Heritage Of Change

By

Wallace Andrew Sherrill

A BACKGROUND TO CH I N~SE CULTURE
AND
THINKING

This book is published under the auspices. of th~

Republic of China Branch for Cultural Phzlosoplues
of the
East- West Eclectic Society
P. 0. Box 7-51
Taipei, Taiwan
Copies of this book should be ordered
fiom this Society. The author, however,
. r t /flill.l' tlw ('llfJ)'f'iKhls of this hook.

Dedicated to
my

Ever-Loving
Daughter

f
'~
-.

,t.

<

iv

SYLLABUS OF COURSES OFFERED

By

Professor Nan Huai-chin

in
Department of Philosophy
Fu Jen University
Taipei, Taiwan
Republic of China

A. Origin and Study of Yi Ching.

II.

Professor Nan Huai-chin

President of the Republic of China Branch for Cultural Philosophies of tho:J
East-West Eclectic Society and Professor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of
Philosophy at the Fu Jen (Catholic) University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
He is also a Zen Master having achieved Instantaneous Enlightenment at the age
of 24 and a noted lecturer rn Buddhism and Taoism. He is presently 54 years
old. His training and assist znce made this book possible,

I.

Research of Ancient Chinese Cultural, Philosophical and

Intellectual History.

2.

Preparatory understanding and introduction of the study

of the three parts of Yi Ching namely Li, Hsiang & Shu
or the theoretical, phenomenal and noumenal.

3.

The research and reading of the Upper and Lower Commentaries coupled with the introduction to and discussions
pertaining to the hexagrams.

T he History of Chinese Philosophy.

I.

The origin and general survey of ancient philosophy.

The forming of the academic and intellectual philosophies
in the Chou and Ch'in dynasties.
The background of Taoism, Confucianism and Mohism of
rh c Iuter hou and early Ch'in dynasties and the thinking
o f the "I 00 hools" .

vi

4.

Th chan ge of the philoso phi ca l idea s, thinkin g 1111d ulture

in the Han and Wei Dynasties.

5.

Buddhism in the Wei and Ch'in dyna sties and th NorthSouth dynasty, and its relationship with hin s s hola stie
thinking.

6.

Buddhism and Zen in the Sui and Tan d yna st i s and

discussions regarding the thinking general d hy th e interaction of Confucianism, Taoi sm and Bnddhi s111 .

7.

8.

C.

The Nco-Confucianism of the Sung, Yn ;111 nnd Min g and

Ch'ing dynasties, along with a broad di s ' II SS il) ll or the
general scholastic thinking of that period .
The exchange and trend of Eas t-West
of the twentieth country.

'llilurnl thinking

Contents
Title ............... .. ............... . ...................... ...... ................ .
Dedication page .... . . ...... . ........... .. .... . .. ... ..... . ..... ............. .. . iii
Nan Huai-chin, picture of ................................................... iv
Nan Huai-chin, teaching syllabus of .................................... v
Table of Contents ......................... ....... ................... .. ....... vii
Preface

............................ ...... ........ .. ..... ....... ................ ix

Introduction
Chapter 1.

Second Year of Philosophical Research In ~titute

Studies on Yi Ching.

... .................. .. ... ........ ............................ .... xi

A Background to Chinese Culture, General
Considerations

Maps of Ancient China ................................................ 54-55

Chapter 2.

Practical Applications of the Principle of Change... 57

Chapter 3.

Change as a Way of Life .............................. 117

I.

The study of the Chou Yi philosophy and lh sys tems

of Li, Hsiang and Shu, i.e. the theoreti cal, ph nomenal
and nouminal aspects.

Chapter 4.

The Influence of Yi Ching on Confucianism and

Chinese Culture ............................................. 161

Chapter 5.

Yi Ching and Confucianism

2.

Yi Ching, its philosophy and its relation ship to th e o ther

four Classics, i.e. The Book of Odes, The Book. of Niles,
The Spring and Autumn Annals and The Book of 1/istory.

Chapter 6.

Why Chinese Thought Is As It Is

........................... 197
..................... 227

Cartoon "Fighting to Pay Taxi Fare" ................................. 243

Cartoon "Loss of Face" . ................................... . .............. 248

3.

The position and influence of Yi Ching on Chinese

Philosophy.

ultural

Appendix:

Table of some Shell & Bone Language and an

explanation of its symbolism .............................. 255
Bibliography ................................................... 259
Index ............................................................ 261

Note: The above are Senior and Graduate 1tudent level courses.

Preface
Originally, five Chinese scholars and myself set about
trying to produce a version of Yi Ching in Modern Chinese
from the existing difficult Classical Chinese with the further
intent of subsequently translating it into English. As is well
kno-wn, in Classical Chinese the words and sentences are terse
and without punctuation. Many and varied interpretations
can be given. A modern rendition thus can be slanted in
nearly any direction desired, i.e., towards Taoism, Buddhism,
Catholicism, Protestantism, Hinduism, Mohammedanism and
others. After a few joint sessions we recognized that the
task was beyond us if we wished to remain faithful to the
original. So, the project was terminated.
Being a Westerner and knowing that many Westerners
are interested in the Orient, the Chinese thinking and others
in Yi Ching itself, I undertook this task of writing a commentary and history of Yi Ching showing its continuing influence
on Chinese thought and culture over the past 3,000-4,000
years. Also for those interested, I have shown how Yi Ching
was developed and several methods by which it can be used
from both its noumenal and phenomenal foundations. In
certain aspects it is comparable with Plato's thinking but
much broader in scope. Its philosophy is profound and far
reaching. As a Way of Life it leaves little to be desired.
Most people, including Chinese, tend to say, "Yi Ching
i~ too deep for me." In order to overcome this I have tried
to write about Yi Ching in a manner which would be meaningful to laymen, students and scholars alike, along the lines suggested by Yi Ching itself, i.e., what is easy is in accord with
the Will of Heaven and what is simple is readily grasp and
comprehendable.

'o, the Heritage of Change was developed to present

three thin gs:
I . The history of the Book of Changes
2. The elementary philosophy of the Book of
Changes and
3. Commentaries on the use of the Book of Changes.
Of considerable importance to anyone either studying China
or dealing with the Chinese is to have knowledge of the influence of Yi Ching on ptesent day Chinese (and to a large
extent Vietnamese too) thinking which, in a major sense,
may be said to summarize the lasting effects and benefits of
the Book on the Chinese people. Many persons, both irt
private and official categories, can develop a better understanding of, or the improvement of, Sino-Western relations by
reading this book. It has value, especially to scholars, diplomats and military personnel.
No one book can provide all the answers. This book
makes no claim of being all wise.. Rather it is a modest artempt to develop a simple guide which can. be used as one
of many tools in future Sino-Western relations.
It also may be of interest to some people to know that
after the manuscript was written in English, it was translated
into Chinese for checking by Chinese scholars. In this connection I am especially indebted to Professor Nan Hui-chin,
Associate Professor Han Chi-teng and Mr. K. C. Chou (an
eminent Taoist) for their comments, criticisms and suggestions, and to several other Chinese scholars who read the
material in its Chinese version.
But above all I owe an inestimable debt for the loyal
support, inspiration and unstinting assistance given me by
my co11eague, professional partner and adopted daughter,
Miss L. L. Tu.
W.A.S.
Taipei, Taiwan
December 1969

Introduction
If a sagely person like Confucius avidly studied Yi Ching

it must have much value for all persons far less wise than he.
This was the primary thought that led me to investigate Yi
Ching.
This book was written largely to satisfy questions in my
own mind. I, like so many others in this present day predo~
minantly materialistic world, have been seeking fundamentals
which provide answers to wha:t is happening andwhich satisfy
the soul. Allof us want to find a "Rock of Ages" to which
we can anchor our souls and build a meaningful world, including the world of spirit. We need philosophies which are
solid and durable. Temporary panacea do not fill the inner
yearning for something greater than we presently know ourselves to be. A search for this certain something leads us to
marty things. One of these which joined my path was Yi Ching.
In my opinion truth is truth no matter where it is found.
All religions and all philosophies contain some elements of
universal truths. All eventually lead to a common goal.
Some paths are longer than others. Further, for some people
some paths are more suitable than others; some even adapt
themselves to a combination. So, to each his own. But
even though we may be satisfied with our own belief we should
not narrow-rnindedly avoid and withhold oursel~es from othe~
points of view, rather, we should, as Yi Ching says, "He must
have firm principles, so that he does not vacillate where there
is only a question of current opinion. Once we are ready to
listen to the opinions of others, we must not associate exclusively with people who share our views or .with members
of our own party; instead, we must go out and mingle freely
with all sorts of people, friends or foes. That is the only

xiii

way to achieve something." 1

Open-mindedly, thus, we should look for truths everywhere and accept them when we find them.
Yi Ching, as I came to know it, offered a challenge. What
was its background, its origin? Why was it written? What
influence did it exert? Since it reputedly is one of the oldest
if not the oldest book in continuous existence in our world,
has it been changed over the period of time? Why has it had
such lasting qualities? What was there about it that caused
it to be studied, officiallyand privately, for over 3,000 years?
Did it have some specialvalue in the past? Does it have any
value in the present? How deep and profound are its teachings? If of value; can it be made understandable and useful
for a wide number of people today?
The book as set forth attempts to answer these and other
questions. It begins with a brief background study of the
ancient history of China, including the origin of Yf Ching and
the part it played in those days. This is followed by a somewhat scientific explanation of Yi Ching, how it was developed
and how to use it. Subsequent chapte,rs relate to some of its
philososphic concepts and traces its influence in China in all
ages of recorded history. The final chapter in the book
deals with the sources and reasons for some of the dominant
thinking in China today. All of which adds up to an attempt
to understand our Chinese friends better regarding their cultural background and thinking.
Of course it is natural to consider the philosophies and
religions of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism (Confucianism is not strictly a religion). These have and still do
play a prominen.t role in the thinking and actions of the
Chinese people. Confucianism emphasizes humaneness and
humanism, filial piety and family as the foundation and corI.

Wilhelm/Baynes. The I Ching or Book of Changes.

Princeton University Press, 1967 p. 73.

Princeton, N. J.

nerstone of society. Taoism is concerned largely with the

physical aspects of development and longevity. Buddhism
is predominantly a method of development of the mind since
the universe is "unreal" (i.e., not permanent and changing constantly). Now when we Jook to their origins we find Buddhism originating in Jndia whereas Taoism and Confucianism
are distinctly Chinese. (So is Zen Buddhism but it came
much later). As for Taoism and Confucianism it is difficult
to discern which was earlier. Many scholars believe they
appeared at the same general time. So one was not the precursor of the other. If this is true, then something else
must have been, for we all know the present finds its seeds
in the past. The process of historical search has revealed
that both Taoism and Confucianism have their origin in
Yi Ching. How this came about can be understood by
having a knowledge of the early history of China which is
why our book begins with a historical background to Chinese
culture.
Having found that the hero of our story is Yi Ching we
want to know the kind of hero we have and all about him.
Thus, we naturally come to wonder what Yi Ching's origin was,
how it developed, what the foundation is upon which it is
based and how it is applicable to the world in which we live.
The explanations discerned are simple to set forth, easy to
comprehend and resplendent in natural truth for Yi Ching is
founded on the scientific principle of evolvement and explainable through natural laws of our world. It is a masterpiece
of distilled wisdom of many Sages as exemplified in the deep,
profound and interrelated system of natural laws applicable
lo all situations comprehendable by man. All of us never
cease being amazed when we study nature and its seemingly
limitless depths as a storehouse of knowledge and of enduring
laws. To comprehend these laws requires great wisdom and
understanding. To set them forth in a book that has remain-

X IV

XV

cd of value for several hundreds of decades as they have in

Vi Ching is truly remarkable. When all these laws are summarized they seem to be able to be defined by noting that our
world and universe is in a constant and interrelated state of
chan ge. There is nothing truly permanent except the basic
atoms from which all things are made and the laws applicable
to them, and co11sequently to nature and to ourselves. A very
remarkable fact is that ~evelopment of Yi Ching is algebraically demonstratable too. Out of out practical applications of Yi Ching we make two
very fascinating deductions. One is that there is such a thing
as Universal Time as well as a solar time. The second is that
all existence follows the Principle of Universal Development.
Universal, Time shows us that equivalent events do not necessarily absorb the same quantity of 'solar time, nevertheless
they fulfill their complete of exl.sterice. The Principle of Universal Development, i.e., that something new always replaces
something old or obsolete is like a corollary to an axiom in
geometi'y except that here axiom is the Principle of Change.
These two concepts offer much food for thought.
-Yi Ching' Is an exemplification of situations and their
changing aspects. One ofthe truly remarkable points it makes
, is that every situati; n- can ~hange into any desi'red condition.
'This is 'true if we folfow certain guidance and have our actio~s
be in keeping with natural laws. In accordance with the development of Yi Ching man is an equal partner with Heaven
and earth (in keeping with the meaning of Heaven as used
in Yi Ching). Man has Free Will a~d he is the one who can
~~ d~~~e his fate a!ld. destiny.
ma~imum-o~ly
six courses of action would be necessarY to change any situati.o n into any other. Yi Ching gives guidance.for these courses
o{ action. This demonstrates two additional astonishing
fa cts. Tn essence every situation is r~lat~d to every other
:-; ituati on sin ce we can change from one to another. Of unusual

A;;

remarkability is t h fa t lila I the reciprocal action from the

new situation ca n produ Ill old or first situation. To interweave these co rnpk xi ti cs :1s done in Yi Ching shows trem..
enqous wisdom on the p ~1r1 d the :tn cient Sages. Even with all
our present day sc ientifi c methods and compute rs, I doubt that
we would be able to impro ve on the interrelationship andre~
ciprocal courses of action as set forth in Yi Ching. The
methods for accomp lishin g this are discussed in considerable
detail herein.
From this follows that Yi Ching can be used for guidance
as a way of life. Fortunately Yi Ching is written for the "superior" man and consequently it only gives positive advice. Thus
those who use Yi Ching can find only that which is good therein.
It cannot be used by "Black Artisans" for the purpose 'of
Black Magic, nor for any negative purpose.
In this book we have chosen to use the eightfold Right
Path of Buddhism to demonstrate how Yi Ch1ng shows a good
moral way of life. The "Right Path'' lent itself more readily
for this purpose than anyth.ing else I was able to find here
in the Republic of China where this book was written. In
iny own mind I feel that Yi Ching could be shown to support
the moral aspects of Catholicism, ProtestantiS1m, Hinduism,
Mohammedanism; and Taoism 'because the . principles of
morality are the same no matter what one's belief may be. We
are 'n ot concerned here with a spiritual way of
and make
no claim that Y.i ~bing is the precur,s~r of any spiritual doctrine
the deor dogma other than what.. we say about
. it . influencing
..
velopment of Confucianism and Taoism. Of course it is : true
that a good moral life is a step, towards and conducive of
promoting a good spiritual life no matter what the path may
be. From what I know of t~e various religions of the world it
appears to. me that the philosophy of Yi Ching is not in con~
tradiction with any of them. .

life

'

'

XVI

Returning now to our matter of interest we are aware

of the tremendous influence Confucianism has had on the Chinese, their culture, their way of life and their thinking. It
has been the foundation of their education and existence virtu'nlly since the time it fii:st came into being. So it naturally
behooves us to analyze some of the salient features of Confucianism and s~e if Yi Ching played any role in their formation. Basically, this means Jen, Li, Yi as expressed in the Five
Classics: the Book of Odes, the Book of Music, the Book of
Rites, the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Confucian Analects.
Here again, when we search for the seed from which
the product grows we find that it is none other than our hero
Yi Ching. Confucius himself says that he is a transmitter and
not a creator (Analects VII Chap I. Also VII Chap XIK) so
it is not the least bit surprising that such is our discernment
and conclusion. And it is a true pleasure to note how well
this all interrelates and fits into Humaneness and Humanism,
and other practical aspects of Confucian doctrine as may
be applied in our daily lives.
Finding Yi Ching as one of the pillars of all Confucian
Classics, it was next logical to see what effect Yi Ching may
have had on Confucius and, conversely, what influence Confucius may have had on Yi Ching. Confucius himself answers
our first question when he said, "If some years were added on
to niy life I would give fifty to the study of Yi [Ching] and
then I might come to be without great faults" (Analects VII
Chap. XVI). Elesewhere we are told he always carried Yi
Ching with him and used it so extensively that he wore out
three sets of leather thongs binding his copy, which was written on bamboo strips. As for our second question, the fact
that he wrote Commentaries, setting down in writing the
basis and background explanations of Yi Ching, provides us
wi th a prime bit of evidence as to his influence on Yi Ching.

xvii

These Comm nt n111 I t' 1 IIIII' tl11 hasis of much philosophical

discussion in the I Inti , . '11111' 111d 'l";1111' dynasties, both as they
relate to thems ' I l', 11111 111 1 !llllll'l ltoll wi th Nco-Confucianism.
The histori :d cn11t1111111 y .11 ti ll ltdlll' ll of both Confucianism and of Vi ( 'h II H Ill ' II 1 lltr 1111:11 st p II> round out our
story. The resu lt nl Ill tilt . I 1\'1 it:t )'l' >I' ( 'lta11 leads us to
make certain o11 l1 1. 11 1 11 ~. tl'l'.:lldit> g urr nt 'hinese mannerisms and thinkin r . '1'11 ltll', llavin an understa nding of
this is important ror lwtln ltl krnationa l relationships.
To a major xk tt t I lta v satisfi ed myself with the writing
of this book ev't> tlt uu h it is not as complete as I would like
to have it, nor in so11 t cases, as conclusive or erudite as
scholars might wish it. Perhaps though it will produce a
spark in or stir someone else to carry on from where this
has started. 1 am reminded of a poem I learned some time
ago which summarizes my thinking and attitude regarding
writing this book:
I am only one, but .I am one;
I cannot do everything,
But I can do something.
What I can do I ought to do,
And what I ought to do
By the Grace of God, I will do.
- Cannon Farrar

Heritage of Change
A Background to Chinese Culture
and Thinking

<'IVJUZATION DEVELOPMENT
II
A
N

(;

1,:

"To rule truly is to serve."

- Yi Ching (#42 Increase)

Chapter 1
PART "A"
General Considerations
A Chinese proverb says~ "The puule is not complete if
a piece is omitted." This is particularly true in the case of
l'lliture since it is the sum total of the ways of living of a group
nf peoples. We all know, though, that the mind of the peopks is the last thing one ever learns about them. Thus relugn izably, truly little is known by Westerners regarding the
h:1ckground of Chinese thinking. Such knowledge, however,
l'.tll be the golden key to unlocking culture as well as being a
l'nide to the furtherance of understanding. The disciplines,
'.!lVII as history, philosophy, art, sciences, education and ecotllllll ics all play important roles. They are the foundation of
till' thinking, de~ds and actions of a people.
History and
pltdosophy go hand in hand for an understanding of culture.
1'11 :1 certain extent each is written because of the other. The
.. lill'lll interrelated features of both definitely must be knnwn
'"'d unde rstood. That which is thought is inevitably tied to
' lt.tl happens and why. Any ingredient omitted will not
Ill 1111 iI a correct picture to be developed. China has many
I.lll'IS lo her history and philosophies, which, in turn, have
IH 'l' ll reflected in her culture. Like the facets on diamond,
111''"1',11, they have a common background. However, as we
.til know, nothing is ever static, and additional time andre' . 11 vii ofte n bring new things or points of view to light, or
lll.t\' h til ' Y vcn show a previousl y unrecognized "power be-

llin I tilt.: throne." These add Juster and value to what is

already known. It is comparable to additional polishing on
an already fine gem. China has a great culture and, like a
_rem, it reflects more luster the more light is shed upon it.
Now if there is one thing all parts of the heterogeneous
Chinese nation have in common, it is culture, primarily its
thoughts which transcended clan and ethnic barriers. China
is fundamentally composed of five major ethnic groups of
Han, Mongol, Manchu, Mohammedan and Tibetan, and
several scattered minority groups, all of whom have intermingled and have been absorbed to the point where, to the
average Westerner, one can hardly differentiate one from
another. Originally, their ways of life varied appreciably,
depending on their origin and geographical location. Within
China itself the north has a colder winter and a drier climate
than the south. As a broad observation the Northerners
seem to be more honest and yet possessing greater daring than
the southerners, who predominantly are quite artful and who
endeavour to avoid excessive exertion. As a result we find
that the greatest portion of the cultural contributions came
from the north and from the northern and northeastern parts
of the south. Then there are numerous mountain ranges and
valleys adding further to the variations. Despite these kaledeoscopic, ethnic, and geographical differences the peoples
are knit together by ties and bonds of heritage that have withstood armies and ideas. It is like a river that flows ever
onward, maybe brought to a temporary halt now and then by
a dam imposed by a conqueror, or an alteration of course
by a new dynasty, but fundamentally the river remains true
to itself. In China's case, we may speak of a stream of humanity coming into it from the northwest and north, flowing
south and southeastward along the courses of the Yellow, Han,
Yangtze and West rivers until it covered the mainland, after
whi ch it became dense and deeper. The Pacific Ocean on

the east and the tropical jungles and marshlands on the south
hccame the limits of the flow of the stream except for some
of the more adventurous who pushed on overseas to Formosa,
Malay, the Philippines, Java and elsewhere. The southwestern and western borders are, of course, the Himalaya mountains, which for many centuries were impassable.
Yes, it is true there were people already in the southern
:111d eastern parts of China. To date we have only been able
lo conjecture regarding their origin. Neither history, folklore,
nor archaeology gives us any real clues so far. We do know,
1hough, that as their population increased they tended to
ntove inland and westward, making contact with culture genrrating from the northwest. Gradually they were assimulatnJ. Apparently they became so intermingled geographically
:tnd socially that at the time of the period of reasonable aulhcntic recorded history (about 841 B.C_)l & 2 they are no
I< mger considered as a separate group.
The mainstream of Chinese culture, coming into China
from the northwest around the northern tip of the Himalayan
tnmmtains, is considered as germinating with the Emperor
I u Hsi. Fu Hsi is generally regarded as a legendary figure
lo whom the beginnings of civilization are attributed.
It is
he who showed the people the value of capturing and domestil':lling animals (Fu Hsi means Tamer of wild animals), and
nf living in one area rather than continually wandering. It
is he who instilled the idea of pooling the common interests
, ,f 1he community and having them be under the leadership
:tttd guidance of wise and capable leaders. With him comllllt nal life is said to have begun. In fact, he is called by
tttany as the Father of Civilization.
I. l:ilzge rald, C. P. China, A Short Cultural History. Taiwan p. 17
h : ng Yu-lan. A History of Chinese Philosopizy Vol. I. Princeton, N.J.
l'rin ~:c lon Uni ve rsity Press, 1966. Unnumbered page before Chapter I
shows, "S un eclipse o f 776 B.C., the first authentic recorded date."

.'.

--

--

...

-----

'

or special

importance to us is the fact that he drew cer1a in li p u res known as the "Pa Kua" or eight trigrams. These
are believed by many to be the source and origin of Chinese
wrtltng. The "Pa Kua", 3 or eight trigrams, consists of an
a rrangement of undivided (-) and divided(--) lines in eight
d.iO'erent groups of three lines each, as the combinations permit, from three undivided lines together until you have three
divided lines together. Each trigram has a basic geographic
directional orientation in the universe along with assigned
natural characteristics, and from this, and their inter-relationship with other trigrams, the phenomena of the world and
the mysteries of the universe are made to unfold. These
trigrams are said to have been derived by Fu Hsi from observations of nature, astronomy, and geography. Others say he
noted special designs on tortoise shells, especially when they
were heated, and derived his inspiration from these. Later
we will discuss the Pa Kua in further detail and will consider
other possibilities as to their source and meaning. When
we come to fully understand the trigrams we will see that
there is a logical and acceptable reason for them.
So far as can be determined to date Pa ~ua can reasonably be ascribed as being the source of Chinese writing.
We all know that the characters used in China are peculiarly
Chinese and of Chinese origin. None of the other mainland
Asiatic nations use such characters. There naturally has
been an evolution in the characters just as there has been
in the Western languages. 4 Prior to Confucius, official gov3.

Authors note: The term "Pa Kua" comes from classical Chinese and
so metimes refers to the eight hexagrams as well as the eight trigrams,
which are a fundamental part of Yi Ching.

4. "The charac ters are invented and the Spirits cry" is an old Chinese
phrase desc ribing the power of the characters and imp uting that they
wou ld , throtjgh the impartation of knowledge, change the complexion
o i" th e wor l/1 whi ch would "shake the Heaven and the earth and make
ull the Sp irits weep in awe and consternation."

ernment works were virtually the only usage of the written

language except for short inscriptions on bronze objects. The
Shell and Bone writings were official records of oracles. The
characters used in these writings are not as advanced as the
later classical writings (sse appendix pp. 255-258). Confucius'
writings were in the classical style and inscribed mainly on
bamboo strips. The style used today is vastly di.fferent from
the pre-Ch'in period. That the Pa Kua could have been the
origin, as is generally belived in China, is acceptable even
though there were two cultural streams. The art of writing
could and probably did transcend geographic space for practical purposes whereas other cultural aspects moved much more
slowly. From the Pa Kua era to the recorded historical
period it is also understandable how each tribe or clan could
have developed their own characters. It wasn't until the
Ch'in dynasty that the characters were unified throughout
China into "big" and "little" characters, i.e., those used for
printing and those used for writing. The subsequent Han
dynasty carried things a step further by making four types of
characters common. These were:
Kai Shu
The printed type
Hsing Shu
. . . . The walking type
Li Shu
All having a "tail"
Ts'ao Shu
Grass writing.
6
According to Fitzgerald the Shang dynasty had a writing
which was a part of the evolutionary process of the present
C hinese characters. Archaeologists so far have shown that
( "hinese characters belong to China alone and as having
stem med from the northwest part of China. This would lend
fur ther credence to the belief that Fu Hsi was the creator and
nriginator of Chinese characters. The overall genealogy
~-

II is my est imate that the rapid progress made in the current century
hus produced, perhaps, a thousa nd new words or more si nce 1900.
(, _ Fitzgcru ltl, C. P. Chinn, A Short Cultural History. Taiwan. p. 26

shows us that in the earliest times they used knotted cords.

Lat er ca me abstract drawings, of which the Pa Kua are consilkred the earliest, and then characters. From what we can
determine we are willing to accept Fu Hsi as the genitor. We
all know, though, that authors in any period of history have
a propensity to ascribe thoughts, ideas, and artifacts to noted
ancient figures, 7 such as Fu Hsi, Huang Ti, Confucius, Lao
Tze, etc. in order for such matters to gain status and creditabiiity. Whether it was Fu Hsi or someone else is not of
grave concern. Rather our interest lies in the Pa Kua as the
source of Chinese characters.
Assuming that it is correct that the Pa Kua are the origin
of Chinese characters, we therefore deem them to be the origin
of Chinese culture. They form the basic bricks with which
the history of the Chinese civilization; its literature, art, and
7.

It is said, but we really have insufficient evidence for firm belief, that
Communist China has found some recorded information from before
the Shang dynasty. While they were constructing a dam in Chou Shou
Hsien they supposedly found some information regarding the culture
of China before the Three Emperor and Five Ruler periods, that is, a
period going back some 5,000 years.
From this supposedly new information they have re-written Yi
Ching with a Communist slant or point of view making the philosophy
of Yi Ching correspond to Chinese Communism. We all know, though,
that the original Chinese classical text of Yi Ching gives only the fundaments. Each writer or translator must make his own judgments
and explanations. Thus today we already have Taoist, Buddhist,
Confucianist, etc., and even several unorthodox versions of Yi Ching.
The truly important point of all this is that the Communists
consider Yi Ching sufficiently important for it to be a part of their
culture and heritage. Whether they actually found something new is
questionable. But whether it was new information, or else just a
matter of expediency to say they had found something new, we are
told they re-published Yi Ching. This reflects the high regard all Chinese
have for Yi Ching. (This information came from refugees from mainland
C hina).
Note: l'"i ChinK is used herein in lieu of I Ching or Yi Ching since the
former con forms to the romanization which is currently being
tau ght in most schoo ls teaching Chinese, both in the U.S. and
th e Rep ubli c of C hina.

thoughts became ex tended and alltplilicd. This, then places

the origin of Chinese cullur at a considerable time before
the "flood". There arc some who hesitate to believe that the
origin was that early. The two mos t ancient known books
are Yi Ching and Shu Ching. Yi Ching, th e Book of Changes,
came from the Northwest. Shu Ching, an ea rly chronical
record, carne from the East. Neither makes reference to the
other. Yi Ching shows the Pa Kua and their derivat ion . Shu
Ching makes no reference to the Pa Kua. The Shell and Bone
language was used for a long time. It does not give any clue to
the origin of its characters nor any evidence or information regarding the drawing of the eight trigrams (and later the sixty
four hexagrrums), 8 which are said to encompass all the "10,000
things," everything and every situation in the Universe. Relics of the Shell and Bone language, however, have only
been found in areas of the present Honan province, thereby
indicating its use on a limited basis in China and not representative of the culture as a whole. The limited use is nat ural since early China was made up of many separate and
independent clans, with each having its own historical background and geographic origin. We also know we have more
complete records from some sections of China than of others.
1-'urther, at that time, the writing from the northwest was the
only writing sufficiently evolved to express deep concepts,
such as those found in Yi Ching. Consequently, we must look
at the picture as a whole, rather than limit ourselves to specific
~~ reas, in order to find the best possible answer to the question.
H.

C hina Philosophical Society. Collection of Philosophical Essays. Taipei,

Taiwan. San Wu (publisher) Nov. 1968. p. 102-103 shows the following
Shell and Bone Language symbols as representing Yi (or Change of
Yi Ching the Book of Changes).
a. A combination of the sun and moon.
or b. A representa tion of the lizard-like Chameleon which can change
the color of its skin readily.
(The above na med book is currentl y available in Chinese only).

i\ddi liona lly, we must remember that before the Warring

Sl:11 s pl'l'iod there were no major systems of thought throughO il!
'llin a. Buddhism did not then exist in China. Yi Ching,
however, was in existence, valued, and even became source
of Confucianism and Taoism, which at this point in history
were either formative or merged. Other schools of thought
had not yet arisen. Some Taoists claim that this is not significant and that rather everything stemmed from Tao and that
Tao is the principle of everything including Confucianism and
subsequent schools of thought. Such claims are largely a
matter of institutional pride because in actuality, Yi Ching
embraces the principles of Tao. Admittedly, though, it played
an important role in the thinking of China but the preponderance of evidence seems to point up quite obviously that Yi
Ching, generated by Fu Hsi, was of even earlier origin, and that
Taoism and Confucianism were influenced and found their
roots in Yi Ching rather than the reverse.
Just when Fu Hsi lived, if he ever was a real person and
not a Spirit or a God, is questionable. Most scholars accept
the following as the "Chart of Traditional History until Confucius."9
The Five Emperors:
Fu Hsi
Shen Nung, The Divine Farmer
Huang-Ti, the Yell ow Emperor
Shao Hao
Chuan Hsu
Yao (2357?-2256? B.C.)
Shun (2255?-2206? B.C.)
The Three Dynasties (San-tai-Hsia, Shang and Chou)
1. Hsia dynasty (2205?-1766? B.C.):
Yti 2205?-21 98? B.C.
Chieh 1818?-1766? B.C.
!.!.

Fen Yu-La n. A History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. I. Princeto n, N. J.

l' rin..:clon Un ive rs ity Press, 1966. p. just before Chapter I.

2. Shang or Yin dynasty (1766?-1123? B.C.):

T'ang 1783?-1 745? B.C.
Chou 1154?-1123? B.C.
3. Chou dyasty (1122?-256 B.C.):
King Wen 1184?-1135? B.C.
King Wu J J 34?-1116? B.C.
Duke of C hou is R egent to young king following King Wu.
Sun eclipse of 776 B.C-the first authentic
recorded date.
Ch'un Ch'iu or 'Spring and Autumn' period
722-481 B.C. Duke Huan of Ch'i (685-643
B.C.) is the first Pa (feudal leader)
Confucius (551 -479 B.C.)
Fundamentally, it is desirable for one to study all aspects
of Chinese culture, i.e. , history, Yi Ching, other philosophy,
literature, painting, sculpture and ceramics simultaneously, as
each has an influence on the other. This is necessary in order
to get a clear picture of the whole. This, regrettably, is not
always possible, and, in a work such as this one, wherein we
are concerned with a special phase, aspects of relative interest
are only mentioned or alluded to. The ardent scholar can
study adjunctive works in order to gain a broader incite, it
he so desires.
When one reviews history along with philosophy one notes
that philosophies and thoughts changed and new interpretations were brought forth after each major crisis in a nation's
history. This can be either of an ideological nature or the
result of warfare, invasion or rebellion. It is as if a new
rationale is required to make the events, which have taken
place, tenable for the thinking society. With the exception of
the philosophy of Yi Ching this is true in China as it is elsewhere. In the study of Chinese culture it is especially necessary to correlate and have knowledge of the philosophy, li tera

Ill

l1 islory and art, along with Yi Ching, to get a full and

I ar understanding. The "wisdom" Yi Ching has portrayed
was written in what might justifiably be termed universaltimeless style. It is a presentation of concepts and ideas
rather than of specific la~gu-age that gives it this- ageless
characteristic. It thus proves that there can be understanding
and communications over the centuries despite changes in
culture and language (terms and interpretations). For us to
make this be a realization within ourselves we must have an
intimate acquaintance with Yi Ching and be knowledgeable of
the history and surroundings it has endured and overcome
throughout the over three thousand years of its existence.
China always has been predominantly an agricultural
society, wherein the raising of crops was the prime effort. In
ancient times agriculture was virtually the sole support of the
society. Large families were common since manpower was
necessary both for farming and for national defense. Ranching, i.e., the raising of cattle and horses, was never a dominant
factor and was only engaged in the north to a very limited
degree. In fact, the absence of horses made China especially
subject to the dangers of the Mid-Asian nomads with their
horses and cavalry, against which foot soldiers were ineffective. Even today vast numbers of Chinese people live on
farms or in rural areas. The farm and its products have
been the hub of the wheel of Chinese progress. Originally,
the society was composed of a landlord and his farmers . As
time went on the landlord group also became the scholars and
intellectual leaders. They further became the nucleus from
which government officials and administrators were drawn.
They were men of ability under whose leadership and guidance
the nation prospered and grew.
During the Warring States period there were many turnOVl:rs of rulers and administrators. M any of the feud al land
l1oldin rs were broken up and redistributed. Consequently,
l l i i'L ,

11

many families found themselves without means of support /

and turned to other vocations out of necessity for survival.
Out of this upheaval also, a new and broadened concept of
teaching emerged. F or:merly teaching was done mainly
through tutorship. Ruling families and administrators held
all the knowledge and information within a closely knit hierarchy. There were no school as such. Teaching was done
in the home and the most influential and wealthy families attracted the best and most noted scholars. The best of all
naturally, were a part of the rulers' or Emperors' court. Now
for the first time in the history of China we see students besides those of landed or noble interests being taught. Education became available to all levels of personnel and, as
we shall see later, the nation-wide examination system made
government positions accessible to the qualified regardless
of social or military rank. Out of this expanded level of
teaching came the spread of knowledge which continued to
encompass an ever increasing number of persons over the centuries until today when we have compulsory education for
everyone to the high school level similar to many other countries in the world.
One might even say "History repeats itself" for today
in T aiwan there are many former "mainland land owners"
who have since turned scholar or teacher. Many landowners
who fled the Chinese mainland on the communist take-over
in 1949 were landowners on a fairly large scale. After
!hey had arrived in Taiwan they found themselves unable
to resume their landowner status. Some turned to business
enterprises with success. Some immediately entered the
academic field. There were also those who tried business and
fa iled, and then resorted to academic pursuits for which they
were more fitted and suited by nature and training. This was
a "blessing in disgui se" to the R epublic of China for it raised
I he academ ic levels and standards appreciably. This pertains

13

I .'

a II th e various aspects of Liberal Arts and is not limited

to any specific area or field.
Going back to the early historical situation we find that
there was a natural geographic arrangement for the landlord
and the farmers. The center of activity for such a communal
group was the well which supplied all the water needs of the
community. Nearby around the well we find all the living
area for both the landlord and the farmers. This early
arrangement even became the Chinese character (symbol) for
the well as language was developed, i.e., ;tt: .10 The center
square was the well and the community's living area. The
eight adjoining sites were the cultivated lands. Even today
there are off-shoot usages of the system as many farmers live
in a rural "city" along with other farmers and go to and from
their lands every day. This is in contrast to the United
states where every farm operator lives on the property.
With the advent of transportation and communications
systems a new class of citizens developed, i.e., the merchant.
The merchants' status in the agricultural society was at the
lowest social level for many hundreds of years. His ilk were
the last on the scene and to a considerable extent transient.
Hence he was considered even lower than a tenant farmer.
The farmer was engaged in the vital function of providing
nourishment, was quite permanent in his residence and consequently was also the reserve manpower for the military
might of the nation. On the other hand, a merchants' business required no firm roots, leaving him flexible and consequently frequently transient. He had very little to tie him
to a particular place and hence his support and loyalty were
(o ft en rightfully) questionable. In times of danger he could
- and many times did-quickly go elsewhere. His pride in
Iq

Ill, W ilh elm/Bay nes. l Ching , the Book of Changes.

l' rin .. I n n l Jni ve rsity Press. 1967. p. 63 1

Princeton, N . J .

his community and the communities' pride in him were equal

with his acknowledged social status.
One other very strong factor relating to Chinese culture
was that China, for almost all its history, was self-sustaining
in nearly every way. This frequently was shown by isolation
from and towards foreign interests. A goodly portion of
this concept was automatically generated by the stable agricultural society which was the base of the nation and its policies.
Consequently the citizens had great pride in their country
;1nd in themselves. Thus, many considered everyone else
beyond their borders a barbarian, regardless of educa1ion, ability, wealth or otherwise.
A quick overview of
( 'hinese history however shows us that they were not always
isolationists. At the end of the Warring States period, the
( 'hou dynasty, in 221 B.C., was replaced by the Ch'in dynasty.
It was herein, during the reign of Emperor Ch'in Shih-huangli , the nation was first truly unified. The Han dynasty came
next and it was during this era that Chinese recorded history
first shows their realization of the value of external associa1ions and alliances, when in p_
8 .J!.C. an ambassador by the
name of Chang Ch'ien left the western borders of Kansu intent
on finding theTa Yueh Chih and attempting to influence them
:1nd induce them to renew war on the Hsiung Nu, a warring nomad nation to the west and northwest of China. 11 On
this ambassadorial journey Chang Ch'ien came in contact with
I he western world of the Greek controlled portions of Northern
India and BacteriaY Regrettably, the main purposes of the
various ambassadorial and military expeditions of the Han
rulers were primarily to reduce the danger to China from the
bellicose Hsiung Nu. Once this threat was eliminated Chinese
interests reverted back to those within their own geographic
II. F itzge ra ld, C. P. China, A S hort Cultural History . Taiwan. p. 176
I . lhi d. p. 179

14

15

bo und ari es. T hen it was not until the T'ang dynasty, some
six to seven hundred years later, that foreignization to
any degree took place with the exception of the advent of
Buddhi sm into China (c. first century A.D.). The T'ang
dynasty was very enlightened and welcomed all forms of contact with lands accessible to the west. From the records
of this dynasty we know they had considerable knowledge of
the Byzantine Empire, and their art and sculpture reflects
this as well. The Five Emperor dynasties were too disturbed
by rebellion for the serious consideration of foreign matters
to a noticeable degree. The subsequent Sung dynasty was
basically pacifist and the main routes for intercourse with the
west were in the hands of their enemies. They made no effort
to open them. In the thirteenth century the Mongol nomads
under Genghiz Khan easily over-ran China and began the
Yuan dynasty in 1279 A.D. when the last Sung pretender was
destroyed. "No nomad people has ever attained a fame equal
to that of the Mongols, and Genghiz Khan and his sons ruled
over a wider land empire than has ever been formed before
or since." 13 Kublai Khan, son of Genghiz Khan, is especially
famous and even legendary from the records of Marco Polo's
visits. While the Mongols were ruthless in their take-over
and rule of China, the Chinese, even today, esteem Genghiz
and Kublai Khan for giving them the greatest realm under
one rule ever known to mankind. In addition to being harsh
and severe the rulers of the Yuan dynasty employed foreigners
in key administrative positions out of fear of using and giving
authority to some of the native population.
At time of the Yuan dynasty China was more advanced
than the Western world. But sometime after the Ming dynasty took over, China began to lag behind the West in science
and materialism and has been behind ever since. When the
IJ.

Ibid. p. 43 1

Manchu dynasty came into being (1644 A.D.) it definitely

established and followed a policy of isolationism. This continued until the middle of the nineteenth century when the
regretable Opium War gave rise to the granting of extraterritorial right to England and France. Prior to importing
opium into China, trading companies had found virtually
nothing to sell the Chinese. China's independent and selfsupporting position was de facto. What she failed to realize
was that the world was passing her by materially and that
~he was not preparing herself properly for the future.
However, from a Chinese scholars' point of view, China
has always had the 'best'. Whenever someone new conquored
China they always brought the best they had with them. Even
today they are always in the process of absorbing and assimulating the best available wherever they find it. One can
say that, in general, throughout China's existence she has
:1hsorbed all newcomers and made them Chinese as well as
assimulating whatever of value these foreigners brought with
1hem.
Thus, they believe they have and have always had
1he best. As a result, even though they may be lagging
behind the west materially, most Chinese firmly and sincerely
beli eve th eir overall culture to be superior to all others.
T he self-sufficiency concept is and always has been engendered by Confucianism, particularly through the doctrines of
lilial piety 14 and reverence for the part their ancestors played
in developing the culture of China. As a result of these beliefs famili es always have had a strong tendency to remain
together and to continue to live in same places, lending each
other mutual support, and mutually revering parents and
;tncestors despite many hardships and other considerations
14.

F ili al pi ety was a part of Chinese culture from ancient times but was
fi rst se t forth in writing by Confucius. He also emphasized its value.
Add itionally, it became the social security of China, which further
helped ma ke it of lasting benefit,

16

17

involved in such policy.

Thus they try to stay near to each

other and rarely move or change residence. This tends to
make the nation and the peoples even more homogeneous and
s t ::~ blc.
This was especially true up until this current century
when mobility became a greater factor than ever before in
the matter of gaining an effective and satisfactory livelyhood.
There still are a great many families to whom the family ties
are stronger than economic, political, or ideological influences.
In considering cultural aspects we know the lives of the
people make the culture which in turn later influences the lives
of the peoples. Music, art, industrial products, dancing,
philosophy, religion and education all reflect the interests
of the people. Most Chinese art is related to nature, i.e.,
mountains, streams, birds, insects, butterflies, vegetation, etc.
Philosophies and religions also took on flavor of the lives
being (or which had been) led. Thus we find Co~ci aJ:!i~m as
. being
a "humanistic
way" of dealing
with one's fellow
man
.----,coupled with ritual and filial piety. Taoism relates to nature
an-de mphasizes the development of one's body for longevity
and-spiritual life. Buddhism is a process of the development
of the mind and the hidd~n-potentials of the mind for superior
attainment. Music and rituals were originally generate-d and
evolved as a medium to correlate human feelings and emotions with the spiritual world and forces. Music, as we know,
can sooth the savage beast. Conversely, it can make an
ordinarily tame person lose control of himself. 15 Dancing
ap.d . acting originally were spontaneous expressions of
emotions. Later, rulers capitalized on them to "portray the
Will of Heaven" (and the will of the ruler-the Son of Heaven
-to the people). These became. the forerunners of modern
15. In the early 1950's a song was created entitled "Gloomy Sunday." It
caused so. many suicides that it was banned both from sale and play, ing i,n most countries in the world. Voodoo music an d tribal dances
a lso exe mplify this principle.

theater, movies and television. Both music and drama were

11scd to unite the people, and conversely, to curb and redirect
emotions. As a result of this much of the Eastern music
was developed for specific purposes rather than solely for enjoylncn t, as is the majority of Western music. Consequently,
the frequency and tones of the "classical" Eastern music
difTers greatly from their Western counterparts. With the
need of special purpose music becoming superceded by other
means of influencing media and mass communications, we
note that old time "classical" Eastern music is on a sharp
decline.
Before we begin to study Yi Ching directly let us review
some of the cultural and historical background of the Spring
:1nd Autumn Annals period and the Warring States period.
In this period the language and the written words were
11ot uniform throughout China. 16 The cultural origin of each
~tate within the nation also was different.
For example, in
lit Chou dynasty, Chiang T'ai Kung was assigned as governor
PI' the state of Ch'i (approximately the region of what is now
Slt:1ntung). Chiang T'ai Kung was a descendent of Pai Yu,
.1 1':1mous official family during the period of the reign of Yao
.1 11d Shun. He had been a hermit and represented traditional
'1':1uism. However, he helped King Wen to conquer his
1 ll l' ln ies and establish the Chou dynasty.
His efforts resulted
111 )'.rcat achievements and, as a reward, he was assigned to
/' 1 1V1~ rn the state of Ch'i. in the same way the Duke of Chou, 17
\PS assigned to Lu Kuo (south and southwest of Shantung).
I 11 Kuo was a state whose culture was later highly praised
lt v ( 'o nfucius. The state of Ch'i, at the time Chiang T'ai
I 1111g was assigned, was not fertile; rather it was quite barren.
Jr,
1/

The infor mat ion given about the various states of this era is based
" " not es from lecture by Prof. N an at F u Jen University, 1968.
So nt c sc ho lars do no t regard the Duke as the son of King Wen and
: t ~~ ig n o th e r fa mil y re la ti ons hips betwee n the two men.

IK

al so was along the seacoast. Chiang T'ai Kung was reluctant to go to Ch'i and on the way dallied at an inn. The
innkeeper, who had learned of Chiang's mission, finally persuaded him to go on by saying 'the most important things
are time and opportunity and these should not be wasted'.
While he agreed that Chiang might be wise enough to remain
idle and give in to his feeling of not wanting to go there,
he should still remember that it is not given to some people
to remain idle, especially when they have been assigned a mission. It seems that the innkeeper was a real Taoist and a
wise person. After receiving this advice Chiang T'ai Kung
went to Ch'i Kuo (Kuo=state). At that time there were
provincial powers in Ch'i Kuo, so he had first to conquer these
in order that the country would settle down under his rule.
After a firm administration was established he started to
develop fishing and manufacture of salt as industries for the
country. As a consequence, Chiang T'ai Kung is considered
as the Father of the Salt Industry of China.
The Ch'i state thus became prosperous with a good economy during the Spring and Autumn Annals period and the
Warring States era. This state, Ch'i Kuo, is considet~d as
the origin and source of traditionaf Taoism., All great philos'op~--;f theWa~cluding Confucius,
Mencius, Chuang Tze, Mo Tze, etc., all had gone to Ch'i
Kuo at one time or another to gain experience or to study.
During this same time the position of Ch'i Kuo was like that of
Yang Chou in the T'ang dynasty. There is a famous line from
a noted poet "One needs a $100,000 dollars and a ride on a
crane to go to Yang Chou." But why should one go to Yang
Chou instead of elsewhere? Because Yang Chou was the
center of prosperity and financial matters. It was similar to the
status of Shanghai in the late Ch'ing dynasty and the early
period of the Republic of China. Great cultural activity was
prevalent there too. Therefore the development and exchangIt

19

ing of scholastic and political achievements all had something

to do with ,.Ch'i. The predominant philosophy ~nd religion
was Taois~. Ssu-ma Ch'ierl, the great histo~ian of the Han
dynasty, once remarked, "The people of Ch'i had a lot of
hidden wisdom." That is to say-that the people of Chi'i had a
great deal of knowledge, much of which was highly secret.
In another sense, the people of Ch'i were very clever and also
reputedly could divine things. Much knowledge of every sort
could be obtained there.
Lu Kuo, under the administration of the Duke of Chou,
emphasized ethics and human relations. The Duke also helpL~d expand the meaning of the individual lines of Yi Ching giving the significance and explanations, which are still valid in
comparable situations today. His work on ethics, human
rel ations and Yi Ching all had considerable influence on Confucius, who was born in Lu Kuo and in his later life spent a
l'onsiderable amount of his time there.
Yen kuo, which is situated between Ch'i Kuo and Ch'en
Kuo (or about the present Hopei) is important for its position
<llld communications aspects. The people of Yen Kuo were
quite adventurous and bold, partly out of heritage and partly
nut of necessity by being so close to the steppes and the war1 ing nomads.
They had great pride in their heritage and
.tchievements. The combination of their daring adventurous
:-pirit coupled with their geographic position made them con' rib ute appreciably to the dissemination of culture, especially
111 an east-west direction.
Sung Kuo, which was just to the west of Lu Kuo, is
1111portant for a different reason. It was formerly under the
lllll lrol of the Yin (or Shang) dynasty and was the home of
Mo Tze. Mo Tze had several unusual doctrines for his day.
Ma ny people believed his works hard to study. Some people
.. 1y there was no such person as Mo Tze and that he was
pu r ly fictitious. With the things he wrote being quite un-

21

.. o
usual for hi s day and time it was thought that possibly his
w~ 1 s a co ll e,.::tion of odd works, and for the sake of publication,
;1 ll were :1scribed to someone called Mo Tze. Some say he
was I nclian, others say he was Arabian or Turkish. There
were all kinds of ideas and comments about him. The reason
for this was that his writings were quite different from the
orthodox works like those of Confucius and Lao Tze. Mo
Tze was very superstitious believing in Heaven, spirits and
God. Most of the historians did not correlate the fact that
Mo Tze had been brought up in the Sung state and that these
peoples were the descendents of the Yin people. The Yin
dynasty, which preceded the Chou dynasty in this area, had
been steeped with superstition and a belief in God, Spirits,
and Heaven. Therefore there was a very heavy religious
aspect to the culture of Sung Kuo and, in turn, on the writings
of Mo Tze.
Contributions by the other states (Ch'in, Han, Chao, Wei
& Ch'u) existing at the time of the Warring States period and
earlier, were relatively minor and need not be considered in
our discussion, except for Ch'u Kuo.
Ch'u Kuo, which covers the southern part of China,
had a very intimate relationship with Lao
Tze and Chuang
.
..........__,.,
. '[~ Ch'u Kuo was a very strange country. It was then governed by a Ju Shung. At the time of the Chou dynasty the
position of Ju Shung was lower than a Duke. In our modern
terms it would correspond to the position of Major General.
In the middle of the Chou dynasty the ruler of the Ch'u Kuo
cal1ed himself Emperor. In interstate and international
relations Ch'u Kuo and Ch'i Kuo were very intimate. In
the Warring States period whenever Ch'u Kuo and Ch"i Kuo
united in act ion, then Ch'in Kuo (the present site of Szechqan)
vvas hel pless. Whenever the two countries differed and
s ' parate I in act ion then Ch'in K,.uo could deal wiih each
S L: par ~l l ly. C li ' u Kuo was a relatively new country in the
-~

south and represented new strength in that region. In culture Ch'u Kuo was colored by religion and a romantic aspect
fo r truth. Its literature was highly praised by everyone, for
instance, Li Sao and Ch'u Tz'e, i.e., poetry by Ch'ti Yuan.
T hese two documents were renowned and very well liked
in the other states. Ch'u Tz'e represented the culture of Ch"u
Kuo and was highly romantic. Also, the religious thinking
t11' the southern peoples was different from that of Lu, Ch'i, and
Ye n of the north. In thinking and culture the southern people were quite carefree.
It is very helpful to keep the difference between the backl; ro unds and thinking of the various states mentioned in mind
when considering the overall evolvement of Chinese culture.
Ma ny scholars, in their research, have not given adequate
('lll phasis to the conditions existing during the Spring and
Autumn Annals and Warring States periods, and this has
1lsulted in some misconceptions.
It is especially desirable to
I c ~ p in mind that CoJ:!fucius and Chuang Tze both_believed
tl1 at many of the good points of the rules of ancient kings had
I 'l-e n lost arid1eitthe mission to try and revive ancient thought,'
1 11stoms,
rites :ai1d usages~ Neither considered himself a
1 ll' alor but rath_er a researcher and retransmitser of the good
11 1a t had previously e~in order to try to improve th~
( 11 H.: n) present deteriorating conditions. In so doing they both
lt': ILhed b~ck to the timeless philosQP]l_y Jound_in :Y1 Ching for
l l w hac; is ~ o!__!heir ideas.
This knowledge is helpful for an
IIIH I rstanding of predominant thought from a chronological
. t:IIHipoint. We should remember, too, that it was not until
till' ( 'li'i n dynasty that language and a system of thought were
1111ilkd. Of course the real unifications came about in the
11 :111 dynasty.
We:, sho uld now look at another cultural background asl ll'l 'l of thi s overall historical period, namely, the' advent of
'1'.1oism. As far as records are concerned, two books played

23

22

very important roles on the thinking of this period, one is

Vi Ching and the other is Shu Ching. Yi Ching originated with
r u Hsi and was carried forward by the Yellow Emperor, and
came from the northwest towards the east. Conversely, Shu
Ching is -a chrsmo~~d showing t he reign of various
rulers and describing the way of life under them, came from
the east. The .manner of thinking which came into acceptance after Shu Ching was Confucianism. Th~hool of thought
whic ucceede~ early tra4itiQ!1~ ~-wa___J'!oj_sm.
Both Yi Ching and Shu Ching are a way of life although Shu
Ching was not written philosophically per se. Yi Ching was
truly philosophical and consequently its influence was great
and continuous. Confucianism, which used Yi Ching as its
philosophical foundation, gradually spread throughout the
East and subsequenlty all of China, and became the accepted
basis for living one's life. Some time after Confucius, during
the Warring States period, the "One Hundred Schools" of
< _philosophy arose. Eac!I ~arching for a way out of th~
dilemma and distress_ of constant fighting and . instability .
M-any lear~ed' per;;ns sought -~easons f~r what w;s happening and lived as recluses in the mountains and the wilds. Here
they had used the opportunity to learn about nature. Yi
Ching is Q~sed on the Laws of Ch_agge a~ observed from 11.a. ture. These men studied nature from a point of view as a way
of life and a way of dealing with one's fellowman. The findings
/ and gleanings of these men's meditations were assembled
~. in a book entitled Tao Te Ching and Lao Tze was ascribed as
----......
the author. Since Chinese value modesty highly, Lao Tze is
very likely not the real name of the author, who undoubtedly
used a fictious name rather than reflect credit on himself.
Thus Taoism, in its origin, was but an extension of Yi Ching
and showed how one should deal with others whether one
is a ruler, and administrator, or just a private citizen. This
origin shows the real profoundness and the fundamental rea-

- -

son for the simplicity of the doctrine of Taoism.

