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THE MACMILLAN
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CANADA,
LTD.
Photo by Barnard,
PLATE
1.
Comet
c 1911, discovered
Exposure, 46 min.
by Brooks.
(see p. 14}.
ASTRONOMY
A POPULAR HANDBOOK
BY
HAROLD JACOBY
RUTHERFURD PROFESSOR OF ASTRONOMY
IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
COPYRIGHT,
1913,
Nortoooti
J. 8.
"
To know
lies in
daily life
271391
PREFACE
THE
has been
effort
reader
made
who may
to
of the ordinary
many phenomena
in the universe
about him
and
colleges.
Thus,
for
the
general
reader,
it
has
been
thought
for the
necessary to eliminate all formal mathematics
on
the
the
other
occasional
of
use
hand,
student,
elementary
;
To
satisfy these
two
the
Attention
hoped that
is
most readers a
and more detailed information. To the
is
must have
much knowledge
PREFACE
study of the sky with a telescope. In the author's extended
experience as a college teacher of elementary astronomy, he
has found it most desirable to give life to the subject by
requiring frequent evening visits of students at the obser-
These
should
and Barnard
dates,
visits.
At Columbia
regularly
assigned
throughout
the
year,
without
When
clear, the telescope is used when this is impossible, oral and informal
discussion takes place upon the work done in the classroom.
;
Attention
all
The author
has, of course,
drawn
freely
much
as possible.
the science.
Almost
all
TT
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,
May,
1913.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
3HAPTEB
I.
THE UNIVERSE
Its practical
Introductory.
use navigation, coast and boundary surveying, timekeeping
for mankind. Value as a culture study.
:
II.
THE HEAVENS
What we can
.22
by examining the sky without a teleThe celestial sphere with its points, lines, and cirscope.
Diurnal phenomena day and night rising and setting
cles.
of the stars. Aspect of the heavens from New York, from
the equator, and from the polar regions.
see
III.
HOW
TO
The
and
.45
constella-
tions.
IV.
TIME
65
Solar time and standard time.
V.
THE SUNDIAL
How
VI.
78
make
to
one,
MOTHER EARTH
The
by the
it.
...
.86
ancients,
earth's mass:
VII.
THE EARTH
THE SUN
how it might be determined.
IN RELATION TO
:
116
The
The length
ical
and
tation.
sidereal years.
Precession of the equinoxes. Nuof the great pyramid.
Equation of time.
Age
Aberration of light
its
discovery by Bradley.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VIII.
THE CALENDAR
".
138
How
the calendar.
to find the day of the
^^^ History of
week for any date, past or future. Perpetual calendars
:
how
make and
to
use them.
How
to find the
date of
IX.
NAVIGATION
.....
How
X.
MOONSHINE
...
151
Method
.....
160
Air and water absent on the moon. Occultations. Measurement of the distance of the moon from the earth. Axial
rotation.
Librations.
THE PLANETS
...''.
183
XII.
visibility of planets.
...
.217
Hab-
itabilityofMars.
XIII.
THE TIDES
..... ....
.251
moon
XTV.
itself.
.....
tions
Modern
.260
investigatransit of Venus;
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
XV.
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
272
The telescope magnifying power cross-threads and micrometers. The meridian circle and chronograph.
The
equatorial.
Photographic telescopes. The spectroscope.
:
XVI.
SUNSHINE
286
Sunspots.
Measuring and
Theories as to durability of the sun.
Axial rotation of
the sun.
XVII.
297
ECLIPSES
Umbra
Eclipse limits.
Explanation of their cause.
and penumbra. Annular eclipses. Prediction of eclipses
by means of the Saros. Transits of Mercury and Venus.
XVIII.
COMETS
The coma, nucleus and
307
tail.
Size
and mass.
Danger
of
collision
Naming
hunting.
relationships of comets.
XIX.
XX.
315
Showers.
stars.
Shooting
Radiant.
Cause of
light.
322
STARSHINE
Magnitude and
temporary stars.
urement of parallax the light-year. Motions of the fixed
Stellar chemisstars proper motion and radial velocity.
the
in
motion
The
sun's
own
apex. Shall
space
try.
;
we reach Vega ?
lar distribution.
Clusters
XXI.
and
nebulae.
The
Binary
Stelstars.
galaxy.
356
Laplace's nebular hypothesis.
APPENDIX
Elementary mathematical explanations.
xi
LIST OF PLATES
1.
2.
Comet
Spiral
c 1911, discovered
Nebula
by Brooks
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
at Jaipur
..........
234
244
Saturn
16.
Lick Spectroscope
Various Spectra
17.
The Sun
18.
Great Sunspot
19.
The Prominences
20.
21.
22.
23.
Meteor Trail
24.
25.
162
182
.242
15.
84
225
Discovery of Planetoids
Saturn
11.
14.
....
17
133
12.
13.
Frontispiece
TO FACE PAGE
3.
....
272
1908
18,
26.
Spectra
A Star Cluster in Hercules and the Double Star Krueger 60
28. The Pleiades
27.
279
281
283
284
288
290
293
295
307
311
318
323
328
337
349
351
29.
354
30.
Nebulse
359
31.
The
32.
Nebula
Title-page of Newton's Principia
Trifid
xiii
.......
360
399
ASTRONOMY
CHAPTER
THE UNIVERSE
company
of
upon
Why,
round
pyramids.
moon appear
at times as a full
Why do certain
seem to wander about amon-*
fellows? Why is summer hot and
disk, at others as
a tiny crescent?
winter cold
How
trackless ocean
ASTRONOMY
./,'
he were,
it is
of the
hold sway?
Space is the place
the stars
Astronomy needs no
and time.
They belong
to
it
is
number
nents in
concern us
phenomena
There
an endless ocean?
is
loses itself
It is not necessary
quantity of active energy, or force.
but we should remember
at this point to define these terms
;
is
likewise constant
of a
electricity.
THE UNIVERSE
When we examine
with the unaided eye, we see several different kinds of obstar clusters, like
jects nebulae, or small luminous clouds
:
their peculiarities
later
chapters.
posed of matter
the laws of mechanical science which govern the operation
;
of energy
and
all, if
in motion,
then,
First,
all,
the
if
We
nebulae.
shall
begin with
these
when
the
moon
is
invis-
them
into constituent
units.
crease
of
skill
stantly resolving
rating
them
But the
consepa-
dis-
ASTRONOMY
tinguishing with certainty between the light of incandescent
gases and that derived from incandescent or luminous matter
terrestrial
if
many nebulas
man
is
theorists,
we may take
the
nebulae
condendoubtless engendered
nuclei are formed
sations occur at certain points
prob-
body
of the
nebula
heat
is
ably, finally, one or more stars take the place of these nuclei
and so, perhaps, is the original nebular material transformed
men
see clustered
is
always motion
of
some
sort,
each
all
the particles.
recent observations of nebulae have brought out
The most
Photo by Keeler,
PLATE
2.
