PHYS3032

Classical Mechanics

http://teaching.phys.ust.hk/phys3032/

Introduction
Review of Newtons laws

Classical Mechanics is the subject of studying why

an object (macroscopic) moves in the way it does.
Newtonian mechanics (Vectorial mechanics)
Analytical mechanics uses two scalars, the kinetic and potential
energies, instead of vector forces, to analyze the motion
Lagrangian mechanics 1788
Hamiltonian mechanics 1833 (briefly covered in phys3032)

Isaac Newton
1642-1727

Lagrange, 1736-1813
French mathematician

Hamilton 1805-1865
Irish mathematician

Why should you study Classical Mechanics ?

1. Because you love physics/math.
2. Because it is a required course.
3. Because it is one of the four fundamental subjects:
Classical Mechanics,
Electricity and Magnetism,
Quantum Mechanics,
Statistical Mechanics
that a physics major must have a good understanding of.
4. Hamiltonian and Lagrangian formulations connects to
Quantum Mechanics, Statistical Mechanics, Quantum
Field Theory, General Relativity and Chaos theory.
5. Useful in engineering and technology

How much mathematics do you need to know?

Vector analysis (chapter 1):
+, -, dot product and cross product
Differentiation of a vector function.
Simple integration of a scalar function.
Gradient of scalar functions of several variables.
(Mostly up to three variables the x,y,z coordinates
of a particle).
Line (or path) integrals of a vector function (e.g.
work done by a force). Complicated line integrals not
required

 know how to calculate the curl of a vector

function (need it on conservative forces)
used non-Cartesian coordinate systems:
Polar Coordinates,
Cylindrical Coordinates,
Spherical Coordinates.
(we will review them for you)
Differential equations (only ordinary differential
equations ) (we will review them for you)
Other mathematical methods (e.g. Fourier series,
matrice algebra) will be introduced when they are
needed.

11 chapters of the textbook; some sub-topics

will be omitted

1. Fundamental (Math) Concepts: Vectors

2. Newtonian Mechanics: Rectilinear Motion of a Particle
3. Oscillations
4. General Motions of a Particle in Three Dimensions
6. Gravitation and Central Forces
5. Non-inertial Reference Systems (Rotating Coordinate
Systems)

10. Lagrangian Mechanics

7. Dynamics of Systems of Particles
8. Mechanics of Rigid Bodies: Planar Motion
9. Motion of Rigid Bodies in Three Dimensions
11 Coupled Oscillators and Normal Modes

What topics will be covered?

Newtonian Mechanics about a particle
Lagrangian Mechanics
Newtonian Mechanics about systems of particles
Newtonian Mechanics about Rigid bodies
Statics, in balance, F 0
Kinematics, how things move. no F, no m
Dynamics, why things move. F = ma

 A Brief review of Newtons Laws

I. (Law of inertia) Every object
continues in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line (i.e. constant
velocity motion) unless a net force acts
on it to change that state.
II. The rate of change of momentum of
an object is directly proportional to the
force applied and takes place in the
direction of the force.
III. Every action has an equal and
opposite reaction.

F 0 a 0
a special case of
the 2nd law ?

d (mv )
F dt
F ma

F12 F21

What if the 3rd Law fails?

If F12+F210, the object will
automatically accelerate
disagree with the 2nd law !
We cannot survive in such
a dangerous world
The 2nd law F12+F21=0 the 3rd law

F12

F21

Newtons 1st and 2nd laws only hold in Inertial

Reference Frames
The boxcar
has a constant
acceleration

An observer in the cart

found
a = 0, Tsin > 0,
2nd law breaks down !
The observer on the
ground found
ma = Tsin , 2nd law holds.

But what is inertial frame?

Inertial Reference Frame

An inertial reference frame is a reference frame in which
Newtons first law is correct. (loop logic?)
One logic: 1st law defines a special type of reference frames,
Then introduce 2nd law which only works in such frames.
An equivalent logic: 1st law is a special case of F=ma, but
F=ma holds only in frames when F=0, a=0.
Do you think our Earth is such an inertial frame?
(a) Yes, because we can use Newtons first law here
(b) No, but it is very close to an inertial frame
(c) No at all!
The distant stars is the best approximation of an inertial
frame
Does 3rd law holds in non-inertia frames?