Let us now examine some of the early aspects of Taoism
and its influence on the culture of China. First we will consider L~~ _Tze and Huang Ti, the Yellow Emperor, both of
whom are stated by some scholars as_the founders of Taoism.
This comes from the propensity, previously mentioned, -to
ascribe writings and teachings to ancient noted figures in order
to attain acceptability and credibility. Lao Tze's book, Tao
Te Ching, is the_!3_ible of .Taoism. It is the basis for Taoism
as a philosophy and is a Bible for Taoism as a religion. The
question naturally arises what works, if any, did Huang Ti,
the Yellow Emperor, write if he is the father of Taoism? As
we all know there is a book Huang Ti Nei Ching, which is a
book on medicine. There are also four books ascribed to
Huang Ti which were counterfeited by later generations such
as Yin Fu Ching, a book on strategy and Lung Hu Ching, a
Dragon and Tiger classic. But since Huang Ti's books are all
counterfeited we cannot find a single work to represent Huang
Ti as we find Tao Te Ching representing Lao Tze. Then
why is it sometimes said that Huang Ti and Lao Tze are the
two fathers of Taoism. Ssu-ma Ch'ien, the great historian,
supplied the answer. He states that the Yellow Emperor
was a spiritually enlightened ruler and sage, and as such,
was the source of academic studies, philosophic works and
intellectual thought. He does not claim that these originated
wi th the Yellow Emperor but rather that Huang Ti knew all
subjects and was able to communicate and transmit his knowledge to other. Since he was the first person able to do this he
is given credit as being the source of such knowledge. As
such he is considered as having had some bearing on or at
kast inspirational influence on the development of Taoism.
On the other hand, Lao Tze was the first to definitely set it
l'orth in writing. Thus, in one sense we can say the Yellow
I ~ rnpcror and Lao Tze both were "fathers of Taoism."

25

N 'X I we need to consider Lao Tze and Chuang Tze.

Lao Tz~ <JnJ the Tao Te Ching are the traditional source and
fountainhc:.1d of Taoism. Chuang Tze is also conventionally
r~gardcd as an early key figure in Taoism.
He was a very
lea rncd and erudite gentleman, prolific in speech and writings.
J Ic accepted the 1)o CWay~_~ousce) and ':t:~ (Ho_~_things
CJII~9~) of Tao Te Ching and gave them amplifying
interpretations. His Taoism rises to a plane above human
affairs. 18 Consequently, even though having the same base
as Lao Tze, _what he propounded was quite different. Lao
Tze's work was quit~ simple. Chuang Tze's was complex.
Looking at each of them is like looking at two pieces of
sculpturing; one in elegant simplicity, shedding more beauty
the more it is viewed, whereas the other is complex with extensive detail becoming almost non-understandable by its
immensity as one studies it more deeply. Lao Tze's work
was orderly and clear whereas Chuang Tze's is full of explanations and scholarlin_ess such that it is very difficult to comprehend. During the Han dynasty, when reconstruction of
literature and philosophy was taking place to restore the
culture destroyed by the burning of the books 213 B.C., the
fact that there was a common base for these two men's philosophies make scholars speak of Lao Tze and Chuang Tze as
being of the same school. For our purposes this is not too
important. Rather, we are concerned with the influence Yi
Ching had on them. One very firm bit of evidence is found
in the fact that according to Chuang~ Tze there never is a
...
-. -- mom~en things in the universe a~ not in the progress
qf _9 1ange. This, of course, is one of the fundamental concepts of Yi Ching5 the Book Of Changes. Also, both the works
of Lao Tze and Chuang Tze used the principle of Yin and
"1(ang, which came from Yi Ching. Consequently, Taoi~m has

------------

18. F ung Yu-la n. A History of Chinese Philosophy.

N . J. Princeton University Press. p. 175

Vol. I.

1966 Princeton.

Its roots in Yi Ching, regardless of whether we are talking

about that of Lao Tze or Chuang Tze.
The third point is that OI)e should regard the "skilled ' ,
persons" of the countries of Ch'i and Yen as Taoists. Th~se
were men who knew some of the mysteries of life, how to (
pursue longevity, how to convert their bodies into spirit and
how to become like a genie. Among other things, they were
the chemists and pharmacists of the time. This entire kind
of knowledge is not directly associated with either the general
conception of Lao Tze and Chuang Tze. Rather, it sterns
from another phase of Taoism which we can call Esoteric
Taoism. Since Taoism is always credited with being the )
source of much knowledge, these "skilled men" later became
labelled as Taoists. This appelation has nothing directly
to do with Lao Tze or Chuang Tze. Rather, it is believed
that they took parts of the works of these men along with additional parts of Yi Ching, and by converting the thoughts
and concepts from these into ideas of their own, through
application and training, carne up with an eclectic synthesized
wisdom of their own. This they kept secret so it does not
form a part of the historic evolution of Chinese culture. In
their countries they succeeded the tradition of Yi Ching. In
other words, these "skilled men" from Ch'i and Yen were
true scientists of early China. So, in th{( studies of medicine, -.
chemistry, astronomy, geography, and engineering principles
we find that much of the practical knowledge connected with
these discip_lines originate~ith tl~ese_persons. / For the most
part one does not hear about these men in the course of i
normal studies of ancient China. Many scholars also look
down upon these subjects and therefore tend to ingore any
information or reference to them. Beginning with the Hap.
dynasty Confucianism and nco-Confucianism carne to the
fore relegating all else to greatly inferior status. Thus the
skilled persons and craftsmen were despised. This resulted

26

in such knowledge not being researched or advanced, leaving

only the practical art of farming as the major scientific or
material matter of concern. The dislike for these "skilled
men'' was so deep that they called all such persons Fang Chi
( )JJx ) or Fang Shih ( )J ). These are deprecating terms
usualJy alluding to a wandering merchant. Since they have
a variety of meanings they are also misleading terms. However, one should recognize that, in essence, these F~ngs (Chi
and Shih) were the real scientists of ancient China. Their
knowledge of medicine -and sanitatio;--;er~ of particular
value and are considered to be remarkable. contributions for
the era in which they lived.
In analyzing why things have happened the way they
have and the people's attitude we should remember that one
of the most predominant factors of the influence of Taoism is
its teachings regarding change_and reincarnation. As we
said previously, Taoism ste-~s initially~ .Y i Ching or the
Book Of Changes. A major concept of Yi Ching is that
everything is subject to change, i.e., that when there are bad
conditions, they will at some time definitely change to good
and conversely, when things are good, if they are let alone
and not properly cultivated, they will revert to the opposite.
Hence the Chinese people have always been able to adapt
themselves ~o many situations and conditions which Westerners would consider unacceptable and untenable, such as
floods, starvation, invasions like that of Kublai Khan, and
even in 193 7, to the Japanese invasion and control. Along
with this belief of 'Change' is the belief of reincarnation, such
that the time spent here on earth at any one life time is on~y
a s1nall visible partorman'sovera 1 existe11ce, so w!lat doe~
it m~tter- ifdeath comes early or late? 1'ilese two factors,
that things are bound to change- (for the better) and an unonccrn rega rding death, which are fundamental beliefs of
most hincse, have played a great part in the ka1eideoscopic
pall rn of the evolution of China and her culture.

PART "B"
Some Specific Considerations Regarding

Y1 CHING
The primary aspect of Yi Ching is its philosophy. In addition, it contains phenomenology, numerology and presumably a means of determining the "Will of Heaven." Many people
are not aware of the profound philosophy it envelops for development of a way of life for individuals, communities and nations as well as for the "10,000 things" of the universe. Most
Chinese leaders have been students of Yi Ching and are cognizant of its great potential. They also have an understanding of the development of Yi Ching and how it reflects the
"Will of Heaven." Regretably, there are some persons who
classify this latter capability as divination, resulting in misconceptions, thereby destroying, or at least reducing, much
of its usefulness. By being capable of being classified as
a book on divination many people have not sought it, thereby
missing 'its primary value as a philosophy and how it was
the fore-runner of Taoism, (scientific) Geomancy, and other
Chinese philosophies and concepts. As we will later see,
we do find a great deal of interest in it in the scholastic world
and among administrators and government officials of China
in all areas and all eras. So even though we have not as
yet found definite proof of its source, we have ample evidence
and proof of its inimical value during the period of recorded
history.
We should not overlook the fact that the early considerations regarding what constituted recordable history
varied appreciably from present day thinking. Hence, it may
be quite likely the early historians did not feel that philo-

29

.':i

so pltit.:s were worthy of note, since none were mentioned.

/\s wt; arc told, Yi Ching was originally handed down orally
hy c;1sily memorizable verse. . There was no literature, per
s ., at that time so the foregoing seems a likely possibility.
Yi Ching's thoughts and value were so deep for the overall
levels of in!elligence then existing that it may have been regarded in a secret or semi-secret manner. This would also
account for an absence of recorded information. 19 =-In regard3 to divin.s.tion, we do have references to an
ancient process to determine the "Will of Heaven." This was
called "Chan Pu" ( r5 r ). In those times, and some still
in the pre~ent day, people were interested in fortune telling
and prognostic:rtion. (We have previously mentioned the
use of the Shell and Bone language for oracular purposes).
Chan Pu was the method used then. It was a way to search
for the metaphysical, the unknown, the mysterious and the
Way of Heaven. "Chan" was a method of throwing cow
or sheep bones and making determinations and interpretations according to the pattern developed. "Pu" is like the
bamboo tallies one finds in Taoist temples today. 20 The
19.

Masonic, Rosicrucean and many other organizations are largely secret.

Over the centuries most of our modern historians have not mentioned
them, the works they have done nor the influence they have exerted.
The same is no doubt true regarding secret matters in ancient history.

20.

When a person desires an answer to a particular question or problem,

he can go to a Taoist temple and (presumably) obtain guidance or
fore-knowledge of the outcome of the situation or question. After
reaching a temple the questioner kneels at an altar and prays, in a
manner similar to Western prayer, for help and guidance regarding
the matter of concern to him. When finishes praying, he picks up
two crescent shaped pieces of wood about 4"-5" in length. These are
fiat on one side a nd curved on the other. If after being tossed one
comes up with the flat side showing a nd the other with the curved
side showing the answer is yes. If both fiat sides are down and the
c urved sides up, the answer is no. Should both flat sides be showing
it is sa id th ey are "smiling"' at you and you should toss the pieces of
wood : q~ain until you get a yes or no. If you get a no you must
h 11 i1g your qu es ti o n to something else. When you get a yes you

dra\ving of a particular tally was purely a matter of chance

based on one's own inclination at the time, hence thought to
stem from the inner sources of man and consequently provide
him a correct answer by virtue of this inner intuitive action
on the part of the questioner. In general, the oracles and
interpretations were not clearly nor fully understood at the
time they were drawn. However, later they always seemed
to coincide with what happened or else were rationalized to
agree with the answer given. This same concept of inner
relationship is held regarding the drawing of bamboo tallies
and answers to questions given today in temples.
Yi Ching, on the other hand, is based on the evolution
of Tao and Yin and Yang, and then the "10,000 things" of
the universe. The third stage of this evolutionary (see next
chapter) process produces the Pa Kua ( i\ i~ ). Explanation
of these came from knowledge of natural laws and observations
of nature. . By knowing the past and present, one can predict
chose one of the 64 tallies out of a cylindrical container (some people
chose the tallies before tossing the pieces of wo od). These t allies are
all alike, being about 1/ 2" wide, 1/ 4" thick and about 18" long,
slightly shaped at one end for ornamentation. The characters on the
tallies are not visible at the time of drawing. With a yes for that
tall y one goes to a wall board that has 64 different slips of papers
and obtains the one which corresponds with the characters on the
tally. These slips of paper have four sections of statements or sayings
relating to the physical, mental, spiritual and moral spheres of activity.
These four spheres are believed to cover all aspects of any situation
or question. One can either make his own interpretations or seek
the assistance of a monk for this purpose. The writings on these
slips of paper largely provide guidance for the courses of action to
be followed to achieve the desired goal rather than giving one a
specific yes or no. At best the slips show whether a situation is
favorable or unfavorable. Consequently they ca nnot be proven invalid,
since, if things do not turn out according to the interpretation it was
either a n error in the interpretation or the courses of action recommendad were not faithfully followed. Many temples receive large
donations or grants from people who have received answers which
they wa nted or which they felt to be right a nd subsequently proved
to be correct.

30

31

the future. By knowing the present one can account for

1he past. It is this capability that, regrettably, has given
Y i Ching a reputation for divination. Our interest lies,
rather, in its usefulness and influence as a philosophy.
There are many a keys to study Chou Yi. The Yi Shu
(Book of Changes) we have today is predominantly Chou Yi.
It is not enough to merely understand the explanation of the
philosophy of each sentence or expression. It is more important
and a better approach to the problem to get a general idea
of the thoughts first, then try to associate the philosophy,
phenomenology and numerology in detail. One should keep
this principle in mind and not try to vivisece 1 or isolate ideas
in Yi Ching too quickly.
Yi has three parts-Li ("V.!), Hsiang (~) and Shu (~).
Li
is the philosophy,
the theory and the basic ideas.
,..._-.
Hsiang is the plzysi.cal and s iritua! ph~~2-~na and
the concept and implications each hexagram represents.
Shu is the number and particles, (th~~ogy).
The whole of Yi as well as every Yi hexagram has its Li,
Hsiang and Shu. Yi cannot be explained only with the
abstract Li. One has to understand the Hsiang and Shu as
well in order to full comprehend the philosophy, Li. 22 Ssu-Ma
Ch'ien, in his preface to Shih Chi, wrote "Study heaven,
nature and men, then one will understand the changes of the
past and the present". In other words he says that if you see
the Li, Hsiang and Shu of Yi Ching you will comprehand all
the situations and changes in the universe.
2 1. The term vivisect was used here in that Yi Ching is considered to
have a living spirit and is far more than a mere composition of meaningful words and phrases.
22. The Li, Hsiang and Shu of Yi are parallel to the Ti (ft), Hsiang (#l)
and Yung (ffj) of Buddhism. Since Buddhism was subsequent to the
Yi, it is quite probable that they were patterned after the concepts
in Yi .

The book Yi Ching Chi Chu, (Notes on the Book of

Changes) was compiled by the metaphysical scholars in the
Sung dynasty. Their emphasis was, naturally, more on Li
than on Hsiang or Shu. Moreover their Li is the moral
science of the metaphysical school. Many misconceptions
can arise if one uses and studies these notes only. Further
the value of personal study and experience with Yi Ching
cannot be overestimated. An understanding of the background plus a grasp of the manner in which Yi Ching was
produced and developed permits one to understand it in the
light of today's thinking despite its origin of many centuries
ago.
Several ancient books can be mentioned at this point
for reference purposes for any student of Yi Ching who desires to pursue this subject more deeply:
1. Lien Shan Yi and Kuei Ts'ang Yi. The former relates to the study of changes from the view point of heaven
and the latter emphasizes the return of everything to its original
condition. Both these books have been lost and we only
have hearsay evidence regarding them. However some scholars
may be fortunate and some day come across one or both
of them.
2. Yi Wei. This book tries to explain the processes
of change and presumably contains information that is in
Lien Shan Yi and Kwei -Ts'ang Yi but it" is believed to have
been written at a much later period with attempts to ascribe it
to an earlier period. For most intents and purposes it is
considered as forged.
3. Lien Shan Yi of the Hsia dynasty.
4. Kuei Ts'ang Yi of the Yin Shang dynasty.
5. Chi Fon or the Power and Spirit of Heaven and
Earth.
23.

Other reference books: "Collections of Yi Discussions Yi Hsuch T'ao

Lun Chi (~~ii+~ii\~ ) and Ts 'ao Hua Tung (~{~il!i).

33

2.

llsing Fen or the Diagrams on the Physical Phenomna of nature.

The later books are said to be a continuation of the Y elluw E mperor's philosophy and fit in or correspond to the
Chou Yi or Book of Changes produced by King Wen, which
is the text of Yi Ching written in classical Chinese and is what
we use today for basis of studying the basic book of changes.
Are the first two Yi's definitely lost? It is hard to know.
Scholars in the Han dynasty talked about Yin, Yang, Hsiang
Shu and Tao Yi. It would seem they preserved Lien Shan
and Kuei Ts'ang Yi but today we cannot find them.
After the burning of the books during the Ch'in dynasty,
(213 B.C.) people were forbidden to study the Hsiang Shu Yi
i.e., the scientific aspect of Yi. Therefore this portion of
Yi went undergound. The philosophic portions of Yi, or the
Chou Yi, were still permitted. The Hsiang Shu thus became
a confiscatable item which very few people dared have in
their possession. There were a "gypsy" class who, like today's Gypsies, paid little respect to prescribed laws and orders
and did retain this book. So we should never look down on
gypsy type people nor miscellaneous writers, for they may be
m possession of some vital intellectual key for tomorrow.
The Han scholars propagated three types of Yi (change)
in their analization and commentaries regarding Chou Yi,
namely, Pu Yi (/G ), Pien Yi (~) and Chiao Yi (3C).
Pu Yi is regarded as No Cha.!lge. This is based on th_e function- of an object whi~h according to them never chang~s.
.A drop of water-is still a drop of water whether it is dripping
from a leakly faucet or is part of mountain stream where you
are fishing for trout. A piece of granite has the same characteristics and strength whether it is still in the quarry or has
become the corner stone for some new federal building.
Today when we speak of change as relates to Yi Ching we
co nsider it like the part of a rolling wheel which touches the
(L

grou nd. The point of contact is instantaneously at rest and

i:- . the dividing point between the past and the future. It
is the momentary present, that one instant of time which
:tlone is the present.
--,The Han scholars considered Pien Yi . as cyclic change
: 111d that everything was changing all the time.
Obviously
Iil ey had difficulty in correlating this theory with
Ptt Yi or no change. Pu Yi, we must remember,
rr lates to function and basic elements. Pien Yi , relates
I<, form and the composition of elements and con~, l' quently is subject to constant change in space and time.
Tltis theory of constant change became a basic part of Buddhist ic doctrine wherein they say that everything is change:thk and therefore an illusion and unreal. Reality is the
11< 111-changeable, the basic dust from which all things are
tlt:tde and the forces, positive and negative which create them.
Today, use is made by our scientist of this process o.f constant
<lt :t nge wherein, as an example, our nuclear physicists make
'' "l' of the "half life" of elements in their process of deterioralt< 111 and decay. Fundamentally cyclic change is that similar
11 , lite changes of the moon, day, seasons, etc.
Chiao Yi is the theory of the interrelationship of change,
lil:l( is, whenever one thing changes the entire universe is
1111s quently different as a result of this change. We see
'''''"Ld iately that Chiao Yi is included in Pien Yi and is a
phtl<>so phic extension of Pien Yi. In as much as Pien Yi is
11 w process of constant change it is easy to see that the uni' ,., ~-~ is never static. Since each item is changing constantly
1111' . tlltt of all items is constantly changing and hence the
1 '< ' I dil'l'~.:rc nt uni.verse.
But in addition, Chiao Yi represents
1l11 ' r l'"" c resulting from non-cyclic change, rather chance
1 1 .11 '1'id ntly type change.
For example, if while wearing
.J., ,.ts you stumble and fall down, it is quite probable that
1111 1 gl:tss s would fall off and break.
The stumbling, fall-

35

111 ' ;1nd the breakage of the glasses all are part of a new
c h;1in of events which alter the sum total of the universe.

Thus every act and every deed, no matter where occurring,

has an effect on everything else. Many modern and twen1ieth century philosophers wrestled and are still wrestling
with this problem. Quite a few of these probably are or were
not aware of the eastern origin of this problem and that it subsequently in later centuries filtered to the west along with
the development of communications and trade. Most western students are led to believe that the world of interrelated
ideation began with Berkeley, Hume and Locke and their
contemporaries in both era and thought.
Regarding Chiao Yi and the theory it relates to, Chuang
Tze said "My life is limited; my knowledge is not limited.
From a thorough study of the limited we can come to know
something about the unlimited". This is saying that from a
knowledge of the laws of heaven and nature, as they are
manifested on earth and through man, one can have a degree
of knowledge regarding the unlimited. This is the basic
principle of all Yi.
Consequently Chiao Yi uses the sixty four hexagrams to
represent all changes. Beginning with the unchangeable, the
present situation, we can trace events back to their seeds, and
by applying the laws we have observed, we can have foreknowledge of the future.
From the time of the Han dynasty, after Pan Ku wrote
Han Shu Yi Wen Chih, Yi Ching has been consid~red the
earliest book in Chinese <;ulture ... In Yung Le Ta Tien
( :1k~:k:Jl!t. the dictionary of Yung Le) in the Ming dynasty
and the Szu K'u Ch'iian Shu (!I9 Jf~11 the encyclopedia) of
the Ch'ing dynasty, Yi Ching is always the first book. They
all presume that Yi Ching is the head (beginning) of all
books. Tn other words, it's the origin of all phases of Chinese
Cult me. Addition ally, written words commenced as a result

of Fu Hsi drawing the eight trigrams. This is also verified

hy ideas in the Yi Hsi Ts'z Shang Hsia Chuan ( ~~1:r
W) which is said to have been written by Confucius. Some
people suspect that Yi Hsi Ts'z Shang Hsia Chuan was not
truly written by Confucius but ascribed to him for purposes
o( acceptability, as other works have been done.
However
this suspicion may not be absolutely correct. It might merely
he a guess since the type of phraseology contained in it is
similar to those of Confucius as set down his disciples.
The matter of the eight trigrams as being the origin
o[ written words is a matter of judgment. There is no question
hut that Fu Hsi's trigrams were the beginning of Yi Ching.
The development of the sixty four hexagrams offers a possibility for the invention of the Chinese characters but they
should not be regarded as stemming from Yi Ching per se.
I fowever, there is no record of any other book whose origin
goes as far back in history as Yi Ching so it could ha.ve played
an important role in the spread of the new characters. This
is conjecture since even such ancient books as Shang Slm
(Canon of Yao and Shun) and Li Chi (the Book of Rites)
seldom mention Yi Ching. On the other hand we do know
I hat during the Chou dynasty and at all times subsequent
thereto Chou Yi, later known as Yi Ching was tremendously
popular. Before then there was nothing but the bare elementary unexplained classical version of Yi Ching. This merely
was sixty four hexagrams with a few easily memorizable
v rsc regarding each.
These verses were subject to many
:1nd varied interpretations. King Wen expanded these verses
Jrtlo sound images and judgments. His son, the Duke of Chou,
1~: 1vc logical meanings relating to the changes of the individual
lines of each hexagram. And, later, Confucius gave his
\'tHn men taries regarding Yi Ching as a whole.
i\t this point it is well for us to be reminded of the
1wo streams of culture. The first originates with Fu Hsi

S ll c 11 Nun g, Huang Ti and Shang Chou. This is the cultural

sys lclll o( Yi Ching and comes from the northwest part

of C hin a. The other is the culture of Yao, Shun, Yu, Shang
and T'a ng. This is the cultural system of Shu Ching that
comes from the east and northeast (East of HoNan and east
and north of the Yellow River).
Li Chi, the Book of Rites, combines both the east and
the west cultures and becomes the culture of Chou. Chronologically, from Fu Hsi ... Shen Nung until the Yao Shun,
Yti T'ang, the east-west culture of ancient times becomes the
Ch'i-Lu civilization. From then on Chinese culture was
extended to the north and to the south and, later, became
the Ching Chru Culture.
The Yi Ching philosophy may be traced back to the
cultural history of remote antiquity. Studying the Hsiang Shu
of Yi we can see tremendous contributions to science and
philosophy that our remote ancestors made. The principles
of Yi Ching can be applied to any scholastic field; and thus
they are above all learning arts, none of which can ever
get outside either its principles or philosophy. Since there
is a paucity of information about Yi Ching in the remote
antiquity period while at the same time principles within
Yi Ching are so profound, people would often (and some still
do) wonder where it came from. Religiously some Chinese
might say that it came from heaven. Probably the
humans in previous glacial period of the world were
similar to us. They no doubt tried to progress culturally
and philosophically, just like we are trying to do, towards
the vertex where a principle to understand the universe was
in the process of development or had been achieved. Human
be in gs seem to be destroyed when their culture reaches the
summit ; therefore it is justifiable to say that the peoples of
1he gla cial period passed a bit of their ultimate wisdom down.
This hypothes is is set up from studying the history of remote
:1 111 iquity.

PART "C"
The Nature of Change
Change is the fundamental principle in Yi Clhing. Everything continuously is in a state of change. Everything is
1he product of the mutations of change. But to have change
there must be non-change from which change can originate
or against which the change can be compared. The dualism
of the universe demands this. We cannot have the positive
without the negative, good without bad, tall without short,
up without down, future without past, and so on for a long
I ist of opposites. So, if we say that everything in the universe
is changing, what then is non-change? In a time sense it is
the instantaneous present against which the past and the
future can be evaluated. In another point of view it is the
vast space filled with undifferentiated atoms from which all
1he material for the differentiated phenomenal world are
drawn. From a Buddhist point of view it is the reality
against which all else is considered as unreal or non-reality.
In a Western sense, it is God's material, or the noumenal,
from which the phenomenal is the evolutionary development
process. Both change and non-change are a part of the
pri nciple of universal development. On an overall basis
the Principle of Universal Development is primarily the
nwn ifestation of Universal Laws. This principle and its atll.:ndant laws do not change. Rather they are the true and
on ly reality on which we can depend; all else is subject to
change. If we work with this principle, our thoughts, acts,
:11 1LI deeds are in keeping with the laws, then we are working
wit h the Supreme Will. Good fortune and success will be
tile res ult. If we work against thi s principle and its laws
we must be ready to accept our own respons ibility for what-

JX

v r we have done. The results of our violating the laws

will be varying degrees of misfortune or even death depending
on .the magnitude and intent of our transgression. This can
ran ge from something simple like a small burn from touching
the flame of a match to the result of stepping out of an airplane without a parachute.
What is this principle of Universal Development? It
is the expression and manifestation of the Supreme Will. It
is that from which all phenomena stems. How? By something new taking the place of something old and worn out.
In our modern day, transport airplanes are one of the best
examples. First there were single engine bi-planes. The
next step there were multi-engine planes. From this
we went on to monoplanes, to jet engined planes, to speeds
close to the speed of sound, to speeds several times faster than
the speed of sound. According to the law of change each
created thing goes through its own cycle. As one declines
and fades out, a new one takes its place. But this is not only
the law of change in operation but also the Principle of Universal Development.
The Principle of Universal Development demands that
there be progress. This is wherein it gets its name. To
have progress the old must be destroyed, when it has served
its purpose, to make room for the new. This is true of man,
his artifacts, and extends even to his entire world and the
creation of new universes. The laws of change provide for
the development, creation, rise, fulfillment, decline, decay,
and disintegration of all things. This is true whether it is
something in nature or whether it is man created. So we
see that the laws of change are demanded by the Principle
of Universal Development and operate within and for that
principle.
If the Principle of Universal Development means there
must be progress, then to have progress we must have a posi-

39

tive and negative complementing each other. An electric

light cannot shine, a motor cannot operate, unless a connection is made between the positive and the negative. One
does not function without the other. Likewise human being
improve and develop when there is a positive and a negative
as exemplified by friction and difference of opinion. Here
too the positive and negative complementing each other.
Peaceful conditions, on the other hand, are times of stagnation
and decay. Looking back over history we see that every nation's greatest and fastest development occurs in time of war,
strife or aggressi;e~ess. 24 Man's individual-development, too,
is greatest and fastest when he meets and learns how to overcome trouble and strife. Conversely, if he allows himself
to be subjugated by it he is lost and degenerates.
The Supreme Will has provided the greatest natural
arena for mans' contest and development, i.e., the battlefield
of marriage and rearing a family. Regrettably, human emotions come into play and often decoy the benefits that would
otherwise accrue. Controlling and properly exercising our
emotions is both the key to our development and our happiness
as well. However, very few couples recognize the benefit
of healthy friction and strife. If this principle were recognized
and inwardly known, the number of divorces would be drastically reduced. If the emotions are kept under control, man
has, in the arena of marriage, divinely beautiful opportunities
for development. If, on the other hand, emotions are allowed to hold sway, that which could be divinely beautiful becomes devilishly ugly, and not infrequently, dead ugly.
Teasing and being naughty are mild forms of producing fricl ion . These latter two forms are used extensively (instinctively rather than purposefully) by two lovers. If this mild
-4.

Contrast the slow progress and even decline of the "pacifist" Sung
dynasty against the dynamic impact of the concentrated extension
of all asp:!cts of culture during the aggressive Han dynasty of China.
I numerable examples could be sited.

41

fri tion is absent in their relationship then deep love does not
xis!. The chase of the female by the male "until she catches
hilll" is another example of where strife is used for achievement.

The Principle of Universal Development was set forth by

'onfucius in another way, that is, through the development
of correct relationships with all our fellow men. If we develop
ourselves properly we can have correct relationships with our
wives/husbands, our children, our brothers, our sisters, our
parents, and our relatives. They, too, must develop themselves such that all can perform in a manner of correct rela~
tionship to one another. These correct relationships can
then be applied to other situations and circumstances. It
expands to friends, to communities, to rulers, to nations and
ultimately the whole universe exerts and exercises correct
relationships with and for all mankind. This was Confucius'
goal.
Yi Ching is man's guide for the usage and worldly understanding of the Principle of Universal Development. To
study and understand Yi Ching one must gain a clear concept
of this principle. With such an understanding, much of the
wisdom of Yi Ching becomes clear. This is the doorway to
the greater philosophy and meanings which can be found in
Yi Ching by those who study it deeply. So at this point it
would be helpful to pause and reflect on what you have just
read in Part "C" so that you have it firmly in mind.
Recognizably, no principle is of value unless it is put
into practice. In this case it is done through the Law of
Change in which the two forces, Yin the negative, and Yang
the positive, are the complementary executors for the implementation of the Principle of Universal Development. Yang,
l he positive, is Heaven, the creator. It works incessantly
on developing th ings (without thought of reward). Yin, the
11 gative, is the earth, the receptive, which brings things into

being and also receives them back when their usefulness or

cycle has been terminated. The Yin also can be used to bring
to an end decadent and damaging things such that room is
made for the new.
Professor Nan, 25 an eminent Chinese scholar, says that
the way of learning Yi Ching is not just through text books
but through well rounded approaches to the subject. His
recommendations in this regard are:
"1. In order to better understand the culture and thinking of Yi, one should, if possible, first study the Hsi
Ts'z Shang Hsia Chuan ( ~mJ::T f$ Two volumes of
comments on Shi Ts5z by Confucius), Shuo Kua Clman
(Discussions regading Kua Chuan), Shuo Kua Chuan
(Perface to Kua Chuan), and Tsa Kua Chuan (miscellaneous discussions on Kua Chuan)."
"Hsi Ts'z Shang Hsia Chuan is said to be the thinking,
study report of later scholars on Yi Ching. A study
of this book will save one much work, time and effort."
"2. In order to understand the scientific and philosophical ideas of Hsiang Shu in Yi Ching one should
try to fully understand the wisdom of the sixty hexagrams. In Hsi Chuan Confucius said, "One obtains
through searching and playing with the Hexagrams."
Experimentation with and later checking the results
obtained will gradually provide the experience to properly evaluate the scientific, philosophic and divination aspects of Yi Ching."
"If you follow these two recommendations you should
comprehend Yi Ching quickly and truly avail yourself of its value."
We should begin our study of Yi Ching at the same point
as F u Hsi did, that is, with the drawing of the Pa Kua or eight
lrigrams.
25. See pict ure o n p. iv of this book.

43

Principle
of Universal Development

The Old Yang

From the above we get the following table of hexagrams:

==

1
K'un
2 = _....,. Ken
3
K'an
4
Sun
Chen
5
6
Li
7
- Tui
Ch'ien
8

---

--

=-=

Earth
Mountain
Water
Penetration
Arousing
Fire
Joy
Heaven

Mother
Youngest Son
Middle Son
Eldest Daughter
Eldest Son
Middle Daughter
Youngest Daughter
Father

Normally, the trigrams are drawn in modern style, i.e, from

the bottom up. It is also possible to draw them from the
top to bottom, right to left, or left to tight. In real ancient
times they were reputedly represented by dots on bones and
tortoise shells.
The elements of the Pa Kua trigram are only the (-) or
th e (- -).The(--) is the Yin Yao. The (-)is the Yang

Yao. Every trigram is drawn with only three Yao. Here

Y ao is used for "line" and has the additional meaning of
meeting or joining. We must pay special attention to the
drawing of the Yao as to whether a Yao is fixed or moving
since it has vital import on the particular situation or matter
in question. The Yang Yao are used to represent to odd
numbers 7 or 9, of which 7 is considered to be fixed and 9
as moving. The Yin Y ao are used to represent the even
numbers 6 and 8, of which 8 is fixed and 6 is the moving
Yao. In accordance with the Law of Change a 6, in the cycle
of events, changes to a 7 and is considered as a progression,
whereas a 9 changes to an 8, in the cycle of e"vents, and this
is retrogression. The numerical value of each Yao, when
referring a matter to Yi Ching for consideration, is determined
by tossing three coins. 26 The building up of the Kua from
the Yao is necessary to "determine the present situation" and
to obtain "appropriate guidance" for future actions. The
present situation is the result of seeds sown in the past which
have grown to a certain extent. Likewise by knowing the
applicable laws we can estimate the future. The Yao, from
which the Kua are made, represent the changes inherent in
all beings and things, animate and inanimate. The Changes
in the Y ao come from Hsien T 'ien, the former Heaven, which
is the world of phenomena before things are formed. It is
the previous invisible existence of all things. This is similar
to Plato's theory that art and artifacts are imitations of eternal
forms. The material (the visible) is from the Later Heaven.
26. In tossing three coins they will either come up all tails = 6, two tails
and 1 head = 7, two heads and one tai1 = 8 or all heads = 9. Each
toss of three coins produces a Yao. Six tosses make a hexagram.
The way the coins come up is said to depend on the psychic or inner
relationship of the tosser towards the matter in question at the time.
Hence it is believed that this can reflect man's relationship with the
question. There is no outside or spiritual control attributed to the
r~S ~Jit S Of the tossing.

45

II

I.

