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Variation and evolution

Within the classification system, primate and hominin groups show evolutionary trends. Human
evolution is the result of interaction of evolutionary mechanisms and the environment.

Primate evolutionary trends:

-relative size of cerebral cortex
-olfactory/optical shift
-gestation time and parental care
-mobility of the digits
-teeth shape and dental arrangements.

Hominin evolutionary trends:

-bipedalismfeet adaptations, hip and knee joints
-relative size of cerebral cortex
-prognathism and dentition
-spine and pelvis shape.
Interaction of evolutionary mechanisms and the environment:
-effects of environment on early hominin evolution
-significant cultural advances associated with australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus and
early Homo sapiens including tool cultures and the change in lifestyles.

Evidence for evolution:

comparative studies:
-DNA
-protein sequences
-anatomy including embryology, homologous structures and vestigial organs
the fossil record:
-fossil formation
-geological dating and its limitations
-relative dating including stratigraphy, index fossils and fluorine dating
-absolute dating including C14 dating
awareness of problems with the fossil record.

Primate Evolution chapter 18

Summary of Syllabus points:
-

relative size of cerebral cortex

olfactory/optical shift

gestation time and parental care

mobility of the digits (opposability)

teeth shape and dental arrangements

Primate Groups, Common Names and Examples

- Lower (less evolved) Primates
- Non tarsier prosimians (lemurs, lorises, aye-aye)
- Tarsiers
- Tarsiers (Tarsiers)
- Higher primates
- New world monkeys (marmosets, spider monkeys, tamarins)
- Old World Monkeys (baboons, macaques, rhesus monkeys)
- Lesser apes (gibbons, siamangs)
- Great apes (orangutans, gorillas, bonobo, chimpanzees)
- Humans (extinct and modern humans)

Primate Characteristics
Body: Not specialized for any particular environment
Limbs: Generally unspecialized
Hands/Feet: Pentadactyl five fingers/toes
Nails instead of claws
Grasping fingers and toes with friction ridges for gripping
First digit opposable (save humans big toe)
Eyes: Forward facing for 3D/stereoscopic/binocular vision
Most are able to distinguish colour
Sense of Smell: Very poor
Teeth: Four incisors in both the upper and lower jaw
Brain: Large and complex
Cerebrum increases in size as primates become more evolved
Reproduction: Not restricted to a breeding season
Rhythmical sexual cycle
Usually only one offspring at a time
Long period of parental care for offspring

DIGITS

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Highly mobile due to arboreal nature of ancestors

Grasping, prehensile digits are essential for climbing

Thumb and first toe are opposable (first digit can be moved in such a way to touch each of

the other digits), though some lower primates only have sudo opposability.
-

Degree of opposability depends on the relative length of the first digit compared to the

other four (the larger the first digit: the higher the degree of opposability)
-

Nails instead of claws; limit grasping ability affects climbing

Some lesser primates still have claws (e.g. lemurs have a toilet claw on their second digit

which is used for scratching)

-

Fingerpads develop small ridges (friction ridges or fingerprints) to increase gripping ability

The end of digits have sense receptors so that the digits can grip and manipulate objects

Power grip all primates holding onto trees, climbing, swinging

Precision grip humans and old world monkeys increased manipulation ability of

objects, can handle small or delicate objects

-

Teeth become more generalised due to changing diet

DENTITION
-

Most primates have a different dental formula

Humans, apes and old world monkeys have a dental formula of 2:1:2:3

Lemurs and lorises have a dental comb (lower front incisors and canines are slanted

forward) for grooming

-

Old world monkeys and apes have large lower canines, resulting in a diastema (gap

between the upper canine and incisors)

-

Four-cusped molars in Old world monkeys, five cusped molars in apes and humans

VISION
-

Primates began to rely less on their olfactory sense and more on their vision sue to their

arboreal lifestyle
-

This shift in sensory orientation resulted in a change in shape of the skull compared to

other mammals
-

There has been a general tendency for the snout and nose to become smaller and flatter,

and for the cranium (the part that houses the brain) to become larger
-

Forward facing eyes allows for stereoscopic vision which is essential in an arboreal

environment
-

Results in a larger field of overlap (what both eyes see) which allows primates to judge

depth and distance accurately

-

Primates have evolved a highly mobile head and neck to increase their field of view

Most primates have rods (vision in dim light) and cones (fine visual and colour

discrimination), however the tarsier, being nocturnal only has rods

-

Bony eye sockets have been developed to protect the eye

The area of the brain concerned with vision has increased, whilst the area involved with

our olfactory sense has decreased

CEREBRAL CORTEX
-

The cerebrum (responsible for complex functions intelligence) has progressively

increased in size with primate evolution

-

The cerebral cortex, the outer region, has also significantly increased in size

It is responsible for higher functions: vision, memory, reasoning and manipulative ability.