 Restore the 2nd law

To restore the 2nd law,
the observer on the
cart have to introduce a
fictitious force Ff=ma

sin ma 0

cos mg 0

F mg F

fic

mg
2nd law can be restored by including fictitious forces

Fictitious Force
A fictitious force appears to act on an object in
the same way as a real force, but you cannot
identify the second object exert the action
A results from an accelerated frame of reference
Although fictitious forces are not real forces,
they can have real effects: objects in the car do
slide

Real Forces
FUNDAMENTAL FORCES:
Gravitational force
Between any objects
Electromagnetic force
Between electric
charges, magnets
Nuclear force
Between subatomic
particles
Weak force
Arise in certain
radioactive decay
processes

PHENOMELOGICAL
FORCES:
Friction force
Contact force
Tension in rope
Spring force F = -kx
Constraint force
(a force that confines
an object to move along
a particular path or
surface)

Accelerate a bottle of water,

Which figure is correct?
fictitious force ma

-a

or
effective g g
g

Spinning Water
Spin a bucket of water
m 2 r
dz
tan
mg
dr
dz

2
g

rdr z

2
2g

r2

z
Fictitious

r
parabolic water surface
(independent to the shape
of the container)

m2r
mg

Effective g

Newton's Rotating Bucket (not required)

Newton designed it to demonstrate that true
rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative
rotation of the body with respect to the
immediately surrounding bodies.
-- Exist an absolute motionless space.
Mach: no absolute space. The curved surface is due
to the relative motion between water and the rest
of the universe. If earth, stars rotate around a
stationary water, water surface could become
curved. Nobody can say how the experiment would

turn out if the bucket wall is massive with miles

thick.
Fictitious force on water is real: exerted by the
rest of the universe due to the relative motion
between water and the rest of universe

Mach (18381916)

General Relativity (1915)

Two assumptions:
laws of physics have the same form
in all reference frames.
-- all frames have equivalent status
-- Mach's principle
Speed of light c = constant in all frames
Predicted a massive rotating body drags space-time
round with it, e.g. a massive rotating hollow sphere
affects the object inside it.
Confirmed in experiments around year 2000:
frame dragging effect of the rotating earth induces
a small precession of gyroscope in a satellite

Where am I?

???

???

Einsteins Postulation
Einstein claimed that the two situations were equivalent
No local experiment can distinguish them
The principle of equivalence: a gravitational field is
equivalent to an accelerated frame of reference in
gravity-free space

Einsteins Prediction
A beam of light is bent downward in an accelerated
elevator
A beam of light should be bent by a gravitational field

Testing General Relativity

General relativity predicts that a light ray passing

near the Sun should be deflected due to the gravity
of the Sun
In 1919, Eddington took pictures of the stars
in the region around the Sun during the
solar eclipse. His results confirmed
Einsteins prediction.

Limits of Classical Mechanics

Particle Dynamics in One

Dimension

Four common types of 1D problems

1.The applied force is constant: F = constant
Ex. The gravitational force acting on an object near the
surface of the earth.
2.The applied force depends only on time:
Ex. The force acting on an electron due to
the electric field of an EM wave.

F F (t )

3.The applied force depends only on velocity:

Ex. Air resistance acting on a moving object.

F F (v )

4.The applied force depends only on the position

of the particle: F F ( x)
Ex. The force exerted on an object attached to a spring.

Example
A block of mass m is initially at rest on a frictionless
surface at the origin. At time t=0, a decreasing force
F F0 e t is applied. Calculate x(t) and v(t)

dv
t
F t
F F0 e
dv e dt
dt
m
t
Fe
Integrate on both sides v
C
m
F
F
, v
Using initial condition t = 0, v = 0 C
(1 e t )
m
m
From Newtons second law, m

F
dx vdt
(1 e t )dt
m
Integrating and using initial
condition t = 0, x = 0

F
x
(t e t / 1/ )
m

Example
Solve the motion of an electron of mass m and charge -e,
initially at rest and interacting with electromagnetic wave

E E 0 sin( t ).
e- experiences an electric force F ( t ) eE eE 0 sin( t ).

eE 0
dv F ( t )
law a

sin( t ).
dt
m
m
eE 0
eE 0
Integrating over time, v ( t )
cos( t )
cos .
m
m
Integrating over time again,
eE 0
eE 0
eE 0
x (t )
sin( t ) (
cos ) t
sin .
2
2
m
m
m
2nd

 Case 3: F = F(v)
dv
1
F (v ) m
dt m
dv
dt
F (v )

1
dv C
Integrating both sides, t m
F (v )
This function can be inverted to
Further integrate x(t )

v v(t )

v(t ) dt

In air, roughly F -v2

In viscous fluid like water, F -v

Example
A cart moving on a horizontal frictionless track through a
medium that produces a linear resistive (drag) force -kmv.