S qu cncc

of the Earlier Heaven, or Primal Arrange-

mcnt
Summer

Ch'ien

---

J)

~~~
.

'

,,,~~~
I I~ !

J~ ~I :t
//

/~
v.ft.
un,)l

N
J~lU!M

2.

Sequence of Later Heaven, or Inner World Arrangement

Summer

s
Li

In order to study Hsiang and Shu (the phenomena each

hexagram represents, i.e., the physical and spiritual implications; and the number or order and makeup of each hexagram), one must clearly understand the order and direction
cf the hexagrams. But first one must understand the order
and direction of the trigrams. The Pa Kua, the eight trigrams,
have two orders, i.e., the Former Heaven and the Later
Heaven. I:'u Hsi ~evelop~d the Forf!:l_~~_}:!~-~yg's _ ot:der and
King Wen the L~!~r ..Heaven's order. These represent the
noumenal and phenomenal sequence.
What is the Former Heaven and what is the Later
Heaven? The Former Heaven is metaphysical and shows the
evolution of themetaphysical to tii.-e physical. --The- Later
Heavel.i.-relates to the ~~ an t e pfi.iiciples -m. the Qni~~f"te'.
The Former Heaven . represents the -image of all the thing s
found in the Universe. It is from the Former Heaven that
all things are copied and created. While our diagrams supra
are shown in a two dimc~sional way, the Pa Kua should be
looked at in a many dimensional way. K'un is the gl_~
(our world). Ch'ien is the air the spirit the heavenly forces
~- - On the left side is lithe s~n =-;
sur~unding the globe.
on the right K'an ==water.
._._.__ These are considered the four big
27
phenomena which develop everything so the mountains on
the _~ become
_or Ken Kua; the riv~rLarul lakes are
Tui Kua; The cause of electricity and the forces of
_natu.~e. are _ _ Sun
Kua ; Actual thunder and lightning is
......_
Chen Kua.

Kua means "hanging up", so the eight phenomena, represented by the trigrams, are "hung" in space and interact on
each other. 28 These thus are heaven, earth, air (wind, sprit)
fi re (sun), water, thunder, mountains, lakes (and rivers).

-~

'<.._....

. - - - --

N
l;)JU!M

27. According to Buddhism, it is earth, air, fire and water which form
and bring everything into being. This relates to their spiritual, rather
than literal, meaning.
28. Simil a r to the theory of relativity.

47

Ir

look at the Pa Kua in a two dimensional way

w ~; 1hat they represent the cardinal and inter-cardinal
d ir~c ti o n s of the globe.
Note that each trigram has its
ounle rpart opposite it, i.e. Ch'ien
is opposite to K'un
:: =; Li ::= is opposite to K'an
efc. It should also
be noted that in keeping with the old traditional Chinese
method, South is placed at the top of our diagrams of the
Former and Later Heavens. AlsOthe line between South and
N=
magnetic line and represents the magnetic belt around the globe.
Let's think briefly about the Former Heaven Kua. Let's
limit our thoughts to the Kua themselves. Li and K'an are
opposites. The middle line of Li is a Yin line whereas the top
and bottom are Yang; conversely in K'an the middle line
--....
is Yang and the top and bottom lines are Yin. (Li = Middle daughter, K'an = Middle son). Sun and ' Chen are
likewise opposites (First Daugter ahd First Son); so also
are Tui and Ken opposites in the same manner (Youngest
Daughter and Youngest Son).
Remember that the position of Heaven and Earth are
"set". This means that the laws of the phenomena related
to them do not change as for example, no matter where we
are on this globe the earth is always under our feet and heaven
is above. Another example is the stars which have fixed
and determinable positions in space.
According to a Chinese saying "The spirit of the mountain and the water meet and intermingle". All one needs to
do .is to look at a topographical map and note that without
mountains there would only be water and that for our type
of world the one is the counter part and complement of the
other. Thus "feng shui" or mountains and water can never
be separated. According to Chinese geomancy one has to
look at mountains and water before making decisions therefore they are inseparable. Also "Shan Kao 1 Shui Shen,"
WL:

==

that is, the taller the mountain the deeper the water.
The following is an interesting Chinese story regarding
an early search for water:
"General Tso Tsung-t'ang, a famous general in the Ch'ing
dynasty, once when making an expedient through the desert to
the northwest of China, outside the great wall, found water in
the arid areas as follow: If he had 100,000 men, he would
have 20,000 carry dry grass. When he needed water in the
desert he would have a deep hole dug, the grass put in and
set afire and then the fire smothered with dirt. He would
station observers at various distances from the hole in every
direction and where smoke came out of the ground the
observer would mark the spot. A well would then be dug
there. The general also had willow trees transplanted at
these wells. These "oasis" extended about 3,000 miles from
the great wall. So the general is credited with "bringing the
spring breezes outside the great wall."

E ven today geophysicists sometimes use the foregoing

Taoist method for finding water.
"Lei Feng Hsiang Po" the thunder and wind produce
each other. Wind represents the air stream and when two
air streams rub against each other, as they do in thunder
clo uds where the wind streams alternately go up and down
~xtremely rapidly, it becomes thunder-then becomes . the
air stream again. Since the airstream carries moisture it is
sa id that water and thunder produce each other.
"Shui Huo Pu Hsiang She". Water and fire cannot
tolerate each other. When the sun comes out the moon goes
back to her maiden house and when the moon comes up the
sun goes back to its native town. In eve.ry six~y~rs there ',
is only once when the moonlight and the sunlight directly
meet each other. When they meet "The 10,000 flowers wiil
bloom" (according to Chinese folk lore). If you pour water on
lhc fire~ the fire will be extjnguished, Conversely, if you

48

49

boil the water with fire and the heat is too great the water
evaporates. So it is said they cannot tolerate each other.
They are by nature hostile to each other. Extreme caution
must be used between these two forces so that they do not
damage each other.
As we already know the various combinations of the
eight trigrams produces the sixty four hexagrams. When we
think of them we must keep in mind whether we are considering the ones developed by Fu Hsi, which relate to the
Former Heaven or whether we are concerned with the hexagrams of the Later Heaven as developed by King Wen. The
order of the hexagrams in the two systems is different. The
order of the Later Heaven is based on natural phe!!QIDena.....
This is the order in which the hexagrams are set forth in Yi
Ching along with their explanations. Thus we find the natural order being the sequence of Ch'ien, K'an, Ken, Chen,
Sun, Li, K'un and Tui.
_ In the Later Heaven, Ch'ien Kua
represents the
functioning of things in the universe, that is the creation and
action of the " 10,000 things". Next we have movement
which begins with liquid
Water, (In geology, during the
glacial period everything was water. In Greek and Indian
philosophy, most philosophers presented the view that everything began with water. So according to geology, anthropology and philosophy the world starts with the boundless
ocean. Then, to have land we must have mount~ins, so
mountain - _ is next. From the mountain we get electrical
energy leaving the earth which 'later returns and fructifies
or Chen. Lightning althe earth, this is the arousing ways has thunder with it and this poduces the moist airstream
Summertime is met and the predominant factor
or Sun
is the sun from our solar system which is represented by the
hexagram Li ::::= or fire. This heat causes a dimunition of
water resulting in . lakes =-: or Tui. This completes the

----

=-

=.

physical and material phenomena of the world and the cycle

begins over again with Ch'ien.
When we talk about change just what do we mean? From
our observations of nature, and our knowing that the Book
'>f Changes is based in part on the laws of nature, we perceive
two distinct types of change. One is the enduring change
uf the continuous alternations such as day and night, the
phases of the moon, the path of the sun and the consequent
four seasons, the year, etc. These, very simply, are re~titiv~
cy~_!_i~h_~.
They are like the point on a steadily rolling
wheel that goes up and down at the same. time moves onward
in lime at a steady pace, provided the speed of the wheel
remains constant. The other type of change is like the growth
1>I' something from a seed. The seed is planted, nurtured, it
blossoms forth, grows to maturity, serves a useful purpose,
then quickly disintegrating, dying or decaying. This is the
ryclc of plants, animals, fruits and vegetables. An egg is
-- ----
fertilized, a baby is born, it grows to manhood, serves a useful
p11rpose and passes on. MaJ! himself has seed and through
l1i s seed his kind are pe~p~tuated. Similarly ~th plants, say
11 head of cabbage for example.
The seed is planted, it is
l'tiltivated, nurtured and helped to grow to maturity and bel 1 >me a nice firm head of cabbage. It serves its purpose by
111-illg food of various types for both man or animal and
di sintegrates in this process. Or else decays and returns to
1':1rt h. It too has seeds within itself which permits its kind
l c> he perpetuated.
Fruits, as produced by trees and other
pl:tlll s, have a similar cycle and also contain the seeds for
1>11pctuati ng their species. The tree or plant itself, which
lwars the fruit, also has a cycle similar to other plants except
111:11 the relative time for the complete cycle is much greater.
I hLsc we call sequent changes.
One point that is worthy of further thought, but which
' 111 not be discussed here since it is not germane to our pur-

51

50

pose, is that we should note that in all cases of plants and

animals, which serve man, excluding those things which grow
wild, the perpetuation is the result of conscious planting of
seed.
When we consider changes we must know what we mean
when we use the word "change". Webster says it is to alter
or to make different in condition or appearance. It is also
the process of one state or condition becoming another state
or situation. In all cases we must have a reference point, or
-else there can be no such thing as change. We call this ref~r~E_ce _poj~t non-c~~e. It is an instantan~ .point in
time where things seemingly stand still and the "new" or different" conditions are something other than those af the time
used for reference. As we said supra it is like the
seemingly instantaneous standing still of the point of a rolling wheel which touches the ground. Everything that is other
than non-change is then in a state of change and there are
two basic types, cyclic and seq~, plus a disruptive type applicable to each. The disruptive type is the accidental or
purposeful disruption of a cyclic or sequential change before
it has reached its fulfillment or fully served its intended purpose. Examples of these are ( 1) people dying from disease,
accident or war before reaching maturity, (2) suddenly stopping a rotating or revolving object like wheel, a fan, an armature, etc. and (3) an exarnple"of purposeful disruptive change
is like the farmer thinning out the apples from a tree when
they are very small such that the remaining ones can have
more nourishment and, more room for growth, thereby becorning larger and better apples when they mature. The
breaking of the cycle of the small potential apples, which
were removed from the tree by a process of ~'thinning", was
a purposeful disruption.
How does Yi Ching account for these changes and how
can they be determined by man through the use of Yi Ching.

To begin we find that the ancient Chin_e~e-~c.holars considered

that c~l!ges all had six ste_s. Even changes of sound, light
and chemical phenomena produce changes in six steps. Later
it was found that some chemical process have eight steps.
Resolution of the six step changes are quite easy since Yi
Ching
was
9eveloped on the basis oJ t~~utep
~}_lange prQ::
-.
.... ..
cess, hence the six~.Yao and the Hexagrams. Knowing the
right principle the eight step process can also be determined.
In the case of the six step process there are six steps each
way, or a total of twelve to return to the original condition.
I ,ct us examine how this would apply to Ch'ien Kua. By
111aking one change from a Yang Yao to a Yin Yao each step
;11HI starting from the bottom we observe the following:
,..

-~---------~~----

=
==-=--=
=~-==
- =
- -=
-- - - -:-=
- -==
-- ---=
- -=
== == == :.= == == == == = === = = ==
2

10

11

12

111 the foregoing we note that the simple change of one step
;1 1 a time resulted in the complete opposite in six steps and
when this is followed by an additional six steps there is a
1L'l urn to the original condition. We should remember that
1lie hexagrams are built up from the "Q..Qg_orn and that the
vli;mg_es within a hexagram-work frornthe lower port!OIJS to
1lie upperp~The time facto~i~~cl~~d in the chang"'esis difficu-it t~errnine and varies with the circumstances of
IIi particular situation in question. The time involved may
he only seconds, minutes or hours and again it may be days,
111nnths or years. The time of the cycle is beyond human
~ nntrol. (Tioweve.r, man has it within his power to obtain
I IlL' best results and even to oppose fate. ' This he can do
l 1y finding a course to pursue which, when consulting Yi Ching
:ts :1 gu ide, courses of action are shown, some of which result
in r at success a nd good fortune, whereas others will have

53

In is fnrltlll s or failures. These courses follow sound psycholnf i ul principles. In this way man learns to work in conjuncti on with the Supreme Will.
In sequent change the process is similar to cyclic change
.
'
for ~h<; first. fiv~ steps. It is the -
return. to the original
condition
\\'hich is remarkably different and merits deep thought. Let
us take Chi'en Kua again as our example. The five steps of
normal growth are:

---------

then followed up by:

2
...__

--

.....

-_---

......___

Our process of change was again starting from the bottom

and working to the top. Then in step six, the bottom line
of the "outside" trigram (the upper three lines of a hexagram
are the outside trigram and the lower three lines are the
inside trigram) changes and we get ;

In step seven we

have the middle Yao (line) of the outside trigram changing

and we then have - -
At this point the outside trigram exercises overriding effect and this results in a ca!llplete change of
the exhausted lower trigram therein bringing the hexagram back to

its original condition

. This

step

of the change is similar to a religious con version or a

psychological brainwashing, wherein things have been made to
appear as if hopeless and then suddenly a way out is shown.
Step eight is the completion of the way out. In other cases
it is the disintegration of plants and fruits to a point where
nothing but the seeds remain. This seed becomes the starting point for a new beginning.

Disruptive change may be considered as Fate (Karma)

and/or Will, bringing a sequent or cyclic change to an abrupt
halt, somewhere within the overall timing of the change, before the change has the opportunity to complete itself. There
are ways of knowing the future of such events, using Yi Ching.
The procedure is very complex and must account for all factors bearing on the situation or condition in question. Being
complex it is subject to omissions and errors of judgment.
Wi thout proper guidance persons trying such a procedure
would make erroneous evaluations in nearly all cases. This
could be quite detrimental. The results might likely do more
harm than good so it is best to leave it unstated. On the
other hand, if one believes in reincarnation and Karma, we
can see that, while on the surface disruptive change may appear undesirable, it definitely has value in the overall process
of Universal Development. This is largely because of the
interrelationship of all things in the Universe. Disruptive ' \.
Chang~ is a usef~l tool for the. Supreme Will to make quick ( \
currect10ns or adJustments. Smce we have no control over \
iL we must recognize and accept it for what it is.
The majority of students of Yi Ching learn to use cyclic
:1nd sequential change for the betterment of either their own
lives and that of others, and disregard disruptive change,
klling it take care of itself. By always doing what is best
for the conditions and situations involving cyclic and sequential change, a person's life will be in such good order that
any action by disruptive change will be of no grave consequence. This obviously is in keeping with the Principle
or Un iversal Development as applicable to individuals.
At this point we. have an understanding of where Change '.(
r: tmc from, its early history, its exemplification of the Principle ,
of Universal Development, Universal Time, the value of fric1ion, the relationship of cyclic and sequential change in the
\
phenomenal and noumenal realms. Next we will discuss the
:t ppl ica tion of the principles of change.

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c
HABITUAL PROCESSES
A
N
G

Confucius said, "Only the

highest and lowest of
characters do not change."

Chapter 2
Practical Applications of the Principles of "Change"
When the subject of Yi Ching is mentioned, most people
who know the Book of Changes, including most Chinese, virtually throw up their hands and say, "It's too deep a subject for
me", "It requires great intelligence and understanding to learn
how to use it" or "Only a Sage or a scholar can interpret it."
The purpose of this chapter is to let you, the reader, become,
in a limited sense, a "scholar" or a "Sage." Like many other
things in our world, most are simple once they are explained
to us. We then understand them. Nearly all the tricks performed by magicians are bewildering to the average person.
But, once openly demonstrated, they are shown to be simple.
So it is with nearly everything. Yi Ching is not exactly
simple. But it is explainable. Being explainable, it can,
with study, be understood. Perhaps the most outstanding
fac t is that the judgments, images and explanations of each
Yao (line) are alli~ing witi1 ratio11al piinc~s. Being
rati onal, the--misguided concept of Yi Ching-being like an
impenetrable jungle falls apart and Yi Ching is seen to be
like a beautiful fertile plain. Also, the absurdity, by some
unknowledgeable people, about it being just a book of divination is dissipated. Rather, Yi Ching i1s shown in its true
d 1:1ractcr as being deve_lQp_~d _.Q~ ...Y?.!t;X!la_tic principles by
whi ch it is shown to be in the realm of,-
true
philosophy. There
-- -----

59

1s nolhin' supernatural in its construction and exposition

whatsoever. It is explainable in its entirety through natural

laws and observable phenomena. That is why i,s value i~
S l) gr at and why it can be used as a guide in any situation or
.
- . . -.
- --- -----circumstanc .
What we are about to show is the way in which Yi Ching
is, can and has been interpreted. This will provide us a base
from which to correlate and determine its influence on (particularly past) Chinese culture.
In the sense that by knowing the past one can predict
the future Yi Ching falls into the category of foretelling the
future. But this is not divination, which means foretelling
by supernatural means. Yi C~~_nJLP!.~~ictions are .based_on
natural rather than supernatural f!.l:.~ans. Is it supernatural
or divination that we can predict the day of the month when the
moon will be full, when tides will ebb and flow, when the sun
will rise or set? These are predictable because they follow
natural laws. We know when the moon was dark so we
can calculate when it will be full. We know the pattern
of all the tides yesterday so we can say what they should be
tomorrow. It is the same principle for determining sunrise.
When using Yi Ching these same natural processes are
employed and applied to human events and situations. If
we know the past, and the seeds from which a given set of
circumstances developed, we can know the future, provided
two things remain constant. The first is that the Supreme
"~11, F?t.e_9t I)ys~iny: do~s not s~ i~d--control ~ ~~.Jl.g.n, and the~ IS that ma_IL.~rsevere and rem am ste?dfast in his course, just as the ebb and flow of the tides and
the path of the sun and stars are steadfast. Man has no
control over the
first but.. man can chan e an situation for
---b~tter-0r f~ worse dep~nding on his thinking and or actions.
l t is- thus tha~n has the power and freedom to alter any
si tuation in which he finds himself. The Supreme Will, Fate
~--- ------

---------

or Destiny sometimes exercises overriding control, but if

there is no such influence being exerted, and for the most
part there isn't, other than the natural laws everyone ought to
obey, then man is the immediate "master of his fate." If
man's course, in any given set of circumstances, is such as to
produce success and good fortune, then he must need persevere and remain steadfast in such course for the success
and good fortune to manifest itself. Such a course will be
in keeping with the Supreme Will. On the other hand, if
the course man is following is not such as to produce desirable results, man, by his acts and thinking (and using Yi Ching
as his guide, if he is knowledgeable about it) can change the
course of the situation such that favorable results will be produced. If man has no specific guidance nor directive, he
will find that always doing what is right and following the
Golden Mean will produce good fortune sooner or later. Man
needs only an understanding of himself to make him become
anything or any type of person he desires to be. Some people
wifl welcome such knowledge that they and they alone are
responsible for what they are and what they will become.
Most people will not like this concept nor agree with it because they would like to be able to blame someone else or
something else for their short comings, deficiencies and failures.
But it is only by self effort over a long period of time by which
man raises himself to higher levels. It must be done with a
definite goal in mind, steadfastness of purpose and perseverence in what is right. Then, depending on how much of his
past actions and thinking he still has to be accountable for,
man can slowly alter his entire life and being. This is because all things are governed by Heaven, man, and earth.
Heaven and earth operate on fixed principles. Only man
has the freedom of choice. (Aknowledgeable man welcomes
and takes advantage of all appropriate guides at his disposal
which ca n help him). So out of the triumvirate, man, as an

61

q 11a I p;, riner with Heaven and earth, shapes the world in
\'v iii II lie lives- his world. Every man's world is individual.
II is I he world of what he thinks and how he personally
:-:y111 hcsizcs what his five tools (his five senses) have brought
11 i m. So it is truly how we think about things, our judgments
and opinions !_h'!!_t- make_our -worl~, deter~ine our level in
I he world and provides us with the basis of our own happiness
and satisfaction.
Someone will say, "I have an unsolvable problem. There
is no way out, What shall I do?'' The first thing to do is
not to be worried about the problem. In accordance with
the Law of Change time will fulfill itself, and the situation
will change to the opposite when fate says the time is ready.
This is the philosophy the Chinese have always adopted.
People, though, must be receptive to divine impulses and
guidance, which spur them into action. One should trace
the situation back to see why it developed the way it did, why
one got to the point where there seemingly is no way out,
what caused it and what wasn't done to prevent it from reaching such a devastating state. Why is it that they didn't recognize the course the situation was taking so that they could and
should initiate action to alter what seemingly is fate or destiny?
Everything that happens to man falls back on him sometime,
someplace, somehow. These are the teaching of Taoism,
Buddhism and Confucianism. It appears to be fate but it is
really Karma fulfilling itself at (Universal) time propitious
lo the Supreme Will. But in the last analysis everything is
man caused therefore man has the right and obligation to
change his fate if he is smart and wise enough to do so. In
this regard Yi Ching can be one of his friends. Man must
be ready to examine himself critically and see what he did
wrong, and find out how his mistakes occurred. Man must
h0 ready to ~tand up and accept what life deals to him because it is jnst giving back what he put into it! It is only

when man faces squarely up to any situation he finds himself

in, that he can, through deep and thorough introspection,
finds the right and just way out of his dilemma.
There is the case of a man not being smart enough to
foresee all the ramifications involved, letting his emotions
control his thinking, and by concentrating on his desires,
brought about a situation wherein he was trapped. For the
purposes of being helpful he used procedures that were not
fully lawful. Later these things were held over him in the
form of blackmail. He had helped to bring the situation
on by wanting to be and thinking he could be helpful in the
case of a chronic ailment. While he was able to be helpful to a degree, in retrospect these proved to be wild and
erroneous thinking. The lesson derived from this is that one
should never try to exceed what one knows one can do except
with the help of a teacher, or by slowly and carefully probing
one step beyond where one is. Anything more than this
can and usually does backfire because we, through our concentration and thinking-and because thoughts are things
- produce a situation wherein we do not know all the factors, or else forget to constantly reexamine the situation to
make certain we are pursuing courses which produce success
and good fortune. Like ships at sea, or airplanes in flight,
checks have to be made frequently, and courses have to be
corrected, because of currents, winds, and compass errors,
in order to reach the destination or goal. If this is not done
one will frequently find oneself way out on the sea of life far
from the desired goal or with the goal being over the horizon
out of sight and one not knowing which way to go to find or
achieve it.
. .:...
If one is . "lost" there are two things one can do: ( 1)
meditate or pray for guidance and (2) retrace one's steps
from there to try to achieve the goal or attain the purpose,
until one gets back to something one recognizes and restart. J

( .'

63

r way is to request help, if appropriate sources are

;1v;1il;iblc. To plunge ahead blindly in most cases would be
d;1ngc rous and lead to failure. Hence one must often retreat,
reg roup one's forces and then try to attain results in a small
way, one step at a time, limiting oneself to what is possible,
and not trying to make the whole leap at once. While we
have to take the first step and also the last step to achieve
our goal, no matter how large or small the steps we take,
there are times too when we must desist from pushing ahead
blindly. On other occasions we must stand still or perhaps
even retreat a little, to have the opportunity to reform and
reunite our forces and friends for the next advance. The
foregoing are just a few of the lessons and guidance Yi Ching
teaches.
When Yi C!!jng speaks of "friends" it does so in .!wo
aspects, the first being_friends in the form of human beings
" end" is
who are favorable to us. The second form
much more subtle and one that most of us overlook. These
"friends" are our favorable thoughts, thou hts which lead us,
-~
-s~t _our __Qourse, inspi_re us onward and help us achieve good
fo_rtune and success. They are like the true love of a good
woman for one man whom she wishes to make happy, to help
and have him succeed. In fact, the thoughts that produce
such effects are the most sincere ana trustworthy "friends"
a man can have-provided, of course, that he is able to differentiate these from the ones who are equally strong, his
enemies. When man lets his emotions, desires and ignorance
control. himself, then he is a prisoner of war and has lost his
freedom, just as much as if during an actual war he were
captured by the enemy. Stubbornness and obstinacy by which
one seeks to enforce one's will are two of man's greatest
enemies. Letting.passions over-ride sound judgment is another, but here there is a very fine distinction between where
passions are an 'ddjunctive part of deep love of the souls,
/\i 1ol h

----

wherein instead of ruling and misleading, they complement,

support, and inspire, and become the motivator for the achievement of great success. Again it is man himself who can
either employ these and make them his partners for purposes
of good, or degenerate by letting himself be unresistingly
swept out into the morass of chaos by them. Man, according
to Yi Ching, "can be fitted by nature to live freely and independently."1 However, if he renounces this self reliance
and lets himself be controlled, then life becomes a matter of
chance. He must remember that h~ will, like a mag_Qet, draw (/
those things toJilinself which a_re a part of his_tbinking. The
more his passions are in control the more passion will flow
to him2 until he is lost in a sea of corruption, that is, unless
he sees the way of his errors and alters his course for purposes
of good.
Someone may ask, "why be good" or "why try to be
good"? It seems much more difficult to try to be good than
to be bad. Why go to the trouble of doing something the
hard way when there appears to be an easier way to get by.
Now if one knows the Law of Karma and the Law of Retribution, one knows one gets back what one gives. So if we
want a good life and to have good things come to us, we
must first give them. Most everyone knows Jesus said "It
is more blessed to give than to receive." Without going into
the details of the reasons why, he was enunciating a sound
psychological principle. He knew that one gets back what one
gives but he also knew, that because of the way human beings
are constructed, man achieves his greatest satisfactions in being good and in doing things for others. It is at such times
that an inner glow of being someone who, at least for a
short while, was important to and for someone else, that
glow radiates a happiness that is contagious in man's relations
I. Wilhelm/Baynes, Yi Ching or the Book of
2. Ibid. p. 225

Chan~es .

p. 109

65

hi s fe ll ow beings. . This is wonderful and what everyone

. ds . . lt is at such times too, that we are sought after by
oth ers and others tend to emulate our example. But of even
greater import is the fact that we are developing ourselves and
emanating an aura that makes us receptive for good and
helps draw our good to us. Since like attracts like, good
cannot and does not come to us when we are hateful, resentful
or full of negative desires and passions. These, being opposites of good, repel the good and keep away whatever good
may be in store for us. So in effect by being good, or doing
things for others, we put ourselves in the positon to receive
a tri-fold benefit or blessing, firstly, that of the inner glow
and the friendships from it; secondly, that of receiving back
what we have sown (if we lead our life in a truly good manner, we get back nothing but good, and this is beautiful and
wounderful); and, thirdly, it permits our good toreach us. Why
have money in the bank if you can't draw it out when and as
you like or need?
The other part of our question was "why is it seemingly
so hard to be good and apparently so easy to be bad; why
not follow the easy course?" We gave sufficient reasons for
being good in the foregoing paragraphs, which leave us with
the question why it- is so difficult to be good. If we go to
Yi Ching for an answer we note that the forces of Yin and
Yang are equal and complement each other. On the surface
then it would appear that being good or being bad should be
of equal ease or of equal difficulty. But we know from practical experience that such is seemingly not the case. What
we tend to overlook is t~at the Yang, the creative, heaven,
represents the good and the Yin is receptive and the earth.
Doing something, thinking something or creating something
is much more difficult than just being receptive and having
things come to you. The good, in order to be productive
<lll d cfTcctive, must first seek out and remove stagnation, delo

~ ; troy

debasing attitudes and do away with corruption before

the good can manifest itself. Room must be made for the
~ood before the good can enter.
If everything in man is
evil there is no room for the good until he first rids himself
of (some of) the evil. At those times, too, he is attracting
evil and not good. But the evil, or at least some of it, has
lo go such that there is room for the good to enter.
This is
a two step process of (1) getting rid of the evil and (2) making
room for the good, that makes doing good seem so difficult
""ithin man himself. And until he fills himself with a preponderance of good his natural attraction is for evil, making
doing good additionally difficult. The good itself is easy and
satisfyinB to do at all times. It is just as easy as being bad,
on ce there is a preponderance of good in the man or when not
influenced by man. Most of the time it is only our own
rr roneous thinking that makes good seem so difficult to perfor m. And it is only so with ourselves. Doing good for
others is always easy. Herein again we see that man's thoughts
:1rc his friends or his enemies.
Yi Ching also gives us sound advice as to what to do
even under the most difficult of circumstances. "One must
110l unresistingly let himself be swept along by unfavorable
r ircumstances, nor permit his steadfastness to be shaken. He .
r:1n i !Y9id this by ~aintaining his innerlight, while J~l!}ajnTr;g' ' "s..,<,;_,;1
(l ll lwardly yielding and tractable. With this attitude he can
-=----- llVCrcome even the greatest adversities. In some situations
i1 1dced a man must hide his light, in order to make his will
prevail in spite of difficulties in his immediate environment.
I \ .: rscverance must dwell in inmost consciousness and should
-110( be discernable from without. Only thus is a man able
f(l ma irrtain his will in the face of difficulties." 3
And on page 135 Ibid, we read:
" If a man goes on quietly and perseveringly at the reJ.

Ibi d. p. 140

67

moval of resi stances, success comes in the end. The obstructions give way and all occasion for remorse arising from
'xcess ive use of power disappears.
"Such a man's power does not show externally, yet it
can move heavy loads, like a big cart whose real strength
lies in its axle. The less power is applied outwardly the greater
its effect."
The light referred to in Yi Ching relates to a man's
clarity, steadfastness, perseverance and concentration on
thinking and doing what is right. What a man does in
this regard should not be obvious to others. Whenever someone else knows a man's plans or intents, he always thinks
something about them himself. This new thinking adds
"friends" or "opponents" to man's own thinking (friends)
and it is either helpful or harmful. If the new "friends"
work in harmony with the old ones then added strength and
effort result. More often than not the new "friends" tend
to go in a different direction than the previous "friends" and
the result is less than if the previous "friends" had acted alone.
Hence Yi Ching says that man in some situations must hide
his light. Specifically his thinking and intentions should
not be made known to others. The power mentioned in the
second quotation above relates to the power these "friends"
exert. The amount of confidence we have and give these
"friends" is also extremely important. This depends on the
feelings, concentration, steadfastness and perseverance with
which these "friends" are brought into being, supported and
maintained. Some people call this effort "meditation", some
call it "concentration", and some call it "prayer". But in
any case it is effort-real work-from which positive and
concrete results can be attained. Remember, the amount of
work you perform will determine the rapidity and effectiveness
of the results you obtain just the same as with any other work,
except for one thing. Mental work, properly carried out,

is fa r more tiring and exhausting than purely physical work.

Further, one cannot see the progress and often is not fully
aware of the results of one's mental efforts, as one is when
one can see, touch, perhaps, hear, smell or taste the results
of physical effort. Consequently, most people have a tendency
not to avail themselves. of this "tool" which is a part of their
personal inventory of assets. Also, like many other skills,
it takes times and experience, trial and effort, trial and error,
disappointment and heartaches before even limited success
can be routinely achieved.
But we do have something that can help us in the meantime, and that is Yi Ching. By knowing the principles on
which Yi Ching is constructed we can utilize it to obtain guidance to any set of circumstances or situation. We do have to
exercise our mind to select and analyze various possible courses
of action and apply our own judgment to the basic guidance
Yi Ching gives us. And then we have to exert our will to
follow and carry out the guidance elected (freedom of choice).
The true beauty of this procedure lies in being able to know
which course of action will be successful and which ones
won't.
But how does one properly use Yi Ching? Like .most
everything else it is through study, understanding and practical experience. The study of Yi Ching and the experience
of using it are personal matters which each person will control
and exercise according to his own nature and inclination.
T he understanding of Yi Ching is dependent, to a large degree,
( ll1 the extent of knowledge one has regarding its construction
:1nd development. Then one must also have a deep appreciation for the Laws of Nature and the phenomena of man.
T hese two ~att~rs ar;;-vital for a full -;nd correct understandi 11g of any hexagram.
To begin with there are six things to be considered in
connection with the analysis of every hexagram, namely:

69
I.

Identify the hexagram.

2. Use the appended Judgment to judge the hexagram.

._" r.

3. Correlate the "Big Images . ( *t@. ) with the circumstances or question under consideration.
4. Ascertain the T'uan ( ~ ) or application and interrelation of the natural phenomena of the hexagram
under consideration.
5. Identify and study the fixed and moving lines. Also
determine the final hexagram (the situation after the
lines have changed).
6. Study the "Small Images" ( 'l't@. ) (explanations)
given in conneclion with moving lines identified in
step 5 above (both the statements regarding the lines
and their explanations).
While it isn't vital it is strongly recommended that everyone analyzing a hexagram meditate on the information and
guidance given him. To say the least it is difficult to consider all the details connected with any question or circumstance. Consequently, the full import and direction given by
Yi Ching is generally not comprehensively understood until
after . the situation has finalized. It is only hind sight that
the exact meaning and intent given by Yi Ching can be fully
rationalized. In the meantime, meditation can and usually
does provide a greater understanding of the matter and the
suggested guidance than is possible by comprehension without this process. Above all be wary of taking Yi Ching too
literally. Its philosophy and ~ay of life are deep and s 10uld
not be cursorily interpreted. And while many interpretations
can be made, it is usually the one you intuitively know to be
applicable to which you should lend credence.
At this point it is desirable to briefly refresh our minds
rega rding the origin of the hexagrams and to show how they
were developed . Rather than require you to turn back to
the previous chapter, we will use just a bit of repetition here.

The trigrams are said to have been drawn by Fu Hsi.

F u Hsi was the ruler or head of the clan in ancient times
before the "flood". In those days everything was attributed
to the ruler whether he was personally responsible for it or
not. No one knows for sure who first drew the symbols
Yang ( - ) and Yin(--). Nor can we definitely designate
who drew the first trigram, but it seems to be universal to
ascribe it to F u Hsi. It is doubtful that he drew the first
hexagram, since, according to ancient Chinese history, only
the trigrams are mentioned until after the time of King Wen
and the founding of the Chou Dynasty about 1123 BC.
It is important to remember that the Yao (individual
lines 5t ) of the trigrarrns and the hexagrams represent symbols. It is only by and through their symbolism that the
--------.
true meaning of any situation or circumstance can be understood. Basically it is the position of the two trigrams of a
hexagram, i.e., one over the other, with their symbolic meaning following natural laws, that permits us to make rational
judgments and practical use of the guidance given.
F u Hsi, according to historic information, classified all
phenomena in the universe into two main categories, the
Yin (--) and the Yang(-). This became the basis for the
understanding of all dualism, i.e., heaven-earth, hard-soft,
male-female, light-dark, tall-short, right-wrong, etc.
From the differentiation of the basic Yin and Yang we
get four:
Greater Yang Lesser Y aug Lesser Yin Greater Yin

-------

r hcsc correspond to such things as the four season, the four

six:.-hour periods of a day, the four directions, etc. And
f1 om these we go on by the next differentiation of Yin and

71

70

Yang to the eight trigrams. This gives us the family of eight

trigrams: 4
Father
=Creative, Heaven, Male
=-=Youngest Daughter
= Joy, Pleasure
==Middle Daughter
=Fire, Light
- Eldest Son
= Arousing, Thunder
=-Eldest Daughter
= Penetration, Gentle
==Middle Son
= Water, Danger, Spirit
_Youngest Son
= Keeping Still, Standing Still
=_Mother
= Receptive, Earth, Female
The derivation of this is shown by the following diagram
wherein the light portions are Yang and the dark parts are
Yin.

since it is not mentioned in this manner in any of the books

I have read regarding Yi Ching to date. It has, however,
been mentioned in conversations. And it could be correct.
Another way of showing the differentiation of Yang and
Yin is through the circular method. According to Chinese
concept Left, Upper and Front are always Yang, whereas
Right, Lower and Back are always Yin. (They consider this
to apply to the human body as well). [This concept is also
reflected in Chinese writing from top to bottom and from
right to left.P The sequence of the differentiation is shown
in the following circular diagrams:
2

YIN YANG
lSI
differentiation

2nd

3rd

differentiation

differentiation

SUPREME

ULTIMATE
(WUCHI)

neither Yin

It is interesting to note that according to this differentiation from 2 to 8, the Father, Yang, is directly responsible for
the Eldest son, the youngest and middle daughters, where as
the ldest daughter and the middle and youngest sons are
derived from the mother. If this were related to humans, it
would tend to indicate that Father would first want a son and
heir to immortalize himself and then daughters to reflect his
love for Mother. For like reasons Mother would first want
a daughter and replica, then produce the sons in honor of
the Father. Such a hypothesis, of course is pure speculation
4. In the primal arra ngement the lowest line of a trigram determines
th e sex i.e., if Yang, then male, if Yin, then female, while here
a single Yang in a trigram makes it male and a single Yin line ma kes
it fem ale. Since lines enter at the bottom, the eldest son is Yang at
th e bo tt o m, the middle son the Yang in the middle and the youngest
so n th e Ya ng a t the to p. Similarly for daughters. A single line rules
t he o th er two.

nor Yang
perse

If we cut #4 above, like cutting a cake, into eight piece~. we

see that we get the same family of trigrams as we did by the
previous method. The thing to especially note here though,
is the position of Yang and Yin as they reflect the concept
of top, left, front being Yang and bottom, right, rear being

Yi n.
Circle #1 represents the SUPREME ULTMIMATE. It
is eternal, limitless, and like the statements regarding Tao
( ilif ), is beyond definite description. One can only assign
certain attributes and characteristics to it but these can never
be complete. It is, amongst other things, Uni1ty. It is the
oneness from which Heaven and Earth, Yang and Yin be5.

T his is actually left to right looking from the paper on which it is

writt en.

., 2

coot e differentiated and from which the eight trigrams come

into being. As society expanded the eight trigrams became

inadequate and consequently, by three more differentiations,
the sixty four hexagrams were developed. These now repre~e nt all the things and all the situations in the universe, commonly expressed by the Chinese as the "1 0,000 things".
Through these representations and symbolisms human beings
came to understand one another, communicate their ideas, and
develop themselves materially, intellectually and spiritually.
Why did the differentiation produce eight trigrams?
Numerically Yin and Yang are two elements. There are
three lines per trigram, so by putting two elements into thre~
different positions we get (2)1= 8. Or using algebra, let
A= Yang, and B= Yin. Then
A + B= Yang and Yin.
(A + B) 3
A 3 + 3A2B + 3AB2 + B3
A3
Ch'ien, the creative, Father
2
3A B
Three combinations of 2 Yang and
1 Yin. ,
Sun, Eldest Daughter
Li, Middle Daughter
Tui, Youngest Daugter
Three combinations of 1 Yang and
2 Yin
Chen, Eldest Son
K'an, Middle Son
Ken, Youngest Son
3
K'un, the receptive, Mother
B =
If we similarly use algebra to derive the sixty four hexagrams,
we see that (six differentiations)
(A + B)6 = A~ + 6A5B + 15A4B2 + 20A3B3
+ 15A2B4 + 6AB 5 + B6
T hi s means th at there is 1 hexagram with 6 Yang and 0 Yin
6 hexagram s with 5 Yang & 1 Yin

73

15 hexagrams with 4 Yang & 2. Yin

20 hexagrams with 3 Yang & 3 Yin.
15 hexagrams with 2 Yang & 4 Yin
6 hexagrams with l Yang & 5 Yin
1 hexagrams with 0 Yang & 6 Yin
Total64
The reader can verify this for ,himself.
Also, if we expand diagram #4 on page 71 by three
more differentiations, we likewise get the sixty four hexagrams.
-----~

Remember we said that the trigrams and hex~gram s

are symbols. They refer to natural things as found in the
visible universe, both as on earth and in the sky (heaven).
T hey portend specific things just as certain symptoms a rc

75

indicalivt.: of specific diseases, such as a particular type of

1 ash denotes measles, a peculiar infiamation of the joints
relates to arthritis, or regarding emotions, a natural smile
is an indication of pleasure.
The following tables give some of the symbolisms of
the trigrams. These are by no means all the symbols that
pertain to each trigram and the reader can well add others
as his understanding of Yi Ching increases. The ones given
here are to a considerable extent an attempt to modernize
the ones as given in the basic Yi Ching so that the interpretation of hexagrams can be made more meaningful by the use
of present day symbolism rather than just the ancient and
archaic representations.

CH'IEN

=tR:

Creative, male, father, ruler, the architect, design engineer,

president, manager, boss, husband, pilot of an airplane,
captain of a ship, electrical generator, TV camera transmitter,
telephone transmitter, the talker, speaker, the active part
of anything at the time it is active (The leg which carries
the body weight at a given time is considered as the yang
leg, and when it doesn't it is the yin leg, etc.), the seventh
and eighth levels of consciousness in Buddism, stallion, bank,
school, text books, doctrines, Ch'i mind, heart, etc.
K'UN
--

--

.J.m

"''!'

Receptive, female, mother, a factory superintendant or foreman when engaged in carrying out the orders imposed upon
him, electrical motors, radio and TV receivers, telephone receivers, the listener, the passive part of anything, the sixth
level of consciousness in Buddhism, cow, stores of all types,
warehouses, earth (soil), post offices, personal service organizations, manufacturing plants, the follower, etc.

CHEN
~~

Thunder, arousing, eldest son, beginning of spring, beginning

of an enterprise etc., stimulations, suggestions, commands,
teachers, preachers, inspirational speakers, bells, alarms, sirens,
horns, mountain streams, lion, beautiful scenery, poetry, money, foods, fertilizer, green plants and trees, an inspiring person,
book or situation, an ardent lover, dynamic individuals.
SUN

=-=~
Penetration, eldest daughter, wood, wind, guide line for work,
the thinker, the serious student, the matriarch of the clan,
water fall, deep rivers, lawyers, analysts, single purpose individuals, girls and women in love, astute business men.
K'AN

=-

Abysmal, water, rain, pig, spirit, in man it represents those

of constancy, steadfastness, endurability and interest in spiritual matters; governmental agencies, public utilities, situations wherein one must be like water, i.e., always the same
under any circumstances, not shunning any danger, filling
up, going over or around obstacles.
LI

=--

Fire, sun, clinging, lightning, middle daughter, in men it

represents those who are an example to others, dedicated
persons, faithful dogs, people with an interest in life, some
public service and non-profit organizations, normal' daily
activity, fundamental principles.

KEN
- Bl:
Keeping still, standing still, youngest son, mountain, staff
personnel in business, forests, the mountain trail, the lamb,
the family hearth, church, temple, library, psychiatrists, meditation, prayer, chess, poker.

77

TUI

Jt
.lnyo us, youngest daughter, lake, seashore, mouth, salesmen,
1 111 li e relations personnel, monkey, the super highway, anyIll ing producing an infectuous joyousness, cocktail parties,
pi cni cs, outings, boats, ships, planes, trains, automobiles,
sports activities.
It must be recognized that no hard and fast rules can
be set forth since under some circumstances a person, thing
or situation may be Yang and the next moment Yin or maybe
one moment one' trigram and the next moment another. For
example, a speaker is Ch'ien and the listener is K'un. As
soon as their roles are reversed they are symbolized by the
ether trigram. So in one instance they are one thing and
the next another. In Chinese T'ai Chi boxing, the leg that
carries or supports the body weight is called the Yang leg
(of that moment). When a new position 'is taken it may well
be the Yin leg. While a ship or airplane is embarking passengers it is receptive or K'un but when enroute it is Tui,
Joyousness. So, in any usage or evaluation, the specific conditions existing at the time must be known and utilized before
accurate and meaningful symbolism is employed to judge the
meaning of a hexagram or oracle.
As for man himself, the trigrams are representative of
various parts of the body, as viewed externally, as parts of
the physiognomy (in a more refined consideration), and of
internal ~unctive organs.
Oveiall body representations:
According to Yi Ching "The creative manifests itself in
the head, the Receptive in the belly, the Arousing in the foot,
the Gentle in the thighs, the Abysmal in the ear, the Clinging
(brightness) in the eye, Keeping Still in the hand, the Joyous
in the mouth." 6
(, ,

I bid . p . 274

Physiognomy representations:
The skull is Ch'ien, the forehead is Sun, Li is the eyes,
Ken is the ears, K'an is the nose, K'un is the throat, Chen is
the vocal system and tongue and Tui is the mouth.
Internal representations:
The mirid (pineal gland) is Ch'ien, the stomach and
lower regions are K'un, the sex organs are Chen, the nerve
system is Sun, the lungs and oxygen system are K'an, the
blood system is Li, Ken is the liver and Tui is the vocal
system.
Returning to the symbolism we mentioned supra we are
reminded that all phenomena should be divided into their
three natural categories, i.e., heaven, man and earth. The
broad categories pertaining to each are:
Heaven: Constellations, signs of the Zodiac, stars, principles of astronomy, clouds, etc. In other words, everything
that one does and can see when looking into the sky.
Man: Man's physical parts, man's physiognomy, man's
inner (world) activity, man's moral and intellectual self.
Earth: Mountains, rivers, lakes, oceans, cities, factories,
tools, equipment, geomancy, etc., anything that can be seen
from a helicopter or airplane. It represents the activity and
phenomena of society. 7
Tung Chung-Shu, a philosopher of the Han Dynasty
period gives the following correspondence of man with heaven
and earth. 8
"H<:aven is noted for the power to create things, earth is
noted for the power . to transform, and man is noted for moral
principles. The Ch'i (vital force) of Heaven is above, that of
the .earth below, and that of man in between. Spring produces
and summer grows, and all things flourish. Autumn destroys
7.

Author's note: The Physiognomy and Internal representations given

above are largely based on Taoistic ideas.
!!. Ch'u Chai and Winderg Chai. Essential Works of Conjitcianism. Banta m
Book, New York, London, Toronto. 1965 p. 366

79

;ual winter stores, and all things are preserved. Therefore there
is nothing more subtle than Ch'i, richer than earth, or more
divine than Heaven. Of the essence of Heaven and earth whereby creatures are born, none is more exalted than man. Man
recieves the decree of Heaven, and therefore is superior to other
creatures. Other cr.eatures suffer troubles and distress, and ar<l
unable to practice Jen and Yi; man alone is capable of practicing
them. Other creatures suffer trouble and distress, and are unable to match Heaven and earth; Man alone is capable of matching them.
Man has three hundred and sixty joints, which match th,~
number of Heaven; his body, with its bones and flesh, matches
the thickness of the earth. He has ears and eyes above, with
their keen sense of hearing and seeing, which symbolizes the sun
and the moon. His body has its orifices and veins, which symbolize rivers and valleys. His heart has feelings of sorrow,
joy, pleasure and anger, which are analogous to divine feelings
(of Heaven). When we look at man's body, how much he is
Superior to other creatures, and he is indeed the same
as Heaven! Other creatures derive their life from Heaven's
Yin and Yang in a recumbent way; man alone, with
his head erect and upright posture, looks straight forward.
And so, those who receive less from Heaven and earth are recumbent, while those who receive more from Heaven and earth
are erect. This shows man in his superiority to other creatures
and in his forming a trinity with Heaven and earth.
Therefore, in the body of man, his head rises up and is
round, like Heaven's form. His hair is like the stars and constellations. His ears and eyes, keen in their senses, are like
the sun and the moon. The breathing of his nostrils and mouth
is like the wind. The penetrating wisdom of his mind is like
the divine intelligence (of Heaven). His abdomen and womb,
now full now empty, are like the myriad things. The myriad
things are nearest the earth. The portion of the body below the
waist corresponds to earth. As the body like Heaven and
earth, the waist serves as a sash. That which is above the neck
is noble and majestic in spirit, to manifest the features of Heaven
and its kind. That which is below the neck is full and humble,
comparable to the soil. The feet are square and spreading out,
lik e the form of the earth. Therefore when a man wears a ceremonial sas h and girdle, his neck must be erect to distinguish it

from the heart. That which is above the sash is all Yang, and
that which is below the sash is all Yin, each with its own function. The Yang is the Ch'i of Heaven, and the Yin is the Ch'i
of earth. When Yin and Yang become operative and cause
man to have ailments in the foot or numbness in th.~ throat,
the Ch'i of the earth rises to become clouds and rain. Thus
there is resemblance in the correspondence. The symbol of
Heaven and earth, as well as the correspondence between Yin
and Yang, are ever found complete within the human body.
The body is like Heaven, and the numerical categories are interwoven with the categories of Heaven, so that their lives are
linked together. With the number of days in the )'Car, Heaven
gives form to man's body. As a_result, in a man's body there are
three hundred and sixty-six component - parts, making the sum
tot~ays in a year, the tw_elve ma"or arts, making the s
total of months in a year. Within, there are five viscera, making
total of the five -elements. Without, ~re_four-Iimbs,
making the sum total of the four seasons. - At_ one time (man's
e yes) open and at another time (they) close, thus corresponding
to day and night At one time (a man) asserts and at another
ti~e (he) yicldS,thus corresponding to summer and autumn. At
one time (he feels) sorrow and at another time (he feels) joy,
thus corresponding to -the Yin and the Yang. The mind h ~s
(the ower of) calculation and deliberation, which corresponds
to Heaven's numerical ~gQr~s. Mall's conduct follows the
principles of human relationships, which correspond to (the relatiOnship of) He"iiven and earth. All this, appearing in the body,
is born~n. With what can be numbered there is correspondence in number; with what cannot be numbered there is correspondence in category. In both cases, man is identical with and
corresponds to Heaven".

thesum

All the previously mentioned symbolism, both that quoted from other sources and that given by the author, are very
important for analyzing any hexagram. Situations vary
greatly and since it is impossible to give every contingent
symbol, there will be times when a person has to employ his
own symbolism. The key elements are the viewing point
relating to the symbols and the active or passive nature ensuing. To exemplify this point all we need to do is t9 GQnsidcr

HO

most common uses of symbolism and observations

of ph nomena, that is, the process of weather forecasting.
W t; look to "heaven" to obtain data reflecting the existing
co nditions. We also know the past conditions (this would
be li ke knowing the previous hexagram in Yi Ching fr om
which the present situation was derived). Hence one can
reasonably know the future. And like Yi Ching, later looking back over the factors involved, we see the true interpretation of the facts and data which we did not exactly perceive
at the time of our forecast. We all are aware that weather
predictions have not always been fully correct. On hindsight we can see the reasons for the disparities. So likewise
with our use of Yi Ching. "W._e make inter retations based
on our best "ud ment of the facts and information on hand
but usually we fipd we have overlooked something and it is
alsoo nly on hindsight that we com~ to understand the true
So it behooves us to exercise caution and care
predictiun.
::.-.-in our use of Yi Ching and unless one is an expert it would
be best just to use it as a general guide until through practical
experience one learns its correct application and finds one
can then rely on the judgments made.
We remarked above that it was desirable to know the
hexagram
situation was derived . This
- --=- from
_, _which
- the
- present
is very important and essential for refined analysis of the
~en by Yi Chi~g: We will now point out several
ways in which hexagrams are derived from one another and
again it is a matter of judgment, based on the type of situation
or circumstances involved, as to whi1ch . one elects to deem
correct at any given time.
The following is a table of derivation of hexagrams based
on the rising and declining cycle of events:

81

o ll t; o f th e

- 111111

~ :11111

~ llllll

JJJIJJ

111111
'IIIII
IIIII

11111

JJJJ
'1'''1

-.t -1Ill I

'() 111:1:

N
'<t

11'''1
Ill

- 111111
t- Jill I

t- I'11 I 11I
-.t

~ I: 1111

0
[11'1'
-.t
II
I I

t- 1.11111
1111 I

IJII
II'"'

-'''Ill
- Ill

-N

111'Ill11

-0\ 111111
1111

~ 1111::

llllll

111111

~ Ill Ill

llllll

II II II

-Ifill I

s;

llllll

~ :11111

I'''''

~ :11111

M
N

II . ,

''Ill'

~ 1111:1

'()
"1111
-II Ill

;; l: II II
IJJJ
II''''

~ illlll

g 1:11:1

'IIIII
-.t I Ill

Ill'''Ill --,11"'Ill

:x,-.t

'<t
N

IIIII

IJIIJJ

N
M

IIIII

~ 1111::
~

IIIII:

~ 111111

111111
- 1111

0\

'<t
N

t- 1''''1
JJJJ

0\
N

N
Ill
-1'1''1

t- I'11-'1'
-.t
I I

'I'll'

~'Ill''
I II

N
N

0\ '1''1'
NJJII

111111

- 'I'"'

JJIJIJ

~~~~~~
-M I II!

oo

I II II

llllll

'-.tIll
() IIIII'

I I I

II II I

I IIIII

'1''1'
JJJJ

1''1'1
Ill

V)

111,11

N
Ill
-1'1"1

-Ill II

1'JIJf
1 111

'()
111111
M Ill I

V)
M

N
N

II I
1''1'1

llllll

V)

I'"'

00

Ir II II

t-111111
JIIJ

'M
o-,

'1'1"
llfJ

:.-.t_. . 1'''11
Ill

: .~II'I'll'I sill :-I

IIIII

Ill I

.v

'

~ :.I: Ill

19

24

36

55

49

13

33

44

59

60

43

34

14

50

56

35

23

20

57

53

20

12

35

16

51

54

34

11

10

12

33

53

52

15

36

II

19

54

58

10

11

46

15

16

45

12

25

10

26

11

12

25

10

16

45

12

26

11

46

15

X
N

13

33

44

59

19

24

36

55

49

13

14

50

56

35

23

20

60

43

34

14

15

36

11

19

54

58

10

12

33

53

52

15

---...16

51

54

34

11

57

53

20

12

35

16

17

45

47

28

48

46

18

26

22

27

21

25

17

18

26

22

27

21

25

17

45

47

28

48

46

18
00

19

15
~-

20

42

61

62

31
-

33

---

---

-- -

14

34

13

10_

~~

32

61

62

16

41

----

19

20

17

51

21

63

--

36

22

---

X
~

--

-- - --- ----- ---~-

21

22

35

52

64

18

50

----

------

---

--

-----

23

27

41

26

24

46

18

57

48

64

58
---- --- 6 .---47 ------- --- ---'-

14

32

28

43

-44

28

63

17

49

---

--

31

45

--

---

13

. --:-

23

--

----- --------25

- 42

--

27

----

24

-- --

25

12

44

57

18

46

11

36

24

51

17

25

26

18

52

23

35

12

45

17

58

43

11

26

27

23

18

50

44

28

43

49

17

24

27

28

43

49

17

24

27

23

18

50

44

28

29

60

63

49

55

30

56

50

64

59

29

30

56

50

64

59

29

60

63

49

55

30
00
V\

31

32

49

34

----

---

33

13

34

35

36

32

21

15

43

55

--

58

51

60

24

19

41

23

52

56

33

:J

42

20

59

57

44

50

32

--- -

-- -

31

33

14

34

--

------

----

---

10

61

41

19

15

62

16

20

42

61

38

14

26

48

39

45

16

35

46

40

47

10

25

13

37

22

36

---

------ - ----- --- -- -62

37

53

57

59

64

40

54

51

55

36

63

37

38

64

35

56

52

53

39

63

60

58

54

38

39

63

60

58

54

38

64

35

56

52

53

39

40

54

51

55

36

63

37

53

57

59

64

40

41

23

52

56

33

31

49

43

58

60

19

41

42

20

59

57

44

50

32

34

55

5I

24

42

00
-.j

43

28

44

31

45

23

27

41

26

14

13

25

42

27

24

46

32

28

44

. .)

.1~

45

17

58

43

II

26

18

52

23

35

12

45

46

II

36

24

51

17

25

12

44

57

18

46

47

58

17

49

63

36

22

52

18

64

47

48

63

17

51

21

35

64

50

18

57

48

49

31

28

47

29

41

27

22

30

13

49

50

14

30

21

27

42

29

48

28

32

50

51

16

40

32

46

48

57

37

42

25

21

51

52

22

26

41

38

10

58

47

45

31

39

15

52

53

37

61

10

38

54

40

16

62

15

39

53

54

40

16

62

15

39

53

37

61

10

38

54

J.

:X

ex;
1.0

55

62

32

40

29

59

61

42

37

13

30

55

56

30

14

38

41

61

60

29

39

31

62

56

57

37

42

25

21

51

16

40

32

46

48

57

58

47

45

31

39

15

52

22

26

41

38

10

58

59

61

42

37

13

30

55

62

32

40

29

59

60

29

39

31

62

56

30

14

38

41

61

60

20

53

33

56

62

55

34

54

19

61

59

60

61

54

19

60

61

59

20

53

62

34

56

55

33

62

39

48

29

47

40

64

38

21

30

22

37

63

63

21

30

22

37

63

39

48

29

47

64

38

40

64

-.::

The above are applicable when the cycles are repetitive such as days, weeks, seasons, years, etc.

10

92

In the use of the foregoing table we see that if we read

froil1 left to right we can forecast what the cyclic change
future conditions will be. Conversely, if we read from right
to left we can determine the background conditions and what
the seeds were from which the present situation developed,
assuming a cyclic changing set of circumstances.
If the present situation is not what we want it to be,
we can look at the lines of the hexagram denoting the present
conditions and, by determining the hexagram which represents the situation we would like to have, we can, by referring
to Yi Ching for guidance relating to lines which have to be
changed, take such action as is necessary or indicated to
produce the desired conditions. This is because every hexagram can change into every other hexagram. In this, man
is exercising his freedom of choice. But there is an important
caution to be observed. Be sure to ascertain if the course of
action, elected to be taken, is in keeping with the Will of
Heaven. In my own experience, there have been several
occasions where I did take action to get what I wanted and did
receive it only later to experience either considerable or incessant difficulty in connection therewith. Here, too, guidance
from Yi Ching can be most helpful.
.
When we talked about a hexagram resulting from another
hexagram, we used the term derived. In one sense no
hexagram is derived from another since all hexagrams came
into being simultaneously with the sixth differentiation of Yin
and Yang. But we do know from practical experience that
one situation leads into another, and since the hexagrams represent situations, it is possible to speak of them as being
derived by virtue of the preceding situation, which is on such
a course as to produce the present situation. In this latter
usage we are not assigning any progenitor role to the precedin g hexagram , rather it is a state or condition, which gives
w; to appropriate background we need for best understanding

93

of present and future conditions, just as in weather forecasting, knowledge of the past status and location of the High and
Low pressure areas are essential for understanding the reasons for the present weather and for making predictions regarding the future weather.
Going back to our differentiation diagrams (p. 7073), we note that Yin and Yang together produced two Yin
and Yang, or one of each by each. These in turn produced
a Yin and Yang each. After six differentiations of Yin and
Yang, we have the sixty four hexagrams, half of which started
with a Yang base and the other half with a Yin base. The
bottom line of the Hexagram determines its Yang or Yin base,
i.e., if the bottom line is a broken line then it had a Yin base;
alternately, if it is a solid line then it had a Yang base.
We should note though, that in the second differentiation
Yang produced a Yin and Yin as also did a Yang. This is
because of their intricate interrelationship. The point we
are trying to show by calling this to attention is that one
m st be cautious about using Yi Ching l iterally. T~e ke
tpin to r ember is that all considerations and judgments
must be giade keeping the relationships of natural phen_~n~,_
pr~~s and_laws in mind. It is wrong to think that half
of the hexagrams came from Yin and the other half from
Yang. All hexagrams are derived from the complementary
actions and interrelationships of Yin and Yang and not just
from one or the other by itself.
The Creative creates the seeds and the Receptive brings
it to fruition. This is true of situations in the human sphere
as well as being the normal procedure in plant life. Yin and
Yang are always complementary. We are also told, and it
has been proved by physics that everything, once created,
tends to decline or decay if not revitalized. If left to itself it
will return from whence it came. So if things come forth from
the earth1 to the earth they must return. As we will see

----------

..

95

94

subsequently we can use this principle to help us achieve our

a 1ms.
As we said earlier, knowing the background leading up
a present situation is very important for enabling one to
make proper judgments. We should have proper guideline
to follow to ascertain and reflect on the past. But there iB
one problem in this connection I haven't been able to solve.
The ancient Chinese classical text of Yi Ching states that
hexagram_#4Q_was derived_trom_.hexag..raim- #46. I have not
been able to find the ancient system which brings this about.
It may be a misprint since our rising and declining method
of change shows hexagram #64 immediately preceding #40.
I will, however, show one system whereby hexagram #40 is
immediately preceded by hexagram #46, but I believe this
to be recent thinking rather than a system used in ancient
times.
lo

First let us look at another ancient system. This involves

eight stages of change only instead of the twelve as are applicable in the rising and declining cycle. I call this eight
stage system the ~equent Cycle. To me it represents the
seasonal growth of fruits and plants, yet the same principles
can be applied to other situations as well.
In this system the activity is the same for the first five
stages as on the rising and declining cycle system. As you
will immediately note it varies appreciably in the next three
stages. Step 6 bring~ line 4 back to its original condition
and step 7 brings line five back similarly. So at the end of
step 7 the inner (lower) trigram is completely changed but
the outer (upper) is back again to its original condition. This
has an intense transforming action on the inner trigram, resulting in a single step complete reconversion of the inner
tri~rra m to its original condition.
The system is shown in the
follow ing example;

Initial
Condition

44

33

12

20

23

35

12

This would reflect a normal growth and development but

followed by a very rapid return to the original condition or
state. This would be like fruits or vegetables growing normally, followed by a rapid consuming or decay, returning
to independent elementary atoms from which it grew, and
the seeds being available for another sequent cycle.1
If we use this system to analyze hexagram #40 we find
the Sequent Cycle would be:
Original

40

54

51

55

36

63

49

55

40

This system does not give us the derivation of hexagram #40

from hexagram #46 either.
If we look to hexagrams which have hexagram #40
as their inner hexagram (line 2, 3 & 4 plus 3, 4 & 5) we find
that there are hexagrams 15, 22, 36 and 52. This implies.
that there is a degree of deliverance to be found in all situations represented by the hexagrams, but this still doesn't solve
our riddle of hexagram 40 being derived from hexagram 46,..
as stated in the classical text.
Then, as we said supra, there is the thinking ~J;lat every-
thing once made, is from then on in a process of decline or
decay. As thoughts are realities, subject to memory and retention , they too decline and decay once having been brought
into fruition. Since the material from which everything came
was (atomic) dust, to it every thing must likewise return. In
other words, for something to be a complete cycle it must
I.

Thi s sequent cycle w as p rcscntcJ by Pro f. N an in his lectures on

Chin{! :tt the Fu .len University in Apri l, 1968.

Yi

97

n.: turn to the point from which it started. Another principle

in the Yin and Yang cycle of events is that the Yang yao
(lines) tend to rise when not impeded by another Yang. In
the hexagram they enter at the bottom and go out the top.
ln theory, once all Yang have left, everything is in a quiescent
state and thus has returned to that from which it came.
Using the above stated principles, the following would
thereby apply to the circumstances (derivation) generating
"deliverance", hexagram #40:

24

19

36

46

45

35

30

23

40

62

39

So if you want to be "delivered" from some circumstance

or situation, you must, according to the foregoing, first make
yourself receptive to the new conditions ( #2, Receptive),
change or convert your mental attitude to proper thinking
( #24, Return), recognize that you and you alone are the
one responsible for solving or resolving the matter in questions since everything that happens to you is dependent on
yourself (#7, Army), approach the problem correctly (#19,
Approach), work quietly and diligently ( #36, Darkening of
the Light), from which there will be progress ( #46, Progress),
bringing about the desired deliverance ( #40, Deliverance),
after which, having achieved your aim, you should rest and
not try to accomplish great things ( #62, Preponderance of
the Small), etc.
The above method is especially applicable for working
out any specific problem. Knowing the condition or circumstance you want you find the hexagram which represents
that condition and work it back to what seeds and courses
o f action are necessary to produce that condition. If you look

at our example again you will see that we have provi'aed a

course too, which would enable one to gather together with
People ( #45, Gathering Together) and later holding with
them ( #8, Holding Together).
Suppose you want a good full life. This would be
represented by hexagram #55 Abundance.

24

46

36

19

40

62

Here, after having emptied y(mrself of your erroneous thinking and having delivered yourself from the conditions which
kept you from a full life, you can now make it full by taking
creative action in the right direction. This is shown by the
creative Yang line entering at the bottom after hexagram
#62, thereby bringing about the desired full life (#55, Abundance).
Fortunately man has a freedom of choice and action
and can take such steps as described above because man
is an equal partner with heaven and earth as relates to the
changes, their development, their implementation and their
results. It is with this right and ability to inject new conditions that man can keep any situation positive and successful.
If any situation become negative it is because man was careless, lazy or lacked sufficient foresight. It all falls back on
man himself.
Suppose a man wants a good family circumstance, that
is hexagram #37 family; starting with #55 foregoing we see
that the foll ow in g conditions are necessary:
55

6:1

17

60

64

59

53

37

ILtvin g ~1chiev cd our full Iif ' (// 55 , /\bundance) we set everythin g in ord r (//(,I , /\ l't n Cot11plction), from which we
, ,hl~ till a fpllnwin (Il l "! I'DII , ,wi 11 1' ) hy our attra cti on. But

98

99

everything must have its proper place, especially at the beginning, because the patterns we set at the beginning have long
range effect, so we must circumscribe our situation with limitations ( #60, Limitation), which take shape into actions ( #64,
Before completion) since these are new conditions, we get
rid of egotism and selfishness (#59 Dispersion) from which
healthy progress ensues (#53 Progress) and thus we achieve
our good family relationships ( #37 Family). This is the
natural way for the situation to develop, step by step, overlooking nothing and resulting in enduring conditions.
There are, of course, faster methods, but they are frequenlty like a meteor, i.e., flaring up easily and dying out
quickly. We know that every hexagram can change into
every other hexagram. Suppose you are a wanderer (#5 6
Wanderer) and you want to settle down to a family life, in
other words, from the present situation of hexagram #56 -

you want to take action to have the situation become #37

family:::::::::::.