The convolutions in the brain increase in umber and complexity. This results in the

increased SA of the brain which means an increase in the number of neurons and nerve
impulses between cells
-

This increase in the size of the cerebral cortex has allowed higher primates to move about

and find food and gain special skills (e.g. toolmaking)

-

There has been a greater increase in the relative brain size (brain size : body size) in apes

and humans compared to lower primates

-

Therefore apes and humans have rounder and larger skulls, to house their larger brains

GESTATION and PARENTAL CARE

-

not restricted to seasonal breeding season

however have a rhythmical sexual cycle

most primates only have one offspring at a time

compared to other mammals, primates have quite a large gestation period

among the primates, gestation is longest in apes and humans, however at birth, the

offspring are more immature and require a greater level of care and protection
-

length of parental care increases with primate evolution

in lemurs, the offspring are weaned at 5 months

in apes, the offspring usually leave their mothers between the ages of 11 and 13

because of this increased parental care, there is a delay in maturation

sexual maturity is reached a lot later in apes in humans than it is in lemurs, lorises and

monkeys.
-

however, this lengthening in parental care means that their period of learning is also

greatly extended and they can learn more from their mother and other members in their group
-

it also means there is a considerable amount of time and effort invested in their care and

survival
-

this increase in parental care results in the offsprings increased chance of survival

Review Questions and Apply Your Knowledge

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Evolution of Humans - 19

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EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS IN HOMININS

Erect Posture of a Bipedal
- Vertebral Column (spine)

S-shaped/double curve

Less energy required (muscles are needed to keep the C-shaped spine of quadrapedals
from collapsing in on themselves)

5 parts cervical (7 vertebrae), thoracic (12) and lumber (5) arches and the sacrum
and coccyx.

Reverse cervical and lumber arches bring vertebral column under centre of gravity of
the skull

- Foramen Magnum and Skull

Forward position of foramen magnum (hole where spinal column joins brain) allows
skull to sit on the top of the vertebral column less energy required large neck
muscles not needed to anchor skull to vertebral column

Humans are less reliant on sagittal crest for muscle attachment

Balance can be achieved with minimum muscle attachment always comes back to
energy efficiency!

- The Jaw

Much flatter facial profile decreased prognathism/protrusion

Parabolic jaw

- Pelvis/Pelvic Girdle

Stronger, wider and shorter than that of a quadrapedal

Wide, shallow like bowl to support abdominal organs (and developing foetus)

Tipped forward at 45 - ensures legs are under centre of gravity (sacrum)

Widened and flattened pelvic bones provide good attachments points for large leg
muscle groups (gluteus maxim) which help keep body upright

- Carrying Angle

The angle at which the femur converges toward the knee

The orientation and shape of the pelvis places the hip joint directly under the head and
trunk the weight of the body is transferred from the pelvis to the legs

Weight distribution remains close to the central axis of the body

Allows for:
- Greater stability
- the body to be able to rotate around the lower leg and foot
- each footstep to follow a straight line

- The foot

Gorillas/Chimpanzees have swaying gaits

longitudinal (front back) and transverse (side to side) arches convert the foot into a
complex spring

It absorbs the stress/pressure on the foot as the foot hits the ground and it propels the
body forward as the foot leaves the ground

The ankle also allows flexion and extension in only one plane

The foot is a highly specialized locomotion organ and has therefore lost its requirement
for opposability and prehensibility.

- The knee

Two hinge points, side by side, separated by ligaments

Keeps flexion and extension in one plane

Centre of gravity line passes in front of the knee

The resulting forces try to bend our knee backwards (prevented by ligaments)

Needs no energy to support the body

- Prognathism and Dentition

Canine teeth dont project beyond the level of the other teeth (look like incisors)
Dental arcade (shape of tooth row) has evolved into a parabolic shape instead of the
U pattern of apes

With evolution of humans, teeth become less specialised due to generalized diet
(molars became smaller, canines became smaller)

Modern humans appear to be gradually losing their wisdom teeth

Extent of prognathism decreases with hominin evolution

Modern humans have prominent chin, yet flat face

The effect of the Environment of Hominin Evolution

- Forests began to disappear, leaving increasingly large gaps between trees (between 5 and 6
million years ago)
- Primates had to walk from tree grouping to tree grouping
- Natural selection favoured apes that were better at bipedal walking
- These apes evolved into early hominins
- The advantages of erect stance:

an increased range of vision for detecting prey and predators at a greater distance

increased size deterring predators

hands free for carrying food, infants and wielding tools

higher reach for picking fruit from trees

improved cooling of the body (thermoregulation)