Since at t = 0, v = v0 , C1 = lnv0
Further integration

If x (t = 0) = 0, one readily determines that

v0
kt
Thus the complete solution is x(t )
(1 e ) .
k

Z(t=0)=h

Problem
A bullet is shot upward. The air drag v2 . Solve x(v).
2nd law:

dv
F (mg v ) ma m
dt
2

Ask for x(v), so try to transform to an equation

about x and v: times dx on both sides:
dv
2
(mg Av )dx m dx mvdv
dt

mvdv
dx
mg Av 2
v

2
mg
Av

m
m
0
x x0
ln(mg Av 2 )
ln
2

2A
2
A
mg
Av
v0

 Case 4: F = F(x)
d 2 x(t )
F ( x) m dt 2

2nd order, harder to solve

dv
st
Rewrite as a 1 order eq. F ( x) m
dt
Using dx = v dt to eliminate dt and transform the
equation about dv and dx:

dv
F ( x)dx m dx mvdv
dt

F ( x)dx mvdv
1 2 1
W F ( x)dx mv mv0 2
Work = K.E.
x0
2
2
Kinetic energy often denoted as K, K.E. or T.
x

Next, we define the potential energy of a particle when

x
it is at a position x by

V ( x) F ( x)dx
xs

where x0 is a fixed reference position that can be chosen

to be any point you like. The potential energy is zero at
the reference point x0.
With the above definitions, the work done by a force
on a particle is equal to the negative of the change of the
potential energy of the particle.
(2)


x
1 2 1
2
mv mv0 F ( x)dx V ( x) V ( x0 )
x0
2
2

rewritten as

1 2
1 2
mv ( x) V ( x) mv ( x0 ) V ( x0 ) E constant
2
2

the conservation of mechanical energy.

the total mechanical energy of a particle moving in one
dimension under the action of a position-dependent
force is always conserved.

By making use of conservation of mechanical energy,

the solution for any arbitrary position dependent
force F(x) can be obtained by doing an integral,

The plus or minus sign is determined by the direction of

the initial velocity.

Some typical 1D potential energies

Constant gravitational force
x

xs

xs 0

V ( x) F ( x)dx

mgdx mgx

Gravitational attractive force

GMm
GMm
V ( x) F ( x)dx 2 dx
xs
xs
x
x
x

Coulomb force
x

1 Q1Q2
1 Q1Q2
dx

2
xs 4
x
4 0 x
0

V ( x) F ( x)dx
xs

Spring force

1 2
V ( x) F ( x)dx kxdx kx
xs
xs 0
2
x

Example
Determine the motion x(t) of a
block attached on a spring with
a restoring forcef(x) = -kx

x
x0

1 2
The potential energy for spring force is V ( x) kx
2
x (t )
dx
m 1/2
Integrate and
( ) cos 1 ( x / A) C
t
2
1 2 1/2
k
obtain t = t(x)
x ( t 0) [
( E kx )]
2 E 1/2
m
2
where A ( )
k
k 1/2
By defining ( )
and 0 C
m
rewrite t(x) to x(t) as x(t ) A cos(t 0 )
where the constant 0 is determined from the initial position
x0 x(t 0) A cos 0

For complicated F(x)s, the

integration required to find x(t)
may be very difficult or
impossible to carry out. In such
cases, we can still qualitatively
get a good picture of the
possible motions by using
energy conservation
consideration with the
aid of a P.E. diagram

P.E. diagram

force = - slope
F ( x)

dV ( x)
dx

 Some notations of
derivative
y f ( x)

1st derivative

dy df ( x) d

f ( x)
dx
dx
dx
Lagrange 's notation: y ' f '( x)
Newton 's notation : y
Leibniz 's notation :

2nd derivative

d 2 y d 2 f ( x) d 2

2 f ( x)
2
2
dx
dx
dx
y '' f ''( x)