We immediately see that the first, fourth and

fifth lines of hexagram #56 must be "moving" lines (i.e. a

6 in the 1st place, a 9 in the 4th place and a 6 in the 5th
place) and change into their opposites. Paraphrasing the
context of these lines in Yi Ching we find that:
for 6-1
Therefore first one must maintain dignity and act with
proper decor, following the Golden Mean. One must be
serious in intent and his words and actions must agree.
for 9-4
The essence of the advice here is to forewarn against
fast and precipitous aetions. Everything should follow its
natural course and proceed step by step. If one is too fas t
and too forceful he meets with resistances that cause him
difficulty and the necessity of continuously being on guard.
The situation then is not and never can be peaceful, if handled

precipituously. The wanderer is still a stranger and should

not try to force things.
for 6-5
Here we are given the proper advice as to how we should
introduce ourselves, develop and be accepted by a circle of
friends and achieve a sphere of activity. The sphere of activity we were seeking was a family relationship. As is
obvious the same general principles would appply if a stranger
or wanderer were seeking a correct relationship in business,
politics or social activity.
In keeping with the advice of 9-4 though, it would
be better to go more slowly and overcome the handicaps
of being a stranger first. This could be done by following
steps similar to the ones we outlined for achieving family
relationships (#55 to #37).
There are several points to consider when making judgments regarding the future or selecting courses of action to
follow . Firstly, a situation will go through its normal cycle
and change to its opposite when "Universal Time" has fulfilled itself. Every situation is constantly changing, only some
change much more rapidly than others. Man, who is the
middle of the hexagram or the middle of a trigram (Usually
lines 2 and 5 are rulers of the hexagram-they are in the
middle position of the inner and outter trigrams) is the controlling factor. When man thinks, says and does what is
proper, then there is success and good fortune. The principle
problem is to be knowledgeable as .to what is proper under
varying circumstancess. This is one of the many ways in
v.:hich Yi Ching ca n be additionally useful to man, through
its exemplifica tion as a way of life which we discuss in detail
in another chapter.
While we ca n, t llrou >11 Yi Ching, know what to do , the
timin g of the a tinn :t n I til timin g of the sequential or cycl ic
v nts is som tim dilli uiL to understa nd or to determine.

100

We humans are accustomed to equal divisions of time. The

cycles ot the sun and the moon are especially noticeable to
us. Mariners and navigators depend on the position of the
stars, which follow the equal time division method and hence
have determinable positions time-wise. But man involved
events do not necessarily follow an equal step-by-step time
pattern. Why?
Here again we fall back to Yi Ching for our answer.
Man, as an equal partner with heaven and earth, determines
the time by the degree of concentration, forcefulness of his
effort, the intensity of his emotions, the steadfastness of his
purpose, the extent of his receptivity to the n;:w conditions and the inner attraction or repelling he exerts.
This is true whether the events happen rapidly or
Fate seemingly takes over and retribution or reward
is not made until the next or some ensuing life unfolds. A "lifetime" can be lived in a split second or a "lifetime" may seem like an eternity. We humans are conscious
of certain experiences wherein time does not seem to be of
equal divisions. When we are happy, busy, or having a
good time it seems to go fast. Conversely, time seems interminable if events are dull or undesired (like when you are
in a dentist's chair and he is drilling on your teeth). Those
who drive a car know that after going 7 5-80 mph and then
slowing down to 40 mph or less, it then seems like you are
crawling along the road. Having been a pilot, I know that
in flying jets, my mental processes have speeded up to conform to the environment and speeds at which I was operating.
Also, during World War II I had the unusual experience,
when in a fighter plane making an attack on military installations at Kure, Japan, of seeing a shell leave the muzzle
of a gun and come slowly floating up towards me. I finally
realized that if I didn't do something, it would hit me, so I
maneuvered my plane to avoid it. I watched it pass me and

101

explode slightly behind me. This occurred when I was about

7,000 feet altitude. Actually the shell was coming towards
me at the rate of about 2,500 ft/sec and I was approaching
it at about 500 ftj sec. So we were closing towards each
other at the rate of around 3,000 feet a second. Thus all
this happened in less than 3 seconds, that is, the time it would
take you to say "one and two and". But to me it was a
long time with plenty of opportunity to observe, think, analyze~
react and watch. So it is with Universal Time, where timing
is coordinated with circumstances. Ready examples are in
the rises and falls of nations, forms of governments, dynasty's
etc., wherein we all know the cycle for some is much longer
than for others and no two having equal time periods. The
same principles are involved in every case and the same
general sequence of events occurs, but, as relates to the overall situation, Universal Time rather than solar time was applicable.
Another point to remember is that in actual practice
cyclic changes are not true sine waves. The factors involved,
i.e., the situation represented by the hexagram or trigram,
will take place in accordance with the applicable laws, but not
necessarily along a sine curve path nor with equal spacing
or relationship. It is like going from New York .to Taipei.
If one went non-stop great circle route it would be like a sine
curve. Intead though, one probably goes to San Francisccr,.
Honolulu, Tokyo then on to Taipei. In fact in life it is
seldom that a true sine curve pattern is followed. A readily
understandable example is the blood flowing through our
bodies. We all know that the blood flows from the heart
and eventu ally returns to the heart thereby being cyclic. The
path the blood tak es has many directions and in no sense
fcllows a si.ne pat! rn . Yet our blood system is a true cyclic
system.
/\not her k: y thin t to r mcmhcr which alters the tr ue sine

fO

L- ; /

<:urve of cyclic events, is man's freedom of choice. This is

or prime importance because a new cycle or new set of condi1ions can be implemented any time. This tends to introduce
Universal Timing and bring a previous cycle to conclusion
rapidly (like persons dying young or before average life expectancy). Starting new cycles brings about new conditions.
This is especially important if conditions are good and one
wants to continue them. It is like getting new business orders
and sales so that your factory can continue production at a
:steady level, thereby maintaining a good employment complement and ensuring a reasonable profit. Without new orders
a factory would decline in its production but could b~ revived
by the input of new business.
It is the same with any situation or circumstance. If it
is deteriorating it must be reinvigorated with new life. So
~tarting wit? your go~l and using Yi Ching as a guide, you
Can determme wQ.at new seeds you must sow in order to
rcontinue to reap your desired goal.
There are other considerations which involve man too.
Earlier we made reference to certain symbolic representations of trigrams by physical parts of the body. Taoists
go one step further and separate the physical (ming ill ) from
the mental (hsing 11:. ). Thus they not only believe that man
begins with the Yin and the Yang but is the Yin and Yang,
that is, the physical and the mental. The pure Yin is the
body and the pure Yang is the mind and by the interrelationship of these we get other parts that are a combination of Yin
and Yang such as the nerve system. The extension of this
system throughout the body makes man a microcosm in a macrocosm. Esoteric Taoism carries the analogy still further.
Students of Yi Ching who are also students of Taoism will
find many Yi C!hing terms in the Taoists sutras and writings.
Buddhists emphasize the mind and want to liberate the
mind soul, considering the body as trash, or at the most,

103

just another hotel where one lives for a while. Low level
Taoists emphasize the body (ming), try to prolong life and
find the key to the fountain of youth. These Taoists criticise
Buddhists and say the Buddhists are trying to be nothing but
ghosts, i.e., spirits without flesh (by becoming a Buddha you
can see everyone but no one can see you).
,
Many Buddhists criticise Taoists and say they are like
evil spirits trying to guard a corpse.
The truth is that they are both partially right and partially
wrong. Both physical and mental development are necessary
and the one complements the other like Yin and Yang while
carrying out their assigned functions here on earth. Yin
and Yang cannot be separate. Neither can the mind and
the body while life is in progress (they may be apart on a
temporary basis but the tie between them remains firm). So
it really doesn't matter whether the Buddhist or the Taoist
concept is accepted because if the one (mind or body) is deYeloped the other must develop too. The difference is in
the starting point and the method of development. One requires a higher level of intelligence than the other, and, as
is well known, only truly intelligent people can understand
and practice Zen Buddhism. Through the system of Zen
one can attain instantaneous enlightenment whereas Taoists
and Hinayana Buddhists follow a step-by-step process. Consequently many people consider the Taoist path a much
slower route to take to reach the ultimate goal.
The basic principle involved is that Yin and Yang never
can be separated anymore that than a husband and wife;
each alone, could not produce a family by themselves. So
likewise it is with physical and mental development. They
go together, one cannot be without the other. How can a
body exercise and develop itself without a mind, which must
likewise grow with such usage? Conversely, how can even the
best of minds exercise and express itself without a body? The

104

problem between the Buddhists and the Taoists seems to be

in the interpretation of words, that is, words that are in the
basic teachings and open to varying interpretations. Fortunately, in the higher and esoteric teachings the two doctrines
and methods combine and work together. The mental and
physical development go hand in hand and the teachings regarding their development parallel each other in esoteric
Buddhism and esoteric Taoism.
It may be of passing interest to Westerners that the
,g~ herb d~rel~ on Y! Ching and the principles of
Yin and Yang for their diagnosis and prescriptions. We said
earlier that Yang is left, front and upper and Yin is right,
lower and rear. So the herb doctors check a man's pulse in his
left arm and a woman's in her right. External Medications are
applied to a man in front and on the left side, whereas they are
applied to the back and right side of a woman. In recent years
if a person will not follow herb medicine and feels the need
of an injection, the herb specialist recommends it be given a
man in his left arm or left "cheek" and to a woman in her
right arm or right "cheek".
Unfortunately there are quacks in this field of medicine
as well as other medical fields. These quacks, along with
people who try to make a living by fortune telling using Yi
Ching as a guide or basis, have done much harm to the usefulness acceptability of Yi Ching.
The one very important thing we have continually shown
throughout this chapter is that Yi Ching is based on the laws
applicable to natural phenome~a, is symboiized and expres;ed
by natural phenomena in the sky, man and earth and that
everything is therefore traceable as to origin, which, when
combined with the present, allows us to use applicablel aws
for making judgments regarding the future.
Thus Yi Ching has been brought out of the realm of "divin;ltion" and placed in its rightful station as a deep, profound

10)

and sound book of philosophy. In other chapters we are showing Yi Ching and its applicability to phenomena and as a way
of life. It is in all these contexts that Yi Ching has had its
applicability and use in Chinese culture over the centuries.
There are, however, a few more points to be known
about hexagrams so we will continue our explanation of
their background and usage.
Altogether, there are ten important considerations we
should remember in connection with every interpretation of a
hexagram. These are the points which King Wen and the
Duke of Chou emphasized in their amplification of Yi Ching
and are among the important elements in the Confucian Commentaries. All the "Judgments" made by King Wen, and both
the big and little "images" by the Duke of Chou, are based
on the interplay and interrelationship of the lines of the trigrams. In combination with the natural symbolism involved,
the direction of movement predicated by the Heavenly diagrams
(i.e. Later Heaven and Earlier Heaven), the agreement or
disagreements between the strong and the weak lines, upper
and lower trigrams, inner and outer trigrams, we find full,
and in one sense, scientific basis, for every explanatory statement made.
1. The first question to answer is which hexagrams is
under consideration and what is the nature of the trigrams
involved. Identifying a hexagram is simple and done in a
normal manner. As for the trignims there are two; the
upper which is comprised of the upper three lines and is
spoken of as being on top of the lower which is made up of
the lower three lines. Let us use the following hexagram
for all of the ten points (not just this one):
--'--;<. -

=x=

On identification we find that this is hexagram #40, Deliverance, with moving lines. The moving line in the firsl place

107

106

is designated 6-1 ; the moving line in the third place is designated as 6-3; the moving line in the fourth place is designated
9-4. A moving Yin line is shown as (-X-) and a moving
Yang line is shown as (----e--).
Breaking our hexagram #40 down we find that our two
trigrams are:
Thunder, movement, Chen
Upper
Lower
Water, rain, danger, K'an Chen, movement, tends to rise while rain falls and water
flows downhill. So we have movement away from danger,
hence deliverance. Also after a thunderstorm and rain the
air has been cleared and is refreshed and the previous tension
in the atmosphere has been released. These then are the factors
which give the hexagram its name of "deliverance".
2. Our second point relates to the body of the hexagrams, that is the inner and the outer trigrams or sometimes
also referred to as the upper and the lower. For our example,
we showed what they were and how they interacted in our
explanation of step one above. However, by way of amplification we are told that the inner trigram generally relates
to self or the partkular question or situation under consideration, whereas the outer relates to external conditions and
external effects. On some occasions, one may want to look
at them as possibly heavenly and earthly considerations.
3. The position of the lines likewise is important:
From a trigram construction point of view
6 =Heaven
5=man
4 = earth
3 = Heaven
2 = man
1 = earth
From a hexagram construction point of view
6 Outside the situation

5 King or ruler, husband

4 Minister
3 Transitional state
2 Wife or follower
1 Seeds of the change to the situation
6 Symbolic of heaven's considerations
5 Symbolic of heaven's considerations
4 Symbolic of man's considerations
3 Symbolic of man's considerations
2 Symbolic of Earth's considerations
1 Symbolic of Earth's considerations
In our example:
6) : : = We have two Yin so Heaven's con5)
sideration is to be receptive (to guidance).
4) = Here a Yang is leading a Yin, or man
3)
is leading the woman, the positive is
leading the negative, in keeping with
natural law.

=-:=Same interpretation as for 4) 3)

above. Here the positive in nature
(earth) is leading the negative, which
is also in keeping with natural law.
As for the natural balanced position of the lines of a
hexagram, they are said to be in their rightful position when
they are 6--

54-,..,

.)

2-1I n other words the odd positions are Yang, positive, strength,
whereas Yin are gentle and negative.

109-

lO R

There are several considerations as to whether lines are

fav orable or not, but for the purpose of moving lines, that
is, a moving Yang Yao or a moving Yin Yao, the following
algebraic table applies:
(-) X (+)
(-)lines disagree
(-) X (-)
(+)lines agree
( +) lines agree
( +) X ( +)
( +) X (-) = (-) lines disagree
4. This step involves the assignment and usage of appropriate symbolism for the determination of and the correct
evaluation of the Big and Little Images. The Big Image
refers to the Image as shown in Yi Ching for each hexagram.
The Little Image is the interpreta.tion set forth for each moving
line.
In step 1 foregoing, we used the symbolisms of movement and danger, illustrating how in this instance there was
movement away from danger and hence "deliverance". The
symbolism for all trigrams is shown on pages 74-77 and need
not be repeated here. From these it is possible to see, by the
way they tend to interact with one another as a result of either
being over or under another trigram, where each hexagram
received its name. These names for hexagrams are not in
any respect arbitrary but are based on the processes of nature
and its laws. They are all founded on natural principles and
natural phenomena (further dispelling divination}.
5. In this step we determine the position of the governing ruler of the hexagram (not to be confused with the term
ruler or king in connection with line 5 as mentioned in step
3 above).
Basically, if a trigram or hexagram has a single line,
either Yin or Yang, then that single line determines the nature
and position of the governing ruler of the trigram or hexagram. lf you refer back to page 46 you will see that a single
Yang line in a trigram determined that it was a son and the

position of the Yang line determined whether it was the eldest;

middle or youngest son. Similarly, a single Yin line and its
position determined the eldest, middle and youngest daughters.
The normal position for the ruler is line 5. However,.
if there is only one Yang line or one Yin line in a hexagram
it usually is the ruler (as in trigra:ms). The principle is
that one and only one can rule many. In some cases a trigram
having a minority of Yang or Yin lines is used to determine
the ruler and in such cases the minority Yang or Yin Yao is
assigned as the ruler. In cases where the upper and lower
trigrams are equal, as in 51 -

, the ruler is the single line

in the upper trigram (in this case the Yang line in the fourth
place). It is to be noted that there is onl _Q!le case in all
the sixty four hexagrams where a li!!e_in the thirslllO.s.ition is
assigned as the ruler and that is hexagram # _15, ModestyThe third position is generally considered as unstable, transient, wavering, and hence unfavorable. It is the third line
which when moving in a rising and declining cycle, is about
to enter the upper trigram and as such the first consideration
given it is that it is a source of trouble until it, like in hexagram #15 where it exemplifies modesty, proves itself to be
favorable.
6. Here we determine whether the lines of the inner
and outer trigrams agree or disagree, correspond or fail to
corr~spond.
This is done by matching lines 1 to 4, 2 to 5
and 3 to 6.

In our example -

lines 1 and 4 agree since a

Yang is leading a Yin, like a husband should lead a wife.

The upper trigram is ~onsidered as leading the lower. Lines 2
and 5 are opposites so they can get along but not as favorably
as when the Yang leads the Yin. Lines 3 and 6 are both ali ke so
difficulties between them as non-moving lines are apt to arise.
7. A person cannot make a final judgment rega rdin g

I IO

a question or situation without knowing the background on

which it arose. We should know the hexagram which represents the preceding conditions. Just as in travelling, one
can get to New York by several routes and modes of travel,
so one can get into a particular situation or difficulty in one of
several ways. We must know and select the right one in
order to make a proper and correct judgment. Earlier in
this chapter we showed several cycli.c ways in which hexa,..
grams came or were preceded by other hexagrams. Understanding this shows us that the fortune tellers using Yi Ching
are only guessing (if lucky they can guess right) since they
do not know and cannot determine the origin of matters on
which they are making predictions. It is true they can use
Yi Ching as we have described here. But they do not know
underlying facts and related circumstances. Hence they
.should not be relied upon even though they are using such
:a valuable work as Yi Ching. Only the consultor or questtioner has reasonable background information and even this
may not be complete.
As for our example, if we accept the statement that
the hexagram was derived from hexagram #46, Progress,
we can explain another statement made in the Judgment of
the hexagram. For hexagram #40 to be derived from #46
means that the Yang line in the third place in hexagram #46
has to move up into the outer trigram K'un to become the
Yang line in the fourth place of hexagram #40. K'un means
a lot of people or the general public. Its position in the
Later Heaven sequence is in the Southwest. Therefore the
judgment of the hexagram says there is good fortune in going
to the southwest (The Yang Y ao or line 3 in hexagram #46
moving into K'un trigram) and that it is beneficial to the
public. It can be interpreted that either by going to the
southwest there will be good fortune or that when the majority
,or public need help there will be good fortune in going to

III

their aid.
8. We must remember that ancient symbolism was used
and still exists in the basic text of Yi Ching. This step and
our example illustrate this quite clearly. Actually this step
relates to the "inside" hexagram, that is, the hexagram within
the hexagram under consideration. As we said previously
the inside hexagram is that hexagram made up from lines _2
/

3 and 4 Ius 3, 4 and 5. In our example it would be --

where 2, 3 and 4 = =-- Li and are symbolized by fire and

the sun. Line 3, 4, and 5 form trigram
K'an symbolizing
water, danger and field. Under our section on points of
view we show how the "inside" hexagram plays a part in the
overall way of looking at a given situation. Here we have
"three foxes in a field" wherein the three lines of the Li trigram are the foxes who, mixing with lines 3, 4 and 5 show
them to be in the field formed by the latter trigram. We read
the following for a 9-2: "NINE IN THE SECOND PLACE
MEANS: ONE KILLS THREE FOXES IN THE FIELD
AND RECEIVES A YELLOW ARROW. PERSEVERANCE BRINGS GOOD FORTUNE." So if line two is a
moving line, then when such movement takes place the Li
trigram is destroyed. This course is meritorious, eradicating
the three foxes so a reward of a yellow arrow is ascribed.
In other words, one receives an appropriate reward for eliminating troublesome conditions. The foxes were a source
of trouble in ancient times and a yellow arrow was a highly
prized award. Today one would assign other symbols for
the troublesome conditions along with a more up to date and
appropriate reward. The main point of the foregoing is that
everything that is said in a hexagram has a rational basis.
9. The ninth consideration relates to individual lines
and what type of line they are resting on. Except for the
bottom line of each hexagram all lines are "resting" on another

==

112

line which is either Yin or Yang. Since Yang lines are

strong, active and creative they are difficult to ride on whereas
Yin Jines are gentle and receptive. Yang lines also have
the tendency to rise which makes them additionally difficult.
So depending on their own strength, a line has more or less
difficulty in its position by virtue of the strength and type
of line under it.
10. Our last consideration in a sense is the reverse of
step 9, yet different. Here the line has comfort or difficulty
depending on whether a gentle Yin line or a strong Yang
line is on top of it.
Thus we see that there are nine conditions which we
must consider about each line, i.e.:
a. Is it in its right place?
b. Does it agree with the corresponding line of the other
trigram?
c. Is it favorable or unfavorable as a part of heaven
(lines 5 & 6), man (lines 3 & 4) or earth (lines 1 & 2)?
d. What type of line is it riding on?
e. What type of line is on top of it?
f. Is it a Yang or Yin line?
g. Is it a fixed or moving line?
h. What is its favorable or unfavorable action as a moving line?
i. Which line is the ruler of the trigram or hexagram?
Similarly the considerations of trigrams are:
a. What is the symbolism of the trigram?
b. What is the sex of the trigram?
c. What is the nature of the trigram?
d. What is its relation to the other trigram of the hexagram?
c. Is it a male trigram leading a female trigram or vice
versa?
f. What is its direction of movement?

113

g. What is the position of any moving line(s) in the

trigram?
h. What trigram does it change into or does it remain
the same?
What is its position in the Later Heaven diagram?
1.
the
overall hexagrams themselves, the points to be
As for
considered are:
a. All the considerations given trigrams, plus the following points b through j.
b. The interaction of the symbolism of the trigrams.
c. The interaction of the directional position of each
trigram.
d. The same considerations a, b & c above for the
"inside" (lines 2, 3 & 4 plus 3, 4 & 5) hexagram.
e. What effect does the "inside" hexagram have on
the external hexagram?
f. What are other points of view regarding the situation
or question, principally.
1. Opposite (change every line to its opposite).
2. Reverse (turn the hexagram upside down).
3. Inside hexagram point of view.
4. Reverse of inside hexagram point of view.
g. What are the favorable courses of action which augur
good fortune anq success?
h. What actions or courses should be avoided?
1.
What is the proper timing?
J. Is the proposed action in keeping with the Supreme
Will?
Divination:
\Ve would be remiss if we didn't say a few things about
the divination aspects of Yi Ching. It is ncccssa ry to mention this in order to round out one's undcrsta ndi1 1g or Vm
Ching as a whoJe.
Yes, it has been and is still b in r us d l'or divi11ation
purposes. The three principle reasons l'or this ;11\ ' ( I ) ma ny

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115

people love divination and use Yi Ching because it lends itself to such purpose, (2) most people cannot understand the
philosophy and development of Yi Ching and consequently
arc unable to use Yi Ching by themselves, and (3) most people
a re not trained to make detailed analysis and formulate sound
judgments whether it relates to Yi Ching or anything else. We
hesitate to say that people are mentally lazy so rather we will
say that many people choose what seelffis to be the easiest wJ.ys
even though it may not be what is right, and hence employ
divination.
We have, on several occasions in this book nointed out
why Yi Ching is out of the realm of divination for those knowledgeable concerning it. But we have to admit that it can be
used for divination. This being true, what degree of reliability can one place on its oracles. We know from what
we have shown in other parts of this book, that is a rational
basis for the entire work of Yi Ching. We also know that it
gives positive character guidelines so that we can rely on
what is said. (Actually, since it gives only positive advice
one will never be far wrong in following it regardless of
whether the most propitious oracle was drawn or not). How
well we form our judgments from what Yi Ching tells us
depends on ourselves.
According to Yi Ching one can determine the applicable
hexagram to any question or situation by either tossing three
coins or dividing fifty yarrow stalks in a prescribed manner. 1
Why can one toss coins or divide yarrow stalks and
obtain correct results? Basically, because what you do or
toss is controlled by your own aura at the time. It is a
'

I.

.L

T he tossing coin method briefly is as follows: Toss three coins to

dete rmine each line. Build hexagram from the bottom up. Lines will
be determined as follows: th':_ee tails = 6; two tails and one head = 7;
two heads and one tail = S; threeJieiids9.
1\ 6 i;-;;-m;;-ving
n,, \.1
1
- -is an unm oving Ya ng; an 8 is an unmoving Yin; and a 9 is a moving
Y:1n~.\ A to tal o r 6 tosses are required to build a he xagram.

;0

reflection of your inner self and not anything controlled by

any supernatural power nor supernatural being! There is
no supernatural guidance even though there may at times
seem to be. You have certain strength and flow of force
eminating from yourself at all time. These forces cause you
to toss the coins the way you do and they also impinge on
the coins. The results are a mirroring of yourself, your
optimism, pessimism, thinking regarding the particular question or situation asked about at that given moment. Since
your thinking about a particular question or circumstance is
never precisely the same at any two times you will never get
exactly the same answer any additional time you ask the
same question. But over a period of time you can get a general
pattern of answers if you are consistant and steadfast in your
thinking. If, even after reading this chapter, you are unable
to make interpretations and judgments for yourself-and I
sincerely hope this isn't the case-you can observe the general patterns of answers given you over a period of time and in
this way have general guidance regarding any question or situation. Even though in this way you will not be following
the best possible course, the guidance will be positive in
character, and if you persevere and steadfastly follow it, you
will achieve positive results.
Since the creativity and Will of Heaven, and the receptivity and formativity of earth are both fixed, man alone can
alter his Fate. He is an equal partner with Heaven and
earth, and, as such, can control his destiny. As William
Henley said: "I am the master of my fate, I am the capta in
of my soul." This is just another way of saying what Yi
Ching says and has said for over 3,000 years.
But as Yi Ching also says, man n 1u ~ l r nwin r -cc plivc
to the impulses of Divine WilL wili IJ, ol' t'llllrs ~. dk ts his
aura, and this in turn dTcts lh r ~ 1 d1 . ul' lllSS i111' pins. We
all know people who <H ' "lu l'k "i n h11 Si 11 'SS, ll: JI l'SUII l', :m l

.~(

--.,

(
\

116

games, Mah J ong,. etc. This is becaus they~ cons~iously or

unconsciously p_!od~uce the -mental receptiyity within themselves for such " o_o_d luck" ~
The Supreme Ultimate can only work through vehicles
and man is its best vehicle in this world. Man can be mo~t
efl"ective in carrying out the Supreme Will when he is receptive
to the Divine impulses sent out by the Supreme Ultimate.
This is helpful to man himself as well. If one is amply receptive to Divine impulses one does not need to inquire of Yi
Ching for guidance. Rather, one can read and understand
Yi Ching philosophically and find the proper courses to
follow as a result of this intellectual-intuitive combination.
It is the ability to use Yi Ching in the foregoing manner
that has made it of inestimable value to Chinese culture and
civilization for over the past 3,000-4,000 years. We have
shown these various methods of using Yi Ching so that you
can understand how leading Chinese in the past (and many
still do even in the present) have used Yi Ching. Consequently you have a better understanding of the background and
basis for much of the Chinese thinking and actions. Now
the same knowledge is available to you as that which the
Chinese have. With this you can look back into the past
and determine the seeds of the present. You can know why
the Chinese are what they are, Americans are what they are.
you, I and everyone for a better understanding of the world
and world situations. Please remember, though, that what
we have shown in this chapter is but a small part of the true
philosophy and value of Yi Ching.

c
H

ADAPTION
N
G

Master Meng said, "A man

must refrain from doing what
be ought not to do; then he
will achieve wb:1t be ought to
do."-IV-8, Mencius.

Chapter 3
Change As A Way Of Life

If one were to ascribe a genealogy to the recorded precepts on morality and right courses of action, one would have
to give credit to Yi Ching, whether one is a Christian, Jew,
Mohammedan, Buddhist, Taoist, Hindu or Communist. We
know that morality was taught in the ancient civilizations of
Thebes and Upper Egypt through the First Hermes and the
later Hermes teachings as far back as somewhere between
2000 B.C. and 3000 B.C. (Most records agree that it was
before the flood) . Unfortunately, we have only fragmentary
relics on which to base our statements. As we have previously said, it is well accepted that Yi Ching goes back to Fu Hsi
(well prior to the flood) and his creation of the eight trigrams.
It is-true its early history is also not as clear as we would wish
but we do have firm evidence from the time of the Chou
dynasty on. King Wen, during his reign which began 1123
B.C., and his son the Duke of Chou, brought the information
regarding the sixty four hexagrams and their meanings together, correlating the Judgments, Images and meanings of
the Moving Lines. These they inscribed on bamboo sticks
and bound them together by leather thongs in the form of
a book, and as such is probably the earliest book compiled
which thereafter has remained in continuous existence. (Regrettably, my studies have never revealed to me when the Old

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118

Testament or the Kabala became books but I would assume it

was around the sixth or seventh centuries B.C. at the same
general time as other early records of ancient times, relating
to the Western civilization, came into being. They were compiled from folklore and other information passed down orally.
There is no indication that they used knotted cords, bones nor
anything similar to the Chinese usage, thereby leading us to
assume an earlier age for Yi Ching as a book than any book of
the West). From a sampling of concepts and/or explanations
in Yi Ching we will show its exposition of a way of life.
Since we are primarily concerned about a background of
Chinese culture, a look at some Chinese literature may be
beneficial to help us to understand the Chinese way of thinking about a way of life. The following article by H. T. Lee,
(in his book The Story of Chinese Culture, H. T. Lee Co.
9 Lane 17, Lishui St., Taipei, Taiwan, 1964, p. 329) is
illustrative of many of the fundamental principles in Yi Ching
especially as found in hexagrams #32 Heng-Duration, #52
Ken-Keeping Still, #1 Ch'ien-Creative, #2 K'un-Receptive and #61 Fu-Inner Truth.
"Peace of l\tind
Peace of mind provides us a fertile ground for the growth of
wisdom and imagination. I;t is the generating force back of
all noble thoughts, great deeds, creative literaure and arts.
It serves as a means to widen the horizons of our spiritual
life and purify our mentality of the baser metals. It is a state
of mind in which we see eterni 'y from the momentary fl ow of the
time current; it is the state of mind in which we can get a glimpse
of the infinite in a moment of self-forgetfulness. To aeain such
a state of mind, one should devote hims.ef to constant spiritual
cultivation until he can extricate himself from the narrow w o r~ d
of self-interest and thus achieve perfect spiritual fr.eedom.
Blessed with such a state of mind, the poets can fly with the
skylarks in to th e blue to associate themselves with floating clouds

and twinkling stars; blessed with such a state of mind, philosophers

can transcend time and space to identify themselves with the
infinite because all the barriers between them and the outside:
world are removed by a sudden enlightenment to the eternal truth ..
To illustrate the state of mind, Chu Hsi, one of the greatest NcoConfueianists of the Sung Dynasty wrote a poem of philosophical
significance, reading:
Like a bright mirror,
A placid pond a half acre large
Reflects skylights and floating clouds
In their true color.
Why is it that the water is so clear
As to stand comparison with crystal?
The answer lies in the gushing spring
At the bottom.
(Trans. by H. T. Lee)
In this poem, Chu Hsi compared the constant effort of selfcultivation to a gushing spring, which accounts for the freshness.
and clearness of the placid pond. From tpe standpoint of artists
and poets, this mental state engenders inspiration and stimulates
imagination. Oblivious of "self", the poet can roam the world
of intuition or imagination thus freely projecting himself into
the life of the things he experiences. When the sky is gloomy
with dark clouds gathering for a storm, he imagines it a hottempered man in a rage ready for outburst at the least provocation. When the dewy petals of a flower are blown off the branches,.
he imagines it as a tearful beauty committing suicide by leaping
from a tower. In this state of mind , the experiencer merges.
into one unity with the experienced and, as a result, . they in-
terfu ~ e with each o'her.
An artist or a phil osopher possessing such a state of mind wilr
never llin h wh en the "Mount T'ai collapses in front of him
and a fe ro ious ti >o; r poun ces upon him from the rear", beca.use
his soul tran st: ttd s I if and death , shape and feature. Being
one with th ~ world , th ey al ' ach no more importance to them-,.
selves than to a tin y ant or a fra gik plant. And therefore, they
are always in an easy frame of mind , no matter what happens to
them.

120

12 1

L ike a pool of water in autui:nn u'nder the shelter of slanting

trees, their mind is so reflective and alert as to project everything in clear persp~ctive without being influenced by outside
dislurbances.
According to the history of Chinese literaure, many great poets
:attained such a peaceful state of mind. Among the!Il was Ch'eng
Hao, known as one of the greatest philosopher poets of the Sung
Dynasty. He gave expression to his mentat experience in one
of his immortal poems which reads as follows:
Taking things easily and leisurely, ..
I ~Jeep late into the day)
When the morning sun h~ngs. glorious tints of red
On my east window.
In absolute quietude, everything seems to me
Following its natural course.
The gay moods of the four seasons, identified with
Mine in perfect harmony.
The state of my mind (Tao) merges with the
Infinite transcending all features and shapes.
My thoughts penetrate into the mysteries of nature
Underlying the transformation of the wind and the cloud.
When rich, I never feel indulgent;
When poor, I never become unhappy.
Is he not a hero (super man) who has attained
Such a state of mind?
(Trans. by H . T. Lee)"

What Mr. Lee is saying is that one should follow such

courses in life which will give one the greatest peace of mind.
Mr. Lee, in essence, summarized and synthesized Zen Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism into a single short article
which he calls "Peace of Mind". He shows that in finding
true peace of mind we can come to understand the true reality
~f the Universe. However, we cannot achieve this pe~~,f
m ~~e fully dev~lop the art of self control. This
.ability is the key to all spiritual progress, regardless of which
path you may choose. Similarly in the west, all the various
branches of Christianity teach us to be good and to do good

----

unto others. In so doing we arrive at an inner state of satisfaction wherein we have a degree of peace of mind. For full
peace of mind we must conquer our "self" (our ego) i~ a
well rounded and balanced_ way. The question then immediately arises "what is the path to follow"?
All scholars, who study the various religions of the
world, recognize that every creed has a path to the Supreme
Ultimate, regarless of whether we call It God, Allah, NeverE nding-Never-Beginning or what, and a means of communicating with that power, such as th~ough prayer, meditation,
incantations, etc. Some paths are more difficult than qt:p.ers;
some are shorter than others. But scholars recognize that
each was brought into being to serve specific needs and
each has its own rightful place. No one should try to tell
anyone else one creed is better than another. Each is right
for someone at some particular time. So each person must
decide what suits him best and then follow that path. (Basically, it is in matters of man-made dogma and man's interpretations wherein the differences and difficulties arise.)
Is Yi Ching antecedent to "religious" way of life and
morality? The fundamental teachings of being good, leading
a moral .life and being unselfish, are common to all religions
a nd moral ways of life, regardless of when and where they
may be taught, whether it was by Z arathustra, Buddha, Lao
Tze, Confucius, Jesus, Mohammed, or whomever you chose.
We are not especially concerned about these individually at
this point. Rather, we want to look at what primarily Influenced Chinese culture.
was the first to clearly and extensively set
Confucius
.,....(orth true and ori gin al hinese think ing. lt is he whose
doctrines, tends <llld 1 achin gs have b en the primary base
for Chinese phi losophy a nd td turc down through the centuries. H e gave us Ill follow ing adv ice: "There are nine
thi ngs whi ch occupy Ill thoughts o( the Chiintzu (superior

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123

man ~I Ff ). In his seeing he sees clearly; in his hearing

he hears distinctly; in his looks he is kind; in his manners
he is respectful; in his speech he is sincere; in his work he is
serious; when in doubt he asks questions; when in anger he
considers consequences and when he sees gains he thinks
of righteousness." 1 In other words, he is showing us what
needs to be achieved, that is, the Way of Life which, if properly cultivated, will lead to becoming superior man. A man
who can do the foregoing nine things constantly has undergone
years of t raining and experience. These things are not attributes one can consistently do all at once. They must
become ingrained and innate for a man to be truly superior.
For those who may be interested a background for these
nine points may be found in the listed hexagrams of Yi Ching:
1. Seeing clearly-#10 (6-3); #52 (judgment)
2. Hearing distinctly-#43 (9-4); #21 (9-6)
3. Being kind-#10 (entire hexagram); #48 (9-5)
4. Being respectful-#4 (6-1); #15 (6-2)
5. Being sincere-#8 (6-1); #25 (6-2)
6. Asking questions when in doubt-#4 (judgment);
#49 (9-5)
7. Considering consequences of anger-#6 (judgment) ;
#35 (6-1)
8. Seeing gains-#11 (9-3); #12 (Image)
9. Being serious in his work-#2 (6-2); #18 (judgment)
(note: The hexagrams refer to those in the Wilhelm/Baynes
translated version of Yi Ching. The numbers in parentheses
indicate a moving line, 9 or a 6, in the first, second, third,
fourth, fifth or sixth place, and the appropriate "image" should
be read.)
To truly understand Confucius' path for life, o'ne must
be knowledgeable regarding his other teachings as well. While
1.

C h'u and Winberg Chai. Essential Works of Confucianism.

Boo ks, New York/Toronto/London, 1965, p. 33

Bantam

this isn't particularly difficult there may be some readers

who are not familiar with it. Such background, desirable as
it may be, is not essential, for as we all know, all doctrines
and creeds are founded on the principles of morality and
goodness. So in actuality we can use any set to illustrate
our hypothesis that Yi Ching, as the forerunner of all books,
shows us a good way of life. The eight-fold Right Path of
Buddhism gives us eight easily understandable points, so
we will use these as the basis for our discussion and see if
we can find their origin in Yi Ching. These eight are:
1. Right Understanding
2. Right Thought
3. Right Speech
4. Right Action
5. Right Lielihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Concentration
Let us look at each part of the Right Path separately. 2
Right Understanding
In order to have Right Understanding there must be a
good, broad and firm foundation on which to make judgments, formulate opinions and to comprehend that which one
reads and hears. Man, too, needs basic intelligence and
keen intellect. That much is obvious regarding any understanding. Wh at is of added importance here is that man
must have an understanding of the basic laws and rules of
life, of Ontology and osmology, of living harmoniously with
2.

T he disc ussio n in ach or th e r~> ll ow in g sec tio ns are based on the

a uth o r's o wn un J r s t a n di n ~:t of life anJ in no way are to be c on s idered
teachin g o f BuJ J h isn or 111 1>t her philoso ph y, a ltho ug h, a t tim es,
there muy be sint ilur p oint ~ 11 1 vi w.

125.

124

his fell ow-men, having a deep inner concept of the purposes

(and personal goals) of life and how they should be sought,
and dn ability to discern and exercise the Golden Mean
coupled with a tolerance of and a humaneness towards aU
beings in thought, word and deed.
These are all things which cannot be gained academically alone. Rather, the full realization is gained through a
combination of knowledge and experience, much of which has
been trial and error, some pleasant, some disappointing and
some perhaps even devastating. We can read about these
things in many forms. Hu~dreds of books are written each
generation regarding these subjects. People are continuously
searching for a better \vay of life, a better way of doing
things, and a better way to happiness.
At this point we can but mention the subject briefly
and let each person study the matter in detail elsewhere. Our
purpose here is to see if Yi Ching provides a basis for Right
Understanding and whether it has been and still can be used
as a guide for such purpose. Let us look at each of the
examples given below with this in mind. Three examples
have been selected for each sub-path. In the present subpath you will note three main points. "To rule truly is to
serve." How true this is no matter what the circumstances
may be. A father (bo8s, superior person, leader, etc), in
any situation, must be a kingly person if he is fulfilling his
obligation properly. And for overall good, since in no circumstance of conflict is one side abwlutely right and the
other side absolutely wrong, we must always be ready to
meet the opponent halfway. The ability to carry these out
lies in Right Understanding, and as Mencius said: "He
who loves men will certainly be loved by men, and he who
respects men will certainly be respected by men."
Our examples are:

(:!f42)

a. Yi iBt Increase3

"The id~a of increase is expressed in the fact that

the strong lowest line of the upper trigram has sunk down
and taken its place in the lower trigram. This conception
also expresses the fundamental idea on which the Book of
Changes is based. To rule truly is to serve.
A sacrifice of the higher element that produces an increase
in the lower is called out-and-out increase; it indicates the
spirit that alone has the power to help the ~orld."
b. Chia Jen '$;.A. Family4

=-,(:If 37)

"9 in the 5th place:

As the king approaches his family.
Fear not.
Good fortune.
A King is the symbol of a fatherly man who is
richly endowed in mind. He does nothing to make himself
feared; on the contrary, the whole family can trust him,
because love governs their intercourse. His character itself
expresses right influence.
And 9 at the top: . . . . If he cultivates his personality
so that it works impressively through the force of inner truth,
all goes well with the family. In a ruling position one must
of his own accord assume responsibility.''
c. Sung ~ Confl.ict5

(:If 6)

"If a man is entangled in conflict, his only salvation

lies in being clea r headed and inwardly strong that he is always ready to come to terms by meeting the opponent halfway. To carry on the conflict to the bitte.r end has evil effects
3. Wilhehn/U:.t yncs.
4.

l'i Ching, T he Book o f C hanges.

X IX, Prin ce to n \Jniv c rs ii y Pr e ~~. 1967, p. 162

Ibid. p. 146
Ibid . p. 2ll

Bollingen Series

127

126

eve n when one is right, because the emnity is then perpetuated .... "

Right Thought
The world, as you know it, is no more nor less than
your own thinking about it. All your concepts and ideas,
whether they be of God, the Universe, your community, your
family or yourself all to you, are that which you yourself
think about them and know them to be. Consequently,
the more you know about the world, nature and yourself,
the better and more correct thoughts you will hold regarding
all subjects.
Thoughts are things. They are actual and produce results according to their nature and intensity. The simple
.example of you knowing you can recall your thoughts at a
1ater time should be enough to convince you that they are
something real. Their nature is either positive or negative
(some people might say either good or bad), hence they can
do good or harm depending on how they are conceived and
used. Further the degree of intensity of thought determines
the strength with which it will carry out its purpose, and
hence is a criterion of its effectiveness.
Consequently our own thoughts are our best and truest
friends-or our worst enemies-or somewheres in between.
Since thoughts are things, they can and do work for us. We
can easily see that since they have this ability, those which
are in keeping with what we want will be friends. Those
that hamper or hinder us will be our enemies and opponents.
So, if we really want something, no matter what it is, it behooves us to have a lot of friends to help us get what we want.
We can have these by concentrating on; desiring and thinking
a lot about what we want. The Bible says, "Ask and ye shall
receive, seek and ye shall find, knock and it shall be opened

unto you". But the key to this is thought. You have to

think to ask, think to seek and think to knock. Right thoughts
can help us most.
Shakespeare gave the same concept to us in another way
when he said "As a man thinketh, so is he". What he is saying is that everything that a man does is the result of his
thinking. So a man does what and as he thinks. Thus,
if we observe a man's actions we can know his thoughts and
the kind of man he really is.
Rio-ht Thinkinu is also associated with Faith. Here we
"' faith in its"' connotation of "belief in things without
are using
proof". To begin with, we must have faith and confidence
in ourselves. If we don't we are not engaging in Right
Thinking.
We must think right about ourselves as pertains to
things we know but we must also think right about ourselves
in matters which are yet unproven and one step beyond the
known. Remember, too, to have as many "friends" as possible.
Yi Ching gives us some additional salient principles
regarding Right Thinking.
a. Chung Fu q:t Inner Truth6

(#61)

"9 in the second place means:

A crane calling in the shade.
Its young answer it.
I have a good goblet.
I will share it with you.
This refers to the involuntary influence of a man's inner being
upon persons of kindred spirit. The crane need not show
itself on a hi gh hill. It may be quite hidden when it sounus
its call ; yet its yo un e, will hear i.ts note, wi.ll r o ni:t. it and
give answer. Wll r t il r is a joyous mood , tllLr a o J m ; ~<.k
t..

Ib id .

r. z:n

129

will a ppear to share a glass of wine.

This is the echo awakened in men through spiritual
attraction. Whenever a feeling is voiced with truth and frankness, whenever a deed is the clear expression of sentiment,
a mysterious and far reaching influence is exerted. At first it
acts on those who are inwardly receptive. But the circle
grows larger and larger. The root of all influence lies in
one's own inner being; given true and vigorous expressions
in word and deed, its effect is great. The effect is but the
reflection of something that emanates from one's own heart.
Any deliberate intention of an effect would only destroy the
possibility of producing it."
b. Ta Yu *Iff Possession in Great Measure7

(#14)

"To bless means to help. Heaven helps ihe man who

is devoted; men help the man who is true. He who walks
in truth is devoted in his thinking .... "
c. Hsu 1m Nourishment8

-- (

#5)

"One is faced with danger that has to be overcome.

Weakness and impatience can do nothing. Only a strong man
can stand up to his fate. This strength shows itself in the
uncompromising truthfulness with himself. It is only when
we have the courage to face things exactly as they are, without any sort of self-deception or illusion, that a light will
develop out of events, by which the path to success be recognized. This recognition must be followed by reso!utc
and persevering action."
d. Ken

.131:

Keeping Still, Mountain -

"The Image
Mountains standing close together:
The im2ge of Keeping Still
7.
R.

Ibid. p. 63
p. 25

I bid.

(#52)

Thus the superior man

Does not permit his thoughts
To go beyond his situation.
The heart thinks constantly. This cannot be changed, but
the movement of the heart-that is, a man's thoughts-should
restrict themselves to the immediate situation. All thinking
that goes beyond this only makes the heart sore."9
Our four examples show that Yi Ching stresses the effects of man's inner thoughts and the inner tru'th about himself, the fact that Heaven is in accord with and helps the
man who is true, and also gives us the sound admonition
to restrain and limit our thoughts to our immediate situation.
Another phase of Right Thought comes into play in
"learning". Mencius said: "One must ponder one's learning
extensively and then expound on it in detail, so that one may
synthesize that which is essential" .1 Confucius advi~es us:
"Study without thought is labor lost. Thought without study is
perilous." 11 Mencius showed us another aspect of Right
Thought when he said: "To feed a man without love is to treat
him like a pig. To love him without respect is to treat him like
an animal. Respect and reverence form the substance of
gifts.' 112
Right Speech
"It is not that which goes in a man's mouth that defileth
him but that which comes out.'' 13 We know that our souls
are independent of our bodies and that from a general point
of view of time they are eternal. When Jesus spoke the
9. Ibid. p. 201-202
10. Chai, Ch'u and Winberg. Essential lVorks of Confucianism.
Books, New York/London/ Toronto 1%5, p. 160
II. Ibid. p. 44
12. Ibid. p. 186
13. New T est::unent.

Bantam

131

130

above words he meant that nothing we ate or drank could

harm our souls. Our souls are independent of earthly food
and drink. On the other hand the things we say (and may
we remind you that thoughts are things) as a result of our
thinking can be harmful. Words criticising others, words
spoken in anger, hatred or other antipathy, all are things
that can do harm in one way or another. They, to say the
least, degrade ourselves, keep our good Karma at a distance,
often produce forms of sickness, both mental and physical,
and tend to alienate us from others. All these things and
more can be brought about by the things that come out of
our mouths.
Both the Law of Karma and the Bible teach us that
''What ye sow ye shall reap". This is extremely important
in speech (and also in thought and actions) in that if we tempt
others, influence others wrongly (either intentionally or unknowingly), teach others improper things, give them erroneous
advice or verbal guidance, these same errors and wrong speech
will return to us at some later time, and we may then wonder
why such and such occurred to us, in keeping with the Divine
\Vill as expressed by Karma, Fate or Destiny, or whatever
your belief may be.
When you reach my age you will know that often words,
without thought of influence or intent, will be remembered
by the listener for a lifetime. I vividly remember an instructor coming into class with a stack of books under his
arm, one of which he was going to give to each of us. These
were documentaries regarding collision and grounding cases
at sea and were a part of the course in Seamanship and International Law we were taking. The instructor's opening
words were: "Gentlemen, these cases m~ke interesting reading and are something everyone of you should kn,ow. But
there is only one real thing to remember. Whenever you
may get into any kind of trouble, look up and see what you

-- -r

should have done, then say that is what you did and they will '
have a very difficult time proving otherwise." At the time he
made those statements he probably had no idea his words
would be remembered and used in a book more than 25 years
later. Even some one reading this may remember them for
another 25 years. So knowing how far reaching our words
-c an be, must we not be cautious at all times?
There is one thing that we all should be especially mindful and concerned about. For our words to have real value
.and lasting effect our entire conduct must be in keeping with
what we say. If our words and actions agree, people will
believe us and have trust in us. If our words and actions
do not agree, others will soon recognize our speech for what
it really is---mere tongue wagging.
Our examples from Yi Ching are:
a. Chia Jen '!!.A. The Family=

14

(#37)

"Heat creates energy: this is signified by the wind

stirred up by the fire and issuing f.orth from it. This represents influence working from within outward. The same
thing is needed in the regulation of the family. Here to the
influence on others must proceed from one's own person.
In order to produce such an influence one's words must have
power, and this they can only have if based on something
real, just as a flame depends onits fuel .... Furthermore
words must be supported by one's entire conduct . . . . If
words and conduct are not in accord and not consistent they
will have no effect."
b. Hsien roX. Influence15

= (#31)

"The most superficial way of trying to influence

others is through talk that has nothing real behind it. The
14. Wilhelm/Baynes. Yi Ching, The Book of Changes. Princeton, N . J.
Princeton University Press. 1967, p. 144
15. Ibid. p. 125

,~ r-

132

influence produced by such tongue wagging must necessarily

remain insignificant."
e. Tui ft Joyous16

--

(#58)

"The Image.
Lakes resting one on the other:
The image of the Joyous.
Thus the superior man joins with his friends.
For discussion and practice.
The lake evaporates upward and thus gradually dries up; but
when two lakes are joined they do not dry up readily, for one
replenishes the other. It is the saune in the field of knowledge.
Knowledge should be a refreshing and vitalizing force. It
becomes so only through stimulating intercourse with con~
genial friends with whom one holds discussions and practices
the application of the truths of life. In this way learning
becomes many-sided and takes on cheerful lightness, whereas
there is always something ponderous and one-sided about
the learning of the self taught."
Development in life can be meaningful only if one's words:
are proper and when one open-mindedly discusses matt~rs
with others. These, of course, are only truly effective when
they stem from Right Thought.

Right Action
While recognizing, as we have just said, that words and
deeds must be in keeping with one another, in the final analysis deeds speak louder than words. What we do, for the
most part, is observed by more people than those who just
hear us speak. What we do is more obvious, hence more
subject to examination and judgment by others. One's deeds
often produce lffiaterial results whereas our words are fre16.

Ibid. p. 224

quently limited to the ephemcr:d, 1 "'' ' q11cntly puttin dl

these points together we say "deeds . p d I ''" In than words".
One of the most practical bits of td lit '' r. mling Right
Action was given by Mencius when h ti d
When our
conduct does not yield what we desire we 1111 11 ''""" d and
examine ourselves.'' 17 Hzun Tzu also gave us I'' H'd .tdviv(~
when he said: "Thus he (the superior man) dis i plttt , 1!1.
eyes not to see what is improper, disciplines his moullt 11111
to speak what is improper, disciplines his ears not to hear
what is improper." We are all familiar with the statue of
the three monkeys where one is covering his mouth, the second
his eyes and the third his ears. This is all Right Action
too, but I think there should be a fourth, and that one would
be to "discipline his mind (heart) not to think what was improper". In so doing man would be following the Golden
Mean. and exemplifying the virtues of len, Yi and Li.
There is an interesting episode in the Chinese Classic
entitled "All Men are Brothers" which appealed to me as
exemplifying Right Action and I believe you will appreciate
it too. This is from Pearl S. Buck's translation of that classic
pages 4, 7 & 10.
A plague raged for over three years in China and over half
the people died from it. Every effort to stamp it out proved
to be of no avail. Many things were tried.
But beyond all expectation the plague grew more and more
heavy. The Emperor Jen Chung heard of this and his sacred
dragon heart could know no peace. And he gathered all his
ministers to take counsel of them. Now among the ranks of
them that stood ther::: was a certain great statesman and he eamt'
forth regardless of hi s turn . Th:: E mperor saw him ami he
was a Ministe r named Fang ('h un ' Yicn. Whe n he had made
his obeisanc and had iwn r 'l ing, hL: said : "N nw the plague
is most cruel <IIHI lit snldin s and lit pc~lp lc sutTe r very bitterly.
17. Chai, C h' u :1nd Wi1il >r og , ,,,,,nltial Work ., of Confucius. New York/
London/Toronto: 1111 111 11111 Hoo ks, 1965, p. 184

135

134
nor can they rest from their .fear day and night. According to
my small purpos.e, if we are to drive out this plague, we must call
on the great Taoist who is descended direct from the times of
Han to come hither and here in the palace let him call Mass
fo r seven days and thus we can make our troubles known to God
so that He may drive out the plague and .save the people.'
Commander Hung Shin, Chief Master of Ceremonies, was appointed to go to the mountain of dragons and tigers. Commander
Hung stopped at a monstery on the side of the mountain and
told the Abbot of his purpose. Then the Abbot said respecfully: "If the son of Heaven would save the lives of the people,
the Commander must use a pure heart." The following morning
the Commander set forth alone towards the crest of the mountain
to find the reve~ed personage and extend his invitation. On
his return he was asked: "Did you see the Heavenly teacher?''
Then the Commander said: "I am an honored official of
the Imperial Court and how is it you bade me climb the mountain
road and suffer extensively? Truly I: might all unknowingly
have lost my lik When I had gone halfway up the mountain
there leaped out upon me a slant-eyed white-browed tiger and
he frightened my souls and spirits clean away from me. And
I had not passed through more than one valley up the mountain
when out of the viny bamboos there sprang a snowy-spotted
serpent, and he heaped himself into circles and cut off the road
I must go. If my destiny had not been greatly good how could
I have come back with my life?"
The Abbot replied saying, ". . . . This tiger and this
serpent were trials sent by our Heavenly teacher to try your heart."

