusion
20
Conclusion
Recent advances in orthodontic arch wires proves a clear commitment to high
performance standard, lifelong learning and strict accreditation in search of an ideal
wire. To obtain benefit of optimum and predictable treatment results one can depend
on selection of appropriate wire size and alloy type.
The eminent orthodontic campaigners have come so far in search of an ideal
wire with which they can play with, instead, it playing with them and perhaps
someday these wire benders will come up with long overdue research of an ideal wire
and we wait that the dawn will come early.
Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to

continue that counts.
126
Bibliography
Bibliography
1)
Andreasen George Alignment of teeth using a 0.019 thermal nitinol wire

with a transition temperature range between 310C and 450C, AJO, volume
1980 NOV (528-537).
2)
Asbell, Hill A brief history of orthodontics, AJO, Volume 1990 Aug

(176-183).
3)
Asgharnia and Brantley Bending and tension tests of orthodontic wires, AJO
Volume 1986 Mar (228-236).
4)
Begg P.R. and Kesling P.C.- Begg,s Orthodontic Theory and TechniqueThird Edition.
5)
Binder Robert E. and Scott Allison Dead Soft Security Archwires, JCO NOV
2001 682.
6)
Bishara S. E. , Winterbottom , Sulieman Comparisons of the thermodynamic

properties of three nickel titanium archwires, Angle orthodontist 1995 No 2
117-122.
7)
Buckthal and Kusy, Effects of cold disinfectants on nickel titanium arch wires,
AJO vol 1988 Aug (117-122).
8)
Burstone and Goldberg, Beta titanium: A new Orthodontic alloy volume 1980
Feb (121-132).
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9)
Burston, Qin and Morton, Chinese Niti wire A new orthodontic alloy AJO,
volume 1985 June (445-452).
10)
Drake, Wayne, Powers and Asgar- Mechanical properties of orthodontic wire

in tension, bending and torsion AJO volume 1982 Sep (206-210).
11)
Fujio Miura, MasaKuni Mogi: New applications of superelsatic Niti

rectangular wire, JCO volume 1990 Sep (544-548)
12)
Graber Thomas M. and Vanarsdall Robert L. Jr- orthodontic Current

principles and techniques, second edition.
13)
Gurgel, Kerr,Powers and Pinzan : Torsional Properties of commercial Nickel

titanium wires during activation and deactivation, AJO Volume 2001 ,July
(76-79).
14)
Gurgel, Kerr, Powers, and LeCrone- Force deflection properties of super

elastic nickel titanium arch wires, AJO 2001, Oct (378-382).
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wires, AJO vol 1990 July (72-76).
16)
Jones M.L. : Comparison of super elastic Niti and multistranded stainless steel
wires in Initial alignment, JCO volume 1990 Oct (611-613)
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permanent deformation of nickel titanium arch wires, Angle Orthodontist 1990
No 4 (238-288)
18)
Julie Ann Stagers and Dallas Margeson: The effects of sterilization on the
tensile strength of Orthodontic wires, Angle Orthodontist 1993 No-2 (141144).
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orthodontic wires, AJO volume 1989 Aug (100-109)
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Kaplia, Hangen and Watanabe: Effects of recycling on nickel titanium wires,

AJO Vol 1992 Aug (120-126)
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Khier, Brantely and Fournelle: Bending properties of super elastic and nonsuper elastic nickel titanium orthodontic wires, AJO 1991 April (310-318).
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characteristics, Angle orthodontic 1997 N0-3 (197-207).
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Kusy : Use of nomograms to determine elastic property ratios of orthodontic

arch wires, AJO volume 1983 May (374-381).
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Evolution Of Archwire In Fixed Appliance Orthodontics

Evolution Of Archwire In Fixed Appliance Orthodontics

Evolution Of Archwire In Fixed Appliance Orthodontics

As early as in 1871 William E. Magill (1825 to 1896), was first to use

In 1990 John J. Hudgins, Michael D. Bagby and Leslie C. Erickson studied

According to Materials used

According to Cross- section

NEWTON, S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

NEWTON, S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

NEWTON, S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

TYPES OF STRESSES AND STRAINS

From last equation

Basic composition will determine the broad range of inherent general

BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELASTIC MATERIALS3,18,19,22,24

CRITERIA OF AN IDEAL ARCHWIRE

STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

FORCE DEFLECTION CURVE

STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

Each is proportional to the slope of the elastic portion of force deflection

WIRE CHARACTERSTICS OF CLINICAL RELEVANCE

and range of activation or working range.

STIFFNESS OR LOAD DEFLECTION RATE

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE OR STORED ENERGY

BIOCOMPATIBILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STABILITY

elements in the wire. Environmental stability ensures the maintenance of desirable

provides an additional advantage when incorporating modifications to the appliance.

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Four other properties of wire should be mentioned in evaluating an

A desirable alloy is one to which attachments can easily be soldered.

important in the design of an orthodontic appliance.

WIRE CROSS SECTION TYPE

A most critical factor in the design of an orthodontic appliance/wire is the

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Optimal Cross section for flexible member

Optimal Cross section for reactive member

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

SELECTION OF PROPER WIRE

It may be believed that increasingly heavier wires are needed in a replacement

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Small differences in cross-section produces large changes in load deflection

CROSS SECTIONAL STIFFNESS NUMBER OF ROUND WIRE

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

CROSS SECTIONAL STIFFNESS NUMBER OF RECTANGULAR

Wires with a cross-section of 0.016has a Cs of 256, which means that for an

S = Appliance load deflection rate

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

As the appliance design is changed by increasing wire between the brackets or

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

MATERIAL STIFFNESS NUMBER OF ORTHODONTIC ALLOYS &

Elgiloy blue(Heat treated)

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

The figure shows a cantilever attached at B with vertical force applied at A.

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

The placement of additional coils at the point of support in a cantilever does

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

Ideal Orthodontic Alloy

All stress raisers should be eliminated as completely as possible.

A large cross-section can be used to strengthen this part of the appliance.