May
Spiral Nebula.
10, 1899.
Exposure, 4
hour*,.
THE UNIVERSE
the fact that they are extremely numerous
probably many
hundreds of thousands exist, although only about ten thousand have been catalogued. This fact is of importance;
for if we are to regard the stars as a product of development
or evolution from the nebulae, we should expect these
;
number of the
But of even
greater interest
is
of the nebulae.
to be spiral
in
There can be
little
According to the foregoing theory, which admits the existence of irregular as well as spiral nebulae, we should expect
to find the stars in groups, a certain
number assembled
what we do
And
this is precisely
find.
ing together
is
be detected with the telescope. But many of the constituent stars of a group may be too faint to show themselves
on account
of their distance
and
orbital
motions
the stars
of every
ASTRONOMY
have brought about the coalescence of two or more into a
In short, we have here an outline of a
single larger unit.
fairly consistent explanation to carry us forward from the
nebular stage to that of stellar development, a theory that
leads us to expect star-groups ranging all the way from a
single visible
can be no doubt that the stars are not the tiny twinkling
points of light they seem to be. Their apparent lack of
size or
volume
is
We know
one of them
is
From
all
of pulling
these
known
The
tudes,
by
magni-
their lucidity or
THE UNIVERSE
brightness, not their actual dimensions
the first-magnitude
stars are the brightest, the fifth-magnitude stars the faintest
usually visible to the unaided eye under ordinary conditions.
There are in
all
magnitudes
at any one time, when the sky
;
can be seen
constellations
vast.
For at a
rapid motions
And it
is,
will necessarily
in fact,
laws governing gravitational attraction to suppose any particle of matter in the universe to be really fixed in position
must be following
some duly appointed path, ever contrasting the intricate complexity of nature with the wondrous simplicity of nature's
order and nature's law. Even our sun, regarded as a star,
cannot be fixed in space, but must be moving majestically
absolutely.
ASTRONOMY
through the void, drawing with
ourselves
And
upon
it
it.
more
a new star
suddenly are
"new
stars," or novce.
As we have already stated, the sky contains stellar systems other than those involving but a single visible object.
Of these probably the most interesting are the double stars,
composed of two
These
is
it
possible to resolve
In the
appear as
and
field of
them
into
their
component
it
is
unable to
THE UNIVERSE
between the two components. And it is a very impressive sight, when we turn a telescope upon one of these double
stars, to see the two tiny points of light projected on the
see
deep, fathomless
realize that the
speck
abysmal space.
Sometimes the
double star
is
background
of
of darkness
between them
is
to
a bit of
components of a
The two objects may
fortuitous merely.
astronomic observation
differs
first.
In this respect
of ordinary
north of us, but one ten times as far away as the other, we
would at once detect a difference of distance from the fact
that the distant
near one.
But
man would
appear
much
When two
stars thus
power
held
by the
invisible, intangible,
of gravitational attraction.
9
but
ASTRONOMY
stars, whose motions were unwhose motions are so slow that
men must come and go before they can reveal
known
to the ancients
generations of
in addition to these fixed
themselves to the unaided eye,
five
other
contains
bright stars called of
stars, the night sky
old the planets, from the Greek word TrAdv^s, the wanderer.
an
is
their
peculiar
and rapid
to
make
among
they are
all
distance
by which we
immensity
planets,
all
as this
and therefore
entirely
10
THE UNIVERSE
smallest orbit of
It is
all.
sun, and therefore always appears near the sun when seen
Of course, it cannot be seen when the
projected on the sky.
sun is visible on account of the overwhelming luminosity of
the sun
itself.
Therefore
occa-
sionally only, just after sunset, near the point of the horizon
the sun.
The
nomena
modern
times.
All, together with our sun itself, are probathe
of
result
bly
gradual changes in a parent nebula.
The planets are unlike the stars in still another important
We
the sun to the planet illumines it and then we see the planet
by solar light, just as we see objects in a room by reflected
;
solar light,
which we
ASTRONOMY
therefore only one hemisphere can be illumined
by the
happen
the earth.
Therefore
hemisphere, and
we
In other words,
but it
we always
is
see a hemi-
may
we
Among
be.
Mars
654
star,
feet
on the same
scale,
miles,
not feet. This illustration brings out clearly the comparatively minute dimensions of the solar system in relation to
the vastness of stellar distances.
THE UNIVERSE
thing we find in the solar system; but the vast distances
cause these dimensions to shrink into mere nothingness,
But
do
and therefore the telescope shows their spherical
But the planets differ
size in the plainest possible way.
greatly one from the other. Jupiter shows a bright, nearly
round disk, crossed by a few dark straight lines or bands.
not
exist,
sun.
may
Saturn
is
its
The
it
see
it
And when
the ring
ASTRONOMY
appears opened up to a considerable extent, we can see this
dark background of the sky by looking through the openings
it
is
in
or bands.
Their most conspicthe phase, which is much more marked than
case of Jupiter and Saturn, whose phase
way of markings
uous feature
is
the
phenomena
phase
is
This
follows, of course,
from the
due to proximity
came.
When
bright enough to be observed without the telescope, they commonly exhibit to our view a brilliant come-
these
THE UNIVERSE
The
actually seen
by astronomers was
at one time
on the photograph
We should of course expect these to be
are star-images.
round dots in the picture but in photographs of this kind
tail
The
twice as long.
curved
little
lines
they are almost always drawn out into little curves, for a
very simple reason. The telescope is aimed accurately at
the comet when the exposure of the photographic plate is
a planet, in consequence of
if
The
suffer.
earth, considered as
an axis; that
us around,
too
that in consequence of it the sun, stars, and other
heavenly bodies seem to rise in the east, climb upward
this rotation
carries
in
and
We
also
finally
sink
know
revolution,
15
day,
fully
ASTRONOMY
later
we know from
finally,
actual measures
made upon
the
a slightly flattened
is
and
when observed
make a complete
circuit
among
in the
same
same
period.
by
It
is
it
all
in consequence of its
exhibits the
the
phenomena, varying
through the half-moon stage, to actual invisibility at the
time of new-moon. It is about 240,000 miles distant from
the earth is about 2000 miles in diameter and the gravitational attraction of its mass upon the waters of terrestrial
oceans gives rise to the ebb and flow of the tides.
;
The
16
Photo
PLATE
3.
The Moon
in the First
at
Quarter Phase.
Lick Observatory.