As the story goes, despite these trials, the Commander

kept on and achieved his purpose. We all recognize that this
course of action is only someting a superior man could and
would do. Most ordinary men would have turned and fled
at the encounter with the tiger and would not have ever had
the experience of seeing a snowy-spotted snake. But the
Commander was true to his duty and took Right Action by
persevering against great odds and remaining steadfast.
An interesting aspect about Right Action from a West, rn point of view was set forth by Ella Wilcox when she wrote:

"One ship sails east, ano:her west,

With the self same winds that blow.
T'is the set of the sails and not the gales,
That determines the way they go."

Cosmic and Universal forces are equally available everywhere.

It is the action taken by man in applying and using these
forces that determines the way man goes. Man has a freedom of choice to "sail east or west". However, everything
he elects to do and does should be in keeping with the Divine
Will. This can be done through the use of Yi Ching and
learning in advance the results various courses of action would
produce. Otherwise things are left to chance and man is
tossed about on the sea of life similar to a cork on a sea of
this world.
If you do not believe Yi Ching, then be like a child,
i.e., intuitive, instinctive and innocent in all actions and deeds.
In so doing you will never be far wrong from the Supreme
Will. Further, if you make slight mistakes, errors or digressions, return to the Righ Path quickly. Another point to remember is "don't count the harvest while plowing" and above
all, in whatever you do, no matter where you are nor the
circumstances involved-To thine own self be true.
a. Fu 1l Return 18

== (#24)

"9 at the beginning means:

Return from a short distance. No need for remorse.
Great good fortune.
Slight digressions from the good cannot be avoided
but one must turn back in time, before going too far. This
is especially important in the development of character; every
faintly evil thought must be put asside immediately, before it
goes too far and takes root in the mind. Then there is no
cause for remorse and all goes well."
18. Wilhelm/Baynes, Yi Ching, The Book of Changes, Princeton University
Press, Princeton N. J. 1967, p. 98-99

137

136

b. Wu Wang

:5E~

The unexpected 19

#25)

"6 in the second place rrieans:

If one does not count the harvest while plowing,
Nor the use of the ground while clearing it,
It furthers one to undertake something.
We should do every task for its own sake as time
and place demand and not with an eye on the results. Then
each task turns out well and anything we undertake succeeds."
c. Feng :!: Abundance

( #55) 20

"This describes a man, who because of his arrogance

and obstinacy, attains the opposite of what he strives for.
He seeks abundance and splendor for his dwelling. He wishes
at all odds to be master of his house which so alienates his
family that in the end Iie finds himself completely isolated."
If you look around at your friends and acquaintances
in the world you will note that very few are truly aware of
the principle that obstinacy and arrogance attain the opposite
of what they strive for. This is particularly true in family
relationships between husband and wife and frequently results
in deep rifts, some of which are hard to mend and overcome,
and some of which are never gapped again.
Right Livelihood

Fundamentally, your work, no matter what you doand you should be doing something-should be such as to
render service to others. In the United States there is a
bit of advice used for people seeking employment. It is very
simple and very practical-" Find a need and fill it". As
we all know no one of us is fully independent of everyone else.
19. Ibid. p. 102
20. Ibid. p. 216

We need cloth, clothes, food, water, shelter, and warmth; all

of which are provided in part, at least, by someone else. Even
a recluse needs somethings like cloth to cover himself, matches
to light his fires, and axe or equivalent tools. So it would'
seem that one of the chief purposes of our being brought
into this world is to serve others.
So if we are to serve then it behooves us to perform
such services as are beneficial and uplifting to others. All
people and all things have a use by the Supreme Ultimate, so
we should not look down on any occupation nor the performer of it. But we do know that we must think about
the things we do (See comments under section Right Thought).
If we think about them then they become a part of us. Remember, "As a man thinks so is he."
Now if you are seeking a specific goal, such as being a
successful banker, you must think about the best methods of
handling money, making profits, generating new business and
actively work at being an effective banker, devoting yourself to it whole-heartedly. It goes without saying that to
be successful you must do everything that will lead to achieving that success.
Likewise if you wish to be a spiritually developed person, for best results you must think and do the things that
make you be spiritual. In this aspect, your thoughts and
actions are, perhaps, even more critically important than in
any other walk of life. Goodness, both the desire for and
the performance of it, must be an innate part of the individual
at all times. Hence, Right Livelihood is critical for best
results. Wrong livelihood can curtail spiritual progression
and even cause retrogression. Hsun Tzu said, "Hence, for
his residence the Chiintzu (superior man) should select a
proper community, and on his study travels, he should go to
good scholars so as to keep himself from the heretical and
depraved, and place himself in company with the Orthodox

138

139

and Upright. " 21 This last phrase "place yourself in company

with the orthodox and upright" applies to all phases of one's
life, especially as relates to chosing one's life partner (husband or wife) and one's livlihood.
We cannot always select and work at what we would
consider ideal for our own development and goals. In such
cases we should always remain true to ourselves and to our
principles. There are many ways to earn an honest living.
You may not always make a lot of money but it's your
character and what you are that goes with you when you
leave this life and not the money. Prefer to be poor than
demoralize yourself. Be satisfied with modest gains and
profit. Promote good, combat and curb eviJ, maintain an
unswerving direction towards your goal. Try to find needs
and fill them. Remember, "what you sow you will at some
later time reap".

opposite of duration, but the laws governing their appearance

and subsidance, their coming and going, endure. In the
same way the independence of the superior man is not based
on rigidity and immobility of character. He always keeps
abreast of the time and changes with it. What endures is
the unswerving directive, the inner law of his being, which
determines all his actions."

a. Ta Yu *.Iff Possession in Great Measure

( #14)22
"The sun in the heaven above, shedding light over
everything on earth, is the image of possession on a grand
scale. But a possession of this sort must be administrated
properly. The sun brings both evil and good into the light
of the day. Man must combat and curb evil, and must
favor and promote the good. Only in this way does he fulfill
the benevolent will of God, who desires only good and not
evil."

Right Effort

b. Heng ti Duration

=--

(#32)23

"Thunder rolls and the wind blows; both are

examples of extreme mobility and so are seemingly the very
2 1.
22.
1.

C hai, Ch'u a nd Winberg, Essential Works of Confucianism, New York/

London/Toronto: Bantam Books, 1965, p. 261
Wilhelm/ Baynes, The Book of Changes, Bollingen Series XIX, Princeton
N . J .: Princeton University Press, 1967, p. 60
Ibid. p. 127

c. Ching

:tt The Well - - ( #48) 24

The trigram Sun, wood, is below, and the trigram K'an,

water, is above it. Wood sucks water upward. Just as wood
as an organism imitates the action of the well, which benefits
all parts of the plant, so the superior man organizes society,
so that, as in the plant organism, its parts co-operate for the
benefit of the whoJe."

Two cardinal maxims should be a part of everyone's

character and principles in the devotion of their energies to
duties and tasks performed, whether they are self-imposed,
voluntary or dictated by others. The first is "Never start
-~--anything you don't intend to finish" and the second is "Never
agree to do anything unless you can perform it reasonably
well and properly in the way it should be done".
- All of us have a-;pecific amount of energy which we
can expend in any given 24 hour period. We can expend it
uselessly through the fulfillment of lust and debauchery, or
we can devote it all to some purpose of good. But here, as
in all phases of life, the Golden Mean should be the basis
for our actions. Nothing should be to the extreme. Even
the extreme of living solely a spiritual life is not right. One
should lead a well balanced life physically, mentally, morall y
24. Ibid. p. 186

141

140

and spiritually. This applies to work and play, mental and

physical , and encompasses all part of one's body. The Sl,lpreme Ultimate gave us a body to. house us here on e::1rth.
No part of this body is useless. All parts should be used.
/\11 parts are necessary even in the matter of spiritual development. No part should be permitted to atrophy. My
personal opinion is that we should develop our minds according to the principles of Buddhism, our bodies according
to Taoism, lead a humane filial, and moral life according
to Con!ucianism and try to do good and be of benefit to
others according to the New Testament of the Bible. This, so
far as I have been able to learn, would provide a well balanced
program of development and automatically result in a comparable balanced effort and expenditure along the right lines.
Another principle to follow is "do not try to serve
two masters at once." While it may be possible to do so
for a short period of time, in the long run you will do neither
things as well as you should and your progress will be stymied.
Too, confusion and misunderstandings are likely to occur
which you no doubt will wish to be avoided. Concentration,
i.e., doing one thing at a time, is best productive of effective
results.
Exceptional modesty and conscientiousness are sure to
be rewarded. These build up inner strength that becomes
like a magnet and draws one's good to them. This is in
accord with Universal Law and not man-made principles.
Hence, the good fortune will come regardless of how other
men try to intervene.
Man attains the height of wisdom when he acts and
docs things as modestly and self-evidently as nature. Nature
cares for, nourishes and makes provisions for all indiscJ;iminal cly and without attachment. A truly wise man will do the
same.

A truly wise man also knows what Confucius once said,

"In all things, those which have been previously prepared
succeed, that which is not prepared fails. When words have
been previously prepared there is no stumbling, when affairs
have been previously detenmined there will be no regrets.
When the Tao of lid'e is previously determined there will be
no obstruction to practi.cing it". 25
Remember too, you not only have to take the first step.
You have to take the last step too.
a. Hsiao Kuo

'J"~

Preponderance of the Small

( #62)26

"Exceptional modesty and conscientiousness are sure

to be rewarded with success; however, if a man is not to
throw hims~lf away, it is important that they should not become empty form .and subservience, but combined with the
correct dignity in personal behavior. We must understand
the demands of the time in order to find the necessary offset
for its deficiencies and damages."
b. K'un t$ The Receptive

==(

#) 27

"Nature creates all beings without erring: this is its

straightness. It is calm and stitll: this is its foursquareness.
It tolerates all creatures equally: this is 'its greatness. Ther-;;fore it attains what is right for all without artifice or special
intentions. Man achieves the height of wisdom when all
that he does is as self evident as what nature does."
c. Ch'ien fit Modesty 25.

= (# 15 f

Chai, Ch'u and Winberg, Essential Works of Confucius, New York/

London/ Toronto: Bantam Books, 1965, p. 314
26. Wilhelm/ Baynes, Tae Book of Changes, B::>lling~n S~ri~s XIX, Princeton
N . J.: Princeton University Press, 1967 p. 240
27. Ibid. p. 14
28. Ibid p. 65

143-

142

"Nine in the third place means:

A superior man of modesty and merit
carries things to conclusion
Good fortune.
This is the center of the hexagram where its secret
is disclosed. A distinguished name is readily earned by great
achievements. If a man allows himself to be dazzled by
fame, he will soon be criticized, and difficulti,~s will arise.
If, on the contrary, he remains modest despite his merit, he
makes himself beloved and wins the support necessary for
carrying his work through to the end."
Right Mindfulness

The carrying out of Right Mindfulness means the exercise of proper and good thoughts at all times. From a Western
point of view we would say it is the exercise of the art of
self control. This does not mean the elimination of all
emotions and desires but it means to properly control them
and keep thenn within due bounds towards ourselves and
all mankind.
Basically, we need only to conquer and control four
fundamental emotions, i.e., fear, sensuousness, sexual desires
and vanity. When analyzed~ its fUlldaments fear ~s nothlng
more than the desire not to be hurt mentally and/ or physically. So if you can . l~arn to free yo_urself from the sensa~~pa~n_!_hrough medi~on and F--ight Mind~ln~S, y_9.11
~an eliminate all forms of fear, whether it be of a mouse, a
snake, a lion, what other people think or say, fear of height,
death or whatever fear you may have. They all stem from
not wanting to be hurt in one way or another. Controlling
sensuousness simply means not gratifying or over-indulging
our senses by over-eating, improper diet, licentiousness, debauchery, lust, greed, which when performed means your

-----

senses are controlling you and not you your senses. Reverse
the procedure. Through steadfastness and perseverance.
ba~ed on Right Mindfulness, it can readily be done. In the
matter of sexual relations, these too, should be exercised
with modesty. If spiritual development is desired, sex should
be relegated to a very minor status. This can be done quite
easiJy once a firm decision is made. Sex should not be
allowed to become a "biologi1cal booby trap." Take a firm
stand. The ini,tial and all subsequent steps then are quite
easy. Vanity, the fourth emotion we need to conquer, is
the most subtle and vexing of all to overcome. Many of
us don't know that we have it. Sometimes we find that it
arises unexpectedly without any conscious effort on our part.
The simplest way to overcome it is by energetic progress-in
that which is good at all times. When goodness becomes
a predominant factor in life then vanity cannot arise. This
is when goodness is such a part of it that we no longer think
about it consciously and hence, no longer are even vain
about being good, that is, not consci1ous of it nor bragging:
about it.
The Sixth Patriarch's Sutra, which is the basic text for
studying "Zen" Buddhism tells us to "realize our own Essence
of Mind from Ksana to Ksana without intermission until we
attain Supreme Enlightenment, so that we are perpetually in
a state of Right Mindfulness, is the Sambhoj akaya. By dwelling our minds on evil things Hell arises. By dwelling our
minds on good acts, paradise appears." 29
Right Mindfulness is attained through control of our
minds and making our minds follow right concepts and principles. Slight digression by the objective mind cannot be
avoided but the mind should be brought back within the frame29. Ghee, Rev. Kong . Chapter (Vi "On Repentence,") Sutra Spoken hy the
Sixth Patriart!t, Ho ng Kon g Book Distribut o rs, Press, 3rd yea r o f th e
Ting Yu Year Buddhis t ca lendnr 2500 ye ars, p. (,J

144

145

work of Right Mindfulness before erroneous thinking can

and does take root. Among the things we should do are:
to be humane towards all our fellow men and beings, be impartia~, just, non-discriminating, non-attached, imperturbable,
requite evil with goodness, etc. Among the things we
shouldn't do are: not let ourselves become upset, irritated,
angry, sad, selfish, hostile, exercise criticism and judgment of
others, lack humility, lack p1ety, lack steadfastness or lack
devotion. We should remember too, that arrogance and
obstinacy usually are productive of generating the opposite
results from those for which we are striving.
So we should always keep our minds on our goals. We
should "eat, breath and sleep" in a constant atmosphere of
Right Mindfulness. We should avoid trivialities and inconsequential matters by fixing our thoughts on values that endure.
a. Chun 41 Difficulty at the Beginning

time, so human society and all things that really belong together must be organically arranged. Fellowship should not
be the mere mingling of individuals or things-that would be
chaos, not fellowship. If fellowship is to lead to order, there
must be organization within diversity."
c. Kuan fi Contemplation (View) __ ( #20) 32
"The sacrificial ritual in China began with an ablution and a libation by which Diety was invoked, after which
the sacrifice was offered. The moment of time between these
two ceremoni:es is the :most sacred of all, the moment of deepest
inner concentration. If piety is sincere and expressive of
real faith, the contemplation of it has a transforming and awe
inspiring effect on those who witness it."

( #3 )30

Right Concentration

"Nine at the beginning means:

If a person encounters a hindrance at the beginning

of an enterpri!se, he must not try to force advance but must

pause and take thought. However nothing should put him
off his course; he must persevere and contstantly keep the goal
in sight. It is important to seek out the right assistants, but he
can find them only if he avoids arrogance and associates with
his fellows in a spirit of humility. Only then will he attract
those with whose help he can combat the difficulties."
b. T'ung Jen l1i1A Fellowship with men

==

(#13) 31

"(in this hexagram) Heaven has the same direction as

fire, yet it is different from fire . Just as the luminaries in
the sky serve for the systematic division and arrangement of

------------------30.

J I.

Wilhelm/Baynes, The Book ofCI:anges, Bollingen Series XIX. Princeton,

N . J.: Princeton University Press, 1967, p. 17
Ibid. p. 57

"Unstable as water thou shalt not excel". Concentration means being stable, doing one thing at a time, singleminded in purpose at any given time. No man of any worth
ever accomplished anything worth while without concentrating his mind on his project, and usually his body and soul
too. Every great business man, painter, musidan, sculptor,
lawyer, doctor, all use the power of concentration. They
would not have become great without it. As W1lliam Moulton Marston33 said, "Feats of concentration are, of course,
routine with every outstanding p~rson in every walk of life."
E ven the pr~ rson who wants to develop himself spiritually
cspeciaiiy must develop the control of his power of concentratLon.
12.
1 I.

Ib id. p. H2
A. noted l'sy-: holo)l iSI nn d wr it e r. This quo te is rro m hi s artidc " P11t
Your Mind on t it Sp,ll", u ,uda .1 niJ:<'.\"1 (Jun, 1% 5)

146

Here we are not so much concerned with the power of

concentration nor its control; rather, we are interested in
seeing that concentration is used for the "right" purposes.
Mencius said, "Only when one seeks something one finds it,
and only if one neglects something one loses it." 34 Confucius
said, "The mind . . . governs the faculty of thinking, by
thinking, it obtains (what is good}; by not thinking it faiJs
to do this." 35 Tseng Tzu said, "Every day I examine myself
on three points: Have I been self interested in what I have
done for others? Have I been unfaithful in my association
with friends? And have I failed to embody in life the M aster's
teachings?36
As for Confucius himself, he apparently concentrated
in all things he did, as, for example, we read about him, "9.
When eating he did not converse, when in bed he did not
speak."37 In other words, Confucius did only one thing at a
time, beautifully illustrating his exercise of hi1s power of
concentration.
For best results, one should have clearly defined goals
and incessantly work towards those ends. Momentary concentration is not enough; it must be continuous. Then even
small repetitive amounts will achieve the desired purpose.
Restlessness as a continuing characteristic does not achieve
its p~rpose and usually brings disaster upon itself. :Duration
and difficult goals are achieved through steadfastness of
purpose in perseverance of heart, body and soul. This is
especially true regarding spiritual development. Also the
greater one becomes developed, the more one is obligated to
be firm ~nd stable in one's purpose and goals.
34. Chai, Ch'u and Winberg The Essential Works of Confucius, New York/
London/Toronto: (Bantam Book) 1961, p. 107
35. Ibid. p. 100
36. Ibid. p. 79
37. James Legge, The Four Books, Taipei, Taiwan: Wen Yuan Book Co.,
1967, p. 78

147

As we all know the Supreme Ultimate is constantly unfolding new things for us. It is our responsibmty to work
the Supreme UltiLinate and concentrate our lives, thoughts
and energies on "Right" matters in keeping with the Divine
Will. Here again we are blessed in having Yi Ching as a
guide such that our thoughts, words and actions can be
right at all times and simultaneously be intensified through
the exercise of concentration.
a. Ch'ien :tz: The Creati1ve

(#1) 38

"The movement of heaven is full of power.

Thus the superior man makes himself strong and
untiring.
Since there is only one heaven, the doubling of the
trigram Ch'ien, of which heaven is the image, indkates the
movement of heaven. One complete revolution of heaven
makes a day, and the repeti1tion of the trigram means that
each day is followed by another. This created the idea of
time. Since it is the same heaven moving with untiring power,
there is also created the idea of duration both in and beyond
time, a movement that never stops nor slackens, just as one
day follows another in an unending course. This duration
in time is the image of the power inherent in the Creative.
With this image as a model, the sage learns how best
to develop himself so that his influence may endure. He
must make himself strong in every way, by consciously casting out all that is inferior and degrad1ng. Thus he attains
the tirelessness which depends on consciously limiting the
fields of his activity."
b. Hcng 11,,: Du ral ion - - (f/='}.2) w
" Six al Ill: lop
:l~ .

llll' ; III S:

Willu; lm/lln y ll ~ . '1'/w /luul. uf ( 'htlll!lt'l

l lt>l ll " fll " ,'!' Ill'

N. J .: l'ri11 '1011 I IIII V\' i'II I Y l 'tt 1 , l ' lt t l , I' I t

l'J.

l hid. p, 1 ~'>

:\ 1'\ , l'l il l \' l'lllll

149

148

Restlessness as an enduring condition brings misfortune.

There are people who live in a state of perpetual
hurry without ever attaining inner composure. Restlessness
not only prevents all thoroughness but actually becomes a
danger if in a dominant place of authority."
c. Sun

The Gentle - - ( #57)40

Penetration produces gradual and inconspicuous

effects. It should be effected not by an act of violation but
by influence that never lapses. Results of this kind are less
striking to the eye than those won by surprise attack but
they are more enduring and more complete. If one .would
produce such effects, one must have a clearly defined goal,
for only when the penetrating influence works always in the
same direction can the object be attained. Small strength
can achieve its purpose only by subordinating itself to an
eminent man who is capable of creating order."
Summary
Our purpose has been to show that Yi Ching does provide
a sound basis for morality and establishes guidance to be
used for an effective rich rewarding life. Recognizably a
book or several books could be written using this subject
as the topic but we are merely trying to relate Yi Ching as
a background to Chinese culture so we have limited ourselves
to the barest :minimum necessary to illustrate our contention. The examples we have given are but a small part of
Yi Ching yet they provide sound cominon sense guidance
relating to the eight fold "Right Path" we have illustrated.
Actually, all religious organizations would warmly welcome
wi.thin their folds anyone who lived up to the principles set

o.

Ibid. p. 220

forth in the examples given. Without question, these form a

desirable background for any character development.
Since Yi Ching is the earliest complete book passed
down through Chinese history and since there is no other
Chinese book comparable to it, we must ass ume that it has
had a tremendous and conti.nuous effect on the life and the
character of the Chinese peoples-and, for that matter, anyone else reading the book. One cannot help but wonder ~~
whether Jesus, many of whose teachings paralled those in
Yi Ching, did not study it in his teens and early twenties
during his studies in the "East". We also ponder the same
matter regarding Hermes, who gave ancient Egypt and Western civilization, much of its fundamental doctrines and guidance. He is also reported as having gained his knowledge in
the "East".
So far as I know and have been able to determine, there
is not, and never has been, another book in the East or the
West like Yi Ching. Yet its principle~ are applicable to
both cultures and, since it appears to be among the earliest
if not the earliest of books, it may have had more effect on
morality and ways of life than have heretofore been given
credit to it. The strong possibility exists that it could be the
unknown basis for morality way of life in the West as well as
being a known way for such in the East.
A new look is frequently given things. So, even with
Yi Ciling still in existence, we find that, with the advent of
the R epublic, the Chinese summarized their system of ethics
and values and set them forth in the Pa Te l\ 1!;, or eight
virtues of C hinese culture; the four supporting pillars or Sze
Wei !l.Qil\1, which stem from the three ultimate virtues or San
Ta Te =: kt.'~\. On reading these, one will immediately '
perceive that th sc have all been discussed in other parts
of this book and :1r loscly related and interwoven with the
prinCiJ les of Yi Ching.

150

151

PaTe
1. Chung ,'jj;, = Conscientiousness, Loyalty:
Loyalty to country, rulers, bosses, in the
work you do, to your friends, patriotism.
Being stable, honest, dependable, exercising sincerity, being loyal to one's self.
2. Hsiao -;: = Filial Piety:
Proper relations with all members of the
family, including distant relatives, and
then extending it outward and upward to
relationships in employment, community,
to teachers, government leaders, rulers,
kings, and the showing of respect, humaneness, love, and the willingness to do
things for them.
3. Jen ' t = Humaneness, true manhood:
Humaneness, universal love towards all
meh, creatures, and things (nothing is excluded). In some respects it can be used
to summarize Chinese culture. Love of
learning; Wisdom, universal brotherhood,
respect for one's own body and one's soul,
genuineness.
4. Ai
~=Love:
Closely connected with and interrelated to
humaneness. Modesty, respect for others,
especially in words and conduct. Unselfishness, doing things for others, placing
others first, innate goodness in thought,
word and deed, following the Golden Rule
and the Golden Mean.
5 Hsin { = Sincerity, truthfulness:
Sincerity, faithfulness, truthfulness, reliability, steadfastness, perseverance, keep-

ing your word, not trying to cheat others

in business or otherwise. Great in heart
and soul.
Righteousness:
6. Yi
Righteousness, bravery sound judgment,
intelligent understanding, closely related
to Jen in regard to Universal Brotherhood,
helping others because of friendship, requiting evil with good, returning better
for any good received.
7. Ho
Harmony:
.
The exercise of harmony in human relations, social ties, family hfe, with nature
and all creatures.
8. P'ing :zp. = Peace:
A widely used expression "P'ing An''
means peace to you. Leading an even
level life. Striving to bring about and
have peace wherever you are and in whatever you do. Walk, talk and do things
slowly or at the proper speed. Do not
try to hasten things, do not agitate. Don't
be aggressi1ve. Use peaceful method to
achieve your aims and goals (in contrast to
Communist methods who feel that struggle and fighting are indispensible for such
purposes).
As we all know, there are various levels of understanding regarding all i,ntellectual matters. So too, there are various
levels of understanding regarding the virtues. Thus we find
that the level above the Pa Te is the Sze Wei, particularly '
in the case of til' virtu e Yi or Righteousness. It has the
sam e dcllnition in hol h cases but the level of understandin g
is much hi her and st ri t r in th e Sze Wei than in the Pa Te.

152

153

Sze Wei
1. Li

2.

Yi

3. Lien trft =

4. Ch'ih lfG

Rites (Confucian Rites)

Background and concepts for ceremoni,es,
music and rituals used to lead, guide and
control the people. Rites set forth the
b~st type of conduct for individuals, state
and nation, within which freedom can be
had by the individual, yet his conduct is
circumscribed and kept within due bounds
towards all mankind, and deals with external conduct, ethics and morals at all
levels.
Righteousness.
Uprightness, justice, strong moral fiber,
right thoughts, words and deeds, equality
of mankind, virtuousness, justifiableness
and spiritually motivated and inspired.
"All :men are brothers."
Knowledgeable, effecient and correct in
all matters, know how to manage well,
not selfish, not greedy, words are clear
and correct, actions are pure (takes no
bribes), sincere, know how to make use
of everything, clean, neat, immaculate.
Strength of inner consciousness and conscience, exercise right degree of pride,
understand shame (if your country is invaded it becomes a personal shame to you
and you then do your part to get rid of
the enemy). If you know something is
harmful to character, of your own or to
others, you don't do it, cause i,t nor permit
it to be done. (Currently there are two

slogans: a, "Hsueh Ch'ih Fu Kuo.,

which means "Wash away all shame and
rebuild our country," and b, "Hsueh
Ch'ih T'u Ch'iang" meaning "Wash away
the shame and be strong"-especially used
if one failed the first time)..
There are three Ultimate Virtues, San Ta Te, the manifestatiton of which by an individual shows rum to be striving
for and reaching or approaching a state of perfection. These
are the virtues of the Superior Man or the sage.

SanTa Te
1. Chih

Intelligence, knowledge, truth, wisdom

relating to both phenomena and noumena,
well rounded development, particularly
the mind in all its capacities and aspects.
Humaneness, consideration of others,
2. Jen t
manifesting the Golden Rule and the
Golden Mean, compassion, universal love,
has full control of all emotions.
3. Yung ~
Bravery, partilcularly the courage and
bravery required to carry out the Pa Te,
Sze Wei and SanTa Te, wisdom to know
when to retreat and when to advance and
the strength to carry out the decisions correctly and efficiently, brave enough to admit mistakes and do something about
them, save and help others, work for
universal principles and goals rather ~han
personal ones.
The extolling of PaTe, Szc Wei and SanTa Tc j,.; csp ' cialiy done by Chiang Kai-shek , President of the R ' puhli of

155

154

China, through whose interest in them has resulted in all

the children of free China being taught these in their citizensh ip books. Obviously this is a very helpful and healthy
way to improve the character and moral fiber of the nation.
lt is a building up from within, using sound material as a
foundation.
In comparing these virtues with the Book of Changes
we note a degree of similarity in the. use of the numbers 3, 4
and 8, for the three, four and eight virtues supra. Three is
considered the first complete nwmber and symbolizes Heaven
which holds everything within itself. In these modern Chinese virtues the San Ta Te hold all the other virtues within
them. Four is the basic number of the earth and the Sze
Wei, or the four supporting pillars reflect man's external or
earthly conduct, for the most part. Comparing the Pa Te, the
eight virtues, with Yi Ching, we find that Yi Ching has eight
trigrams and eight houses of the hexagrams. It would appear
that the PaTe virtues are in keeping with the various "houses"
of the hexagrams, as the principles of these virtues can all
be found in these hexagrams in one form or another. (The
"houses" of the hexagrams are those developed through the
evolution of stages 4, 5 and 6 for the creation of the hexagrams from the individual "family" members of the trigrams
at stage 3). This asslliiilption, if correct, would reflect the
following table of hexagrams as being applicable to each
of the virtues. As we all know the hexagrams have a common origin and are interrelated, so we cannot say that the
hexagrams in the table alone apply to the Pa Te. We will
find much supporting evidence of each of the virtues in many
of the other hexagrams as well. But it would appear that
if one reflects on the eight virtues in detail and compares each
of them with Yi Ching they show a strong possibility of havi,f,)g their origin the eight "houses" of Yi Ching.

The Eight Houses

1. Chung-Conscientionusness
House of the Gentle:
a. GENTLE is the wind (57)
b. Wind with Heaven is the
TAMING OF THE SMALL
(9)

c. Wind with Fire is the FAMILY

(37)

d. Wind with Thunder is INCREASE (42)

e. Heaven with Thunder i,s INNOCENCE (25)
f. Fire with Thunder is BITING
THROUGH (21)
g. Mountain with Thunder is the
CORNERS OF THE MOUTH
(27)

h. Mountain with wind is WORK

ON WHAT HAS BEEN SPOILED (18)

2. Hsiao-Filial Piety
House of the Arousing:
a. The AROUSING is Thunder
(51)

b. Thunder with Earth i1s ENTHUSIASM (16)

c. Thunder with Water is DELIVERANCE (40)
d. Thunder with Wind is DURATION (32)
e. E arth with Wind i~s PUSHING
UPWARD (46)

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157

The Eight Houses

The Eight

f.

Water with Wind is the WELL

(48)
g. Lake with Wind is PREPONDERANCE OF THE GREAT
(28)
h. Lake with Thunder is FOLLOWING (17)

3. Jen-True Manhood
House of the Creative:
a. The CREATIVE is Heaven ( 1)
b. Heaven with Wind is COMING
TO MEET (44)
c. Heaven with Mountain is RETREAT (33)
d. Heaven with Earth is STANDSTILL (12)
e. Wind with Earth is CONTEMPLATION (20)
f. Mountain with Earth is SPLITTING APART (23)
g. Fire with Earth is PROGRESS
(35).
h. Filfe with Heaven is POSSESSION IN GREAT MEASURE
(14)
4. Ai-Love
House of the Joyous:
a. The JOYOUS is the Lake (5 8)
b. Lake with Water is OPPRESSION (47)
c. Lake with Earth is GATHERING TOGETHER (45)

Hous.~s

d. Lake with Mountain is INFLUENCE (31)

e. Water with Mountain is OBSTRUCTION (39)
f. Earth with Water is MODESTY (15)
g. Thunder with Mountain is
PREPONDERANCE OF THE
SMALL (62)
h. Thunder with Lake i1s the MARRYING MAIDEN (54)
5. Hsin-Sincerity
House of Keeping Still:
a. K,EEPING STILL is the Mountain (52)
b. Mountain with Fire is GRACE
(22)
c. Mountain with Heaven is TAM-
ING OF THE GREAT (26}
d. Mountain wi,th Lake is DECREASE (41)
e. Fke with Lake is OPPOSITION
(38)
f. Heaven with Lake is TREADING (10)
g. Wind with Lake is INNER
TRUTH(61)
h. Wind with Mountain IS DEVELOPMENT (5 3)

6. Yi- Rightcousncss
House of Abysmal:
a. The AB YSM/\ L is W ;1l ' r ( _<>)

158

159

The Eight Houses

The Eight Houses

b. Water with Lake is LIMITATION (60)
c. Water with Thunder is DIFFICULTY AT THE BEGINNING (3)
d. Water with Fire is AFTER
COMPLETION (63)
e. Lake wuth Fire is REVOLUTION (49)
f. Thunder with Fire is ABUNDANCE (55)
g. Earth with Fire is DARKENING OF THE LIGHT (36}
h. Earth with Water is the ARMY
(7)

7. Ho-Harmony
House of the Clinging:
a. The CLINGING is Fire (30)
b. Fire with Mountain itS the
WANDERER (56)
c. Fire with Wind is the CAULDRON (50)
d. Fire with Water is BEFORE
COMPLETION (64)
e. Mountain with Water is
YOUTHFUL FOLLY (4)
f. Wind with Water is DISPERSION (59)
g. Heaven with Water i,s CONFLICT (6)
, h. Heaven with Fire is FELLOWSHIP WITH MEN ( 13)

8. P'ing-Peace
House of the Receptive:
a. The RECEPTIVE is the Earth
(2)

b. Earth with Thunder is RETURN (24)

c. Earth with Lake is APPROACH
(19)

d. Earth with Heaven is PEACE

(11}

e. Thunder with Heaven is the

POWER OFTHEGREAT(34)
f. Lake with Heaven i1s BREAKTHROUGH (43)
g. Water with Heaven in WAITING (5)
h. Water with Earth is HOLDING TOGETHER (8t 1
Recapitulating briefly, it is evident that Yi Ching has
been a guide to a good way of life throughout its entire existence. In ancient time it was the only book available.
We have seen its influence on Confucianism, Buddhism and
Taoism (mentioned in the first chapter). We have noted
that it may have had an influence on Western teachings
through Hermes, Jesus, (and perhaps many unknown travelling scholars). We know too, that Yi Ching was one of the
books used for over 2000 years as basis for examinations
for determining qualifications for govermental positions.
With the advent of the Republic of China a "moderniation"
41. Note: All " Houses" are those as listed in Wilhelm/Baynes, The Book
of Changes, Bollingen Series XIX, Princeton N , J.: Princeton U niversity
Press, 1967, p. 725-727

160

was made using (apparently) Yi Ching as a guide. So in a

sense, Yi Ching's principles are taught to all young Chinese
during their training in citizenship. Advanced studies in
Yi Ching itself are possible in that it is taught as a special
subject in many of the colleges. We even have the unconfirmed report that Red China has rewritten Yi Ching to make
it compatible with Communism.
All this tends to indicate that Yi Ching is highly respected and highly regarded. Hence its influence as a Way of
Life is unquestionably great in the East. As Yi Ching becomes better known in the West we can assume it will have
considerable influence there too, both as a philosohpy and
as a guide for a.good Way of Life.

c
H
A

NATURAL CULTURAL INFLUENCE

G
E

"Whatever endures can

be created only gradually
by long-continued work
and careful reflection."
-Yi Ching

Chapter 4
PART 1

The Influence of Yi Ching on Confucianism and

Chinese Culture
Nearly everyone will agree that ConfucianiBm has played
a vital role in Chinese politics, ethics and culture for approximately the last 2500 years. During most of that time,
the six Confucianist Classics were used as the basis for exami,nations for governmental administrative jobs and positions. These helped bring about and maintain the unity
of China. Another preeminent desirable quality was that
of filial piety, which was a Confucius edited and propagated
principle. The Doctrine of the Golden Mean and Humanism
likewise have been part and parcel of the life of the Chinese
people since Confucius first taught them. So have music and
ritual.
Where did Confucius get these ideas? Were they his
own creations or were they synthesis of existing ideas? If
synthesis, what was their origin? We all recognize Confucius was a truly great and wise man. When we look into
his background we find that for the most part, aside from
being gifted with a superb mind, Confucius was an ardent
and avid research scholar. He said the following abc'.lt himself, "I am not one who has innate knowledge, but one who,
Jo ving antiquity, is diligent in seeking it therei.n." (V 11 - 19)
and , "I have a faith in, and a passion for ancient sl udi.:.::."

162

(VII-1). He constantly sought new learning and knowledge

wherever he went. He collected and brought together the
myriads of information he thus obtained. But, unlike so
many researchers, he was also gifted with common sense, a
sense of humor and an ability to teach. These, ccli1lbined,
form a rare combination in a human.
When we sp~ak of the Six Ancient Classics we refer to:
The Book of Odes (Shih Ching)
Three hundred and five poems and sacred odes
besides six with music, edited by Confucius.
The Book of History (Shu Ching)
Composed of early historic documents, chiefly
king's pro:;lamations, being the earliest of Chinese
documents and the most archaic style of all the
classics.
The Book of Music (Yiieh Ching:)
A compilab'.)n of early musirc for the purpose of
producing harmony and for stirring up emotions.
The Book of Yi Chln.g (Changes)
Originated by Fu Hsi and contains the fundamental concepts of Chinese philosophy and culture.
Confucius reportedly took a copy of Y:i Chiu.g with
him wherever he went. 1
Spring And Autumn Annals (Ch'un Ch'iu)
The classic itself, a bare chronical of events of two
and one half centuries (722-481 B.C.) was written
by Confucius with a view of restoring correct terminology.
The Book of Rites (Li Chi)
Allegedly a record of the governmental systems of
the early Chou Dynasty relating to the correct deI.

My own thought: If a man as wise and influential as Confucius

studied and used Yi Ching, it certainly would be wise for someone
less learned, li ke myself, to try to spend considerable time with it and
in trying to grasp its philosophy.

tails, usages and execution of the multifarious

rites, particularly those relating to ceremonies and
diplomatic relations.
We know that for people to be knit together there must
be communications and interrelations. These are largely
brought about by having common goals, common desi1res and
common thoughts. Even though China was made up of
many states and substates, which often acted independently,
they had the Six Classics as a basis for governmental examinations on a national basis. Politi1cal and administrative power
and authority rested on knowledge regarding them. If a person desired to rise in power and wealth, it was incumbent
on him then to master the Classics. These, therefore, like
Christianity in Europe during the Medieval period, became
the unifying force of ideas and of com~nications. The Six
Classics were common in all states and they therefore established a network and line of communications for relationships
between scholarleaders of all eras of China. These were
above and beyond regional problems and aspirations, and
engendered nationalistic tendencies. These Si.x Classics, more
than any other si111gle factor, have always played a very important role in the background and historical evolution of
China. They, too, are greatly responsible for China's assimulation of "Barbe1rians". Confucius's development of these
Classics contributed more to the culture and growth of China
than perhaps he ever imagined when he edited th.:rn.
Even in Confucius's day the Cbssics were rare and
highly prized. The knowledge and teachings of these literary
treasures and disciplines were known to only a relatively
few people and fully understood by even fewer. Cor.fuci!US,
of course, had a great understanding of history, people and
human nature that went to make up these classics. This came
about by his being a researcher, a scholar and a teacher wilil
a keen, actiiVe mind abetted by a delicate artistic natu re.

164

16.

As an artist, Confucius loved music. He played a string-

eel instrument very well and loved to sing. There are recorded comments that Confucius' school abounded in music,
reilccting the students emubtion of their Master. As for
Confucius himself, whenever he heard someone sing, and he
liked it, he woul~ ask for an encore. He would join the
singing of the song himself and thoroughly enjoy the fellowship of mutually sharing music as well as experiencing a
spiritual uplift from it.
Futher enlightenment regarding Confucius' scholarly
interest in music is shown in the following episode:
"Confucius was once learning to play the Ch'in (a string instrument) from the music master Hsiangse and did not seem to
make much progress for ten days. The music master said to
him, 'You may well learn something else now', and Counfucius
replied, 'I have already learned the melody, but have not learned
the beat and the rhythm yet.' After some time the music master
said, 'You have now leaned the beat and the rhythm, you
must take the next step.' 'I have not yet learned the expression,'
said Confucius. After a while, the music master again said,
'Now you have learned the expression, you must take the next
step.' And Confucius replied, 'I have not yet got an image in
my mind of the personality of the composer.' After some time the
music master said, 'There's a man behind this music, who is
occupied in deep reflec:ion and who sometimes happily lifts up
his head and looks far away, fixing his mind on the eternal.'
'I've got it now,' said Confucius. 'He is a tall dark man and
his mind seems to be that of an Empire !milder. Can it be any
other person than King Wen himself (The founder of the Chou
Dynasty)?' The music mas'er rose from his seat and bowed
twice to Confucius and said, "It is the composition of King
Wen.' " 2

In addition to being an artist and a schob.r regarding

music, Confucius recognized the deep philosophic and psychologic value of music. The impression I have from a study
2. Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Confucius, New York: The Modern Library,
Random House, Inc., 1938, p. 74

of his life is that one of hirs key motivations was the pleasure
and inspirations of music, both that performed by himself
and that of others.
Music

Music is the manifestation of heaven expressed through

the heart and strikes a concordant or discordant note with
every indi,vidual. Music likewise expresses the harmony or
discordance of the universe. In man, it touches his inner
being and reflects like a mirror in his actions. Coming from
heaven it plays in and through the subconscious mind. Hence
it is able to make man into any emotional character depending on the nature of the music being produced. Man is made
of molecules which are constantly in motion and held together by his own rate of vibration. We all know how readily
crystal glassware and chandeliers break when discordant
rates of vibration are sounded. Fortunately man is not so
critically attuned but he is receptive to all forms of music,
some of which are pleasing, others irritating. In all cases
man reflects the impact a particular piece of music makes on
him. Man, in that sense, is a mirror giving a direct output
for a direct input. Utilizing this principle the early Chinese
kinf.!:S
used music to control_the peoples,
either to keep them
~
--- ~at peace or to stir them to war. This mirror like quality in
man is-what Buddhism tries to perfect. They say, achieving
this state frees man from the wheel of birth and death. To
attain this they believe that the better a man is morally the
more clear his mirror-like qualities will be. When ma11 listens
to music he does not try to hang onto nor hold the notes he
hears. They just come and go. Li:kewise, man should not
"hold" thoughts, he should let them come and go as he docs
with music. He does not become attached to the notes he

--

166

hears, nor is he indifferent to them. Yet man reflects the

vibrations of sound impinged on him. Buddhism desires man
to do likewise in using hi!':> five senses and the coordinating
rnind that is to use all the senses as tools for their intended
'
'
purposes, but not to become attached to any results nor develop sustained desires from and regarding them, as, for
example, desires for pleasure relations.
Music, therefore, has a stimulating effect towards selflessness. This, undoubtedly, is an underlying (yet little known)
reason for music playing a prominent part in religious ceremonies. Th0 ultimate aim of all religions is selflessness. In
Buddhism itis mainly the selflessness of the mind. In Christianity, it is primarily the selflessness of doing things for
others. In Confucianism, it is the exemplification of humaneness towards others and treating others as we would like to
be treated, etc. Some music can make man forget self,
forget his ego, forget his problems, desires or troubles.
Other music can make these same factors dominant to the
extremes. It depends on the nature of the music and the
purpose for which it was intended. Wise orchestra leaders,
maestros and impresarios use this principle to sway their audiences. Rarely are the audiences aware of the control being
exercised over them. A good minister or priest will select
music and hymns appropriate for the sermon being given.
It was the same with the use of music in ancient times for
rites, ceremonies, politica.l or governmental purposes. We
know too, a bachelor will frequently play "mood music"
when entertaining a bdy fri::!nd in his home or apartment.
Conversely, bachelorettes do the same.
Words, relating to certain meanings, have frequencies
of their own. Crusaders, rabble rousers, senators, teachers,
preachers and public speakers make use of this principle.
Many are not aware of the principle technically. They just
know that certain types of words, said in specific tones and

167

sequence, produce certain results. So they use them accordingly and achieve the results they desire. What we tend to
call a good sermon, a good lecture or a good speech has been
built firmly on the principle of using "musical" words.
Words, in a literal sense, are "music" since they
have individual rates of vibration and are said with tonal
quality, pitch and strength. Many a time we hear the ex.:..
pression "his words and ideas struck a fauniliar chord in me.'~
Poetry, especially, can be said to be music (without notes)
and, for the most part, should be studied and spoken as if it
were music. We all are keenly aware of the strength, manner and vitality of words being spoken to us. We know the
effect poetry and other beautiful words have on our hearts.
Conversely, we know the instantaneous obedience demanded
by a mi!iJtary command. When the frequency of the spoken
words are in harmony with the frequency of the listener~
they are inwardly liked, appreciated and strongly effective.
All these things follow the principle of Yin and Yang.
These two forces manifest themselves as rates of vibration
and of themselves do not discriminate nor differentiate. They
lend either creative power to or abet the negative aspects
of anything that is said or written. It is not the words
themselves that determine their character since they can,
generally, be used in several contexts. Rather i1t is the way
in which they are used which determines their positive or
negative effect.
A man of good character has words that are well chosen
and soft spoken. We all enjoy listening to what such a
person has to say and on departure look forward to speaking to him or her again. The converse is true regarding an
evil or uncouth person. By stint of e:Xperience and intuitive
instinct some people have the ability to sense and say the
ri:g ht thing at the right time. This, in principle, is the same
as producing harmonious and concordant music.

~69

Rulers have made use of this natural taste for music; they have
elevated and regulated it. Music was looked upon as something
serious and holy, designed to purify the feelings of men. It
fell to music to glorify t11e virtues of the heroes and thus to
construct a bridge to the world of the unseen. In the temple
men drew near to God. with music and pantomimes (out or this
later the theatre developed). R eligious feeling for the Creator
of the world was united with the most sacred of human feelings,
that of reverence for the ances'ors. The ancestors were invited
to these divine services as gu~sts of the Ruler of H eaven and
as representatives of humanity in the higher regions. This
u niting of the human past with the Divinity in solemn moments
of religious inspiration established the bond between God and
man. The ruler who revered the Divinity in revering his ancestors
became thereby the Son of Heav,~n, in whom the heavenly and
earthly world met in mystical contact.

Unfortunately, man has a tendency to hang onto words.

He is taught discernment and discrimination from early childhood. So while words are a form of music they do not
produce the spontaneous mirroring effect as is brought about
by music. Man becomes attached to words. He especially
likes those from others which correspond to hi,s own thinking. He also does not treat all words equally as he does the
notes of 'music. The same words said by different people
take on different meanings, whereas music is approxlli""Ilately
the same regardless of who plays it, provided he is a qualified
mus1cran. Hence ancient rulers found and took advantage
of the fact that music is far better for controlling people and
for reaching their hearts than are words. Confucius definitely concurred with these ancient rulers.
Yi Ching essentially says the same thing in the Image
and explanation of this Image of Hexagram Yu/Enthusiasm

{ - - ~ #16):
..THE IMAGE
Thunder come resounding out of the earth:
The image of Enthusiasm.
Thus the ancient Kings made music
in order to honor merit,
and offered it with splendor
to the Supreme Diety,
Inviting their ancestors to be present.
When, at the beginning of summer, thunder-electrical energycomes rushing forth from the earth again, and the first thunderstorm refreshes nature, a prolonged state of tension is resolv-;d.
Joy and relief make themselves felt. So too, music has power
to ease tension within the heart and to loosen the grip of obscure
emotions. The enthusiasm of the heart expresses itself invo:untarily in a burst of song, in dance and in rhythmic movements
of the body. From imrnemorial times the inspiring effect of
the invisib!e sound that moves all hearts, and draws them together, has mystified mankind.

These ideas are the final summation of Chinese culture. Confucius has said of the great sacrifice at which these rites were
performed: "He who could wholly comprehend this sacrifice
could rule the world as though it were spinning in his hand."3

In the foregoing it is interesting to note that in the

early times music was also used "to construct a bridge to
the world of the unseen". Today hardly anyone ascribes
such an aspect to music. Maybe our forefathers were much
wiser than we are. Some esoteric teachings by Rosicrucians,
Buddhists and Taoists do include music and bells to enhance
the spiritual atmosphere of meditation and/or worship. The
purpose in doing this is simiJar to that used by our ancestors.
The following words by Lin Yutang can add to our
understanding of the impact of music:
"Music rises from the human heart. When the emotions are
touched, they are expr-essed in sounds, and when the sounds
take definite forms, we have music. Therefore the music of a
peaceful and prosperous country is quiet and joyous, and tbc
3.

W ilhelm/Baynes, Yi Ching or The Book of Changes.

Princeton University Press, 1967, pp. 68-69

Princeto n N . J .:

171

170

govcmment is orderly; the music of a country in turmoil shows

dissatisfaction and anger, and the government is chaotic; the
music of a destroyed country shows sorrow and remembrance
of the past, and the people are distressed. Thus we see that
music and government are directly connected with one another.
The mode of C is the symbol of the king; the mode of D is
the symbol of the minister; the mode of E . is the symbol of the
people; the mode of G is the symbol of the affairs of the country;
and the mode of A is the symbol of the natural world. When
the five keys are arranged in order, we do not have discordant
sounds. When the key of C loses i's tonality, then the music
loses its fundamental and the king neglects his duties. When the
key of D loses its tonality, the music loses its gradation, and
the ministers become unruly. When the key of E loses its tonali'y,
then the music is sorrowful and the peopk are distressed. When
the key of G loses its tonality, then the music is mournful and
the affairs of the country become complica'ed. When the key
of A loses its tonality, then the music suggests danger, and the
people suffer poverty. When all five keys lose their tonality and
upset one another, we have general discord, and the nation will
not have long to live."4
"But apart from this, in order to understand the musical symbolism, one should understand the cosmognomy of the ancient Chinese,
believing that all life is the result of interaction of the five elements
and ultimately of the two principles Yin and Yang. These
principles govern both the natural phenomena and human socitey,
and the ideal of the Confucianists was to bring the conduct of
human affairs into harmony with the cosmic forces."5

We note here the reference to Yin and Yang. These

forces, as we know, are the dominant principles of Yi Ching.
In fact they are the basis and source of the "10,000 things''
in the universe. As forces they have motion, direction and
energy. Being motion, they are frequencies as well, and
from them come all the frequendes of the universe. They
provide the basic tonal frequencies for music as well as the
4. Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Confucius, New York: The Modern Library
Random House, 1938, p. 252
5. Ibid. p. 253

other things. We must recognize that the five notes mentioned supra, i.e., C, D, G and A, are not necessarily the same
frequencies as modern day usage. They are rather five tones
of the Pentatonic scale. Classical Eastern music has notes
far different from the Western scales. Their rates of v1bration are considerably different. It i1s believed that this stems
from the difference in the purpose for which the music was
designed. Western Music is largely developed for pleasurable listenmg only, whereas we have seen from our foregoing
discussion, that early Eastern musitc was used for controlling
and directing the emotions of the peoples. With their purposes being different it is logical and natural that the foundation on which the music was buiJt likewise would be different.
Different frequencies produce different results. The early
kings used that which they knew and believed to be most
effective. Hence the distinctive Eastern classioal . type of
music. Today people are different and have hi1gher rates
of vibrations than most of their early ancestors. Hence ancient classical music has lost much of its effect. Too, modern
rulers have other media and means for stimulating and controlling the people. So we find the Eastern Classical music
on the decline, and being replaced, for listening purposes,
by western and western style musbc.
Were Confucius alive today I believe he would still say
music can and should be used by governments to control
and influence the people. He would still believe music can
and does have an effect on human beings and, that properly
used, the people can be made to mirror the desired effect. In
this regard the principles of music as set forth in Yi Ching
.are still applicable.
Now while music stems from the heart and represents
h eaven, Li or rites, comes from our conscious mind and
represents earth. Herein we again see the triumviral ' of
H.cavcn, earth and man. /\s we remarked elsewhcr i111 o11 r

172

discussion of Yi Ching, Heaven and earth are relatively fixed.