Ch 19 Questions

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1a. A tribe is the name given to a relatively new level of classification
between subfamily and genus. Humans are in the tribe Hominini.
b. Hominini Humans
Panini chimpanzees
Gorillini gorillas
2a. S-shaped spine, forward facing foramen magnum, wider and shorter
pelvis carrying angle knee, foot is a weight bearer
b. quadrupedal organisms have a c-shaped spine, quite a far back forman
magnum, longer and thinner pelvis, less of a carrying angle and their feet
are for opposability not weight bearing
ci. Bipedalism is energy efficient, allows one to see further, spot
predators, pick food from trees. Also provides a smaller SA for weather
(UV rays) to affect body cooling, better stability centre of gravity

Evidence for Evolution

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Fossil: any preserved trace left by an organism that lived long ago e.g.
bones, laetoli footprints
Artefact: any preserved item made by a past living organism for a
particular reason e.g. tools, paintwork, hearths etc.
FOSSILS
Formation
Parts of organisms may become fossilised when they are buried
by drifting sands, sediments, mud deposited by rivers, volcanic
ash or (in more recent human ancestors) by other members of
the species
To be fossilised, the remains must be buried rapidly, therefore
the activity of decay organisms and decomposition may be
slowed or prevented

In wet acid soils the minerals in the bone are dissolved and no
fossilisation occurs
If the soil contains no oxygen, in the case of peat, complete
fossilisation of the tissues as well as the bones may occur
In alkaline soils the best fossils are produced as minerals in the
bones are not dissolved
New minerals, often lime or iron oxide are often deposited in the
pores of the bone, replacing the organic matter, therefore
petrifying the bone (turning it into rock)

DATING TECHNIQUES
Absolute date: the actual age of the specimen in years
Relative date: the age of the specimen in relation to other specimens
older than or younger than
Absolute Dating
Potassium-Argon dating
Based on the decay of radioactive potassium to form calcium and
argon
Concerned only about K40 as it is the radioactive isotope of
potassium
K40 Ca40 Ar40 (K40 is unstable and therefore decays to form
Ca and Ar)

K-Ar dating is successful in dating rocks as the rock traps Ar40 as

it forms, the ratio of K40 to Ar40 can then give the age
The rate a which K decays is constant, extremely slow and
unaffected by weather, temperature, pressure or UV radiation
This method is reliable as long as the rock is at least 100 000
200 000 years old
To determine fossil age, there must be suitable rocks of the
same age around the fossil e.g. if the fossil was buried by
volcanic ash, then rocks would have been formed by the ash
around it
Half life: the time it takes for half of any sample of K40 (or any
other element) to decay
K40s half life is 1300 million years!! Told you it was slow :p

K40

Ar40
100%

50%

25%

12.5%

From 100% to 50% it took 1300my, from 50% to 25% it took

1300my, from 25% to 12.5% it also took 1300my and so on..
K40 decays on an exponential curve

Carbon 14 (radiocarbon) Dating

C14 is radioactive, C12 is inert
C14 can exist as a result of the breakdown of nitrogen in the
upper atmosphere in the presence of cosmic rays
Photosynthesis traps c14
o CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2

o The radioactive carbon is trapped in the CO2 and converted

to and trapped in glucose
Animals eat the stored energy (glucose) in the plant and hence
consume the C14 trapped inside it.
This C14 is then passed onto humans as we eat the animals and
the plants
C14 constantly decays back to nitrogen (and returns to the
atmosphere), however as we keep consuming plants and
animals, the C14 within us stays fairly level
When we die, we stop consuming C14 and therefore it all decays
and returns to the atmosphere

For every single carbon-14 atom there are 1012 stable carbon
atoms
By measuring the amount of radiation from a single sample, the
ratio of C12 to C14 can be estimated and the age of the specimen
can be calculated
Carbon-14 has a half life of 573040 years
Carbon 14 is very effective on dating fossils up to 70 000 years
old (approximately 12 half lives, therefore only 0.02% C14
remaining)
The specimen must be organic e.g. bones, soft tissue, plants,
hair, wood, blood etc.
Usually requires at least 3 grams of the sample to test
Accelerator Mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating only
requires approximately 100 micrograms of the sample, as it is
broken down into constituent atoms (e.g. when dating cave
paintings)

Tree Ring Dating Dendrochronology

Counting the concentric rings of the surface of a cut tree trunk or
specimen of wood
Each ring represents 1 year of growth
The difference in width between each ring indicates how
favourable the growing season was bigger gaps = better
conditions
Starting with a living tree, it is possible to correlate marker rings
with timber from ancient human structures (e.g. shafts of
spears) and gradually work back to timber thousands of years
old.
Limits: timber is rarely preserved more than a few thousand
years
Good for timber younger than 9000 years old