THE UNIVERSE
is
scope,
much broken;
very
number
of large
the very black shadows which are cast on the surface when
sunlight falls obliquely on the mountains and craters.
To complete
subject,
it
begun by men.
survey of our
remains to add a few words about the sun, the
this preliminary brief outline
within
its
moon
revolves around the earth in twenty-seven and onequarter days. The sun turns on an axis in a period of about
the
plainly,
and
first
seen
by
first
Galileo,
the
These spots
exceeds that of
c
17
ASTRONOMY
the gravitational ruler of the whole solar system around it
the planets may be said to revolve in their duly appointed
;
all
paths or orbits.
It is hoped that the foregoing brief summary of astronomic
science may help to awaken a desire in the reader to possess
more
we shall endeavor
we
may be permitted
perhaps
one by calling attention to the value
and
detailed knowledge;
this
mental
to
to
of
dis-
astronomy
It is often said that astronomy is a
cipline and study.
somewhat detached subject of interest certainly, but having little or no close and intimate relation to the everyday
;
affairs of
truth.
human
life.
But
is
the
charts;
Few
third, navigation.
persons stop to think
when they
enter a jeweler's
regulators.
is
human
hands, and
can be kept right only by constant comparisons, made on every clear night, with the
fallible
it
18
THE UNIVERSE
unvarying time standards provided by nature, the stars
themselves in their courses. For instance, time observations
of the stars are
made
regularly
and nightly
in the
United
official
With
room of
And
the matter of
is
is
towns
may
made
too,
upon cer-
continental
maps
for
the
ASTRONOMY
and here,
require very precise latitude and longitude lines
as before, recourse must be had to astronomic observations
;
proceed
readers
successfully
results.
without
astronomy.
sea, could
not
Those
our
of
who have
steamer
may
"take the sun," as it is called, with a sextant. Possibly they have thought that after making such an observation the navigator could read on the face of the sextant
officer
the exact position of the ship at the moment, its latitude and
longitude on the earth, as ordinarily understood in
its
fact.
Before
information,
observations must be subjected to a somewhat
laborious process of numerical calculation, or "reduction,"
This is an astronomic process and in carryas it is called.
sextant
are contained in a
book
by astronomers
The
vatories.
results obtained
details
of
all
these
astronomic activities
but it is
must, of course, be postponed to later chapters
from
the
that
has
said
here
to
remove
been
hoped
enough
;
reader's
20
little
THE UNIVERSE
beyond and above all this, the study of astronomy
value peculiarly its own, as a means of mental
a
possesses
On account of venerable age and consequent
training.
But
far
approximate perfection of knowledge, this science is characterized especially above all others by the peculiar intricacy of the elementary problems it presents, and by the
unusual exactness of which their solutions admit. Furthermore, notwithstanding the importance of its direct practical
applications, which have been mentioned, the study of astron-
from any
materialistic tendency,
with
utilitarian motives.
from any connection, in short,
It is not a vocational study, giving knowledge which can be
omy
is
sold for
peculiarly free
money by
But
upon
his entry
it is
pass our lives, preeminently one that will make that universe
seem a pleasanter place in which to live. So that if a certain
is
much
and desirable
subject.
And
from the
is
selection
make
will
system.
though
their
they are without that strong appeal to the imagthose vast distances and mighty forces, the
without
ination,
materials of astronomic study alone.
interest, for
21
CHAPTER
II
THE HEAVENS
PROBABLY the
best
method
of
Astronomy
noticed in a
is
study
of the
sky
is
and the
the sky
To
its interior
first
thing to be
itself.
surface
seem
to be
and perhaps,
too, the
moon
dim
stars,
each in
its
called
it is
22
THE HEAVENS
be
real,
because
we can thus
fix
our
first
astronomical
and by a consideration
of this
it
name
The next
the
Let us regard it
astronomers have given
Celestial Sphere.
question
is
whether
same sphere everywhere. Is the celestial sphere surrounding New York identical with that surrounding the city
The answer is yes. The
of Capetown, South Africa ?
the
is
same
sphere everywhere. Theoretically, the
sphere
and since
center of the sphere is at the center of the earth
the diameter of the earth is about eight thousand miles, an
observer on the earth's surface will be distant about four
thousand miles from the true center of the sphere. But
such a distance as four thousand miles is literally a mere
:
to be affected
by such a
change in the
observer's position.
Not only the earth, but its entire
the
orbit, including
sun, shrink into a dot.
Astronomy is
away
23
little
ASTRONOMY
truly a science of vast distances.
difference
and
all
But
there
the
The
is
this essential
celestial
sphere
far-ness
(if
we
may use such a word) of this imaginary sky sphere is infinitely greater than any other actually known and measured by men.
The accompanying
Fig. 1
is
The
large circle
is
supposed to
be made
cannot
big
the reader
enough;
must imagine it extended to infinity.
The dot
E at
the cen-
is
posed to be standing
on the surface
dot.
FIG.
1.
The
Celestial Sphere.
The
of that
tiny circle
annual
path
around
the sun, the sun itself being the larger dot at the center of
the tiny circle. The crosses represent stars scattered through
sidereal space at all sorts of distances
The
seem to be attached
surface of the sphere.
to the interior or
will
24
supposedly visible
indicates the point
THE HEAVENS
being, of course, merely a straight line passing from the earth
to the sun and thence continued outward to the sphere.
For the sun will also appear to us as if attached to the
interior surface of the sphere, like the stars, at the point
indicated
by
its
various celestial
arrow.
cosmically
other,
speaking.
Having thus
it
circle,
Now
must
lie
surface.
its center.
every
circle,
The accompanying
this circular
Fig. 2
shows
this
page
is
flat
The Earth's
orbital
path
on which
printed.
25
always in
its
orbit,
ASTRONOMY
must
And
of the
Ecliptic.
The plane
of the ecliptic
is
which are situated at all times the sun, the earth, and the
Now let us extend our ideas
earth's orbit around the sun.
so as to include the celestial sphere in our consideration of
at last
it
will
it
one were to
slice
line cut
principle
is
the same.
of the orange.
;
by the
For the
earth, as
we have
seen,
26
is
ecliptic plane,
we
see
is
THE HEAVENS
and therefore the ecliptic plane, which passes
sphere
the
earth, is also a cut or slice through the center
through
tial
on the
celestial
infinity
is
celestial sphere,
Such a
circle
ecliptic
produced
The ecliptic,
sphere cut out
to infinity,
particular great
by the plane
of the
then,
by
is
The
is
It would be a convenience if
some one could go up to the sky and mark out the ecliptic
While this is imcircle upon it with a big paint-brush.
possible, it is perfectly easy to mark it upon a celestial globe
and the reader is advised to examine such a globe, when he
will surely find the ecliptic plainly drawn upon it.