Man, who is an equal partner in this combination, dominates
and exemplifies change and the direction of the movem~nt
of change. We also stated that the Six Classics of Confucius
were used for many centuries as the basis for examinations
for governmental positions. We can see here that knowing
how to use music to control the emotions of peoples and how
to use rites to control the conduct of peoples, was most important for sound and efficient government.
But what is Li and its background?
In his research, Confucius tried to find the background
and concepts for the cewmonies of various states . and kingdoms in order to select the best from each. His search
produced only meager results in the most cases. Only three
reigns, Hsia, Shang and Chou, provided any substantial
amount of data. Confucirus chose to adopt the ri,tes and
ceremonies of the Chou Dynasty for his book of Ri,tes. He
did however, select good points from the others and included
these too. Basically though, the Book of Rites sets forth
the ceremonies instituted by King Wen and as carried out
by him. King W.e n is the gentleman who brought the Yi
Clling hexagrams together, gave them appropriate judg;ments
and images with the help of his son, and set them forth in book
form as Chou Yi. We can therefore, rightfully assume an intimate connection between Yi Ching and Li Chi (the Book
of Rites).
Truly great rirtes are simple in form yet deep in meaning. Being simple in form they are easily understood and
imitated by people. This was one of the beauties of the
Chou rites. They could be adopted and employed successfully at all social levels. In this way the desires of man could
be given limitations within which freedom could be exercised
but the overall conduct of everyone would be in keeping with
what was right and best for the nation. In this manner man's
conduct was circumscribed and kept within due bounds towards all mankind.

17.1

Rites and rituals deal not only with our ethical character and the nature of our external conduct with our fellowman but also with the proper development and control of
our moral nature as well. The fundamental idea is similar
to that connected with filial piety, wherein filial piety was:
considered the bulwark of the family, and subsequently extended to commun~ties and nations. Similarly, the morally
good man is also a foundation of good social relations for
all levels and, for all intents and purposes, parallels the development and exemplification of filial piety. The filial man
and the lffiorally good man complement each other.
The basis for the filial man and the morally good man are
found in Yi Ching. If Yi Ching had only one value, instead
of the many it has, it could be said to set forth a pattern for
positive existence. It can be used as a way and guide for life.
byitself as a philosophy or in conjunction with any religion of
the world. Yi Ching shows man how to act in keeping with
the Supreme Will in every situation known to man. It gives
posi,tirve and concrete guidance for the attainment of success
and good fortune. Again man is the key partner. It is man
who has to interpret Yi Ching and make h~s own judgment
regarding the advice available. Man must perseveringly carry
out his part. Any change in course or goal on the part of
man can change the outcome for good or bad. Hence the
more stable one is in his ways and actions of life the more
one can make dependable predictions. This is enhancedl
by the lilffiitations set by rites and the harmony establishedl
through music. When such continuity is established, it promotes the general welfare of a nation and its culture, as well
as making the problem of control by the ruler a much easier
task. At such times the minds of the peoples are attuned to
the universe, their character is good and progress is easy. This,
in turn, makes their nation great in stature, health and economy. This, broadly speaking, is the goal Confucius was trying to achieve and we see that the part played by rites and
music have their origin in Yi Ohing.

174

175

Two further quotations from Yi Ching will help support

this view:
"The foundation of the family is the relationship between husband and wife. The tie that holds the family together lies in
the loyalty and perseverance of the wife. Her place is within
(second line), while that of the husband is without (fifth line).
It is in accord with the great laws of nature that husband and
wife take their proper places. Within a family a strong authority
is needed; this is represented by the. parents. If the father is
really a father and the son a son, if the elder brother fulfills
his position, and the younger brother fulfills his, if the husband
is really a husband and the wife really a wife, then the family is
in order. When the family is in order, all social relationships
of mankind will be in order. Three of the five social relationships
are found within the family-that between father and son, which
is the relationship of love, that between husband and wife, which
is the relationship of chaste conduct, that between elder and
younger brother, which is the relationship of correctness. The
loving reverence of the son "(filial piety)" is then carried over
to the prince in the form of faithfulness to duty; the affection and
correctness of behavior existing between the two brothers are
extended to a friend in the form of loyalty, to a person of superior
rank in the form of deference. The family is society in embryo;
it is the native soil on which the performance of moral duty is
made easy through natural affection, so that within a small circle
a basis of moral practice is created, and this is later widened to
include human relationships in generaJ."6

"'THE JUDGMENT #59

DISPERSION. Success.
The king approaches his temple.
It furthers one to cross the great water.
Perseverence furthers.
The text of this hexagram resembles that of Ts'ui (2$ ), Gathering
Together (45). In the latter, the subject is the bringing together
of elements that have been separated, as water collects in lakes
upon the earth. Here the subject is the dispersing and dissolv6. Wilhelm/Baynes, Yi Ching, the Book of Changes.
Princeton University Press, 1967, p. 143-144

Princeton, N . J.:

ing of divisive egotism. DfSPBRSION shows the way, so to

speak, that leads to gathering together. This explains the similarity of the two texts.
Religious forces are needed to overcome the egotism that divides
men. The common celebration of the great sacrificial feasts and
sacred rites, which gave expression simultaneously to the interrelation and articulation of family and state, was the means employed by great rulers to unite men. The sacred music and the
splendor of the ceremonies aroused a strong tide of emotion that
was shared by all hearts in unison, and that awakened a consciousness of the common origin of all creatures. In this way the
disunity was overcome and rigidity dissolved. A further means
to the same end is cooperation in great general undertakings that
set a high goal for the will of the people; in the common concentration on this goal, all barriers dissolve, just as when a boat
is crossing a great stream, all hands must unite in a joint task.
But only a man who himself is free of all selfish ulterior considerations, and who perseveres in justice and steadfastness, is capable
of dissolving the hardness of egotisrri."7

JEN
The three cardinal virtues that underlie and provide much
of the foundation of Confucianism are J.en, Yi and Li. Jen
is exemplified by true manhood and is tb.~ prime virtue of life,
It guides us in all our actions and is reflected in the measure of humaneness we accord others, Yi rel~tes _to rig!!!~ous
ness and justice while Li p~e rules of roQ_riety and
reg_ulates human affairs. We have already discussed Li in
connection with music, as the two are intimately related.
Now we will examine J en and Yi.
Jen is the constructive virtue of life that shows the way
of selflessness and of doing thi,ngs for others. It also relates
to humaneness. It is that element within us which prompts
us and spurs us on to goodness. It is the quality which
7. Ibid. p. 227

176

makes men superior and brings out the best that is within
man. As Mencius said, "Being true to one's self is the
law_ oL!k.;tv_i"ll.- To try to be true to one's self is the. l;w
- - - - - - -. of ~an.:
Becoming selfless and doing things for o:hers does not
mean that one forgets self or neglects self. If th~s were done
it would be both dangerous and disasterous. Doing things
without thought and letting oneself go brings about decadence, decay and rot. Man is not destined for limitless fre~
dom and opportun1ty. 8 Man rather, must have clearly defined rules within which he can operate. If these have not
been prescribed for hirrn, then man must himself determine
what his duty is and voluntarily accept his own set of restrictions. This is the true way of attaining satisfying and gratifying results.
Confucius taught that a man should be straightforward
and upright in his thinking and in his deeds. This is similar
to Shakespeare's statement, "As a man thinketh so is he."
Confucius believed that man mirrored his thoughts. His external words and acts are but an outward reftecti,on of what
a man thinks. Additionally, a man's faults 9 conform to his
mind and are a manifesta!ion of his inner nature. Since our
faults are related to our inner selves, with our inner self
exerc1sing control and authority over our attracti,ons and
repellings, our likes and dislikes, we readily see that we tend
to criticise others and find the faults and weaknesses in them
which are similar to our own. Thus, if we note what we criticise
in others, we have the basis for making corrections within
oun:elves. And a man of Jen gives himself a searching and
unbiased self-examination daily.
8.

Ibid. page 232 "Unlimited possibilities are not suited to man; if they
existed, his life would only dissolve in the boundless."
9. James Legge, The Four Books, Confucian Analects, page 3, Wen Yu:w
Book Co. Taipei, Taiwan, 1967: "The Master said, ... 4. 'When yo u
ha ve faull s do not fear to abandon them.'"

177

Tseng Tzu, an ardent Confucianist, said, "Every du y I

examine myself on three points: Have I been self-interested
in what I have done for others? Have I been faithful in
my association with my friends? Have I failed to embody
in life the Master's teachings?" 10 One additional question
could and should have been added, "What are the results I
have attained?" It is only by the results we achieve that
we can judge whether our life is effective or ineffective. The
results are a measure of what we are and what we have done.
They are not the result of what we think we are or what we
think we have done. Our own thinking oft times is drastically in error. Rather, the results are the judgment of the
Supreme Will and show us how well we are working with
that Will. Thus the results one attains parallel the degree
of Jen one exercises.
"The Master said, 'Shen! My teaching contains one all
pervading pri,nciple.' 'Yes,' replied Tseng Tzu. When the
Master had left the room the disciples asked, 'What did he
mean?' Tseng Tzu replied, 'Our Master's teaching is conscientiousness (Chung ,'i!;t, ) and altruism (Shu ?-JJ. ), and
nothing else.' (IV, 15)
"To say that the all pervading princip:e of Confucius
is Chung and Shu, iiS the same as saying that it is Jen." 11
This principle brings J en to the individual and provides him with a guide line as to how to achi-eve it through
emulation and practice. The onus for either bein8 or not
being a Jen person rests with each individual. It does not
matter what one's station is in life, king or pauper, minister
of grave digger, or somewhere in between, every man has
the opportunity to be a man of J en. This accounts for one
of the reasons for its popularity over the centuries.
10. Ch'u Chai and Winberg Chai, "Confucian," Essential Works of Confucianism, New York/Toronto/London. Bantam Book, 1965, p. 79
II. Fung Yu-Lan, Chinese Philosophy, Vol. !., P rinceto n, N . J.: Princeton
University Press, 1952, p. 71

179

l78

Chinese "modesty" also stems from the principle of Jen.

Confucius said, "Jen is the denial of self and the response
to what is right and proper." 12 The denial of self and considcrati1on of others is the foundation of modesty. True
modesty subjugates self and put the other person fore~ost.
It tries to give credit to others in lieu of oneself. One downgrades one's own efforts and achievements and upgrades those
of others. Yi Ching says, "Modesty that comes to expression, perseverance brings good fortune. Thus when a man's
attitude is so modest that it expresses itself in hi1s outward behavior, it is a source of good fortune to him. Then the possibility of exerting a lasting influence arises of itself and no
one can interfere."w
All men have intuitive knowledge which they can use
to guide them to do what is right. This stems from innocence and purity, for whenever a conscious purpose is a part
of an action, then the action is tainted by man's desiJre and
will. If man's mind is pure and clean-free from wild or
idle thoughts-then man's mind has roam for and can be
receptive to Divine inspiration, impulses and guidance. This
can be achieved through the production of true inner peace
and calm that comes from deep and serious concentration
and meditation. The basis for this can be found in the Wu
Wang Kua (Innocence :X~ #25) and the Chung Fu Kua
(Inner Truth lf!~ #61} of Yi Ching. The man of Jen and
the man of Yi Ching are essentially one and the same.

YI
Yi represents the highest principles embodied in the
activities of man, those of righteousness and justice. Yi is
Ibid. p. 70
13. Wilhelm/ Baynes, Yi Ching, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1%7, p. 65

12.

the Golden Rule of human conduct and as expressed by

Confucius: "Chung Kung asked about true manhood, and
Confucius replied, 'When the true man appears abroad, he
feels as if he were receiving distinguished people, and when
ruling over the people, he feels as if he were worshipping
God. What he does not wan.t ~one unto himself, he does not
do unto others. And so both in the state and in the horne,
people are satisfied.' ' 114 This is the negative of the Golden
Rule as expressed by Jesus, yet it is more firm and functional
in its full aspect and meaning. It, in this mode of expression, relates to every act of man and not just those one voluntarily wants to do to others for the benefit of a reward or a
return in hnd. The key point though, is that the execution
of the Golden Rule brings with it a full measure of justice
.as a result of the law of equality of action and benefit.
Confucius equally believed in the benefits of righteousn ess. He is reported as having said: "The superior man
(Chun Tzu) takes righteousness (Yi) as his basic stuff; practices it with the rules of correct usage (Li); brings it forth with
modesty (Jen); and renders it complete with sincerity.
Such is the superior man.'' 15 The superior man believes in
what is right, knows what is right and does what is right at
all times, no matter where he is, with whom he is associating
and irrespective of the situation in which he finds himself.
There is no limit to his sincerity of thought and action in
maintaining his correctness. As Yi Ching says, "One incurs
no blame in giving up one's life that good and right may
prevail. There are things that are more important than life.'' 16
Righteousness is one of them.
14. Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Confucius, New York: The Modern Library,
1938 p. 186. (note: Emphasizing of the Golden Rule was done by the
writer.)
15. Fung Yu-Lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. I, Princeton
N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1952, p. 66

16. Wilhelm/Baynes, The Yi Ching, Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University

Press. 1967, p. 114

180

Confucius despised emptiness and artificiality. He be1icved a righteous man had an inner genuineness of nature.
This is the purity and innocence with which we begin our lives,
before our minds started differentiating and discriminating,
bringing with these attributes the consequent wild and idle
thinking, and the illusoriness of the world. In order to have
genuineness, all things must be done with sincerity. These
things must then operate within the framework of mutual
and reciprocal justice and fairness. Above all, the superior
(righteous) man must reflect truth in his thoughts, words and
deeds.
Man thus should be straightforward and upright. Man
can check himself regarding this because man reflects what
his mind thinks. It is not only reflected by his acts and
judgments but also by his likes and dislikes. Where a man's
heart is there his mind is too. It then shows in his acts and
deeds. Conversely, if you note a man's acts and deeds, you can
tell where his heart is.
A truly upright man, according to Confucianists, acts
in accord with his inner nature. His honesty and fortitude
must be inherent and stem from within. If they are inherent and stem from within, then man's speech and conduct
are in accord. This as it should be. Using this as a guide
one can determine a man's sincerity and steadfastness. If
they are not in accord then we have artificiality and subterfuge. Confucius disliked these characteristics and also
artificial speech and ingratiating mannerisms. Pretence and
seductiveness were also abhorant to him. On the other hand
he tried his best to teach, foster and nourish genuineness,
straightforwardness and simplicity. Perhaps the one thing
that Confucius taught most in connection with Yi, and
which had and still has far reaching effect, is humaneness.
It is not something to be taught by itself. Rather, humaneness iiS a composite of many parts of his teachings. The

181

point in mentioning it separately is mainly because many

people can comprehend humaneness as a quality rather than
trying to synthesize many separate qualities. In my own
case, the term "Humaneness" came to have a special meaning. For many years I floundered over Jesus' preaching
"Love ye one another" and "Love thy neighbor as thyself."
No preacher ever explained this satisfactorily to me. But
after reading Confucius' aphorisms and teachings I came to
understand that the term love really meant to be hm.nane
in your thoughts, acts and deeds towards everyone, whether
you knew them or not. Doing so was, in fact, an expression
of a sincere love and liking for one's fellow man and humanity
in general. This was a means of expressing righteousness
and fairness wherever one was and under any conditions.
This then was the basic exemplification of Yi.
Yi Ching is replete with examples to support Yi and
humanism. Perhaps two outstanding examples will be sufficient to support this statement. "Ta Chuang/The Power
of the Great. ( *l! #34)
THE JUDGEMENT
THE POWER OF THE GREAT. Perseverance furthers.
The hexagram points to a time when inner worth mounts with
great force and comes to power. But its strength has already
passed the median line, hence there is a danger that one
may rely entirely on one's own power and forget to ask
what is right. There is danger too that, being intent on
movement, we may not wait for the right time. Therefore
the added statement that perseverance furthers. For that
is truly great power which does not degenerate into mere
force but remains inwardly united with the fundaoental principles of right and justice. When we understand this point-
namely, that greatness and justice must be indissolu bly- we
understand the true meaning of all that ha!Jp~ n s in heaven and

IXJ

~82

on earth." 17 Hexagram Yi/Increase ( :flit. #42) expresses the

concept of the fundamental idea on which Yi Ching is based,
i.e., "To rule truly is to serve.'>~ 8
But to truly serve one must be a true and wise man.
It is only when man lives, eats and breathes the cardinal
virtues of J en, Yi and Li that they become an innate part
of him such that they prompt and guide him in all he does.
This, along with filial piety, was what Confucius mainly taught
and what he believed should be the aim and goal of every
man. In this way a man would be a universal citizen, a member of universal brotherhood, and harmony and peace would
be brought to the world.

PART II

Yi Ching and Confucius/Confucius and Yi Ching

"In his old age, Confucius developed a love for the
study of Yi King*, of the Book of Changes, its Preface, T'uan,
Hsi, Hsiang, Shuo Kua Gnd Wen Yen. He read the Yi King
so thoroughly that the leather strap (holding the boundle
of bamboo inscriptions) was worn out and replaced three times,
and he said, "Give me a few years to study Yi King and I
should be pretty good at the philosophy of the mutation of
human events.'' 1 Another source, essentially saying the same
thing, gives Confucius' age as 57 at that time. This would
be after he had given up all hope of being useful in government and had settled down to a life as a teacher. Nowhere
have I found mention as to when (at what age) Confucius
first came in contact wi,th Yi Ching nor the degree of influence it had on him in his younger years. Perhaps, like
so many men who must face the problems of the world, they
haven't time to truly study matters of true and deep interest
to them in their early years as they must provide for the
necessities of life through employment. It is only later when
the striving for worldly position and matters are no longer
of great importance', and usually when a good economic
position has been established, that one can settle down and
concentrate on more serious subjects and spiritual matters.
From his own words we have a good insight into his overall
development as he said, "At fifteen I began to be seriously
interested in study. At thirty I had formed my character.
At forty I had no more perplexities. At fifty I knew the
Will of Heaven. At sixty nothing that I heard disturbed me.
* Other ways of spelling Yi Jing, (Yi Ching), Yi King, and I Ching.

17.
l ~.

Ibid. p. 133
Ibid . p. 162

1.

Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Cnnfucius.

1938, p. 90

New York: The Modern Library,

184

At seventy I could let my thoughts wander without trespassing

moral law." (I wonder if you the reader had the same
reaction I did as I read the foregoing passage, i.e., where am
I at my age as compared to such a wise man as Confucius at
the same relative age. Obviously I am nowhere near being
as wise as he was). If we go according to Confucius' words,
we find that he truly studied Yi Ching when he "knew the
Will of Heaven."
As we look further into Confucius' relationship with
Yi Citing, we find that he is ascribed as having written Commentaries on the Judgments and Decisions as set forth by
~ng Wen. These are known as the first and second Wings
to the Ta Chuan. As we all know, the basic Yi Ching was
wriHen in Classical style. This manner of writing uses ancient characters regarding which only a few people know
their full and true meanings. There is no punctuation whatsoever. Consequently, the beginnings and endings of sen
tences: phrases and clauses etc., are open to many interpretations. The characters representing words likewise can
be given any one of several correct literal meanings depending on the degree of understanding of the interpreter at the
time of ~making the interpretation and the punctuation used.
In essence, it is possible to give King Wen's and the Duke
of Chou's Judgments and Images many different meanings
and/or have them pointed towards several separate goals.
This is why today we have many different explanations of
Yi Ching, i.e., those slanted towards each Buddhism, Taoism,
Confucianism, Communism, Protestantism and even one with
a Catholic odentation.
Obviously, commentaries and explanations were and
are necessary throughout the life of Yi Ching. In one sense
t.his is another of its values as it makes it Universal relying
2. Ibid. p . 160

185

on each person interpreting it according to his own understanding and purpose, and hence doing so in a manner that
answers individual needs. Confucius' commentaries, so far
as had been determined, have been kept relatively intact
throughout the centuries. They are all sound in judgment
and provide delih~rated opinions on all phases. It is difficult
to say he actually wrote them himself. Probably they are
a compilation of student notes transcribed at a later time
and credited to Confucius. We can see, with study, that
they are in keeping with his precepts and concepts, so that
even if they were not actually written by him, they could have
been. Most of the other explanations are the result of the
slow refining process of the thoughts of Chinese philosophers
down through the centuries.
So far as I have been able to determine the Confucian
commentaries regarding Yi Ching are the oldest in existence.
As we know King Wen founded the Chou dynasty in 1123
B.C. Confucius lived 551-479 B.C. There is thus a period
of roughly 600 years without known commentaries. My own
assumption is that the explanations, background and amplifications pertaining to Yi Ching were passed down orally
from teacher to disciple, and consequently were not commonly known nor recorded. During this period too, most
men of higher learning were . nobles or members of noble
famili.es. These individuals received theilf training from tutors.
This system was still existent at the time of Confucius' life
but during this period, and subsequent, many nobles lost
their fiefs. As a result many were wi1thout means of activity
and did the only thing they knew, share their knowledge by
teaching. Learning, consequently, spread to some lower
levels of society than had previously been the case. Confucius
himself taught many students. Confucius once said, "To
silently appreciate the truth, to learn continually and
to teach others unceasingly- that is just natural with

186

IH7

rne." 3 Also, "The Master said, 'From him who has brought his
simple present of dried meat seeking to enter my school, I
have never withheld instruction.' " 4 In this respect Confucius became the forerunner of the modern educational system , wherein everyone with the necessary wherewithall can
achieve an education.
It is only logical to assume that many students in Confucius' time asked the same questions as students do today,
such as: what is the origin of the world and the universe, what
are the laws governing existence, what is the nature of the
force effecting and motivating me and everything else, what
is my purpose in life and how can I best meet this purpose,
what courses should I follow to meet with success or to achive
my purposes and goals, isn't there a Supreme Ultimate of
some sort from whom all else stems, and since nearly everyone in the world thinks there is, can man contact It to know
It's Will, and, if so, how? These and many other questions of
related nature were no doubt propounded to Confucius during
his many years of teaching. And, as he was a student of Yi
Ching, it is also natural that he knew the answer to the~~
questions lay within the scope arid purview of Yi Ching. Yet
the basic Yi Ching did not elucidate the answers themselves.
Rather they were implied by the text and understandable by
those who had an inner connection with it. Thus, for the
benefit of mankind and posterity, a detailed explanation needed to be set forth. This Confucius did.
We must remember, though, that other than in relation
to Yi Ching, there is nothing in his recorded works giving comments nor details regarding the noumenal realm. His teachings, as handed down, relate solely to the phenomenal and
3.

Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Confucius, New York: The Modern Library,

4.

C h:1 i, Winberg and Ch'u, Essential Works of Confucianism New York/

Lo nd o n/To ronto: Bantam Books. 1965, p. 45

1938, p. 163

seem to deliberately avoid the noumenal. This would tend

to make one believe that Confucius did not pass on his
thoughts and comments regarding Yi Ching to all students
but probably limited it to his close disciples, which would account for the seeming discrepancy regarding his teachings.
This conclusion is also upheld in that every man of wisdom
searches for and has answers to the questions of Cosmology,
Ontology, numerology, philosophy, etc. Hence, we can assume
Confucius did too. And, knowing the way most Eastern
teachers teach, we can further assume that he passed his
thoughts on regarding these matters to a limited few.
As we said earlier, the first two chapters of Ta Chuan
(Commentaries) are attributed to Confucius. These deal with
the underlying principles involved in and the composition of
Yi Ching. It is necessary for everyone to have a clear understanding of these in order to begin to study Yi Ching. To
try to use Yi Ching without such an understanding
would be like trying to fly an airplane without knowing
the principle or rudder action, elevator and aileron control or power control. You might be fortunate enough to
became airborne but you certainly could experience serious
difficulty unless you were aware of and applied the fundamental principles. So likewise when trying to interpret Yi
Ching and fo11ow its guidance. You can easily be misled
or follow the wrong course unless you have a true understanding of how it is composed and the laws it follows.
Confucius recognized this and apparently was the first one
to set the principles forth for general usage. This he did by
writing the commenta ries.
There are severa l key concept s a nd laws whi It arc applicable to th d r 11nd rs tt~ndin ,!' of Yi ChinJ!. W know
that Yi Ching m :1ns llil' B1 H1 k nf ( ' ll :III 'P' II -v til 1,\IW
of Change, i.e., that notliinl' is L'Vl' l' t111l sl al ir hul is vh:111 ging constantly (' nd wll n it 11::-> nt -.11 d its 1 tl it ll illl ~ s

188

to the opposite) is one of the main concepts. 5 Another is

the origin and evolution of Yin and Yang and the. creation
of the sixty four hexagrams, any of which can, by dint of
speci.al circumstances, change into any other. It also relates
Yin and Yang to both Force and Matter, which are the two
things necessary for the Supreme Ultimate to create the universe and all things in it and to continue the constant evolvement. It shows man as a microcomn in a macrocosm, and
suggests that if man study himself then man can know and
understand the universe. It thus suggests that man is a part
of and of the same essence as the Universe. As an aid for
man to understand himself the Ta Chuan suggests that the
laws of nature are universal and that these same laws apply to
man. They are also in keeping with Heaven. So Heaven, earth,
and man are all equal and man thereby is an equal partner
with Heaven and earth. Further, through knowing the laws
and how things follow the laws, we can trace any situation
or circumstance back to its seeds or origin. Add~tionally,
we can look ahead and know that if certain laws are followed, we can determine the future of the situation or circumstance in question. Thus Yi Ching is taken out of the realm
of divination or something supernatural and shown to follow
sound concepts and principles, making it a useful tool for
man in his evolutionary process and progress. As we read
in Chapter I of Ta Ohuan: "There are the immutable laws
under which, according to Chinese thought, changes are consummated. It is the purpose of the Book of Changes to
demonstrate these laws by means of the laws of ch:mge op~rat
ing in the respectiive hexagrams. Once we succeed in completely reducing these laws, we acquire a comprehensive view

189

of events; we can understand the past and the future equally

well and bring this knowledge to bear in our actions."6
Another fundamental matter which is discussed is that
of the "easy" and the "simple". "The Creative knows through
the 'easy'. The Receptive can do things through the 'simple'.
What is easy is easy to know. What is simple is easy to
follow. He who is easy to know attains fealty. He who
is easy to follow attains works." 7 Those who know the
applicable laws whi1ch produce the easy ::~nd show the simple
way, therein are in accord with the Will of Heaven. This is
what Yi Ching tries to show to each man.
In addition to the foregoing concepts, Confucius, in
Chapter II, sets forth the composition and manner of usage .
of Yi Ching. This relates primarily to the Judgments of
King Wen and the Images of the Duke of Chou, as they
originated from nature and social settings, and their interchangeability as a result of moving lines where the firm
replaces the yielding. These changes and transformations
indicate progress or retrogression, good fortune or misfortune, gain or loss, remorse or humiliation. The Superior
man takes careful note of all changing litnes, studies and
ascertains the causes for them, and notes their tendency
towards the future. He then meditates on the Judgments,
Images and moving lines to learn the Will of Heaven. This
is especially true and of great importance in that the Superior
man knows that he is an equal partner with Heaven and
eari:h. He recognizes and realitZes that it is man who has
the power to produce ~ood fortune or misfortune, depending
ori how he in terp rets and uses the guidance given him. This
is what Confuci us apparently recognized and which caused
him to prod uce th Commen taries. In addition thou2'h we
find that Confuci1us mad ~ speci.fl c comments regarding a num'

5. "In the philosophy of the Book of Changes nothing is regarded as

being a bsolutely at rest; rest is merely an intermediate state of moveme nt, o r latent movement." Wilhelm/Baynes, Yi Ching or The Book
of ha nges, Princeton, N. J.: University Press, 1967, p. 282

6.
7.

Ibid. p. 283
Ibid. p. 286

'

190

ber of Hexagrams. His words are of special import, and

since we are trying to learn the effect Confucius had on Yi
Ching and the effect Yi Ching had on him, we will look at
several passages where Confucius gave further explanation
to the basic text.
Regarding 9 in the 5th place of Hexagram Ch'ien ( :$Z
#1):
"Nine in the fifth place means:
Flying dragons in the Heavens
It furthers one to see the great man.
Here the great man has attained the sphere of Heavenly beings.
His influence spreads and becomes visible throughout the whole
world. Everyone who sees him counts himself blessed. Confucius says about this line: "Things that accord in tone vib;ate
tog~ther. Things that have an affinity in their inmost nature
seek one another. Water flows to what is we+, fire turns to
what is dry. Clouds (the b-reath of Heaven) follow the
dragon, wind (the breath of earth) follows the tiger.
Thus
the sage arises, and all creatures follow him with their ,eyes. What
is born of Heaven is related to what is above. What is born of
earth feels related to what is below. Each follows its kind."8

Here we at once see the keen incite Confucius had regarding Yi Ching. We immediately note the amplification
of the explanation with words that bring out a more profound :meaning and enhance the understanding tremendously.
This can only be done by someone who has studies Yi Ching
intensely and whose understanding of the composition of the
hexagrams, with a thorough knowledge of the laws of nature,
is of the highest order. The basic text (the first three lines
of our quo~ation) is open to many interpretations. The
words "Flying dragons in the Heavens" essentially are meaningless if taken out of context and an attempt is made to
analyze them by themselves. But when understood with the
other "lines", and the progressive rise of the dragon from
Hidden Dragon, to Dragon in the Field, to wavering between
ll. Jbtd. p. 9

Heaven and earth, and the Dragon in the Sky, along with the
Chinese allegorical meanings of dragon, then there is a basis.
on which to make profound explanation.
The dragon has many meanings and usages in Chinese
culture. Symbolic dragons are always a predominant part
of any festive parade. The emblem of the dragon is used
extensively to decorate tables, chairs, other furniture, pillow
covers, clothing, etc. To the Chinese the dragon represents
the spirit and power of Her,ven. The dragon is both the
greatest of great things and the smallest of small things. It
can go anywhere, i.e., within the earth, in the sea, walk on
land, or fly in the sky and Heaven, whatever its needs are at
any time. It is also symbolic of winged thoughts and power
that transcend space and time. It is sometimes that which
produces and sustains life. It represents that which is good'
(this is the opposite of the Western view wherein the dragon
is a prehistoric monster and evil).' The rise of the dragon in
the Ch'ien Kua is symbolic of the origin, growth and development of all life, beings, situations, etc. The explanation
given by Confucius relates to the superior man at the zenith
of his development. His understanding regarding man's development at various levels and man's potential to ever greater
works, regardless of his state of development, is truly perceptive. It is also truly spiritual, in that what he has said can
be appHed to man at all levels of growth at the fifth stage
and to innumerable situations as well. This capacity is one
of the many reasons why Yi Ching, and it's commentaries
are so useful and helpful.
As for "It furthers one to see the great man", it too
has several meanings, depending on the point of view. It
can relate to anyone who needs aditional help or guidante,
who should then see the sage, or it can be the advice to the
superior man to set an example for others. In some other
cases it relates to trying to learn the Will of H ... avcn and

192

193

the intent of the Supreme Ultimate. Again, it is a matter of

situation and circumstance, a judgment regarding which must
be mad~ by the reader or seeker of guidance. And, like so
many other things, the more one knows and understands,
the better one is able to apply the advice directly as to whether
it applies to oneself, the situation or to seeking additional
Divine guidance.
Another fine example of Confucius' thought and explanation is in hexagram #14 Ta Yu/Possession in Great Measure

( *if )
"Nine at the top means:
He is blessed by Heaven
Good fortune.
Nothing that does not further.

own doctrine, Confucius relates the text to man, who, after

all, is the key factor. "Nothing that would not further" in
essence menns that whatever you do, since you have the
blessing of Heaven and Divine assistance, all will be right
of its own accord, and consequently, will be serving your
purpose and helping you achieve your goal.
A keen understanding of human nature and the power
of true love are set forth by Confucius in his comments regarding 9 in the 5th place of hexagram #13 T'ung }en/Fellowship with men( !I'IJA ).
"Men bound in fellowship first weep and lament.
But afterwards they laugh.
And after great struggles they succeed in meeting.
Two peopLe are outwardly separated, but in their hearts they
are united. They are kept apart by their positions in life. Many
difficulties and obstructions arise between them and cause them
grief. But, remaining tme to each other, they allow nothing
to separate them, and although it cos!s them a sever struggle to
overcome the obstacles, they will succeed. When they come
together their sad ness will change to joy. Confucius says of thi s:
Life leads the thoughtful man on a path of many windings.
Now the cou rse is checked, now it runs stra ight again ,
H ere winged thou ghts may pour forth free ly in words,
There the heavy burd en of know! dg mu st h shut aw:1y in sil ' nee.
But when two p opl :1rt: al !lll in til ir inn nnusl hL: 111s,
They shallcr vcn IIi sir ' ll )(lh uf in 11 :11HI !Jron <'!:,
And when two p opl 1111d rsl:111d l"lll' li olln1 in tlnir i nn nnnst
hearts,
Their word s ar swt :1nd slrPng, lik t IIi ( fl !il'l!l ll l " " ur Pl\ ' hid s." 11

In the fullness of possession and at the height of power, one

remains modest and gives honor to the sage who stands outside
the affairs of the world. By this means one puts oneself under
the beneficient influence descending from Heaven, and all
goes well.
Confucius says of this line:
To bless means to help. Heaven helps the man who is devoted;
men help the man who is true. He who walks in truth and is
devoted in his thinking, and furthermore reveres the worthy, is
blessed by Heaven. He has good fortune and there is nothing
that would not further." 9

The dictionary definition of "bless", relating to the same

connotation, is "to bestow good of any kind upon" .10 The
meaning is the same as that which Confucius set forth 2500
years ago. "He is blessed by Heaven" can then be taken literally. It also can have the meaning of being favored by
Heaven, given special Divine guidance and protected by
Divine powers. In his humane way and in keeping with his
9. Ibid. pp. 62-63
10. Barnhart, C. L., The American College Dictionary, New York : Random
House. L. W. Singer Company. Syracr use. 1964, p. 12l.l

In this in s l ~tn , tile I xt, (Ill~ lirs1 tltr lims ). lllliSI b

taken as a wllo l . If w w 1\ I() l:1kv I il l' liJ. 'I lint hy it ~d f ,
or even the first lWP, w wo1 1id h ~ i1 1li11 t'd dvlinitdy In disagree with th ~ I x t. '!'It 1lli.1d li lll' 11 : 111 1', 1 "~: tilt- nti.r conlL:x t
and meaning, :tml pro vidl'S I ill h:1 i l'tl l htlllt till' x plana lion
II .

Wilhclm/Ba y n ~. l'/ ( 'hit'llo I ho /r, ,, ,A P/ ( '" ""II'"' 1' 1in.:clo ll , N . J.:

Princeton U niv .-i l y l'l l"l'l , i 'l(/, Jll' 'H ' 'I

19

194

given and the amplification by Confucius. We all know that

fate, karma and destiny cause unusual and strange circumstances. Adversity, which we dislike in general, usually i1s
a blessing in disguise because by overcoming such see:mingly
hostile fate, our character is improved and consequently our
subsequent life enriched because of ilL In the case in questicm, Confucius shows us the power that real love can exert
and bring to bear on even the most unfavorable circumstances.
Yet, how few of us recognize and know that love is a force
and a power that can conquer nearly everything, if it is based
on mutual respect, si~cerity and truthfulness. Don't we really
have to say that Confucius, with his concept and thinking,
was remarkably advanced for his day and age. Yet in a quiet
way he set forth a profound explanation that is universal and
timeless in its application. His wisdom was truly great.
Another example of considerations relating to the realm
of the noumenal, as does the foregoing explanation, is in
hexagram #61 Chung Fu/Inner Truth (
"Nine in the second place means:
A crane calling in the shade.
Its young answer it.
I have a good goblet
I will share it with you.

* ).

This refers to the involuntary influence of a man's inner being

upon persons of kindred spirit. The cran~ need not show itself
on a high hill. It may remain quite hidden when it sounds its
call; yet its young will hear its note, will recognize it and gi:e
answer. Where there is a joyous mood there a comrade will
appear to share a glass of wine.
This is the echo awakened in men through spiritual attraction.
Whenever a feeling is voioed with frankness, whenever a deed
is a clear expression of sentiment a mysterious and far reaching
influence is exerted. At first it acts on those who ane inwardly
receptive. But the circle grows larger and larger. The root
of all influence lies in one's own inn~r being; given true ami
vigorous expression in .words and deeds, its effect is great. The

effect is but th n.: ll d io11 of something that eminates from one\;

own heart. /\ 11 y d lihera:c intention of an effect would only
destroy the poss ibility of producing it. Confucius says o( this
line:
The s up ~ rinr man abides in his room. If his words are well
spoken, he meets with assent at a distance of more than a thousand mi les. How much more then from nearby! If the superior
man abides in his room and his words are not well spoken, he
meet: with contradiction at a distance of more than a thousand
miles. How much more then from nearby! Words go forth
fro m one's own person and exert their influenoe on men. Deeds
are born close at hand and become visible far away. Words
and deeds are the hinge and bowspring of the superior man. As
hin~e and bowspring move, they bring honor or disgrace. Through
words and deeds the superior man moves Heaven and earth.
Must not one, then, be cautious?l2

We note that the crane's call is heard and recognized

by its young even when the call is made unseen. This, in
the explanation, is related to the influence a man exerts as
a result of his inner strength and feelings. Man, in this
sense, is like a radio or TV transmitter, whereby he sends
out signals which can and are picked up by those attuned
to the sending station. Man is thus continuously influencing
his fellowman and the action is like that of radio waves
impinging on each other. Some build up and amplify the
basic signal. Others oppose each other and nullify the effect
of the other, depending on which has the greater strength.
This is all an unconscious process. Confucius knew cosm ic
Jaws. That is why he tells us that our words and d ' ds an;
transmitted for more than a thousa nd mil s, jusl a: iJ Ill y
were sent out by a radio or TV lrunsnt ill r. !\ f11 :lll y Ill
use of the words ''al :1 di sl:ttt 'L' of a IIHHts: tt HI nt il1s" is li)',llrative as tho ur, hls 1nd dtTds lr:tt ts v nd lint l' :11111 : p:lvt. KllllWing th is it is wi s for :1 111:111 1\ l l 'lllt' lltllv 111:11 wl1:1l ht SP \ v:;
12.

lbiu pp. D7-2.1H.

196

he will also reap. If a man influences others rightly, no

matter who may be attuned to him, the results for himself
and others will be good. When he injures others, consciously or unconsciously, and we do influence others consciously
or unconsciously at great distances, must not one then be
very careful about what he says and does? This explanation,
regarding the influence of words, substantiates what we previously said, i.e. that words are things and that man must be
constantly mindful of the words he uses. Confucius' words
also bear out the thought that the effect of words (in other
words, our thoughts) can go unlimited distances and implies
that they are timeless. In this too, we find a key to Yi Ching's
philosophy, statements and value as a guide being capable of
Divine origin and inspiration, and being timeless.
Including the four examples cited above we note
that Confucius made, or is attributed have made, quotations
regarding hexagrams 1, 3, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22 footnote, 25,
40, 42, 47 and 60. In all of these we find him substantiating
the principles of Yi Ching.
A matter of particular interest is the fact that, in the
examples we gave supra, there is a noumenal aspect which
does not appear in Confucius' teachings elsewheres. This
would indicate that Yi Ching had a profound spiritual effect
on Confucius. We have seen that his concepts and thinking regarding Yi Ching have been clear and deep, as is possible only by someone who has a great understanding of his
subject matter. For reasons of his own he apparently did
not choose to directly use his noumenal thinking and knowledge in his mundane teachings. But, even though he does
not talk about the noumenal, his concepts and doctrines are
influenced appreciably by them for "as a man thinketh so is
he." Consequently we must come to the conclusion that
there was a considerable interchange of influence between
Contfucius and Yi Ching.

c
H
A
N
GENERAL HISTORICAL EFFECT
E

"It is only by the consequences of his actions, by

the fruits of his labor,
that a man can judge what
he is to expect."
-Yi Ching

Chapter 5
Yi Ching and Confucianism
A Synoptic History of Confucianism
Subsequent to Confucius
The fundamental principles and doctrines of Confucianism have remained essentially the same down through the
many centuries of their existence; it is the interpretation and
amplifications that have changed from time to time to meet current 'situation. In these senses Confucianism is like all other
great teachings in that they retain their basic tenets and just
change in explanation as the world evolves. But there is
a very remarkable aspect to Confucianism. Its teachings
are as applicable today as they were during the time Confucius lived (551-479 B.C.). They appear timeless in value.
This noteworthy fact has made all scholars and philosophers
go back to the same literary background as Confucius had in
order to find appropriate guidance to make truly timely andl
propitious interpretations. In so doing they not only used the
five classics but relied heavily on the sixth, i.e., the Book of
Changes and its commentaries.
It seems to be generally a 'Teed am on' scholars th :1t
Confucius di.d not writ ' anythin him s II'. Thns writ in s
that are attribut d to hirn orr h li v d to h;rw lWl' ll front
notes taken t y hi s st trd cnt s :rnd l:rl\'1' tr :llt SpDS d into writ ing:-;
(in much th s:1111 n1 :11111 :1. tlw Wc.' t\ '111 W i ll td w:t s l'.iVl' ll
the teachings or J s us ill tit\ 'J\.' t:t lll("llt , wlt ir lt w: t:: l'<llllpikd

198

long after his death). We are not concerned here with who
actually set down the thoughts in writing. Rather we accept
that the Five Classics are Confucianist teachings and that, regarding the sixth, he wrote (or at least is attributed to have
written) Commentaries on the Book of Changes, which, as
we will see, later became the prime basis for Neo-Confucianism.
When we speak of N eo-Confucianism we are talking
:about that brand of Confucianism developed primarily to cope
with the inroads that Buddhism and Taoism were making on
Chinese thought, especially in the early centuries A.D. These
two new philosophies gained footholds which, coupled with
their religions, made them be a threat to Confucianism. It
.is true that Confucianism is a Way of Life but it is not a
!religion. We must recognize that most people need a religion in one form or another. Many religions are just a
panacea for ills and troubles, and people only go to God,
Allah, The Supreme Ultimate, etc., when they have a need
or want something. They have to go outside themselves for
the support or ability they inwardly lack. While Confucianism is a practical guide under all circumstances, it relates
only to the phenomenal realm and not the noumenal. Lacking the noumenal, there have been times when its position as
the foremost philosophy of China was threatened. Fortunately for it, this practicality made it superior to both Taoism and
Buddhism for the very reason that it omitted the noumenal consideration. In addition, the sanctity of the family, filial piety,
the establishment of social positions, ceremonies and rites, as
set forth by Confucius, were accepted by everyone. Consequently it was able to be and remain strong throughout its
entire existence. Neo-Confucianism, in a very generaliz~ d
sense, was devised and designed to show that Sagehood,
which is equivalent to Buddhahood, could be attained through
Confucianism as well as through Buddhism and Taoism.

199

Prior to this, though, during the Warring States Period,

many doctrines arose and sometirrnes one was more favored
than others. This was natural in that philosophers were the
advisors to rulers and the rulers frequently changed. Each,
therefore, had an incentive to try to provide something new
or original for the glory of the new ruler. Consequently the
Warring States Period became known, in philosophical circles,
as the 100 Schools period.
These were brought to an end during the violent rule of
the Ch'in dynasty 229-206 B.C. and the Burning of the Books
213 B.C. In 229 B.C., China was physically unified but
thinking and teachings were still independent. To protect
the Ch'in unification Ch'i.n Shih-huang-ti ordered all books,
not a part of the official history of China, tho~e in official
archives, or those relating to medicine, divination, pharmacy,
agriculture, arboriculture, collected and destroyed. This was
designed largely to eradicate the " 100 Schools" by destroying their literature and forbidding their teaching. In their
place government approved doctrines were to be taught in
state institutions and only by state approved instructors,
much the same procedure as exists in Communist countries
today.
Subsequently, after the fall of the Ch'i.n Dynasty, 206
B.C., two forms of Confucianism developed. Some books
and publications remained in existence despite the directive
that all books should be burned. 1 These became the basis
for the "Old Text School". Other scholars rewrote the former books of Confucianism from :memory. Teachings from
these became known as the "New Text School". This difference was not serious in the transmission of Confucianism
I. Some scholars claim that Nomadic gypsies were able to and did retain

many of the banned books and these became the subsequent source
fo r ancient knowledge. So they say, "Don't despise the Gypsies; they
have their place and usefulness".

200

and died a natural death in the early centuries A.D. only

to be reborn in the 19th Century when a new philosophic
point of view was again required.
What is of major importance in this early period of
Confucianism, is the fact that in 136 B.C. Confucianism was
designated as the State doctrine and the Six Classics become
the basis for examinations for government positions. In the
early centuries A.D. this fell somewhat in neglect but was
revived in 589 A.D. and subsequently remained in effect.
Also, the early centuries A.D. saw the rise of Taoism
from within China and the introduction of Buddhism from
India. These took firm roots and for a while seemed to
threaten Confucianism, mainly because Confucianism was not
a religion and did not deal with the noumenal. So, Confucianists, in order to prove their teachings superior to others,
reinterpreted their works and doctrtines in a new way which
was devised and designed to counter Taoiem and Buddhism.
These revised interpretations became known as Nco-Confucianism. Chou Tun-yi, Shao Yung and Chang Tsai were
the primary pioneers of Nco-Confucianism, and their thinking
was later brought together into Rationalism by Ch'eng Yi
and into Idealism by Ch'eng Hao during the 11th Century
A.D.
Some of the more personal highlights of individual
philosophers, as relates to the history of Confucianism,
with emphasis on the relationship or influence of Yi Ching
to their thinking and works are shown in the following subsections. We are not trying to study Confucianism per se so
we only briefly touch the high points in its life. What we
are trying to show or determine is the influence of Yi Ching,
or absence of it, as pertains to its relationship to Confucianism, -and that basically Yi Ching has been a prominent basis
and background for Chinese Culture, and philosophy in particular, throughout known Chinese history.

201
~A:endns

Mencius (372-289 B.C.), often spoken of as the "Second

Sage" (next after Confucius), was an eminent scholar and
great teacher. It was he who first and truly brought Confucianism into the foregound. He was an extrovert with a
great abi.lity to talk, so he became a highly capable public
speaker. Using this natural talent, both for teaching and
for public usage, he exerted considerable persuasion, thereby
propagating Confucianism while at the same time attacking
and castigating heterodox schools. In this way he counteracted much of the inroad made by others, especially Mo
Tze. As we know, too, he was the first philosopher after
Confucius to gather together and really propound the Confucian teachings. (We must admit that Confucius' grandson
did some teaching but was not broadly effective). So Mencius' teachings became the orthodox development of Confucianism.
Mencius is quoted as saying, "What I desire to do is to
study and be like Confucius." (The Meng Tze II A, 2). To
a considerable degree he was successful. Like Confucius, his
idealism was not considered practical during this turbulent
and warring period of Chinese history. Consequently he
was not given responsible governmental positions. So he
too had to withdraw and lead a purely scholarly life of
study, teaching and expounding. As such, he became a great
educator.
In addition to his promoting Confucianism per se, he is
most noted for his doctrine that human nature is innately
good, and consequently, the importance of recovering that
original good nature. Like water, which remains true to itself
no matter which direction it flows, so our inner nature-remains
good. It is only through external oontacts that the nature

202

becomes polluted. Benevolence and compassion come from

within and hence are something we are born with. Righteousness is something external, something we acquire.
Primarily, Mencius was using his concept of human nature being innately good, to support and amplify Confucius'
J en, Yi and Li. In his fa!llous story of a person .seeing a
little girl fall into a well, he shows us the inborn feeling of
compassion we all have and that this is the beginning of 1mman heartedness (Jen). Li, of couse, related to our proper
actions and interrelations with others of which Confucius'
Filial Piety is the best exemplification. While righteousness
is external, the basis for it is intrinsically in us in the feeling
of shame, horror, dislike, etc.
What can we find that would be the background for
Mencius forming the opinion that Human Nature is innately good? I believe Hexagram #25 Wu Wang/Innocence
of Yi Ching provides us with the answer:
"The JUDGMENT
INNOCENCE. Supreme Success.
Persverance furthers.
If someone is not as he should be,
He has misfortune,
And it does not further him
To undertake anything.
Man has received from Heaven a nature that is innately good"
(The emphasis is the author's), "to guide him in all his
movements." By devotion to this divine spirit within himself,
he attains an unsullied innocence that leads hiliTl to do right
with instinctive sureness and without any ulterior thought
of reward or personal advantage. This instinctive certainty
brings about supreme success and "furthers through perseverance". However, not everything instinctive is nature in the
higher sense of the word, but only that which is right and
in accord with the Will of Heaven. Without this quality of

203

Tightness, an unreflecting, instinctive way of acting brings

only misfortune. Confucius says about this: "He who departs from innocence, what does he come to? Heaven's
will and blessing do not go with his deeds." 2
The foregoing quotation clearly expresses Mencius'
meaning that human nature is innately good. We are
born with the same Essence as the Supreme Ultimate, and
it is through this Essence that we receive, are and know goodness. This is why Yi Ching says "Man has received from
Heaven a nature that is innately good." 2 This then is the
basis of why Mencius propounded the doctrine Qf the innate
goodness of human nature; not only as they applied to man
but also as they applied to good government and social relationships.
Hsiin Tze
"In developing his philosophy, Hsiin Tze, however,
differed fundamentally from Mencius. On the nature of
man, he rejected the doctrine so strongly advocated by Mencius, that human nature was innately good; he contended,
probably as an outgrowth of political and social decay, that
human nature is evil. On the conception of Heaven, H~Un
Tzu leaned in the direction of the Taoist, impersonal, naturalistic Tao. To him, Heaven was not a moral principle
or a spiritual entity, as conceived by Mencius, but the unvarying law of natural phenomena." 3
Apparently HsU1. Tzu (date of birth and death not precisely known but believed to have been born around 298
B.C. and to have died about 238 B.C.) did not have the same
2.