Has to be used in correlation with carbon 14 or potassiumargon dating

Relative Dating
Stratigraphy
The study of layers of strata
If you have three different layers (maybe different sediments),
and found a specimen in each layer, the specimen in the bottom
layer is older than the specimens in the layers above it
The principle of Superposition: assumes that the layers at the
top of sedimentary rock are younger than the layers below them
Correlation of Rock Strata: matching layers of rock from different
areas
Index fossils: fossils that are of great importance as they were
widely distributed and present for a short period of time
making relative dating of strata more precise e.g. fossilised
pollen grains or trilobites
Fluorine Relative Dating
When a bone is fossilised, F- present in the soil and water
replaces some of the ions in the bone
The older the bone, the more fluoride it will contain (as it has
absorbed more)

Not absolute as levels of F- in soils and water fluctuate over time

and from place to place
Dating technique is relatively easy, just measuring fluorine levels
No age limits on specimen

Geological Time Scale

COMPARATIVE STUDIES IN BIOCHEMISTRY

DNA
All living organisms have DNA come from common ancestor
Speciation
Two or more species evolving from one common ancestor
The new species will have similar (not exact) DNA
Distant relations more differences

 Closer relations less differences

Genome
The complete set of an organisms DNA
Chimpanzees share 98% of the same DNA sequencing as
humans
Chimpanzees have 24 pairs of chromosomes, humans have 23
Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs)
Are a way to compare SNA by looking at the introns
An ERV is a viral sequence in an organisms genome
It gets into an organisms by reverse transcribing its RNA into the
organisms DNA
It then acts as a marker and doesnt actually do anything
For a retrovirus to become endogenous it must be inserted into
the germline the gametes, therefore it can be passed on

through generation to generation

Apes and humans have 3 of the same ERVs
Monkeys, great apes, gibbons and humans all have ERV 1
ERVs make up 8% of a humans genome
Comparing shared ERVs between organisms determines their
degree of relation and indicates they have evolved from a
common ancestor

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

mtDNA has a different structure to nuclear DNA
It forms small circular molecules
5-10 molecules in each mitochondrion, each molecule contains
37 genes
13 genes are concerned with providing instructions to make
enzymes for cellular respiration, 24 are involved with making
tRNA
mtDNA

DNA

Structure

Circular

Double helix

Genes

37 (13 for cellular

respiration enzymes,
24 for tRNA)

thousands

it is possible to track parentage and lineage through

mitochondrial DNA (maternal line mtDNA is passed on only
from the mother)
mtDNA is plentiful 500-1000 copies per cell
has a higher rate of mutation than nuclear DNA
mtDNA is moving away from our female ancestor, the amount of
mutations is roughly proportional to the time passed
it has been estimated that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens
diverged approximately 600 000ya

Proteins
Ubiquitous proteins appear in all species
They have the same function no matter where they appear
common ancestor

E.g. cytochrome C, alpha and beta chains of haemoglobin

Cytochrome-C has appeared in protein sequences for organisms
right back to 2billion years ago, all have cytochrome C,
however there are more differences between less closely related
species (humans and tuna) then more closely related species
(humans and chimpanzees) common ancestor

The amino acid sequence for proteins are identical for members
within a species, for different species these sequences may be
slightly different or rearranged
Just like DNA analysis, the degree of difference between proteins
enables an estimate of the amount of evolution that has taken
place since two species developed from a common ancestor

COMPARATIVE STUDIES IN ANATOMY

Embryology
Comparing the very early stages of the development of
organisms
Embryos of all different species look very similar
Provides evidence for evolutionary change over time
All vertebrate embryos have gill pouches/arches, a well
developed brain, a two-chambered heart and similar brain
development

Homologous Structures

Organs that are similar in structure but are used in different ways
Classic example: forelimb of vertebrates
homologous structures possess a similar structure therefore they are likely to have a
common ancestor, the more similarities, or the closer the similarities are, relates to the
extent of their relation more similar closer related

Vestigial Organs

organs that may once have been important but have lost or
changes their functions
structures of reduced size that have no apparent function
vestigial organs common in species suggests common ancestor
humans have as many as 90 vestigial organs
e.g. appendix, coccyx, nipples on males, third molar wisdom
tooth, hair on body, nictitating membrane (in eye), muscles to
move ears

Geographical distribution
Isolated land areas and island groups have frequently evolved
their own distinctive plants and animal species

The only egg-laying mammals (the echidna and platypus) are

found in Australia
Finches in South America and the Galapagos islands have
evolved into 13 different species due to environmental pressures
and natural selection
o They al have differences in beak shapes and sizes as they
specialise in different diets