The important peculiarity of the ecliptic circle is this
the sun must always at all times appear to lie in that circle.
And the reason is quite simple, as shown again in Fig. 3.
Here we have once more drawn a large circle to represent
the infinite celestial sphere; and the dot which should
represent the combined sun, earth, and earth's orbit around
the sun is shown at the center, magnified into a circle. The
observant reader will notice, upon comparing Figs. 1 and 3,
E"
ASTRONOMY
in its orbit.
positions of the
Celes+ia/Sz
FIG.
3.
The
Ecliptic Circle.
the sun from the earth along the direction of that imaginary
and if the line be extended outward until it pierces
line
plane both the earth and the sun are at all times situated.
Consequently, the sight line, when extended to pierce the
celestial sphere, must necessarily always pierce that sphere
somewhere on the circle cut out on the sphere by the plane
28
THE HEAVENS
produced outward to infinity. But
and thus we have a proof that the
sun must always appear on the sky projected upon the
And it is certainly a most remarkable thing
ecliptic circle.
that it should thus be possible to draw an imaginary circle
of the earth's
orbit
on the sky such that at all hours of the day, on every day
of the year, and of every year, when we look at the sun, it
appear to be situated at some point of that circle. Yet
it all follows quite simply from the above elementary considerations concerning our earth's orbital motion around
will
own motion
in its orbit.
which we
shall
between them
is
indicated
by the combination
of letters
S'SS".
is
S'
and S"
is
of course be
in degrees.
ASTRONOMY
knew
The
its
measured
its
namely,
results
from
turns on
its axis
from
orbital revolution
its
still
once daily
to
As we
all
a motion which
quite distinct
Both motions
much
end
of the
room while
at the
to
senting him
to a
new
it is
constantly preJust so
a dancing couple face every point of the compass in succonsequence of their spinning motion, and quite
independent of the fact that they are also moving about
cession, in
in the
room
at the
same
time.
This turning of the astronomer successively toward different parts of the celestial sphere makes that sphere appear
him
self in
as
though
it
rapid motion.
30
THE HEAVENS
The
from west to
people think the stars are always the same, simply a uniform
countless assemblage of thickly clustered luminous points.
Having thus explained the earth's rotation, we must next
consider
its
rotation axis.
Our planet
called
is
is
31
Figure
time with the earth
ASTRONOMY
at the center, magnified
from
its
its prolongation,
the axis of the celes-
tial
N and S
sphere.
south
poles
of
the
NS
is
the
earth;
rotation
terrestrial
axis
and
north
the
are
and
its
sphere marks
out N' and S', the
lestial
and
north
south
Now
FIG. 4.
celestial
and
The
sphere
is
Celestial Poles.
around the
axis, so also
the
same
The
circles are
in the sense
THE HEAVENS
that their real centers
on a
all lie
The
stars, as
complete a revolution
every twenty-four
hours, since the axial
within the
sphere is
the true cause of the
whole
and
phenomenon
occupies
of
day
exactly one
twenty-four
because
And
hours.
of
Diurnal Circles.
circles are
denned, then, as parallel circles on the celestial sphere in which the stars complete their daily apparent rotation around the celestial poles.
celestial sphere.
We
circles is
all
the diurnal
celestial poles;
and
It of course divides
it is a particularly important one.
the entire celestial sphere in two halves, which are called
the northern and southern celestial hemispheres, and this
is itself
It
and
In
fact, it is clear
celestial
And
it is
ASTRONOMY
manner
quite analogous to the definition of the other important great circle of the celestial sphere, the ecliptic. For
if, as in the case of the ecliptic plane, we imagine the plane
and extended
until
it
out a great
it is
by giving
is
latitude
its
and
longitude.
on the earth we do so
Terrestrial latitude
distance east
declination
"
and "right-ascension"
which
from which
there is no prime
for
THE HEAVENS
meridian on the sky like that of Greenwich on the earth.
Instead, astronomers use an initial point on the celestial
equator, and from it the right-ascensions of all celestial
This point is called the Vernal Equiobjects are counted.
nox, and its location will be understood easily from the fol-
lowing considerations.
We
have so
for
points;
equinoctial
one
is
the
Equinox. We shall
have occasion farther
FIQ 6
Two
Cassini>s Astronomie
78
Paris
174a)
p
(After
on to explain the importance of these two points a little more in detail for our
present purpose we need merely remember that the vernal
'
"
'
'
equinox point
is
by
universal
initial
add
must
still
*Note
Appendix.
35
1,
ASTRONOMY
few more necessary
For there
definitions.
is
still
another
is precisely
on
ordinary
the celestial sphere cut out by an infinitely extended level
plane touching the earth at the point where the observer
It is defined accurately as a great circle
life.
stands. 1
This
also the
both
same
nary English.
of
which
it is
refer to astronomical
is
simply the
Altitude
is
90.
celestial
it is
a great
1
circle
36
is
celestial
This
is
north pole
THE HEAVENS
and thence extended completely around the
sphere until it returns again to the pole. Very simple considerations show that the celestial meridian must pass
1
through the north and south points of the horizon.
to the zenith,
HVO
is
generally
made
of
wood, and
represents the
tial horizon.
7,
The
description clearer.
circle
celes-
HPZAO
is
made
usually
of
and represents
the celestial meridian,
passing through the
brass,
celestial
zenith Z,
pole P, the
the north
ASQ
is
The
the celes-
tial
FIG.
7.
The
Celestial Globe.
ed.,
Tome
1,
p. 74.
Paris,
1792.)
ZV
Some
of
2,
Appendix.
ASTRONOMY
north pole of the sphere with respect to our horizon. We
shall first imagine an observer standing at the north pole
of the earth.
It is
evident from the ac-
companying
an
such
that
Fig.
ob-
in
overhead,
the
For P being
the observer's position at the north pole
zenith.
of the earth,
PS will
axis,
through
FIG.
8.
Celestial Pole
in the Zenith.
poles
And
of
if
passing
the
two
the earth.
this
axis
is
PH
is a point
consequently
of the horizon, in accordance with our definition (p. 36).
OH' is a plane passing through the earth's center parallel to
PH
To an
90.
shown
in Fig. 9.
THE HEAVENS
we
a
place the observer on the earth at E, and call
point of the equator, the terrestrial rotation axis will be at
If
because
PS,
any
must
distant from
equator
be 90
P',
north
at
pole
which coincides
with K, a point on
the horizon of an observer at E.