Wilhelm/Baynes, The Book of Changes, Princeton, N. J.: Princeton

University Press, 1967, p. 101
3. Chai, Ch'u and Windberg, Essential Works of Confucianism. New York/
Toronto/London: Bantam Books, 1965, p. 224

204

degree of enlightenment as Mencius regarding the origin, nature and purpose of man, nor the same concepts of the phenomenal and noumenal realms. In one sense one might consider this difference to be the forerunner of the Idealistic and
Realistic schools of Nee-Confucianism later propounded by
the Ch'eng brothers, Ch'eng Hao and Ch'eng Yi in the 11th
century A.D. Mencius was idealistic. He had a belief in the
noumenal which he felt that man could find by thoroughly
knowing and extending himself. If this were carried to the
ultimate, we would come to have an intimate understanding of our oneness with the Universe, since, according to him,
"all things are complete within us". Hsi.h Tzu, on the other
hand, was materialistic and analyzed things from their everyday aspect and inter-relationship. He, living in the devastating Warring period, naturally would have a strong tendency
to be influenced by it despite his own keen ability to view
all things critically and to express himself clearly. Being influenced strongly by contemporary conditions of turmoil and
uncertainty, selfish rule, greed and corruption, with no apparent desire on the part of those in power to change, we
can appreciate that he would have the point of view that
human nature was evil.
Despite this, he felt that Confucius was truly a Sage and
a good person, one who should be emulated. He says of
him, "Confucius was benevolent and wise and not blind.
Therefore he studied the methods of government and was
worthy to be ranked with the early kings."4 In so doing he
shows the world that there really is a good man and that
other can be so too. However, whereas Mencius emphasized virtue and Jen, Li and Yi, Hslin Tzu emhasized learning
and seems to use the Rites and Music, and the Spring and
Autumn Annals, more as the basis for his point of view.
4. F ung Yu-Lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. /, Princeton, N. J.:
Princeton University Press, 1952, p. 280

205

Practically no reference is made in any of Hsun Tzu's.

writings regarding Yi Ching but he was well aware of it and
"Hsun Tzu, too, frequently quoted the hexagrams in , support
of his arguments."5 One must assume; then, that the YiChing
was highly respected, well known and regarded, otherwise it
would not have been used in support of important arguments.
This broader scope usage of Yi Ching, whereby it was frequently quoted, acknowledges it to be a great work whose
value was respected at all levels.
SOME COMMENTS AND .QUOTATIONS REGARDING
THE SIX CLASSICS
As mentioned previously, the First Emperor of the Ch'in
dynasty ordered all books burned in 213 B.C. except for
some which were officially exempt. The only Confucian
work that remained immune from this order were his commentaries which were appended to the Yi Ching. At the
time of the order, Yi Ching was either categorized as a book
of divination with inept scholars failing to be aware of its
primary value as a philosophy, or else they classified it as:
such in order to retain it and hence escape the purge. In
either event, one might say it received "Divine Protection'"
or as Yi Ching would say, "What occurred was in accord
with the Will of Heaven." The other five Classics the Shih
'
or Book of Poetry, Shu or Book of History, Li or Book of
Rites, Yueh or music, Ch'un Ch'iu or Spring and Autumn
Annals were subsequently revived (either from volumes hidden during the time of the Burning of the Books, or from
mem.ory) and became an important part of the History and Culture of China. Of particular import to us are the comments
regarding "Yi" (as it is sometimes referred to) or Yi Ching
(as we are calling it), whose influence on Chinese culture we
are herewith investigating.
5. Ibid. p. 381 (cf The Hsiin Tzu, Chapter 5, C huan 3, p. 9, etc)

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206

The Huai-N~n-Tzu states likewise, " .... The Six Disciplines are different in kind, yet all are the same in principle.
Gentleness and kindness, accomodation and beneficence;
these are the influence of Sbih. Simplicity and purity, sincerity
and honesty: these are tpe teaching of the Shu. Clearsightedness and logical comprehension; these are the meanings of the
Yi. Respectfulness and modesty, veneration to others and
humbleness: these are what are brought about by Li. Magnanimity and simple ease: these are the transformations
wrought by Yueh. The ability to make criticisms and argue
about ideas: these are the results of detailed analysis of the
Ch'un Ch'iu. Therefore when the teachings of Yi have been
abused, there is dissoluteness. When that of the Shih has
been abused, there results a stupid simplicity. When that of
the Shu has been abused, there is pedantry. When that of
the Li has been abused, there is envy. When that of the
Ch'un Ch!iu has been abused, there is slander. These six
( disciplines), the Sage uses in coordination, and regulates
according to their different merits." 6
"The Han Confucianist, Tung Chung-shu (179?-104?
B.C.), writes in his Ch'un Clh'iu Fan-Lu (ch. 1), "The prince
knows that he who is in power cannot by evil methods make
men submit to him. Therefore he chooses the Six Disciplines through which to develop the people. The Shih and
Shu make orderly their aims. The Li and Yueh purify their
fine qualities. The Yi and Ch'un Ch'iu illumine their knownledge. The Six teachings are all great, and at the same
time each has that in which it stands preeminent. The Shih describes aims, and therefore is preeminent for its unspoiled
naturalness. The Li regulates distinctions, and therdore is
preeminent in its decorative qualities. The Yueh intones
virtue, and therefore is preeminent in its influencing power.
The Shu records achievements, and therefore is preeminent
6. Ibid. p. 401

concerning events. The Y! takes Heaven and Earth as its

bases, and therefore is preeminent in calculating probabilities. The Ch'un Ch'iu rectifies right and wrong, and therefore stands pr~ eminent in ruling men.'n
"Also Ssu-ma Ch'ien states in his autobiography in the
Shih Chi: 'The Yi records (the movements of) Heaven and
Earth, the Yin and the Yang, the four seasons, and the Five
Elements, and therefore stands preeminent in describing the
mutations (of the universe). The Li correlates and regulates
the classes of mankind, and therefore stands preeminent in
the field of human conduct. The Shu records the affairs of
the early kings, and therefore is preeminent in the field of
government. The Shih contains records of mountains and
rivers, valleys, birds and beasts, grasses, trees, and the male
and female of the furred and feathered kind, and therefor~ is
preeminent in its influencing power. The Yueh is that whereby the feeling of joy is established, and therefore is preeminent
in its harmonizing power. The Ch'un Ch'in distinguishes
between right and wrong, and therefore stands preeminent in
ruling men. " 8
Other philosophers made statements of similar context
and meaning but since the influence of Yi Ching is already
adequately shown we do not need to quote any more here.
The Six Classics (earlier known as the Six Teachings)
contain the gems of many kinds of thought regarding all
phases of life. They have been studied ardently by Confucianists of all eras. Their broad outlook has made them
especial1y valuable and perhaps one of the chief reasons why
Confucianism has survived other later philosophical schools.
These others dealt primarily with government and politics,
whereas Confu ciani sm was all encompassing. Furth ~ r Co nfucianism prov ided a Way of L iJc th at could L ad to Sa r'7.
8.

I bid. p. 401
Ibid. p. 402

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209

hood, a highly respected state of development and something

which, according to Chinese thinking, should be sought.
As we know, with disintegration of the feudal system,
the common people gained emancipation from the feudal
lords, but the old family system survived. Hence Confucianism remained the underlying philosophy of the existing social
system. Beside this the new nobility even liked Confucianism because it set out a system of social distinctions in the
Rites and Ceremonies which were amenable to everyone. In
this way Confucianism had value for everyone and consequently it retained its status during these social and political
upheavals.
TUNG CHUNG-SHU (179-104 B.C.)
As one studies the history of Chinese philosophy, one
notes that there are intermittant periods when we do not hear
much about Confucianism. Usually there are no great thinkers during such periods. But when (the need for) scholarly
thought arises again we find that Confucianism again comes
forth with an equal strength and fervor to its original pro~
nouncement. It was also thus when the great theorizer and
politician, Tung Chung-shu, came on the scene. Tung recognized the value of the Six Classics for both the government and the people. He was keenly interested in trying
to develop a better social and political order. He was broadminded enough to realize the value of state approved doctrine,
as was previously established by the Ch'in dynasty. So it
was largely through his influence that in 136 B.C. Wu Ti (the
Han dynasty, the ruler, ordered Confucianism to be the orthodox doctrine of the state and the Six Classics to be the
basis for the examination system for government positions.
This examination system soon became famous because, unlike
in other nations, government positions now became availabL

to everyone regardless of nobility or status. Examinations,

on the Six Classics, were conducted simultaneously throughout the nation and the most qualified were then selected to
fill governmental positions. This made the government the
rule of the fittest (except for positions obtained by bribes).
There were exceptions, such as in the Yuan dynasty when
no indigenous personnel were given positions of authority,
or during the Ch'ing dynasty, when half of the best positions
went to Northerners and the other half to Southerners (which
was an inequitable distribution). In this latter case Knowledge of the Six Classics still was the basis for appointments.
Naturally, this system had its growing pains like any other
innovation and it was not until several centuries later that
it became truly effective. What is of particular significance
to us is that the Six Classics were chosen as the basis for
knowledge for governmental positions and that one of these
six was the Yi Ching. Thus the philosophy of Yi Ching
became the state approved doctrine.
As for Tung Chung-shu himself, he was a great believer
in Yin and Yang and the theory of mutation as found in the
Book of Changes. He believed that man was a microcosm
within the macrocosm of Heaven and the Universe. As such,
man was the extension of the goodness of Universal Nature or
Essence. He empha. izcd the value of man and man's capability of cultivatin g hi s n ~1 tur wh ' rchy man co uld becoune eq ual
with Heaven and C<lrth . Thu s in hi s thinkin g; and beliefs
he shows hims If to b" in unso n;ltl l' with till' phil osophy
and teachings of Yi Ching.

E MP EROR T/\1 T SI JN( ;

The first emperor of the T'an dyn:tst (() I X 1)() ( ) /\ .D.)
T'ai Tsung, in 622 A .D. , rcamrm cd (\H1fu i-t tti stn :1:.; :1 st:1t
doctrine and reestabli shed the cxa min:lli un s stl' lll h:tsn l ( Jll

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210

the Six Classics. For several centuries previous there had

been much division and unrest in China. Truly national
examinations were not possible. Then in 589 A.D. China
was again unified and the Sui dynasty was established, only
to be replaced by the stronger and more centralized T'ang
dynasty in 618 A.D. In 630 A.D. the Emperor ordered a
Confucian temple to be built in the Imperial University,
along with the directive that his scholars prepare official editions of the Confucian Classics and commentaries relating
to them. Later the Emperor ordered the completed works
to be taught in the University. Unfortunately the scholars
were not as capable as one would wish. The Classics were
interpreted in much the orthodox manner, instead of being
brought up to date to meet the problems of the new age,
especially the situation brought on by the advent of Taoism
and Buddhism, both as philosophies and as religions. Filling
this need became the task of later Neo-Confucianists Han Yu
(784-824 A.D.) and Li Ao (died c 844), whose main claim
to fame lies in their theory of the transmission of truth from
the ancient sage kings down through history, that is, their
idea as to what persons (kings and philosophers) transmitted
"truths", according to their point of view, down through the
ages. In a strict sense this was not truly Nee-Confucianism
as we later know it to be, but it was a departure from the
ordinary and showed how Confucianism during its life was
a transmitter of truths and still embodied truths.
CHOU TUN-YI, SHAO YUNG AND CHANG TSAI
The objective of Chou Tun-Yi's (1017-1073 A.D.) philosophical effort seems largely to fill the vacuum of explanation brought about by the rise of Hinayana Buddhism, Ch'an
or Zen Buddhism, philosophical Taoism, and reli gous Tao-

ism, as relates to two problems, i.e., Cosmology and the

achievement of Sagehood or Buddahood. As for his Cosmology, it is shown in his book T'ai Chi T'u Shuo ( 7;:1!11l'm )
or Explanation of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate. In
this he shows Yin and Yang being the first step in the evolutionary process of the Supreme Ultimate and then the cosmological processes following the mutations of Yin and Yang.
In this concept he is in keeping with Yi Ching. In his book
Chou Lien-hsi Chi or Collected Works of Chou Tun-yi, Chuan
1, he says, "By the transformation of the Yang and the union
therewith of the Yin, Water, Fire, Wood, Metal and Soil are
produced. These Five Ethers (Ch'i, i.e., Elements) become
diffused in harmonious order, and the four seasons are produced in their course:
"The Five Elements are from Yin and Yang; The Yin
and the Yang are the One Supreme Ultimate; and the
Supreme Ultimate is fundamentally the Supreme Ultimateless.
The Five Elements come into being each having its own
particular nature.
"The true substance of the Ultimateless and the essence
of the two (forms) and the Five (elements) unite in mysterious
union, so that the consolidation ensues. The principle of
Ch'ien (the trigram symbolizing the Yang) becomes the
male element, and the principle of K'un (the trigram symbolizing the Yin) becomes the female elements. The Two
Ethers (the Yin and Yans) by their interaction operate to
produce all things, and these in turn produce and reproduce,
so that the transformation and change continue without end.
"It is man alone, however, who receives these in their
highest excellence and hence is the most intelligent (of all beings). His bodily form thereupon is produced and his spirit develops intelligence and consciousness. The five principles of his
nature (the five constant virtues corresponding to the Five
Elements) react (to external phenomena), so that the di s-

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212

tinction between good and evil emerges and myriad phenomena of conduct appear. The Sage regulates himself by
means of the Mean, correctness, hurnan-heartedness and
righteousness, and takes Qui.escence as the essential" .9
The other problem, also spurred on by Buddhism and
Taoism, is that of achieving Sagehood or Buddhahood. His
thoughts in this regard are expressed in his second major book
T'ung Shu or General Principles of the Book of Changes.
Basically, the problem created by the different points
of view of Confucianism and Buddhism, is that of which is
the correct way attaining Sagehood, i.e., should one try to
attain it by remaining in contact with the world and overcoming its difficulties, temptations, and tribulations (Confucianist thinking), or should one try attaining Buddhahood
through spiritual cultivation outside the phenomenal realm
as taught by the Ch'an Buddhists, i.e., through Instantaneous
Enlightenrnent. 1 Chou felt that the best method was that
of living naturally and acting naturally.
Shao Yung (1011-1077 A.D.) was primarily inter~sted
in Cosmology and brought forth a revised theory of it based
on the hexagrams of Yi Ching. He was the first to record
9. Fung Yu-lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. New York: The
Free Press, 1966. p. 270
10. Authors note: What they failed to realize is that they are both
partially wrong. The problem as stated is over-simplified. In both
methods it is first necessary to exercise complete self control over
our bodies and our senses, and also to eliminate Karma. The Confucianist does it while still operating in the world and the Buddhist
does it by retiring from the world (at least in thought if not in body
too). Both finally come to recognize themselves as being at "one"
with the Universe. Zen Buddhists achieve this through Instantaneous
Enlightenment. For the Confucianist it is a long slow and arduous
process. For the most part they fail to mention the preparation and
spiritual development necessary to arrive at the point of being ready
either Sagehood or Instantaneous Enlightenment. Timewise Instantaneous Enlightenment may be shorter (in most instances). But one
should never forget that the basic requirements and achievements are
ultimately the same.

the life cycle of all beings as demonstrated by the gradual

change of the Ch'ien Kua into K'un Kua and back again.
This key theory carne about from his concept that the Supreme
Ultimate produced "Yin" and "Yang, whi.ch in turn, produce
the four "Emblems", followed in the next stage by the eight
trigrams and three stages later, the sixty four hexagrams of
Yi Ching. The changes he showed fo r C h'ien Kua changing
to K'un Kua and back again , start at the bottom and move
to the top in each case just as we showed the twelve step
sequence for all hexagrams changing to their opposite and
back again in chapter 2.
Perhaps the most outstanding newly stated concept (at
that general period of history) was that of Chang Tsai (10201077 A.D.) when he says in his Hsi Ming or "Western Inscription" that all things are constituted from the same Ch'i.
"Therefore all men and all other things are part of one great
body. We should serve Ch'ien and K'un" (by which Chang
means Heaven and earth) "as we do our own parents, and
regard all men as our own brothers. We should extend the
virtue of filial piety and practice it through our service to
our Universal parents." 11 The concept of filial piety to our
Universal parents is an extension of the principle of filial
piety in Yi Clhing, which we discussed in chapter 4. These
were propounded and taught by Confucius. Being filial to
our Universal as well as to our own parents is a broadened
concept which most people cannot understand and appr~ciate.
In Chang's day the time was not ripe for such a major step
to be accepted universally and perhaps even today it still
is not ripe. The conc~pt of filial piety to Universal parents
is simple and easy, and, if adopted and carried oat, would
alleviate many of the wodd's ills. This concept sterns from
our corning from one source, and since we are all made alike
and of the same stuff, Chang says we are all brothers and
I I.

Ibid. p. 279

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2i.S

have a common universal parentage. His ideas of the evolutionary process of the Yin and Yang is that they make all
the "1 0,000 things" including us. Consequently we all are
from the same source and parents. Hence we should be
filial to that which brought us into being.
This same concept of Universal parentage is taught to a
limited extent in Christianity, as exemplified by the "Lord's
Prayer" taught us by Jesus which begins "Our Father". He
too is showing us that we come from a common source. While
this parallels the Eastern concept, the sanctity and inter-relationship of the family are different in East and West. F ilial
relationships in the East begin in the family and then are
extended to friends, community, local and national governments. The same degree of intra and inter family relationships are not existent in the West. Basically though, if every
moral activity is carried through in its highest sense then the
Universal parents are being served. This does not require
any special training in filial piety and at the same time is
something everyone can carryout wherever he is, regardh~ss
of whether it is in the East or the West. The time, place,
date, and color of the skin have nothing to do with it whatsoever.
REALISM AND IDEALISM
Fung Yu-lan, in his History of Chinese Phi~osophy, Vol.
II, chapter X, part 2, credits the Ch'eng brothers, Ch'eng Hao
(1032-1085 A.D.) and Ch'eng Yi (1033-1108 A.D.) with
the real establishment of the Neo-Confuciainist school. At
the outset it seems as if no real difference was noted between what the two brothers expounded. Later Chu Hsi
became the exponent of Ch'eng Yi's Li or Principle, wh ich
formed the basis of Realism. Lu Chiu-yuan (1139-1 193
A.D.), and later Wang Shou-jen (1472-1528 A.D.) propou nd-

ed Ch'eng Hao's philosophy which came to be known as the

Lu-Wang school or "School of the Study of the Mind"; in
other words Idealism. Both Ch'eng brothers took the Appendices to the Book of Changes as the starting point for
their philosophical points of view, as did Chang Tsai their
uncle, and their friends Chou Tun-yi. and Shao Yung. 12
Rather than crediting them as founders of the N~o-Con
fucianist Idealist and Realist schools, I am of the opinion they
merely revived and brought up to date the teaching;s of Mencius (Idealism) and H~li 1 Tzu (Realism), modernizing them to
fit current needs, just as was all Nco-Confucianism. The
basic concepts were not new and were well known in the
Classics and ancient literature. What was new, rather, was
the presentation and choice of words with which these concepts
were presented.
While we have no direct evidence, (so far as I know},
that the Ch'eng brothers were aware of Plato's and Aristotle's
doctrines, we can, by virtue of the interchange of culture that
was then taking place, 13 assume that reading these Greek
works sheds new light on old material, permitting the brothers
to synthesize known points of view and consequently present,
what to some people constituted a new philosophic concept.
These, of course, also meet the needs of combatting the ever
present influences of Buddhism and Taoism. The base for
their concept, as we stated supra, was the Appendices of
the Book of Changes (strictly of Chinese origin) and the
teachings of Chang Tsai, Shao Yung and Chou Tun-yi.
Since our greatness or smallness, goodness or badn~ss, is
. measurable by the results we achieve, we must give the Ch'eng;
12. Fung Yu-lan. A History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. II Princeton, N. J. ~
Princeton University Press. 1953. p. 478
13. This was during the T a ng dynasty when the Empire's contacts came
in touch with Greek Bacteria. Also, foreigners and foreign cultures
were welcomed. In part, the Ch'eng brothers were countering foreign
influence as well as that of Buddhism and Taoism, in order to promote
Confucianism.

216

brothers considerable credit. Their works and concepts have

been lasting and have .influenced many people. What was
it then that they set forth?
Ch'eng Yi, along with his successor Chu Hsi, amplified
the doctrine of condensation and dispersion of Ch'i spirit as
expounded by Chang Tsai and Shao Yung. Chang and Shao
said that Ch'i was the universal ingredient of all things.
When Ch'i condensed it became something tangible. When
Ch'i dispersed, the tangible became intangible. The question
they did not answer was why when it condensed it became
a flower one tim~, a vegetable another or animal or mineral.
This question was answered by Ch'eng and Chu in much the
same manner that Plato gave to the world centuries earlier,
i.e., for everything in the world there are arch-types or forms
in Heaven anticedent to the tangible form here on earth.
Everything is in the Mind of Heaven and is made manifest
through the mind of man. What man creates is an imperfect
replica of the image held in Heaven. What nature produces
is also an imperfect image of t.he corresponding image in the
1\1ind of Heaven. Thus things are produced in accordance
with a "Principle" that relates the earthly creation to the
perfect prior existant image in Heaven. This is what makes
a flower <;t particular flower, a head of cabbage a particular
head of cabbage, etc., which principle they called Li. According to the Appendices to the Book of Changes this relates
to what is "above shapes" and distinguishes it fro m what is
"within shapes". According to Ch'eng Yi, what is "above
shapes", (that which he calls Li), is eternal and without beginning or end.
Ch'eng Yi's method of spiritual cultivation is expressed
in his famous statement: "In cultivation one needs attentiveness; in advancement of learning, one needs the extension of
knowledge" (literary remains of the Two Ch'engs, Chu~m 8)
... . the replacement of 'Quiescence' by 'attentiveness' in

217

methodology of sp iritu al cultivation marks further the departure of N ... o-Confuci.a n isn1 from Ch 'anisrn" .14
While C h'eng I lao us s M n ius and the Appendices
to the Book of han ' 's a ~; hi s d p:1rture point, he gives his
interpretation much more m tapflysi '< If o nn otations than
did Men cius. C h'e ng I la o b li vcd th r was a sp iritual or
inner connection between all thin gs in th e univ rsc.
onscquently, man should strive to retai n the purity and innoce nce
of his unity with the Universe and avoid being selfish, attached
or rationalistic. Rather m1n should be impersonal, impartial
and imperturbable.
The search for Happiness was also part Ch'eng Hao's
studies, and, in keeping with the foregoing thought of unselfish, impartial, impersonal, etc., he came to the conclusion
that it is what a man is that makes him happy, and not what
a man does, per se. He recognized that there never was a
moment when a man was not doing something. He also
appreciated the benefits of engaging in a variety of activity.
But it is when man is truly inwardly content and at peace
that he derives a measure of happiness in all that he does.
It is what stems from within man, and his point of view
rega rding the events of life that control a man's happiness
and not what he does, even though what he does may have
an influ ence on his feelings.
W:1n !!; Sho u-jen (1472-1528 A.D.) also set forth the
ldealisti owept that all is mind. His recorded sayings are
i.n the Ch'uau llsi Lu or Record of Instructions. Wang maintained th:11 th 111ind was everything. He based this on the
simple qu s t ion " I low ca n there be anything outside the
mind?" Thus, if ;ill thin ,s arc in the mind, all things must
stem from Ill 1lli 11d , in l' ludin the Li, as developed by his
14.

l ' ung Yu - lnn , If Sh,lll 11 /llol> ' of

I ' rcc Press. I'Jc,c,, p. .'HI

C 'h/11,.,,.,.

J'h ilosuphy, N ew

Y o rk :

The

218

219

brother Yi, regardless of whether it pertained to animate

things such as a flower, or inanimate things, such as filial piety.
As to the question as to how one should develop oneself
spiritually, he believed that every man possessed the intuitive quality by which one could gain intuitive knowledge.
In order for a man to become a Sage, all that was necessary
was for the man to "follow the dictates of his intuitive knowledge and act accordingly" .15 This principle became known
as the "Extension of Intuitive Knowledge", sometimes spoken
of merely as the "Extension of Knowledge."
SUBSEQUENT PERIOD
During the last 1,000 years almost all noted philosophers
in China were Confucianists or Neo-Confucianists. The
Northern Sung dynasty produced Chou Tun-yi, Shao Yung,
Chang Tsai, Ch'eng Yi and Ch'eng Hao. The Southern Sung
dynasty added Chu Hsi, Lu Chiu-yuan and Yang Chien. The
Yuan dynasty was a cultural philosophical vacuum with no
philosophers of note.
The Ming and Ch'ing dynasties, however, were quite
prolific. Basically, though, they did not produce anything
new but gave reinterpretations to both Confucianism and
Neo-Confucianism. One problem, which greatly concerned
them, is worthy of our interest and attention, especially since
the problem has not been resolved. This is the question as
to whether the right path to Buddhahood, Sagehood, Sainthood or whatever you choose to call Spiritual Enlightenment,
lies in remaining in this world and positively overcoming the
temptations and evils, or to become a recluse and achieve
it through the absence of worldy matters by withdrawal
from them.
This, essentially, is the main difference between Confucianism and Buddhism. Confucianists basically

believed that dealing with the world was the natural course to
follow in view of man's characteristics and nature. Buddhists believed it best to withdraw from the world, achieve
Enlightenment as qui.ckly as possible, then return and help
the world to a much greater u c~ rcc than is poss ible (according to them) without this nli ghl cnm nt. onfucianists called
the Buddhist path selfish and ca lculating sin ce they give up
all else, as it were, to achiev E nlightenment. Buddhists, on
the other hand, beli.evc it is impossible for Confucianists to
obtain true Englightenment by the path they are following.
If we look to Yi Ching for guidance, we find that both
paths are possible courses to take. Let us first look at Nine
in the 4th place of hexagram #1 Ch'ien Kuajthe Creative:
"Wavering Flight
No Blame.

Ibid. p. 313

Depths,

A place of transition has been reached, and free choice can

enter in. A twofold possibility is presented the Great man: he
can soar to the heights and play important part in the world,
or he can withdraw into solitude and develop himself. He can
go the way of the Hero or the way of the Holy Sage who seeks
seclusion . There is no gen~ral law to say which of the two
is I he right path. Each one in this situation must make a free
choice a::cording to the inner law of his being. If the individual
~1 c t s consistently and is true to himself, he will find the way that
IS appropriate for him.
This way is right for him and is without
blan1 ." 1C

I :rom lite foregoing we see that both the worldy path and

the p ;ll h of s lu sion c-:1n be proper courses. There is no

such lhi11 1'. ;1s "nnl y way" to achieve Sagehood or Buddhahood. I ::111 p rson must flnd that which is right for him.
n lll surfu il would appear that neither the Buddhi sts n( r lll <'o nl't~ r i ; Jni s ls lri.cd to tru]y understand the other.
1t se . . ms r:tlh :. : r, lll :11 c: Jcll look th e view tint their own dos16 .

15.

OVI;;:r

Wilhclno/ll, ymi, 1'1 l 'hlnu ' " 'f'llf' IlonA of C hanges.

Prin cto n ! J n iV<' flt l l y 1' ,. .,.,, l'il/, p. 1

Princeton. N . J.:

220

221

trine was right and the other's wrong. Trying to attain,

maintain or improve their position and national standing
may have played a strong role in such attitudes. Such attitudes, too, may have been largely external. Similarities
exist today in the Western world between various church
denominations of Protestantism wherein each claims he has
the best and the true path.
Additional points of view regarding remaining in the
world (and attaining Sagehood) are in the Judgment of hexagram #8 Pi/Holding Together, and Nine in the first place of
hexagram #17 Sui/Following. Hexagram #8 says: "What
is required is that we unite with others, in order that all may
complement and aid one another through holding together." 17
Nine in the first place of hexagram #17 reads:
"The standard is changing.
Perseverance brings good fortune.
To go out of the door in company
Produces
deeds.
.
There are exceptional conditions in which the relation between leader and followers changes. It is implicit in the idea
of following and adaptation that if one wants to lead others,
one must remain accesssible and responsive to the views of
those under him. At the same time, however, he must have
firm principles, so that he does not vacillate where there is
only a question of current opinion. Once we are ready to
listen to others, we must not associate exclusively with people
who share our views or with members of our own party; instead, we must go out and mingle freely with all sorts of people, friends or foes. This is the only way to achieve something."18
As for going into seclusion to attain spiritual development we find reasons for so doing in the Image hexagram

#12 P'i/Standstill , and Nine in the Sixth place of hexagram

#18, Ku/Work on What li as 13een Spoiled:
"The JM/\GE
Heaven and Ea rth do no unit:
The 'Image of ST/\NDSTI L.
Thus the superior man fall s back on his inner worth
In order to escape the difficulties.
He docs not permit himself to be honored with r~ vcnuc.
When. owing to the influence of inferior men, mutual mist rust
prevai ls in public life, fruitful activity is rendered impossible,
b ecasue the fundaments arc wrong. Therefore the superio r man
knows what he must do under such circumstances; he does not
allow himself to be tempted by dazzling offers to take part in
public activities. This would only expose him to danger, since
he cannot assent to the meanness of the others. He therefore
hides his worth and withdraws into seclusion."1 9

"Nine at the top (of hexagram #18) means:,

He does not serve kings and princes,
Sets himself higher goals.

17. Ibid. p. 36
18. Ibid. p. 73

Not every man has an obligation to mingle in the affairs of the

world. There are some who are developed to such a degr~e
that they are justified in letting the world go its own way and
r fu sing to enter public life with a vi1,ew to reforming it. But
this docs not imply a right to remain idle or to sit back and
m r ly cri ticize. Such withdrawal is justified only when we
~ tri v to r ;di zc ourselves in th::. higher aims of mankind. For:
althPII)',h the sage remains distant from the turmoil of daily life:;
h ~ naiL's i11comparablc human values for the future."20

In :r rl:ll l',i" ' the forcgoi ng we can see that there are
at least tw1l p:1tlls to foll ow and that there are many parts to
each path . Tlrnl' is :r h:1sis for each the point of view of
the Buddhist :1 s w II :rs tlr:rl of the Confucianists; and we can
add the Cltristi.:111 :1s \Vl' ll . R ':mllcss of which path is chosen,
19.

Ibid. p. 5 1

20.

lhid. p. 7X

222

the objective is to become selfless and to be at one with the

Universe. So, in addition to being unselfish, non-attached,
impersonal, imperturbable and impartial one must also be
like a mirror, reflect those things which appear on it, and let
things come and go without emotion or attachment. This
does not mean that one should be devoid of emotions and
refrain from activity. Rather, it is to do all things well
that come to you, to act and feel in a normal wiy about
:all things but let all things come and go like clouds in the sky
Or with the same disregard and non-attachment as one was
walking down a street filled with strangers.
In every path there must be a certain amount of desire
and effort to achieve the goal. A man may take the path of
a recluse or stay in the world. In actuality, there is a p.1rt
of both courses in each. Some people consciously elect to
1follow part of each to varying degrees.
Again, according
rto Yi Ching, man has the right and should exercise his option
as to the route he himself wishes to take, and he is not to
be blamed or criticized for the path one chooses.
If one believes in Karma and Retribution then one re~
cognizes that the paths mentioned supra are nothing more
or less than arriving at that stage of development where one
does things and no Karma is produced. If such a Karma-less
state can -truly be achieved, then one has arrived at Sagehood
or Buddhahood, or that of a Christian Saint. Taoists also
believe in trying to reach and achieve this Karma-less state.
Two aspects are involved. First one should pay off all Karmic
debts. Secondly, one should do things in a way such that
no Karma is produced. In carrying out both of these points
it is best to stay in the world, or at least partially in,21 and
21. Author's note: "Partially in" refers to a state where one is practicing
spiritual exercises and self-development a good p::trt of each day but
otherwise remains in contact with and engages in activities of the
world. However, matters of the world have little or no significance
to him as he understands the transitoriness of all things and happenings.

223

overcoming its evils, illusions, temptations, trials, and tribulations.

19TH CENTURY
A word or two should be said about the revival of the
:\iew Text School i.n the 18th Century, and subsequent, since
they, too, used Yi Ching as one of their basis. Here again
we see philosophical explanation developing to meet the current political and social needs. Western materialism and
power were stronger than China's. Western religious proselyting was maki.ng inroads into the minds of the people.
Also, China was becoming more and more conscious of the
fact that she no longer was a world unto herself but another
nation among many with a real need for material development compa~able to Western nations. A philosophy had
to be propounded which would accommodate these facts.
The political doctrine of Confucius and the social patterns of the Han New Text School seemed most suitable and
compatible to meet the needs. To a large extent they already
contained all the elements these later philosophers wished to
set forth. Consequently, they adopted theun, reviving and
revising them to fit their purpose.
K'ang Yu-wei (1858-1927 A.D.) was a very able leader
of this rev ival of the New Text School. He wrote a famous
book entitled Hsin-Hsueh Wei-Ching K'ao (Study of Classics
Forged Du rin the Han Period).
K'an, wrot e, '' I have studied the teachings of Confucius
compn.: h 'ttsiv ly :tnd reverently. At first I followed the
beaten t(a k of lIt Sun ' Scholars where I eagerly thought I
had found it ; liiL n , how ver, I realized that Confucius could
not have b 'II s11 hi ()t d ; 111d narrow as that. So I pressed
fu rther along til p;llh of lilc ll ;1n scholars, at every moment
th inking that I was now t r1';1di.n ~ nu it; but then 1 rcaliz::.:d

225

224

that it could not be so fragmentary as confused that. For

if it stopped only there, Confucius would be a Sage and not
a divine being ....
Thereupon I rejected the Old Text forgeries entirely,
and sought for it (The Way of Confucius) in the New Text
scholarship. This includes the Ch'i, Lu and Han (versions
of the) Odes. The Ou-yang and elder and younger Hsia-hou
(version of the) Book of History; The Meng, Chiao, and
Ching (versions of the) Changes; the elder and younger Tai
(versions of the) Rites; and the Kung-yang and Ku-Liang
(versions of the) Spring and Autumn Annals. In this way
I came to understand the transformations of the Yin and the
Yang (as portrayed) in the Changes, and the meaning of the
Three Ages in the Spring and Autumn Annals." 22
K'ang Yu-wei further maintains that "the Way of Confucius embraces the evolution of the Three Ages, Three
Sequences, and Five Powers (i.e., the Elements), Love,
Righteousness, Propriety, Wisdom and Good Faith operate
in (successive) cycles in response to the seasons. The cycle
of Love constitutes the Way of Great Unity; the Propriety
the Way of Small Tranquility."~ 3
These light touches on K'ang thinking are given primarily to substantiate our contention of the continued influence of
Yi Ching. vVe also see the same in T'~n.
T'an Ssu-t'ung (1865-1898 A.D.), a great ecletic and
reformer, wrote in his Jen Hsueh or Science of Love, "All
who would make a study of love should, among Buddhists
works, become conversant with the writings of the Hua-yen,
Mind (i.e., Ch'an), and the Idealistic (i.e., Mere Ideation)
schools. Among Western works they should become conversant with the New Testament, as well as the various writings
22. Fung Yu-lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II., Princeton, N.J.;
Princeton University Press, 1953, p. 678
23. Ibid. p. 680

on Mathematics, science and social sciences. Among the

Chinese works they should become conversant with the
Changes, the Spring and Autumn Annals, Kung-yang Commentary, Analects, Book of Rites, Mencius, Chuang-Tzu,
Mo-Tzu and Shih Chi (Historical Records) as well as with
the writings of T'ao Yuan-ming, Chou M ao-shu (Chou Tunyi), Chang Heng-ch'u (Chang Tsai ), Lu Tzu-ching (Lu Chiuyuan), Wang Yang-ming (Wang Shou-jen), Wang Ch'uanshan (Wang Fu-Chinh), and Huang Li-Chou (Huang TsungHsi)."24
Later T'an, in discussing the Great Unity propounded
by K'ang, remarks, "What I say about the (coming) changes
in the world is not what I myself say, but what is said in the
Changes. The Changes embraces within itself all the principles in the world. Therefore it is of utmost profundity and
may not be despised." 25
It is not our purpose here to ellucidate or illuminate
K'ang's and T'an's philosophies. Rather, we are trying to
show that Yi Ching is exerting great influence today just as
it always has done at every stage of its existence. And if
we accept K'ang's prognostication that within two or three
centuries the world will be a Great Unity, wherein national
boundaries have disappeared, a single universal representative government will exist; races, coJors and creeds will also
be indiscernably intermingled. We see that Yi Ching still
has a deep role to play in the future. According to T'an,
thi s Great Unity or Utopia, is in keeping with the laws set
forth in the Book of Changes (Yi Ching).
Thu s, too, we see that Confucianism is still a strong part
of Chin s culture. lts tenets, doctrines and principles lend
them se lv s us ful to th e problems and troubles of the world
today as w II :ts prnvidin g guidcli.nes for a humanistic way
24. lbi cl. 1 .
25. Ibid . p.

(,') ~

(l')'l

226

of dealing with our fellowmen. We also see that Yi Ching

has in the past, and continues to do so in the present, played
a strong role in the Confucianists' thoughts and philosophies
and related Commentaries. We know too, that Confucianism has been and is, the main stem of Chinese culture in: all
ages since its advent.
We can see then that Yi Ching is a profound book of
timeless philosophy and has been a preeminent basis for the
thought engendered in Chinese culture and civilization. Even
today most leading scholars and citizens of China have copies
of it. Any Westerner who desires to truly understand Chinese thought and civilization would be wise if he were well
versed in Yi Ching.

c
H
A
G
N
END RESULT

"It is not necessary to hasten

_anything artificially.
Everything comes at its appointed
time."- Yi Ching

Chapter 6
Why Chinese Thought Is As It Is

"Shih Kuo Ching Ch'ien" or "When events pass by,

conditions will change," This is an innate philosophy of
the entire Chinese peoples. This has been the basic thought
and idea that has permitted them to endure untold hardships
of wars, famines, plagues, floods, ravages, etc., throughout
the centuries. They all know that no matter how good things
may be there will be a time when they change to their opposite. Similarly, they know that no matter how bad or
adverse the situation, all they need to do is to be able to
endure and when the propitious time arrives, the circumstances will alter and become good again. This they know
from untold experience. This they believe. This they adopt
as a pattern of life. This they recognize as the Law of
Change, and this is the Law of Change as promulgated in
Yi Ching. The Law of Change thus is fundamental in their
lives. Thi.s is al so a part of the principle of Universal Development which w~ discussed supra and, as we know, always involves Univ~rsa l T ime.
Beyond this, and as an off-spring from Yi Ching, they
have great respGt for l e ~ rnin g, for teaching, for graciousness
and for maintainin' " fa ". In ~til three of the major Chinese
schools of Lhou. 'Ill . Buddltisrn . Taoism and Confucianism,
Sagehood or Buddlt:li10od :tr l it ~~o:li s to be achieved . Wh t
a nu n is mentall y, wlti It to tll nt itt ludL:s character, abi lity,

228

229

morality, and intellect, are all that one takes with him when
he leaves this world. All other things are purely transitory
and unreal, hence not to be desired. Man's goal then becomes to train and develop himself, to raise the purity of his.
thinking and actions, to raise the level of his I.Q. through
the development of his intellect and to constantly increase
the power of concentration. To do these various things he
needs teacher~ to help him. So he pays great respect to
anyone who can teach him irrespective of the social or economic status of the pedagogue. The teacher is regarded as a
superior person and is accorded respect as such, without differences or distinctions of age, wealth, appearance or any
other aspect.
Graciousness is displayed in courtesies to friends, in
innate modesty regarding self, giving the other person credit,
entertaining him royally, offering him the best accomodations, paying for mutually received services, reciprocating
propitiously and placing the other's desires ahead of one's own.
"Losing Face" is perhaps the most subtle and deepest
ingrained Chinese attribute. In dealing with the Chinese one
definitely must give the possibility of "Loss of Face" consideration and think and act accordingly. End goals, no
matter how desirable, become inconsequential if "Loss of
Face" is involved. This relates to his being disgraced if you
show him to be wrong, put him on the spot regarding his personal circumstances, especially regarding wealth or knowledge, or correcting him publicly. Once you have caused
him to "lose face," further dealings, negotiations, or relations
become virtually impossible between the parties involved.
When faced with a situation of this nature we can see where
our thoughts, and the words spoken from these thoughts,
can be our friends or our worst enemies. 1
1.

See also page 62 wherein we speak of thoughts as being our friend s o r

enemies.

Another difference, not truly appreciated by most Westerners, is the Chinese's loyalty to their leader. This stems
from their heritage and training of filial piety as promulgated
by Confucianism. They, initiaiJy, are tau ght that the ruler
of their clan is the one who:m they must Jove, respect and
obey. It is to this ruler that they give their loyalty and devotion. The right to voice and express their opinions is not
denied during the discussion stage of any matter. Their
thoughts may often be at great variance from what is eventually decided. But once the ruler has expressed his wish then,
right or wrong, that wish is carried out. They are also
taught that in the eyes of the clan the leader can do no wrong
and he must be defended against all others. A person like
Plato's Euthyphro, who accused his father of murder, is unthinkable for Chinese. A filial son will defend his father
at all times regardless of the circumstances whereas Euthyphro
thought it perfectly right and moral to accuse his father publicly, believing his father to be wrong. Of even greater importance, though, is the execution of the will of the leader of
the clan. By being imbued with the custom and habit of
doing what the leader says they largely look to any boss,
teacher, military commander, etc., to tell them what to do.
As we have stated previously, Confucius taught that family
relationships should be extended outward to the community,.
to the state and to the nation. And this aspect of regard:
and ob dience to leadership extends to military and government lea<.krs, with a natural tendency of greater loyalty to the
immcdiat "boss" than the one more distant. This is one
of the fund :11n n t:tl reasons why Mao Tse-tung was able to
achieve II is su c ss.
But for West m I adcrs and planners, this characteristic
of loyally to Ill k iltkr hilS additional implications. True
Democracy, as is knnwn in the United Stcttcs, cannot work
In hina and mu ll 111' til olll r parts of the Orient as well.

230

The people instinctly want a modicum of long range leadership with authoritative control. Beneath this level, they can
and strongly do want their freedom of initiative and actions
within duly circumscribed limits and within the bounds of
the best for the greatest number.
Another aspect of this loyalty to the ruler is that for a
given set of people there can only be one ruler. The Chinese
are one of the strongest nationalistic peoples in the world
and are inclined to make many sacrifices for the greatness of
their nation. Currently, they resent their nation being divided. Eventually, this feeling of there being only one ruler of
a family or clan will re-unite all China into one strong nation.
At that time it will neither be true Democracy nor true
Communism that will be the government doctrine. It will
not be Constitutional Monarchy nor Enlightened Despotism,
!but probably something along the lines of a Constitutional
:Presidency (elective). with basic philosophy of governing being
:an off-shoot of the "glorious" types of fatherly leadership exemplified by the (legendary and non-hereditary) Sage Kings.
Another variant is that the Chinese in general do not
fear death the way many Westerners - o. - Mo-;t- of the~-~
lieve i~ reincarna_tion and that an earthly life is just a short
stop at another hotel in the long journey of life through the
ages. Hence, it does not matter whether this particular sojourn is long or short.
There are many other differences between Chinese and
Western thinking and ways of doing things, but these are
not as critical nor as potentially disruptive as not speaking
nor acting in accordance with propriety, "losing face" or
violating filial piety.
Our purpose in considering the foregoing pertinent Chinese thinking is to determine the origin of each and ascertain
if there is any understandable way of coping with these critical
.aspects of international differences in order to reduce misun-

derstandings to the maximum practical extent. We also w:1111

to see if Yi Ching played a role in their origin or in usefuln ss
regarding application of measures for better und,~rstandin 1 .
Up to this point we have shown the truly ancient beginning of Yi Ching, how it was developed, the practical applications of its usefulness, its philosophy, its Cosmology, its
guidance and way of life, and its role in Confucianism throuo-hb
out historical periods. We now look at the current mores
and manner of thinking to judge its current value as a background to Chinese culture. In so doing we are looking at
the Chinese as they are today, as we see them, as others see
them, and then try to put our fingers on the reasons for this.
Whether they recognize it or not, the Chinese accept the
principles of Universal Development and Universal Time.
These principles, as we have previously stated, are that the
old is constantly in the process of change and decline, making
way for and to be replaced by something new which then meets
Supreme Will's answer to the needs of the circumstances at
that given time (not predictable by man.) In this we see the
constant cycle of all things and events. But we know from
practical experience that the cycles vary in length and manner
with everything, even though they may be of the same species,
and seemingly identical beings, sentient or otherwise. But,
regardless of the dissimilarity to solar time, the events have
completed their full cycle. The lifetime of human beings
and nations are the best and most readily understandable
examples. No two nations hav~ the same len~th of lives just
as very few, if any individuals match longevity to the second.
The completion of cycles, regardless of the longness or shortness of the solar time involved, is classified as a part of and
subject to Uni'versal Time.
In accordance with most Chinese thinking, Universal
Time is an exemplification of Karma or F at . It is that len gth
o.f time that the Supr~ m c. Will lias decreed for a specific h in ~ .

232

or rroup of beings, to meet and satisfy the Karma it (they) had

brought upon itself (themselves) by its (their) previous
thoughts, words and actions. Karma, as we know it, is like a
computer. What we put into it by what we have thought,
said or done, will come back to us in an algebraica11y similar
manner some time, some place, somehow, with the time for
such return being determined by the Supreme Ultimate. When
we use the term algebraic, we mean the composite sum of
positive (good) and negative (bad or error). Let us say we
have produced negative Karma for three events meriting 2, 3,
and 5 points, or a total of 10 points. If we do something
positive that merits 8 points we can expect 2 points worth of
negative Karma to return to us sometime. Now if we were to
add 5 points of positive Karma, then three points of good
fortune would come to us. (Hence, if we are truly good, we
can overcome evil and eliminate all misfortune from our lives. )
From an experience standpoint, the Chinese Nation suffered the Japanese invasion of 193 7, and were victims of
Japanese occupation until 1945. Many outsiders who witnessed that period of time, which involved some rather cruel
atrocities, wondered how so many of the Chinese were able
to endure the life imposed upon them. To a major extent
it came from the saying "Shih Kuo Ching Ch'ien", i.e., "When
events pass by conditions will change". It is this same philosophic concept that helped them rationalize and survive man
and Supreme Will ordained disasters and hardships. Now
with the nation split between the Nationalist China and Communist China, many Chinese believe that the Karma of those
living on the mainland make it a necessity for those people to
be subjected to Communist government and Communist rules.
They firmly believe that in the due course of time, a propitious
day will eventually come where events have fulfilled themselves and that China will once more be united and under a
non-Communist government. They cite such conditions as

233

existed in the unification of China during the Chin dynasty

229-206 B.C. (and the Burning of the Books 213 B.C.) and
the Yuan dynasty (1280-1367 A.D.) wherein extremist governments did not endure. What the exact timing will be
regarding the present situation they are not certain. That is
a matter for the Supreme Ultimate to decide in keeping with
Universal Time. But in their hearts they have faith that it
will occur. It is inevitable under the Principl e of Un iversal
Development and the Law of Change.
When one speaks to knowledgeable Chinese about the
situation in VietNam (early 1969) they kn ow and tell you
that the strategy of North Viet Nam is based on thi s same
principle of development and change (derived from Yi Ching}
and that "Shih Kuo Ching Ch'ien" applies to th at situation
too. Actually, it applies to the Western worlds' involvements as well. The main difference is th at the E asterner
interprets it with a Taoist attitude of "Wu Wei", that is, action through non-action. This is somewhat similar to a Laissez
Faire policy whereas the \Vesterner generally seeks to force
things to conclusion or consummation. The Easterner lets
things take place and situation develop in a natural un-forced
manner over whatever length of time may be required. The
Westerner is not satisfied to endure hardship without action
so he tends to become dissatisfied and "push things" to bring
about a change and, hopefully, the conclusion he would like
to sec. But so often people do not think of all the ramificatio ns or factors of a given situation and the results, in many
instances, it is the opposite of what is desired. 2 The E ast2.

Th e.: fo ll o w in g xtta c ts fr o m Yi Ching are applicable to situa tions of

thi s n:tttll" :
a. Sec.: Si ~ :tt l hl" to p of H e xag ra m :j:j:55 Feng/Abunda nce of the
Willt lllt / H:tYII s l"l Ch iiiK, The Book of Changes, (p. 216, Princeto n
U niv e rs it I' l l~~. 1'1ill ,ct n n N . .T. 1967) whi c h says that man , throu g h
o bstinan und 111 1 " ~' ' "' ' y . ac hi eves t he o p pos ite o f wh a t he str ives
fu r.

234

235

erner, on the other hand, knows by his waltmg and being

able to endure, conditions will eventually change and become what he desires. He has full faith in and believes in
lhe Law of Change and the proper manner of :making changes
as propounded in Yi Ching.
The Chinese's respect for teachings, teachers and le~rn
ings is truly remarkable as far as Westerners are concerned.
Scholarliness has the highest regard of any profession or
activity. Money is useful to the Chinese but he is frequently
most readily willing to forego earning, porfits and sales in
favor of his value for learning. And he holds deep respect
for anyone who teaches him something. Why this is so seems
to stem from several reasons. Our inner mind or soul is
all we take with us when we leave this earthly existence.
What we have thought, said and done forms a composite
of our character and intellect. It is on this basis that we
can raise our level in (ensuing} life and increase o:.1r I.Q.
Nearly everyone believes in some of life or existence after
death. Everyone wants such existence, whatever it may be,
to be the best possible for him and especially if it involves
reincarnation, man wants to profit by this existence and come
back in better circumstances with more chances for love, happiness and success. If our I.Q. were always fixed and stable
we would always reincarnate at the same level of intelligence.
But we know things are not static. The Law of Change
b. Under the Judgment of Hexagram Conflict #6, (Ibid. p. 28), we read,
"If a man is entangled in a conflict, his only salvation lies in being
clear headed and inwardly strong that he is always ready to terms
by meeting the opponent halfway.. To carry on the conflict to the
bitter end has evil effects even when one is in the right, because
the emnity is then perpetuated."
c. Nine in the Fourth Place of Hexagram #43 Kuai/Breakthrough,
(Ibid p. 169), says, "Here a man is suffering from inner restlessness
and cannot abide in his place. He would like to push forward
under any circumstances but encounters insuperable obstacles. Thus
his situation entails inner conflict."

makes this mandatory. Hence a man's future level and his

future I.Q. depend on what he does today and every day.
The results can be an increase or decrease over where he
started. The main thing man can do is to train and develop
his mind through increased learnings and experience. Many
believe this development should be a well balanced mental,
physical and spiritual program. Hence, all teachers of any
matter or discipline are held in respect.
We know too, that the examination system demanded
scholarly learning and ability to interpret the Six Confucian
Classics. Government positions were assigned on the basis of
the examination results achieved. The higher the standing
the better the position awarded. And in China, governmental
positions have always been considered desirable. Naturally,
the results were dependent on two prime factors, the ability
of the student to learn and comprehend, and, equally if not
even more important, the impartation of knowledge by a truly
scholarly and learned teacher. To be really successful this
combination had to be a close knit team. Many studentteacher relationships thus formed, remained mutually useful
for a lifetime, as the teacher could always render valuable
service to the student when needed and conversely the student
might be able to offer the teacher an influential position.
The principle of filial piety is also very important in
the student-teacher and teacher-student relationship. True
filial piety has been greatly admired and many instances could
be cited wherein this characteristic was the determining factor
for the assignment of great responsibilities. The teacherstudent relationship in ancient times (and even in some cases
still applies) was like that of Father-Son. Once the relationship had been formed the teacher then accepted remuneration for his services, if the student could pay. If the student
became too poor to pay, for some reason or other, the teacher
would help the student, even making him a member of his

236

own fa mily and providing for all his needs. Conversely, if

the teacher needed any help, financial or otherwise, the student would provide what he could, regardless of the number
of intervening years involved. Students, after formal education had ceased, would frequently visit their teacher seeking
their further advice and guidance or perhaps merely to show
continued respect. This relationship, once formed, went on
until the death of one or the other, just as does that, of father
and son. This custom and procedure started in the days
of Confucius and has carried over, to limited extent, even to
the present. While today students have many more teachers
than formerly, many students will still visit their former teachers, paying respect to them, taking them out to dinner, sending them gifts and greetings on festive occasions, or assisting
them if in need. Conversely, many teachers consider their
students as their "children" for a lifetime and will help them
whenever they come to them, especially in matters of problems regarding life. This, of course, was much more possible
previously than at present. Families used to remain in one
location so that communal ti.es could and did remain constant.
In recent years, however, families are beginning to move more
and children are living apart from the family area. Teachers
shift schools more frequently too. But the respect, based on
the principles of filial piety, rerrnains evident.
We all know the Yi Ching deals with all the 10,000
things in the Universe and, as such, provides us with guidance
for every circumstance and situation. We also have seen
that, by knowing the present situation, we can trace circumstances though their various stages to their seeds or origin
(see tables chapter 2). We also know it provides us with a
positive way of life. Now if we look at the teacher-student
aspects we find that while all hexagrams are applicable to
some extent, a number of hexagrams g1ve us one or more
specific elements of guidance:

2 7

#4 Meng/Youthful Folly: Here we see the representation of an inexperienced person who, if he wants to succeed,
must be conscious of his lack and seek out a teacher. It
teaches him the value of sincerity and modesty in relations
with the teacher. On the other hand, it advises the teacher
how to act towards the student, both as to clear and definite
answers to be given as well as how to cope with unintelligent
or mistrustful questioning.
#8 Pi/Holding Together: Here. we see that for holding together we need a strong central figure (teacher) who has
greatness of spirit, consistency and strength, with whom many
students c-1n unite. It also shows how "relationships are
formed and firmly established according to definite inner
laws". It points out that inner power and content are the
principle attributes of one who wants to lead and guide others.
#10 Lu/ Treading (p. 346): "This hexagram deals with
the rules of good conduct, compliance with which is a prerequisite of character formation. This good conduct is harmonious-in conformity with the Trigram Tui, the Joyous,
which is inside--:md hence attains its good even under difficult circumstances ("Treading on the tail of the Tiger"). Thus
it brings about those harmonious forms which are the prerequisites of outward behavior."
#16 Yu/Enthusiasm: Through enthusiasm a leader
(teacher) finds universal and willing obedience. Tn so doing
one is following the principle of moveme nt along the lines of
least resistance. Enthusiasm can unify mov m nls. Tile
teacher is able to awaken this sa!me spirit i11 olll rs til rou" It
his own sureness and freedom from il si l ~t ti o tt , h:1 '"- d up :111d
strengthened hy hi s sin rit y. ll also w;tms ({) h ware of
being delud d by f:lls 'tl lilusi:L'Ill .
#22 Pi/ Gr:t c ((> I ): ( p. <J_ ). " lwgitl ll r i11 :1subordi nate
place must tak ' Upll il ililllSl''" tilv l:dllll or :td v: lll<.: ing. T here
might be opporLuniti s for stnrvp titi11usly :tsiu' tltc way, but

238

a self-contained man scorns help gained in a dubious fashion.