It fol-
we go
to the equa-
we
in
pole
FlG 9
-
Celestial Pole in
our
it is
not
difficult to realize
celestial
and equator,
it
is
clear that as
the observer
the reason
why
ASTRONOMY
star night after night, see that star gradually sinking lower
in the sky; and if they continue southward quite to the
In
the altitude, or
angular elevation of the celestial pole above the horizon, is
everywhere equal to the observer's terrestrial latitude, or
fact,
looks
called
FIG. 10.
The Right
to the horizon,
1, p.
Cambridge, 1742.)
Fig.
10,
the Right
Here the
Sphere.
diurnal circles (p. 33)
Sphere.
91.
like
all
are
all
perpendicular
by the
bisected or halved
by the
horizon,
all
"down"
Note
3,
Appendix.
40
THE HEAVENS
Now we have
the sun in
its
seen
(p. 29)
annual
circle*;
in the light of
will
We
we
see
Fig. 11.
lestial
pole
is
allel
If
at the
and the
zenith,
diur-
all
parthe
to
horizon.
a celestial body
is
entire diurnal
circle
is
horizon;
above
it
will
the
re-
FIG. 11.
The
Parallel Sphere.
to
rise.
How
would these
which
is
always
ASTRONOMY
Therefore, during half the year the sun will be between the
During that half-year its
equator and the north pole.
circles on the parallel sphere will be
the
This
horizon, and the sun will not set.
entirely above
fact
and
well-known
that
at
the
the
important
explains
successive diurnal
north pole the sun remains above the horizon six months,
is six months long.
the earth in places like New
on
To observers situated
York, intermediate between the pole and the equator, the
and day,
as well as night,
shown
Here the
lique Sphere,
in Fig. 12.
diurnal
are
circles
neither perpendicular
to the
horizon,
parallel to
it.
nor
Being
The Oblique
Sphere.
is
they
all
make
the
latitudes.
And
either.
and the south pole, as E, the part below the horizon is the
Thus it follows that stars projected on the sky
longer.
between the equator and the north celestial pole are above
the horizon each day longer than they are below it, and
vice versa.
Only stars on the celestial equator itself have a
42
THE HEAVENS
halved diurnal
circle,
all.
near the south pole will never rise. 1 Observers in the southern hemisphere of the earth, of course, have these conditions
reversed.
We
above
nights
it.
As the sun
is
our days are longer than our nights in the temperate regions
of the earth, where the oblique sphere prevails.
Only when
the sun is exactly on the equator, at one of the two points
where
it is
intersected
by the
ecliptic,
halved diurnal
circle,
We
ecliptic
are
origin of the
called
name
may
reader will
nights.
facilitate the
Note
4,
Appendix.
43
ASTRONOMY
From
For
it is
which
rises to
44
CHAPTER
HOW
III
KNOW THE
TO
STARS
ANY ONE
And
names
and
constellations as they have been handed down to us from
it is
olden times.
now
edge,
that
not at
all difficult
II)
with the
circles
It is
celestial sphere,
sphere.
is
We know
now
(p.
fixed stars
and
they appear,
now
for a
(p. 7)
here,
On
ASTRONOMY
tions practically unchanging;
any three
lie on that
months
in their
later
while
star charts
first
of
all,
may
He
is still
it.
STARS
map
no planet
is
for
if
of sunset, the
ecliptic circle
we
tional evidence as to
first is
ecliptic circle.
The
method
will
we know
(p.
sun, which, as
on that
circle.
27),
Consequently, as
is
we
ASTRONOMY
ecliptic,
ecliptic circle;
great circle
sufficient to locate
any
on the sky.
by the
ecliptic
can be ascertained
To
tically
overhead.
we have placed
in
it,
degrees, a simple fraction which will perhaps be more convenient in making actual observations. Thus, where the
table gives 46, we find also the fraction |, meaning that the
ecliptic
crosses
the meridian
90, the
latitude
46, because 46
For example,
mate
approximately halfway up
if
we should
is
approximately
from horizon to
observe at
The
New York
zenith.
(approxi-
a great circle
the horizon to a point on the meridian halfway between
48
STARS
of its Intersection
the zenith and the south point of the horizon. This imagined line would be part of the ecliptic; extending it beyond
the meridian, and around the sky to the eastern horizon,
would give us the remaining visible portion of the ecliptic.
And any object suspected of being a bright planet would
necessarily be found very near this ecliptic circle.
If
the
moon
49
ASTRONOMY
an
s,
ecliptic point
moment
on the horizon
of sunset.
moving
Thus,
an hour or more after sunset on January 1 at New York (latitude 40), we should draw the ecliptic a little to the north
of the observed sunset point in the horizon, and a little
above the 46 point on the meridian.
is
If
we
we may
further test
dusk
in this
way on
the
planetary character
the
absence
of
for
by
twinkling,
planets do not twinkle as
much as stars. If the suspected object shines quietly,
ecliptic,
still
its
sure
a planet.
another important aid
we may be
tolerably
it is
Still
is
it is
different
him
planets.
Mercury, when
planet can usually be seen for a few days before and after
the dates obtained in this way, if the horizon is unusually
free from cloud or mist.
Conditions are most favorable
it is
STARS
much
considerable
even
if
5,
The
dates are
1914,
Saturn, Dec.
7,
When
It is
it
On
ASTRONOMY
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are on the meridian, due south,
at midnight.
ecliptic,
a degree.
what
Furthermore,
all
in different years.
the planets may be obtained if the observer has a small telescope or good field glass at his disposal.
final test as to
Most
usually four, and Saturn usually exhibits the ring.
observers detect in Mars a sort of reddish or ruddy color.
Coming now
shall
we
It is
visible to the
an acquaintance.
The
celestial pole,
and very
from the
STARS
ecliptic
among them
The pole star,
In
latitude.
York,
it
by an angle equal
for
New
instance,
be elevated
will
The
pole
not very
bril-
to zenith.
star
is
liant
being of the
second magnitude, it
will be inferior to sev;
FIG. 13.
The Pole
identification of the
pole star
we make use
of
Ursa Major.
shown
two end
ASTRONOMY
exactly toward the pole star. For this reason these two
stars are called "The Pointers."
If these seven stars appear
13, the
constellation Ursa
Major
will
appear much
on the
sky than it does in the figure. The scale of the figure has
been so chosen that the distance of Ursa Major from the
pole star
pole star
the
is
constellation
and
makes
stellation figures, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, are all
to the
same
scale, to
avoid confusion
On
There
is
celestial pole:
Cassiopeia, the
"Lady
in the Chair."
It is
Imagine a
easily, also, by the aid of the pointers.
straight line drawn from the pointers to the pole star, and
found
The end
65
STARS
ASTRONOMY
is shown in Fig. 15.
The arrow shown in the figure
W.
It looks like
indicates the
In comparing Fig. 15
peia was found.
with the sky, it is therefore necessary to
turn the book around until the arrow is
nearly
parallel
to
This would
pointers from the pole star.
make the arrow vertical upwards, as shown
is.
Cassiopeia
ca]
horizontal ones
list
To
we
all
in the order of
shall use
Let
for locating the ecliptic circle on the sky.
the observer face the south at 9 P.M., and imagine the merid-
employed
ian
vertically
Let
into ninety
degrees or spaces, beginning at the south point of the horiThe following table will
zon, and ending at the zenith.
then
tell
stars in question
STARS
FIRST-MAGNITUDE STARS
appear on the meridian, and their altitude or angular elevation above the south point of the horizon when they are
thus situated on the meridian, always at the hour of 9 P.M.
The date of reaching the meridian at 9 P.M. is the same for
all terrestrial
latitudes
latitudes,
north,
his
better
when the
zenith.
57
ASTRONOMY
The
TABLE TO BE USED
IN
MERIDIAN AT 9
The above
table
is
P.M.
two weeks
earlier
table.
on
It
than the
tabular dates.
To
and
terrestrial lati-
STARS
it is
his
impor-
tant to remember
that the immediate
NNW
rizon
is
houses,
even
that
and
etc.,
WNW
when
these obstructions
are absent, the horizon itself
dom
is
sel-
WSW
entirely free
not
visible
SSW
FIG. 16.
The
"
for
some time
much
setting.
Fig. 16
in
The
is
9 P.M. on dates two weeks later than those given in the table.
It is correct at 10 P.M. on dates two weeks earlier than the
tabular dates.
To
aid
still
ASTRONOMY
b-
,-,-
<N
(NrH
w w
.
60
^;^
r ST 85
STARS
FIG. 17.
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
ASTRONOMY
FIG. 20.
FIG. 21.
FIG. 22.
62
and Betelgeuse.
STARS
we have prepared the preceding diagrams exhibitappearance when rising, when setting, and on the
stellations,
ing their
meridian.
showing the direction of the pole star and the dates when
the several constellations may be seen at 9 P.M. can be taken
;
may
easily.
It is
may now
constellations already
by the
known
In doing this
constellations
it will
be best to
and first-magnitude
stars
by means
of a
person
is
glance what stars are visible above the horizon at any hour
of the night and on any date in the year.
Planispheres
are always accompanied with printed instructions suitable
for use
by a beginner
in
astronomy.
63
ASTRONOMY
In a study of the present chapter the reader will have
noticed that
him
to
commence
his
work
it is
hoped
64
moment.
CHAPTER
IV
TIME
WE
have seen
(p. 19)
that
it is
meaning
make
us
let
a great
now endeavor
word "time"
the
the
of
(p.
in
may
indi-
to explain the
astronomy.
We
shall
celestial
1.
Sidereal time.
2.
3.
Mean
4.
unit of
solar time.
some
and
astronomers use the Day; though not the same "day" for
There is a sidereal day,
for
mean
solar
Let us consider
"star-time."
We
first
now
find that
it
is
fundamental also
of sidereal time.
F
65
in the
measurement
ASTRONOMY
As the
celestial
its
performs
sphere
diurnal
seeming
it,
the vernal equinox, like the stars, rotates with the sphere. 1
Consequently, once during each complete diurnal rotation
of the sphere, the vernal equinox will cross the celestial
meridian.
At the
precise instant
when
from the
day
is
sidereal
day
day
sidereal
will
The
will begin.
sidereal
between two
The
if
sidereal
time;
h
,
h
,
4h
etc.,
follow
in
succession;
until, at
When
at
Cf.
Note
2,
66
Appendix.
TIME
made by
we may
1
angle of the vernal equinox at that instant.
(p.
34), it
Recurring to
may be here
on the
any
star appearing
celestial
interesting relation
stars themselves.
clock,
know
at once
elapsed since
given star
sky.
We
its relation
solar time,
as
we
see
to those
of solar time,
and
to sidereal time.
which
it
is
time.
Note
5,
Appendix.
Note
6,
Appendix.
67
Note
6,
The
Appendix.
ASTRONOMY
day begins when the sun
is
counted
We
of the
sun to the
We
of
it
circle
on two
successive days.
The motion
sun, makes us
Note
7,
Appendix.
68
TIME
at the vernal equinox once each year
let
us
now imagine
it
together.
the
the instant
meridian,
sun must
still
meridian.
The
when
thus
little
by
side, it is
69
ASTRONOMY
tinually increasing gain of sidereal time
by simply making a
clocks.
two clocks
amount
365
is
will
approxi-
motion
is
one greater than the number of solar days. And the whole
between sidereal and solar time is due to the fact
difference
m
approximate quantity of 4
limits, throughout the year.
is itself
The reasons
will
is
ecliptic circle is
70
TIME
Consequently, the lag of the sun behind the vernal equinox
will not be the same each day, and as the sidereal days are all
equal, because the earth rotates uniformly on its axis, the
solar
making
uniform motion.
this in-
impossibility.
Therefore astronomers have adopted an imaginary conventional mean solar time, and a conventional unit for it,
the
mean
solar day.
mean sun
And when
the
mean
sun's hour-
angle was less than that of the visible sun, the mean solar
clock would be slow. We shall return later to the difference
in detail
the
But the
difference
ASTRONOMY
we have seen, when sun and vernal
Then solar time lags behind sidereal
24 hours.
It is zero, as
equinox.
number
of hours
In other words,
same
sidereal
and minutes
and
set
a certain definite
equinox.
it will
time.
gains about four minutes daily on solar time, each star will
rise, pass the meridian, and set about four minutes earlier
New York
;
we
find that at
(p. 60),
on February
On February
22, at 8.52
21
it
etc.
rises
at
Two weeks
after
February 20, Arcturus will rise 56 minutes earlier, or approximately one hour. This explains the statement (p. 59) that
all
two weeks
Having now
London time ?
celestial
TIME
meridian
(p. 36),
we remember
that
it
New
New York
York.
different zeniths,
and
will
have
Furthermore, we have
and
sidereal
from the
It follows that
celestial meridian.
New York
have
if
London and
two cities. Consequently, neither sidereal nor solar time at London will be the
same as New York sidereal or solar time at the same moment.
must be
different at
in the
differ ?
this question
to geography.
of the earth
they
any instant
we must have
The reader
will
recourse once
more
supposed to be divided
by a
New York
is
And
York.
Now
between
earth.
In other words,
it
will
Note
8,
And
since tune at
Appendix.