He thinks i.t more graceful to go on foot than to drive a carriage under false pretenses."
#31 Hsien/Influence:
"THE IMAGE
A Lake on the Mountain:
The Image of Influence.
Thus the superior man encourages people to approach him
By his readiness to receive them.
A mountain with a lake on its summit is stimulated by the
moisture from the lake. It has this advantage because its
summit does not put out as a peak but is sunken. The image
coumels that the mind should be kept humble and free, so
that it may remain receptive to good advice. People soon
give up counselling a man who thinks he knows everything
better than anyone else." p. 123
This hexagram also advises how a teacher, by keeping
still within while experiencing joy without, can unite feelings
and attractions, and use them to influence others.
#37 Chia Jen/The Family: Here the relations within
a family are shown. These also can be transposed to all
other circumstances and relationships. As such the FatherSon relationship becomes that of the Teacher-Student as well.
It advises that if one wishes to exert real and lasting influence
one must give substance to his words and duration in his
way of life. Words, to be truly meaningful, must be backed
up by like action. It warns, too, that in the final analysis,
the order within the student-teacher relationship depends on
the teacher.
Three other hexagrams have specific guidance regarding
teaching. #48 Ching/The Well shows the manner of teaching others about worldly matters. Hexagram #50 Ting/The
Cauldron is related to spiritual instruction, while #58 Tui/

231}

The Joyous warns against the onesidedness of self teaching

and enjoins all to meet with friends for discussions and practice in order to avoid bigotry and better to achieve a clear
and comprehensive understanding of the matters studied.
If we sum up all the advice for teacher and student just
given supra, we immediately see that it covers all aspects
of their possible relationships. These can be applied to any
student-teacher or teacher-student situation at any time and
anywheres. On the other hand, the guidance is most applicable to private types of teaching and tutoring as existed
in ancient times rather than that currently existing through
the extension of education universally through a compulsory
public school system. Colleges and Universities, too, have
become impersonal to a considerable extent but, from my
observation of teachers at all levels in China, they take a
personal interest in students, espeCially those with outstanding capabilities, and at the same time are equally concerned
with the dullards. They seem to have the unselfish thoughts
of encouraging the brilliant student to exercise his capacities
to the fullest and exhorting and guidirig the dullard to overcome his deficiencies. This brings into being the "personal
touch" that is fundamental for inspired and beneficial human
relations. These efforts most often produce helpful and
lasting results which are recognized and appreciated by the
student, and many times by the student's family as well. These
various helpfulnesses frequently result in bonds of lasting
friendship as usually do efforts of sincere and undemanding.
actions like doing things for others wherein ulterior motives;
are not involved.
The filial aspect of the teacher-student relationship is
expressed in another way in the Colleges and Universities of
Taiwan today. College entrance examinations are a requirement for all hopeful embryo upper level students. About
35%-40% of high school graduates taking the examinations

240

are accepted into the colleges and universities of the island.

This .is a relatively low percentage compared to some countries and naturally competition is very keen. But once the
student is enrolled he is virtually assured of graduating provided he reasonably does what is required of him and if he
does not drop out of. his .. own free will and accord ..
While the attrition rate in U.S. Colleges is 30%-40%, that
in the Republic of China is virtually nil. Every effort is m:.1de
by the teachers and faculty to help all student achieve passing
:grades, or else appreciable opportunity is provided for the
student to repeat the course if needs be. Something is drastically wrong somewhere if a student "flunks" out of college.
It is almost as if the college or university, once having selected
and accepted the student (like the teacher-student relationship) has the responsibility and requirement to assure that the.
student graduates (but not necessarily in four years).
. Propriety, filial piety and the family system are also the
background and backbone of the outstanding courtesies
Chinese accord their friends and are the basis for the concept
of "Loss of Face". The family is society in the embryo. The
laws and principles applicable in the household can be transferred to the outside life to keep the community, state and the
world in order. These are the relations of husband and wife,
wherein the one is the ruler and the other the follower, with
each having his or her own duties and responsibilities and
each according the other due respect and devotion. Then
there follows the father-son with its filial reverence, and it is
considered by the Chinese as relationship of love. The third
is between elder and younger brother (or sisters) which is
the relationship of correctness and respect which extends to
friends and superiors in the form of courtesy and loyalty.
The training and execution of these laws within a family carries over into life; then moral duty towards one's state and
fellowmen becomes easy through natural affection. When

this occurs the world remains at pea :111d in prop ~,r 1 nkr.
This is the goal Confucius had in mind wit 11 h d v 1\l p d
this system.
We see from this, toQ, that extensive ou rt sy ,t ~>w: trd s
one's friends is an extension of the "propriety" tnd " fili :tl "
aspect of the relationship o~ elder and younger brotIt r. Actually, it represents courtesy in speech and actions towards
everyone (true humaneness). In this respect the pcop l of
the Replfblic of China are much like the ear,ly We tcrn crs
in the United States, that is, happy, friendly, court~ou s and
helpful to one another. (There are exceptions, of <;ourse ).
As a general overview statement, one might well say that
the Chinese people are one . of the happiest, if not the h~p
piest, peoples populating the world today. Quite naturally
this stems from their heritage and culture and particularly
their philosophic attitude towards life. One especially outstanding trait is their constant attempt to inject humor and
interest into all categories of conversation. This is done in
two principle manners, i.e. , by the use of colorful speech
and illustrations, and/or by say in things that produce smiles
and laughter. This is appli cab le eve n to discussion of serious
matters. It is a refinement and allrihutc that could well bear
emulation by others. It i.s thi s typ of thin g th at strikes a
harmonious and interesti n _r not i11 til ock les of one's hea rt.
Some of the exampl es o f o url s to others :H ' doi 11 su h
things as the youn ge r gen ' rlllion 1ivin g up s als lo ld rs in
public transportation and onv :111 TS, lit ir " ' \H ll p \1 11 ill J'
elders on shoppin g tours. r 11d rin s rvi r in n tln rv tin n wit h
obtaining infcrnwlion o r onlllloditi s. nnd t> lll r lll' lpuln Lss s
in general. .I uniors i v ri Jltt nf' wn nnd :tv o t d I ill h st
seats to scninrs, hotlt :ts n l:tks In lt :ll t. 'putl nti,,,, fn ilitks nnd
in connecti on wi t It so i:tl :dl':tir.. 'l'IH SI'IJttlt .' nt IHinor d
guests are a lw:tys s 'i ti Ld :tl tuh l . i11 , 111'l1 1 lll:tlllll' t tlt :tl tltl'y
will have lhe b ' SI Vi 'W uf (11 ' I' ll i t~tllll WII l (01 l'llkt l:titllll ' 111 1
if such is invo lv 'd ).
....

242

In matters of entertainment, the Chinese extend themselves beyond what most Westerners would consider reasonable. In entertaining a friend at dinner they will provide
many more courses of food than a person normally can eat
or drink, just for the sake of propriety and hospitality. This
would usually be 10-12 courses as compared to an average
meal of 4-6 varieties, although sometimes as many as 24
courses and even more may be served. Regardless of how
much is set forth before the guest, the host will always say,
during the meal, "Mei shenma ts'ai. Ch'ing suipien tzechi lai,
pieh k'ech'i" or "I don't have enough, but please help yourself
anyway. Don't be polite", and the end of the meal or party
will say "Taiman Taiman" which means I have treated you
shabbily. The meal or party may have been so costly that he
goes into debt for it or else he and his family live on minimal
rations for a while to recuperate the family budget status.
But the Chinese won't entertain unless it's done "royally",
and at the same time the host must appear to be most humble
yet gracious.
For special guests, the host may even personally pick upthe guest and escort him to the dinner or the party. Such
treatment is especially accorded to dignitaries and teachers.
When friends ride together in a taxi ifs always a scramble to see who gets in the front seat with the driver. The
winner has the best opportunity to pay for the trip. Part of
the pleasure of being together seems to come from such situations wherein friends argue and try to see who gets to pay. This
applies to most situations involving payment such as in restaurants, going to the movies, any form of transportation, etc.
Much joy seems to be lost when someone, like an American,
doesn't want to "fight" or gets agreement in advance as to
who will pay. Such procedures evert seem to have a cooling
effect on the friendship.

~4.

244

Analyzing the foregoing, we see that the treatment of

friends is an extension of the family system and filial piety.
But the real core is "propriety" stemming from the Confucianist Classic Li or the Book of Rites.
In connection with the family system there is one thing
which has been greatly misunderstood by the Westerners and
that is "Ancestor Worship". The term is misleading in that
it implies one worships his ancestors as if they were Gods.
"Worship" is not used in that sense. The meaning is rather
that one accords one's ancestors with the due respect of a
junior for a senior (a young person for his elders) and honors
them for having given him the opportunity to be in this
world and for part one's ancestors played in helping to make
this world what it is. This reverence is frequently extended
and there are special ceremonies for this purpose. Since these
ceremonies are religious in nature, the entire procedure has
been given the erroneous appellation of "ancestor worship".
This has caused many Westerners to consider the Chinese as
heathens in that the Bible says: "Thou shalt have no other
God besides me". Many Westerners have tended to forget
that the same set of commandments includes "Honor thy
father and thy mother all the days of thy life". In the true
Christian meaning of this latter expression 'forefathers' are
as equally included as are our parents. We should remember
too, that in actuality, this is a part of the Universal Brotherhood taught by all religions of both the East and the West.
The difference is that the Chinese carryout the precepts ceremoniously. As a result of their actions, which it would be
well for all men to emulate, they are frequently criticized
and thought of in a debasing manner instead.
Chinese "modesty" is another mode of thinking and acting that is frequently misunderstood. The Chinese will innately belittle their own abilities out of characteristic
"modesty". In dealing with the west and Westerners this

had often worked to their disadvantage . . Naturall y, they

are fully and rightly understood when dealing with til ir
fellow countrymen, but there have been a number of cases
wherein Westerners have accepted the literal meaning of a
Chinese statement forgetting, overlooking or else not knowing that such statement was said from the characteristic modest
point of view. A Chinese applicant for a teaching position
at a U.S. University was asked whether he regarded his ability
to express himself in English as adequate. He replied, "My
English is very poor", even though throughout the entire interview he had spoken English perfectly, which he also was
well qualified to do for the position in question. This one
remark, made solely in a Chinese manner, caused him to
lose the opportunity to be accepted for the position. His
training and rearing did not permit him to give the typical
western answer of "of course", or words to that effect. Had
he done this he would have been hired. This, same innate
modesty prevents students from raising their hands in class;
keeps many teachers from expounding on subjects beyond
the basic requirements, business men in conferences from
volunteering vital information and in part accounts for the
inscrutableness attributed to the Chinese. Even in ordinary
conversations verylittle information is advanced. It has to
be brought out in and through questioning. Hence, in re}a;tions bestween West and East, the Westerner should never
forget the value of using adroit questioning.
Yi Ching devotes an entire hexagram to "modesty", in
fact the name for hexagram #15 Ch'ien ( ~ ) means modesty.
The J udgmcnt, Image and all lines have favorable meanings 3
which is just another way of emphasizing the Chinese value
and wisdom or ''modesty".
J.

Normall y lin s 1 11nd (, arc unfavor:tble. Hex:~gram

the o nly on w ll r i n all lllls itio ns arc favorob le.

# 15

Mod esty is

246

One final matter of special Chinese thinking that merits

our specific attention is the constant consideration of the
possibility of "Loss of Face" .4 I have not found any officbl
definition of "Loss of Face" but, as best as I can determine,
it would be "to be disgraced, known or shown to be wrong
in front of another person, or in public, either as a result of
one's own actions or words, or so caused by another." Perhaps
a few examples will help illustrate the principle under consideration. Shortly after coming to China, I asked my landlord to hire a maid to cook and serve us. This he did since
I couldn't speak Chinese then. At the end of the first month
when payday arrived I personally paid the maid. She was
unaware that in actual-ity I was the one who had hired her.
The landlord had not said anything to her that I was solely
the one responsible for paying her salary, and she had been
serving me only because the landlord had told her to. The
landlord "Lost Face" because he hadn't presented the correct
picture in the first place, and also in that I didn't give him
the money and let him pay the maid. Yes, misunderstanding
and lack of deliberate intentions were involved but the result
was that the landlord had irrevocably "Lost Face". On another occassion an American friend of mine was selling his
private electric hot water heater. He had a firm offer of an
equitable price from an outside source but he wanted to give
11is former landlord first option to buy the heater. Despite his
saying his price was firm and not subject to bargaining, the
landlord still endeavored to try to get the price reduced. After
finally coming to the understanding that the price was firm,
the landlord agreed to buy the heater but wanted to defer
payment until the next month. My friend said that was alright
but that he'd like to have a small down payment to make the
contract binding (in case something happened to the heater in
4. Briefly mentioned on pp. 238-241

41

the meantime). The landlord was unable to produce that small

amount of money at that time and consequently "Lost Fa<.:~"
since other people were present.
In a different respect, my
partner and I were forming speech classes to help Chinese
learn to express themselves in English. We offered to organize
a class for senior teachers but they declined. They wanted the
class, knew they badly needed it andwelcomed the opportunity,
BUT they were afraid that if they joined such a class and gave
speeches in front of other teachers, made mistakes and were
corrected in class, they, as a teacher, would "Lose much Face"
So a badly needed and worthwhile program was never commenced.
To prevent "Loss of Face" is orie of the principle reasons
why the Communist Chinese insist on "Confessions"~ In
this way they can rationalize their actions as well as "prove"
to others they were not wrong in the actions they took.
In dealing with the Chinese politically or professi.ona11y
one has to observe and scrutinize all public statements made.
There probably is an underlying vital and necessary reason
that such statements have been communicated to others.
As a general guideline, an educated Chinese must be hard
pressed to be forced into a position of making an irrevocable
statement. He knows that this can easily place him in an
awkward or embarrassing situation. In all likelihood there
is a "behind the scenes" commitment that needs to be "seemingly" adhered to. If the government or private official, with
whom you are negotiating, were forced to publicly act contrary
to such statements it would probably result in serious "Loss
of Face". Negotiations might even terminate, as in most
cases, no amount of financial or other gain can outweigh "Loss
of Face". In such cases private (secret) agreements are the
only solution .
Where d n~s all this stem from and why is it so strongly
imbued at all kv Is of society as it is? The answer is the

248

249

obvious one. It comes from training. What training? Both

the training within the family system and the scholastic training.
Fundamentally, "Loss of Face" is closely associated with
education. With proper education one seldom does not know
how to act or is at a loss as to the proper thing to say, regardless of the circumstances or situation. This is obvious
and basic. Why does "Loss of Face" have such meaningful
importance in China and not in the West. The answer again
lies in education.
In the "'est the trend of education is from justice to
humanity and love, whereas in China the converse is true,
that is, the education goes from humaneness and love to
justice.
Western training is largely based on the background of
the old Testament and the teachings of the ea rl y Greek
philosophers, especially Plato and Aristotle. 5 The Old Testament is replete with stories of how a vengeful and proud Lord
fought on the side of the just. Subsequent life preceded on
the basis of the justice thus established. If the proper commandments and precepts were then followed peace and
prosperity with humaneness and love were the order of the
day. For Plato and Aristotle, their idea was the creation of
a better and happier society, based upon justice rather than
self-interest and injustice. The traditions of honesty seem
to have disappeared and actual observance of the law was
degenerating to a pitiful state. Hence, Plato wrote his Republic, devising an idealistic form of training for his "good"
rulers and those in authority. Beginning with justice, the
education progressed through beauty and truth to love. Love
then was the catalytic agent that united all into an ideal and
peaceful ex istence. A ristotle had a more scientific bent and
5.

O ne mi g ht ev n s:ty it goes back to the trul y early Egyptia n oc ie ty

wherein MA;t 'J' t>r J11s ti <.: c was the da ug ht e r of the s 11n, t he c rea to r.

25 1

2)0

was interested in learning natural law as it applied to both

man and nature. This "researching" became a part of our
heritage of education, and, while we see Plato more in terms
of an idealist, we find his pupil, Aristotle, complemented
the training regime with realism. This happy combination
has been a cornerstone of au subsequent western educational
systems.
As for China, the Father of her past and present educational systems is Confucius. It was he who developed the
Six Classics on which education has been based ever since. It
was he who interpreted the Six Classics into useful basis
for practical daily application at all levels of activitie~. We
know that these Six Classics became the basis for universal
examination6 and selection of applicants for governmental
positions subsequent to 138 B.C.
Prior to the Confucian time education was based on
the family or clan system, with the members of the ruling
and leading families receiving scholarly education. This ancient and medieval social structure was being torn apart about
Confucius' era and old nobility were often reduced to ordinary status with new nobility constantly coming into being.
Many of the old nobility were unable to earn a living except
by teaching and out of dint of necessity started teaching
others besides nobility in order to earn money. This broadened the base of education which has continuously expanded and enlarged ever since. Today a degree of education
is compulsory at all levels and gradually the level is getting
higher. 7
6. The Famous Chinese Examination System whereby anyone could take
the exams and the best qualified were selected to fill positions-a democratic procedure.
7. Author's note: This section on "Loss of Face" and education is based
largely on discussions with Dr. Chiang Fu-Ts'ung, Director, National
Palace Museum, Republic of China, (1969).

The Six Classic, which Confucius compiled, each had a

:Specific purpose of educational value:
Spring and Autumn Annals-Political Education
Book of Rites--1. Theoretical rites, customs, morals, social distinctions and humaneness
2. Order and Procedure of Rituals
3. Basis for Political System
Book of Odes (Poetry)-To learn how to speak properly
at all times under any circumstances, cultivation of
character
Book of Music~Control of Emotions (to be used in
conjunction with the Book of Rites)
Canon of History-Basis for strategy, training and application of military knowledge
Yi Ching-Basis for philosophy and cultural background
(Note: Confucius avoided mentioning or making
reference to the noumenal and this is attributed as
the reason for the lasting influence of his doctrines
and teachings).
Confucius' idea regarding education was the unfoldment of
the two-fold responsibility of the leaders of the country, firstly,
to protect their peoples and goods properly through political
and military knowledge and training, and secondly, to lead
.and guide the people in a manner which would ensure their
prosperity and peace. 8 Each duty was independent of the
Dther but leaders were supposed to be adequately capable of
both. A quick glance at the foregoing Six Classics shows how
he thought education should be brought about.
The ground where the cultivation of education is commenced is the family. It begins with great sincere love for children. One's first duties are always performed with and through
8.

Confucius' Analects are his manifold concepts on how government

should be conducted and how administrators should act.

252

love for one's children. And, as one Chinese gentleman put

it, parents urge their children to get married "in order to see
what their grandchildren will be like, to have grandchildren
and to love them." Thus, the very foundation and core of
Chinese education is love. Children, imbued with this training of love, never lose it and exemplify it in their thoughts.
and actions for their lifetimes.
When we analyze the foregoing we see that the educational system,9 with its emphasis on propriety (the proper
way of doing everything and the right way of speaking) gives
us not only the background and basis for "Loss of Face", the
right way of speaking and acting under any circumstance
(foreign, national or domestic), but also further shows us
the reasons why the Chinese hold education in such high
regard and esteem any teacher of any nature whatsoever.
Then, if we look to the origin of Confucianism we find, as
explained in earlier chapters, that all this had its beginning
essentially with the principles and philosophy found in Yi
Ching.
Yi Ching is known by nearly all Chinese. When one
talks about it many, with their innate Chinese modesty, say
words to the effect "It's too deep for me". It is very true
that it is deep, yet it can be mastered with thought and effort.
If more Chinese and others realized the extent to which Yi
Ching is the silent "power behind the throne" of their thinking and culture, more of them would study it and yet others
would do so even more intensely. As for Westerners, any
9.

According to Dr. Chiang Fu-ts'ung, "There are ten characteristics of

Chinese culture which education needs to fulfill, namely, (I) uniqueness,
(2) enduring, (3) absorbing, i.e., all-inclusive, (4) united and interwoven,
(5) conservative, (6) peace loving, (i) localism, i.e., love of land and
place where one was born, reared and worked, (8) universality of
feelings, oneness, communication with others, (9) family systems as the
basis for society, and (10) emphasis on the spirit and motivat ion for
attaining virtue." Behind this is Li. the Book of Rites a nd the fiv e o th er
Confucian Classics, all of which have their foundation in Yi ChinK.

understanding that one has of Yi Ching is helpful in understanding the Chinese, their thinking and their culture.
Professor Nan, during a lecture on Yi Ching at the Fu.
Jen University, Taipei, Taiwan, in 1968 said:
"The wisdom of Yi Ching is easily understood. Its simplicity
mak1;:s it easy for people to follow and comprehend. By being
clear and easily understood, people can readily share this doctrine in th;:ir hearts; and those who understand it are therefor
close. People sharing the same thoughts in their hearts work
more readily together, and achievement are more easily attained.
When closeness comes from the heart it will last. Achievements can
grow and expand. These become the virtue and exemplification of
the wise man. The growth and accomplishments rcllect a wise
person's progress. The princip1es of Yi Ching, which arc easy
to understand, which in turn makes them w:.ry acceptable, include all the wisdom in the world . If one co uld un lcrstand
Yi Ching's principles relating to all thin gs in Heaven and here
on earth, one would be a perkct man."

We of the Twentieth Century should use our wisdom

for the promotion and development of world unity. All
countries face many problems, especially among their
youth. There appears to be an absence of spiritual
satisfaction generated by a basic neglect of fundamental
values, in both the Eastern and Western worlds. The Western world has contributed much in the way of materialism
thereby enabling all peoples to have more of the conveniences:
of life. At the same time it exported some of the problems:
of youth to the point where the leaders of many nations, in1
both the East and the West, are concerned. The East and
the West, alike, have magnificent cultural heritages and much
to offer the world. Both should retain that which is known
and proven to be good, useful and of value. At the same
time they should be eclectic, adopt and utilize that which is.
good, useful and of value from the. other. A world that
is smart enough to put men on the moon and return them
should be wise enough to provide answers for all men on

2_5 4

carlh. , By working together and sharing together this can

be done . . It will then result in a regeneration and resurgence
of spiritual values with a simultaneous promulgation of new
and virulent cultural concepts for greater peace and unity
with the .world.

Yi Ching, as the oldest of all books in continuous existence, is still applicable and useful for both the East and the
West, especially to anyone who wants to be a true citizen qf the
Universe, who wants to help his fellowmen, who wants to
understand all beings and especially for those who want to
understand the Chinese and their heritage better.
Those who are so inclined will find further study along
these lines to be very rewarding, fascinating and uniquely interesting. . There will also be few who, after lengthy study
of Yi Ching, will find in it the keys to their spiritual development and fulfillment.

Shell
B

&

:
-~-- &
0 . ern ' Meaning Comment
Bone :chmese

IMo_dern ; Meaning \Comment !'

Chmese
I

-";'-' A

-man

Shell M d

T ~ -'

1:~ * IM~;':o'" ~

mo~h~r-~

----

i_

wife,
;concubine!

son

br~ther

*---I
~

-l

;,~

~-~-- ~~

f; -T

~
I
-1i-~- ~
;l/~~1 ~
J

3 legged
pot

J __ _

If

vat

I res~dence I

bird,
sparrow

--

~-~---~
S

year

- I -- - - - }j

month

today

March

'
!December;

August

rain

}j

+
}j

J\.

}j

-----------

: elephant !

"'
- -'.-

bull
L
ox, cow I
-------+---sheep,
goat
horse

--~--

bat

--.--~

wine

aa

_J_ _ _ _ I__ _

king

bb

east

cc

I
I

--

-- --r----I

~-~ ~

cackte
chirp .
I crow 1
1

-- - Z pieced l'
ff
jade
1 container

house,

father

--------~~-

'

XX

dd

-1
I

 s.,

256
Shell 1Modern
&
Bone 1Chinese

0.~

get
outside

Fl

I I

~ ~
I

Ill

~~~ i-

I <~:er~ ~prison

00

q-q

rr

seve:

i-

fL -

mno

_-_ ten_ l _

thirteen I

j- " --~-S ;I
r

D = Brother

and her industry

A man carrying a burden, i.e., one with fixed

E = Wife, concubine

responsibilities
Woman below a head, inferior, subordinate

--~,~-

hundred

F .

Son

H = House, residence
I

I_ _

-~- ~ i ; fi;,y - i -o

A kneeling person with a bosom. Kneeling is

Mother

This is how a son might be ineptly represented

even today

-oig~t I ----

to show lesser status to man, her respect

six

-~-:

Legs and movement

Man with a hoe. Symbolizes a provider

five

i. ,; .

~- I

nn

A= Man
B
Father

:- ~0,~~-

1---:-- -

burn

three

-:-~r- ~

jj

bi~:~eto ~---1-1-~

! wnfli<t

~ ~-~

r=_
.t_-1 ~ I dance I
I ~
~ contend
i

-1

~ l__t%_ __:_l_c_o_~_~u ~-- mm .. -- ; ~

fl

u_v_l ~

:~

gg

ii

uno

Explanation of Shell & Bone

Language Symbolization

- -

rComment

= - -~~~--~

inside

-~-

ff

hh

lf

__

I " .~

_I_first _I ~
I good

~1

big

~ ~- ~rig~~
5C_

.
I Shell
M~a~m~ j Co~m~~~ ~!e ~~~~~~~ ; Meaning

* I

~ --~ ~

il
I-

~I
I
I

Bird, sparrow

Cackle, crow,
chirp

Man inside a shelter

A fairly representative si mple line drawing
of a bird
The square represents a mouth. The bird is
Obvious.

So it's a bird using it's mouth

K = Elephant
L = Bull, Ox, Cow

A big head and big ears and four legs

A body with upward directed horns and ears

M = Sheep, goat

A body with the bent horns of a ram, and ears

N = Horse
0 =Bat
P = Mullberry tree
Q
Three legged
pot, (Ting)

Head, ears, main, tail

A fairly good line drawing representation

s
T

Vat
Two pieced
jade container
Year
Month

A fairly good line drawing representation

A fairly good line drawing representation
A big bellied kettle receiving liquid.
Belived to be somewhat abstract
Seasonal grain (crop)
(The cycle of) the moon

258

V = Today
W =March
X = December
Y = August
Z =Rain
aa = Wine
bb= King
cc = East
dd = South
ee = Big
ff = Bright

gg = First
hh = Good
Inside
jj
Outside
ll
Give birth to
mm= To Conquor
nn = Conflict
oo = Dance
II

PP = Contend
qq = Burn

25 9

A shackled man over the numeral one, i.e.,

a man here and now
Third month

Bibliography (Books in English)

Two or twelth month

Ten
Eigh month
Falling liquid

Blofeld, John

Liquid in a container

Chai, Ch'u and

Man with arms extended, hence big, standing

on (over) earth

Winberg
Chai, Ch'u and
Winberg

Man with arms extended

Sun & moon together
Man with arms extended under the numeral
one

Greel, H.G.

Doeblin, Alfred

Woman with child

Man in a cave or shelter
Man outside a cave or shelter
Opening emitting small men

Fitzgerald, C.P.
Fung Yu-lan

Man holding spear on the ground

Fung Yu-lan

Two men with weapons in contention

Body with arms and legs in motion
Man with weapon ready for action
Flame over wood

Ghee, Kong
Ju,ng, C.G.

rr = Keep, be in prison Man completely enclosed in a shelter

Lee, H.T.
Legge, James
Legge, James
Liu, Wu-chi

The Book of Changes. New York: S.P. Dutton &

Co. Inc. 1965
Essential Works of Confucianism. New York/
London/Toronto: Bantam Books. 1965
The Story of Chinese Philosophy. New York: Washington Square Press, 630 Fifth Ave. N.Y. 10020.
1961
Chinese Thought. Mentor Book. New York: The
American Library of World Literature, 50 I Madison Ave. N.Y. 10022. 1953
Confucius. Grenwich, Conn: Fawcett Publications,
Inc. 1965
China, A Short Cultural History. Taiwan Edition
A History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. I & II.
Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1962
A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. Toronto,
Ontario: The Macmillan Company. 1966
Sutra Spoken by the Sixth Patriarch. Hong Kong:
Hong Kong Buddhist Book Distributor Press. 1952
Psychology and Religion: West and East. (Collected
Works, vol. 11; Bollingen Series XX.) 2nd edn.,
Princeton University Press, 1969.
The Story of Chinese Cutlture. Taipei, Taiwan:
Distributor: Literature House Ltd. 1964
Four Books. Taipei, Taiwan: Wen Yuan Book Co.
1967
The I Ching. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
1963 (1899)
A Short History of Confucian Philosophy. New
York: Dell Publishing Co. Inc. 1955

260

Machovec,
Frank J.
Tomlin, E.W.F.
Ware, James, R

261

The Book of, Tao. Mount Vernon, New York: The

Peter Pauper Press. 1962
The Oriental Philosophers. New York & Evanston:
Harper & Row. 1963

The Sayings,of Confucius. Mentor Book. New Y 0rk:

new American Library Inc. 1955

Welch, Holmes

Heritage of Change

Taoism, The Parting of the Way. Boston: Beacon

Press. 1966

Wilhelm, Richard The l Ching or Boo'k of Changes. (Bollingen Series

and Baynes,
XXIX.) 3rd edn., Princeton University Press, Prince
Cary, F.
ton, N.J. 1967

Abundance .. . .....................
Aoreement
between lines ...... . .
b
A boreement between inner trigrams . . . . ...
Agricultural, Chinese Society .. ..... . . .
Agricultural Society, Taiwan . ... ...... .
Aloebraic
derivation of hexagrams. . . . . . .
b
Alternation of Yin & Yang .. . ... .... . .
Ancestor, reverence to ...... ... .... . .
Appendices to Book of Changes .. . . . .. .
Arch-types of forms in Heaven ..... ... .
Arousing, Chen Kua .... .. .. ... . . .. . .

97
105, 108, 109
105
10-12
11
72
211
244
216
43, 213, 216
42, 46, 72, 75

B
Background, necessary
......... ....
Bamboo Tallies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bible .. .. . ..... .. . . . . . . ... .
New Testament
Old Testament
Body representations .. .. . . . . . . ... . . . .
Book of History . .. ... . ......... .. . .
Book of Music .. . ...... . ... . . . .
Book of Odes . .. . .. . . . . ... . . .
Book of Rites ..... . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .
Book of (Change) Yi Ching . . ..... .. .. .
Buddhism
Advent ... . ... . ... . .. ......
Development of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . ...
Inroads . . .. . .. ...... .. . .
Music and Bells .. .. . . ... . .. . . . .. .
Path ..... . ... ... . .. .... . ...... .
Principles of .. ... ... . . ......... .. .
Rise of . . .... . . .. ... .. ... .... ....
Y i Ching slanted towards . . . . . . . . . . . .

28
140, 244
197
118, 249
76-77
162, 251
162, 251
162, 251
162, 251
49, 162, 251
184, 198, 200, 210, 227
200
102
215
169
219
102, 219
198
184

263

262
Buddhist Doctrine
102, 219
E mphasizes mind ............ . ..... 102
Burning of Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 199, 205, 233

c
Chan Pu ... ...... ..... .... .. .. . ... .
(a way to Search for the Metaphysical)
Chang Tsai ..... . .. .. .... . .. .. .
Change, Cyclic and Sequent .......... .
Change, Definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Chang, Disruptive .. ............. .. . .
Change, Fundamental Principles . . . . . .. .
Change, non-change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Characters, Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chen Ku,a , Arousing .............. .. .
Ch'eng Brothers, Hao & Yi ........... .
Ch'ien Kua
Heaven, Father ..... ........ ... . . .
Simbolization of ................. .
Ch'i Lu Civilization . ............ . . .. .
Ch'in Dynasty ... ... ... ... ... ...... .
China Self-sustaining , . .. .... ... .. . .. .
Chinese Culture Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Chinese Thinking .. ................. .
Chinese Writing Origin ........ .. .. . . .
Ching Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Chou . ... .. ........ .. . . ...........
Chou Yi (The Book of Change) . . . . .. .
Duke of Chou
Dynasty .. .. ..... . ............. .
King Wen .............. . . . ...... .
Rites of .... ..... . .............. .
Yi
Chou Tun-yi .... ... .......... . ......
Chuangtze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circulation of Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circular Derivation of Hexagrams .... ...
Clan System & Migrations . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.

0.

28, 29
213
49, 52-53
37
50, 53
37,53
50
35
42, 46, 72, 75
200, 204, 215
42, 46, 72, 74
70
74
18-19
199
13, 15, 163
2-4
121, 227-251
4-7
218
17
30, 32
17, 105, 117, 184
69
17, 69, 105, 117, 184
36, 172
30-32
200, 210, 215
21, 24-25
101
71 , 73
2-3, 10

Commentcri s, Yi C hin g, Confucius' .. ..

Basis for Nco-Confucianism ....... . ..
Concentration .. . ... ................
Conditions Will C hange .. . ...........
Confuianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ancestor Reverence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Filial . . ........ ..... ............
Humanistic .. .. ... . . ... . ... ... . ..
Menciu.s Promoting .. .. ...........
Neo- .......... .... ........ . . ....
Not a Religion ... . .... .... .. .. .. .
Six Classics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
State Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Confucius
A mplification for Hexagrams . . . . . . . .
As a Scholar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commentaries on Yi C hin g ...... . ...
Creator, not a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development
................ ....
Love of Yi Ching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Original Chinese Thinking . . . . . . . . . . .
Teach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thinking ... ... .......... .. . ... ..
Consideration About Lines .. .... .. , ...
Consideration About Trigrams ..... . . ..
Control of People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmology of Shao Yung .. ... . .......
Creative .. ... . .. .. ................
Cycle, normal . . ........ . ...... : . . . .
Cycle, Sequent .......... .. .. ... ....
Cyclic Derivation of Hexagrams . . . . . . . .
Cyclic Change, Explanation of . . . . . . . . .
Cyclic Change not true Sine Waves

185, 187, 197

198
66, 140, 145, 178
227
184, 227
244
15, 173, 213, 229, 235,
239, 241
161, 181
201
197-198, 200
198, 200
162, 205, 20H, I() , 1,1.1.
225 , 23 . ' 5()
200

OH

I I)()

I.. I , I K.l , I Kit

J . , I HI, I H7, I H'I
21
1K. , 1Xtl

183
2 1, 22

185, 250
121, 176, 185, 189
105-112
105-113
16-17, 166, 168
212-213
93, 189
80-82
49, 52, 94-95
80-92
51-52
101

D
Dau ghter, Middl ultk st-y un gcsl . . . . . . . . 42, 46, 70, 72
Deli vera nce . . , , , ....... .. .. . , , , . . . . 9q

264

265

Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derived Hexagram 40 from 46 .........
Derivation of Hexagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Algebraic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circular ........................
Cyclic, tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Differentiation of Yang & Yin ..........
Diplomatic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disruptive Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Divination, Comments Regarding .......
Divine Will ........................
Doctors, Herb, Use of Yi Ching ........
Dragon, Symbolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dualism of Yi Ching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynasties, Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

230
94, 110
70, 80, 92, 93
72
71, 73
81-90
70-73
228
50, 53
27, 57-58, 104, 113-116
115, 147
104
191
69
8

E
Earlier Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earth, ............................
Equal Partner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K'un Kua .. .. ...... .. ............
Mother .........................
Symbolim Concerning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Education, Cultivation of ..............
Edu,cation, Trend of, East-West ........
Educational System, Confucius . . . . . . . . .
as Forerunner
Eight Houses of Hexagrams ...........
Eldest Daughter, Sun ................
Eldest Son, Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elements, Earth, Wood, Fire, Water ....
& Metal
Emotions, Four Fundamental . . . . . . . . . .
Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Entertaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equal Partner, Heaven, Man, Earth .....

44, 46, 105

106
59-60, 100, 173, 188
42, 46, 72, 74
42, 70, 72, 74
74
228, 234, 235, 237, 250
249
186, 250
155-159
42, 46, 70, 72, 75
42, 46, 70, 72, 75
211

142
103
242
59-60, 100, 102, 115, 173,
188
Ethnic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Examination System
200, 208, 209

F
Face
Faith
Fate
Father .. ... ...... .................
Filial Piety .. ... ....................
Filial to Universal Parents .............
Five Elements ......................
Five Emperors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces, Yin & Yang as ...............
Former Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundation of Family ................
Freedom of Choice ..................
"Friends", Words as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fundamental Values ............ .....
Fu Hsi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

228, 240, 246-249

127, 161
231
42, 46, 70, 72, 74
15, 150, 173, 213, 229,
235, 239, 241
213-214
211
8
40, 167, 170
43, 44, 46, 105
15-16, 174
59, 97, 102, 135
62, 65, 66
121 , 123,253
3, R, o9

G
Golden Mean
Golden Rule, Confucius' .. .. .........
Good, Why be .....................
Good, Difficult to be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Governing Ru,ler of Hexagram ........
Governmental Examinations . . . . . . . . ..
Great Unity (Utopia) ................

5'), 'JX , I fd

.
.
.
.
.
.

179
(i3

64-65
108
200, 208
225

H
Han Dynasty, Tung Chung-shu . . . . . . . . .
Han Scholars & Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heaven ...........................
Earlier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equal Partner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbolism Concerning . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Herb Doctor Usc or Yi Ching .. .. ......
Obtain Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

206, 208
32, 33-34
40, 80, 106, 216
43, 44, 105
59-60, 100 173, 188
44, 48, 105, 100, 113
44, 45, 48, 78-79
104
l 04

266
Hermes
Hexagrams
Algebraic Derivation .. .. ...........
Analysis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Change to any Other ..... .. ........
Circular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Considerations of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cyclic Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cycile Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derived . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Houses of .. ..... ............. .. ..
Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inner, Definition ....... ... .... ... .
Sixty Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Houses, Eight, of Hexagrams .. ..... .. .
Hstin Tzu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Huang-ti, Yellow Emperor ............
Humanism ....................... .
Human Nature ... . .. .. . . .. .. ... .
Good ............... . . ........ .
Not Good

117, 159
72
42
92, 98
73
105-113
81-91
92-93
94-99
155-159
68
95, 111
71
155-159
203-205
23
150, 161, 181
202
203

I
Images, Development by King Wen
Important Considerations, Ten ..... ...
Inner
........... .. .......... .
Connection of All Things . . . . . . . . . .
Hexagrams, Definition of . . . . . . . . . ..
Trigrams, Agreement .............
Trigrams, Relates to self . . . . . . . . . ..
Truth ... ... ..... ..... .........
I.Q. Increase of

105
. 105-113
.
.
.
.
.

100, 176, 186

95, 111
109
106
127, 129
228, 234, 235

K
K'an Kua, Middle Son, Danger
Karma . . ... . . ..... .............. .
Keeping Still , Ken Kua ... ... ... . ... . .
Ken Kua, You,ngest Son ........... .. .
Knotted Cords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
K'un Kua . ... ..... .... ........ ... . .
Earth, Mother ..... .. ............ .
Symbolization of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42, 46, 72, 75

60, 63, 222, 231-232
42,46, 72,75
42, 46, 72, 75
6, 118
42, 46, 72, 74
70
74

L
Language
Four Types of Characters . . . . . . . . . . .
Shell & Bone ................. ....
Shell & Bone, Picture of . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laotze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Father of Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Later Heaven ........ . ... . ... . ......
Law of Change ...... .. . . ... .... . ....
Learning, Self Taught . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Learning, Spread of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li Chi (Book of Rites) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Light, Clarity is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Li Kua, Middle Daughter .............
Lines
.. .. ...... .. .. ... .... .......
Agreement of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consideration of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loss of Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loyalty to Leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
7,

X
J\1 p tuli x

/1

'' '' J(,, ill'< , I U., II 0, II .

_ , iJ'J , (0, 11<7,
7, . 4

2:w
35-%, I X5
30, 17 I , 202, 20
36, 172, 244

66
42, 46, 72, 75
18'9
105, 108-109
105-109
111-112
228, 240, 246-249
229-230

J
Jen .......................... . ... 175-178, 202
Judgments of King Wen .............. 105
Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 181

Mainistream of Chinese Culture . . . . . . . .

Man
Equal Parln c r .... . . ..............
Fitted to Live ht:dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
106
59-60, 100, 115, 173, 188
59, 63

268

'I IJ

Microcosm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Responsible for His Own Actions .....
Symbolism Concerning ............. .
Vehicle of Supreme Ultimate . ..... . .
Marriage, Battlefield of ....... . ...... .
Meditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Mencius ..... . ... . .......... . .... .
Middle Daughter, Li, Light ...... . . . .. .
Middle Son, K'an, Danger ......... . .. .
Mind, Buddhist Emphasize .... . .... . . .
Modern thinking . . . .. . ............. .
Modesty Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Modesty Stems from J en ......... . . . . .
Morality, genealogy ..... . ...... . . . . . .
Mother ......... . ... . . ........... .
Mo Tze .... . .... .. .. . ........ .... .
Music ....... .. . .. .............. . .
Control of Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Use of ... . ... . ..... . ........... .
Words have

102
58-63
76-77
116
39
61, 66, 68, 169, 178
201-203, 217
42, 46, 72, 75
43, 46, 72, 75
102
227-251
241, 242, 224-245
178
117
42, 46, 70, 72, 74
19-20
16, 17, 165-175, 204
16, 17, 166, 168
165-166, 169-171
166, 167

N
Nco-Confucianism

198, 200, 204, 2 10

New Text School ... . . . .......... . ... 199
Nou.menal ..... . ............... .. .. 37, 53, 186, 196, 200

0
Old Text
Origin of Chinese Characters

199
4-7

p
Pa Kua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eight trigrams drawn by Fu Hsi . . . . . .
Origin of Chinese writing . . . . . . . . . . . .
PaTe, eight virtues ............ . .. .. .
Partnership, Man, Heaven, Earth . . . . . . .
Paths, Buddhist, Confucian .... .. . .... .

4, 42, 46
4
4-7
149-151
59-60, 102, 115, 173
218-219

Paying, Fight to
Peace of Mind
Penetration, Sun Kua . ............ .. .
Pentatonic Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Philosophy, Yi Ching as . ... . ..... . ...
Physiognomy Representations . . . . . . . . . .
Prayer .. . . . ..... .. . ........... .. ..
Primal Arrangement (footnote) . ... .. .. .
Principle of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principle of Universal Development
Principles of Yi Ching
Application of .. .. ..... . ........ ..
Rational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Propriety .. .... ... . ...... . ... . .....
Psychological Brainwashing . . . . . . . . . . . .

242-243
120
42, 46, 70, 72, 75
171
57
77
66
70
38, 53, 57-62
38, 40, 42, 53, 70,
231, 233
57-116
57
240-241, 252
52

R
Receptive ... . .... . ... .......... . . .
Relationship of Lines ... . .. . ..... .. . .
Righteousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Right Path . .. ... ... ... ...... . . .... .
Right Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Right Concetration . ... . ... .... ... .
Right Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ,
Right Livelihood . . . .. ...... ...... , .
Right Mindfulness . ..... .. ...... , , ,
Right Speech . . ... ............. .. .
Right Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Right Understanding . . ... ....... .. .
Rites . . . . .... . ... . . . . ... . ... ..... .
Ritual . ....... .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .
Rosicrusians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Rulers of Hexagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

9 3 , lXI)

I 0 5, lOX 1( )1)
17 1)- 1X
I. I
I I .1

11''
I 1'1
I \t,
I .J .
I 'I

121
I 2.1
17 - I " '0 I

I (,, 1"/ I
X (l'llllllll l l i ' )

99, I ()I)

s
Sagehood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1R, I'J.
Sage Kings ..... . ... . . . . . . .. ... . . , , . 8: 35-36

7,

270

271

Salt Industry, Father of ...............

SanTa Te, Three Ultimate Virtues ..... .
Self-control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selflessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-sufficiency (of China) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sequent Cycle ... . .. ..... ...........
Sex, Booby Trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shao Yung .. .. .. .. ........ .. .. ... ..
Shell & Bone Language and Picture . . . . .
Sine Wave Cycle, not actual in Practice ....
Six Classics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~killed

Men
Society, Chinese, Ethnic Groups ...... .
Son, Youngest, Middle, Eldest . . . . . . . ..
Spread of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Spring & Autumn Annals ............

.
.
.
.

Ssu Ma-ch'ien
Shu Ching ...... . . ................
Sun Kua, Eldest Daughter ........ .. .
Superior Man, Nine Things . .. ..... . ..
Supreme Ultimate .......... . .. .....

.
.
.
.

0.

0.

0.

Supreme Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbolism of Yi Ching . . .. .. ... . . .. . .
Sz Wei, Four Virtues ..... . . ......... .

18
153
142
166, 17 6, 222
15
49, 52, .94-95
143
212
7, 28, Appendix
. 101
161 ' 163 ' 205 ' 207' 208,
210, 224, 225, 235, 250,
251
25-26
2

42, 46, 70, 72, 75

250
17-18, 21, 204 (see also
six Classics)
23, 30, 207
22
42, 46, 72, 75
121-122
71, 116, 121 , 140, 147,
192, 198, 211
37, 39, 52, 58, 232
62, 69-70
149, 152-153

T
Ta Chuan, Confucius' Commentaries
T'ai Tsung ....... .. ....... . ....... .
T'ang Dynasty ..................... .
T aoism
0

0.

0.

0.

0.

D evelopment of Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Music & Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yi Ching Slanted Towards . .........

187-188
209-210
209
21-23, 26, 120, 184, 198,
200, 210, 227
102
19 8
169
184

Taoist Symbolic Representation . . . . . . . .

Tao= Te C hing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The- B ible of Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teach, Confucius' Thought Regrading ....
Teaching, Early Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thoughts arc Things .............. ...
Thoughts are "Friends" . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigrams
Consideration of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction
Inner
. . .. ......................
Lower ... . ......................
Outer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbolism of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Upper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
'fui, Youngest D aughter, Joy . ..... ....
Tung Chung-shu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tseng Tzu, Ardent Confucia nisl . . . . . . . .

102
22-24
23
185
11
235, 239, 250
61, 126
62, 66
105-113
106
109
106
I ()<)

I 07
I ()(,

11~ , II<. 70, 7 . , 7.

77 . OX ~()I)
177

u
Universal Brotherhood
U niversal D evelopment
Universal Parents ........ . . . ... ... ...
Universal Time .... .. . . . ..... ..... . .
Universe, Citizen of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Utopia, (Great Unity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213-214, 244
37, 38, 53, 70, 227, 231,
233
213, 214
60, 99, 101 , 102,231, 233
182, 254
225

v
Virtues (eight) P aTe ... . . ........ . . .. 149-151
Virtues (four) Sz Wei .. .. ...... ... ... 149,152-153
Virtues T hree Ultimate, San Ta Te . . . . . . 153

w
Wa rring St:11 s P riod ..... . . . . . ... ... 10, 13, 17, 2 1, 11)1),
Way of Life, ( \ Htfucius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

()iJ

JI

272
Way of Life, Yi Ching ................
Wen, King, Producer of Chou Yi . . . . . . . .
Well, Symbol for .. .. ........ ....... . .
"Western Inscription" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Will of Heaven ......................
Writing, Shell & Bone .. .... ..........

160
105, 117
12
213
16, 27-28, 115, 191, 202
7, 28, Appendix

y
Yang
.... ... ... . . ...... . . . ... . ...
Yang & Yin .... .. .................
Alternation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
As Forces .... . . .. . . .... . ..... ...
Never separated ... ... .......... . ..
Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yao ....... . .... ...... . . .. .......
Yin . . . .. .... .... ... . ... ..... ... ..
Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti) . . . . . . . . . .
Yi . ........ -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yi Ching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis of Hexagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . .
And Great Unity .. .. .... .... . . ....
And Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
And Universal Development .. . ......
Application of Principles . . . . . . . . . . . .
As Produced by King Wen . ... .. ... .
As a Philosophy ..................
Background to Chinese Culture . . . . . .
Chi Ch'u (Notes on the Book of
Changes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Confucius' Commentaries . . . . . . . . . . .
Determine the Will of Heaven . . . . . . . . . .
Divination, Comments on . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Explainable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Follows Natural Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
"Friends" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hsiin Tzu Frequently Quoted . . . . . . . . . .
Interpretation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Man Free & Independent . . . . . . . . . . . .

69, 107, 109, 112, 209

64, 211
64
40, 167, 170
93, 103
71
42-43, 52, 108
69, 107, 109, 112, 209
23
178-182, 202, 206
27-36
67-68
225
24
37
57, 116
105, 117
21, 24, 26, 36
8-10
31
35, 184, 187, 189
27
113-116
57
58
62
205
68
59-63

Music and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Origin of Name .. . ... . .......... ..
Silent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sound Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Systematic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Earliest Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Three Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timeless ....... .. . . . . .... . . .. . . .
Understanding & study . ....... .. .. .
Use . . ...... . .. . . ..... .. ... . ... .
v.s. Right Path .... .. . .. ....... ... .
You,ngest Daughter, Tui, Joy ...... .. . .
Youngest Son, Ken, Keeping Still . ... .. .

1oR- I 'J
7, 2
252
05, Itl K
57-. H
I IH

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