73
Greenwich
ASTRONOMY
or
New York
celestial
Many
easily in another
moves westward
in the sky,
Greenwich before it reaches that over New York. Therefore, when it is noon in New York, noon has already occurred
in Greenwich, and it is already afternoon in the latter place.
Consequently, Greenwich time is later than New York time
To complete
but
is
a mere conventional
arrangement designed
prevent the inconvenience due
to the fact that astronomical mean solar time, as we have
to
seen,
is
earth.
in
such as
York.
same
exist,
time differences,
for instance,
But there
is
or l
apart,
74
TIME
conform to the motions of the actual
visible sun
they no longer even run in conformity with the
But the standard time for which
mean
sun.
imaginary
they are regulated differs from mean solar time by a constant
clocks not only
fail
to
is
The
great
advantage of
this
system
arises
from the
mean
solar
odd fraction
time difference
make
will
arrival
practically always
watch on
by an exact number
differ
New York
by merely turning
be an
To
hour slow of
We
New York
time.
entire earth.
watch one
hour faster for every 15 of longitude he traverses, in accordance with the explanations we have already considered.
But if he should travel entirely around the earth, and
continue the same treatment of his watch, he would find,
75
ASTRONOMY
upon
similar way,
if
Of course there
traveler
days.
The above
is
inconsistency
is
real.
make
this
meridian of longitude.
76
change
There
TIME
are certain groups of islands crossed
by
this meridian,
and
it
different dates in
when
skipping a date
if
two parts
of a single city, or in
other.
77
two
cities
CHAPTER V
THE SUNDIAL
BY means
in
of the definitions
we can now
Chapter IV,
problem.
The
sundial
is
no longer an instrument of
in
is
now
everyday
importance
measured with mechanical clocks and watches
essential
universally
but
it still
We
shall
Upon
that surface
is
to
draw the
lines properly
upon the
dial itself.
we
In Fig. 23
sundial.
of this
which the
dial
measures time.
gnomon
Fig. 24.
78
in
THE SUNDIAL
FIG. 23.
Draw
Horizontal Sundial.
size of dial it is
struct.
line
cb
At the point
draw the
perpendicular to ac.
The
little
FlG 24
-
LAT.
FACTOR
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
0.466
0.577
0.700
0.839
1.000
1.192
1.428
ac has been
if
made
8.39 inches.
1
Note
9,
|0
Appendix.
79
ASTRONOMY
This having been done, the gnomon
angle at
shown
base.
its
in Fig. 25.
will
lines
line ac
in
FACTOR
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
0.423
0.500
0.574
0.643
0.707
0.766
0.819
Now
draw the long line PcQ of indefinite length, perpenand draw the two lines
dicular to ac
N parallel to PQ.
Draw the two circular arcs cc' with centers at M, and divide
11, etc.,
six
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7,
M M M M
2,
1,
line
3,
10,
The
PQ.
1
Note
Appendix.
80
10,
drawn from a
to
THE SUNDIAL
or
CD
81
ASTRONOMY
The
gnomon
drawn
in this
instrument
is
however,
turned around to the correct position. This will be the case
if the line ac is made to point in the exact north-and-south
sunshine,
direction,
easiest
of the
gnomon
watch
But
visible
must
it
(p. 67),
the sundial
The
difference
time
is
15
Feb.
Feb.
15
March
March
15
April
April
15
May
May
15
June
June
15
We
1
1
Dial slow 4
"
slow 10
"
slow 14
slow 15
"
slow 13
"
slow 9
"
slow 4
"
"
"
"
m
.
fast
fast
fast
3
4
3
correct
15
Aug.
Aug.
15
Sept.
Sept.
Oct.
Oct.
correct
(p.
July
July
15
1
15
Nov.
Nov.
15
Dec.
Dec.
15
Dial slow
slow
"
slow
slow
m
.
5
6
4
correct
fast 5
fast 10
fast 14
fast 16
fast 15
fast 11
fast
THE SUNDIAL
solar time will be
time.
solar
To
(p.
74),
ascertain
the
additional
watch time,
place where the
dial is
correction
re-
into standard or
difference of the
meridian.
wich,
is
New
For instance,
is
in 75
New
York.
This
final difference
83
ASTRONOMY
surface of our dial level, and constructed the base angle
of the gnomon such that the time-measuring edge ab is like-
And
in
gnomon
So the sun each day will also seem to perform its diurnal
rotation around the edge of the gnomon.
Now we have seen
that the apparent solar time at any instant, or the
hour-angle of the visible sun at that instant, is simply the
(p. 68)
The accompanying
Plate 4
is
Note
10,
Appendix.
Garrett, R. E.,
Observatory and
its
Builder;
Guleri.
by Lieutenant A.
Allahabad, 1902.
ff.
THE SUNDIAL
containing stone
feet
long.
stairs, is
The shadow
50
feet.
90
feet high,
falls
of the
85
quadrant
is
at the rate of
CHAPTER
VI
MOTHER EARTH
who used
to
the earth
begin a lecture on
by telling his students that
the old Greek astronomers always assigned to the earth
leading
it
earth in
would
its
ascertain
it
of our eyes.
describe
hills
it,
and that
it
Another thing
for
is
him
to un-
mother earth
MOTHER EARTH
sun at the rate of about eighteen miles per second. And
she has a number of motions and wobbles in addition to
these.
Now
is
by no means
to
be
regarded as an impossibility.
who
with facts
who
Pythagoras,
or
some
of his disciples,
1543), quotes
the Pythagorean philosophers in support of his new theories.
But it is not our purpose to trace the development of
modern accepted
shall confine
our attention to an
There are
and not a
flat
pears to be.
is
curved,
When we
is
furnished
FlG 26
u^^
e of the
Earth.
by the appearance
of ships at
examine a vessel approaching us from a diswe always see the masts and sails before the
87
ASTRONOMY
becomes visible and this quite irrespective of the direcThis proves
tion from which the ship is coming toward us.
is
convex
in all
that the earth's surface is curved
hull
directions.
It
number
of such eclipses
and always,
how do we know
it
244 of Salusbury's
quaint translation of Galileo's Dialogue on the Two Chief
SalusSystems of the World (published by Galileo in 1632
p.
bility of its
in regard that
'
him
some kind
of animals
which refresh
should
tire,
nay
it
may
it
MOTHER EARTH
enjoyeth a perpetual and most tranquil repose, keeping
in
itself
an eternal rowling."
Fortunately
proof that
whereby
it
became
Paris,
earth, as
it
perform
it
is
to
When
suspended.
But the
ASTRONOMY
tion (the direction in
will
and
Suppose we
oscillations
commenced.
ball,
Then,
if
back and
And
it
forth,
Arcturus.
and
made a complete
the mark must once
pendu-
lum's oscillation.
In any latitude other than that of the north pole, the state
But it is certain that in
of affairs is not quite so simple.
any
latitude whatever,
if
the earth
is
and
no motion
perfectly immobile,
MOTHER EARTH
whatever of the mark on the
floor
always been found to agree accurately with the rate calculated by theory 1 on the supposition that the earth rotates
on
its axis
irresistible
We
pendulum
for
an ex-
tower
move
will
faster
exists,
the
and
so
moves on a
longer radius.
fall parallel
it
was allowed
to
fall.
It
would
Note
11,
Appendix.
91
ASTRONOMY
was found impossible to avoid the interfering effects of air
currents, and because the metal balls that were allowed to
fall could not be prevented from being deflected a little one
way
The
air.
errors introduced
enough to mask
as a
first
in form.
simple method
We
moment
shall continue it
longer,
of
who
believed
He was
the sun
its
shadow
especially careful to
is
cast
upon a
level surface.
it
was
on the meridian.
simple reason.
We
is
During that
which
92
is
farthest north
from the
MOTHER EARTH
This point is called the Summer Solstice
the sun reaches it on or about June 21 of each year; on
celestial equator.
we have
all
places.
is
the zenith,
the
BC the
post,
and
of the shadow.
AB
the length
In a place where
the sun
is exactly overhead, in
the zenith, the post will cast no
shadow but with the sun at S,
;
P/ane
Horizontal
A B
FIG. 27.
And
Now
He
made
whole year.
93
ASTRONOMY
The
line joining
south
call it to-day.
two
places,
By
stadia.
and found
it
combining
this
to be, in
linear
between the
was
7
EratosFIG. 28.
thenes' Measure-
the
12,' as
we should
call it in
modern angular
measure.
Now
Earth.
'
is
on Alexandria
at A,
equal to
is
between
terrestrial
of
the entire
50
5000
stadia,
or
Consequently, the
whole circumference must be
circumference.
250,000
94
stadia.
And from
this
MOTHER EARTH
measurement
of the circumference
- b
we do not know
Unfortunately,
(Moreuil
the
Sourdon
iidier
.Arbrede
Boulogne
I
But
thenes
the
method
this old
is
to-day
method used
earth
still
for
'
Xoivret
of Eratos-
in principle
measuring the
C\ermont_
loncjuiere
and
The
distinct operations.
IDammartin
first
'Mont
Paris
lay
Two
>Briez
and
selected,
'Malvoisine
I
This
accomplished by
means of a survey called a geodetic
triangulation.
triangles
is
FIG. 29.
laid
First,
down on
chain
Geodetic Triangulation.
is
(From
Picard'a Degri
entre Paris et
du Mtridien
of
116.
Paris, 1740.)
all
and
their
ASTRONOMY
angles,
and
measured
The
down
in such a
way
that the
by which one
or, in
of Eratosthenes.
modern equivalent
This distance
is
now
5000 stadia
of the
usually expressed
in meters or in feet.
is
instruments in question it is possible to determine by observation of the stars, and with very high precision, the exact
This
terrestrial latitudes of our two fundamental end points.
having been done, the difference of the two latitudes, so determined, gives us, in degrees, an arc corresponding to the
arc Eratosthenes measured with his shadows.
linear distance
AS
the latitude difference gives the corresponding angle ACS at the earth's center. It is then easy to
linear disform the following proportion Angle ACS 360
cal observation of
tance
By
AS
we can
MOTHER EARTH
(or
number
It is
and thence
3959 miles
long.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that operations of this
kind for determining the size of the earth have been repeated
frequently at many different parts of the earth's surface.
Indeed, the importance of the problem warrants the expenditure of almost endless time and trouble for its solution
The
earth
The
radii
may
When we
number
to
of feet in
of
an arc corresponding
latitude
difference
near
the
is
is
arc
is,
but a large
circle,
with a
1
The radius of a circle can, of course, be computed easily from the
cumference by well-known mathematical methods.
97
H
cir-
ASTRONOMY
radius of 100 yards, will show but very little curvature in a
So the curvature of our earth at the poles
short piece of it.
is like
Now
it is
like that
what we should expect if the earth's form has been influenced by its daily axial rotation; and it is certain to
have been so influenced. The rotation must produce a
centrifugal force which would tend to make the particles
of matter composing the earth move from the polar to the
equatorial regions. The quantity of such motion, and the
consequent quantity of flattening, must depend on the
velocity of rotation.
If
we should
expect a considerably
larger difference between the polar and equatorial diameters
of the earth.
fast as
it
actually rotates,
best
by
it
can be solved
putations.
made
centrifugal force
MOTHER EARTH
therefore
trifugal force.
Cayenne, being
large,
and
made
it
time."
In spite of Richer's observation and Newton's calculation, many scientific men doubted the polar flattening of
the earth; especially as certain French geodetic results did
described.
all
The modern
involved trian-
of
measuring longitudes
with a precision comparable to their measures of latitude
If the two
until the introduction of the electric telegraph.
by
By means
of
these
signals,
accurate
mounted
clocks,
at the
ASTRONOMY
two
to
of
difference.
is
at once obtained,
longitude correspond
Furthermore, since it has become possible to
determine the terrestrial radius by east-and-west triangulations, it follows that we can now use equally well triangulations extending in any direction whatever, provided we
measure both the latitudes and the longitudes at the two
end
stations.
introduced in recent years. We have seen that the increased centrifugal force near the earth's equator, acting
against the earth's gravitational attraction, tends to diminish
the effect of the latter, and that a pendulum will therefore
swing more slowly near the equator than it will near the
The quantity of this retardation can be calculated
poles.
and its
But when such
earth,
observations of
of the
earth,
it is
center
when
pendulum
is
As
it is
in high northern
ing to
100
MOTHER EARTH
we need merely
Consequently,
The
time of vibration.
its
measure
varying
and
will
thus become
radius.
We may
now
known with
minor
to light.
The meridians
of
by
call
and a geoid
is
They
defined as a surface
string,
for
it
or the pull
possible
variations
and
of
the
of the pull
direction
which
it
in
which
all
terrestrial
exerts.
gravity acts,
Having thus indicated the methods employed by astronomers to measure Mother Earth, let us next consider the
process of weighing her.
And when we
101
begin to speak of
ASTRONOMY
becomes necessary to emphasize the
distinction existing between the so-called mass of a body
Bodies have weight on the earth
of any kind and its weight.
weighing the earth,
it
poles,
The
unit of mass
is
such a unit.
The weight
of a body
mass is everywhere
mass in one place, we
the same.
If
we can determine
its
know
its
MOTHER EARTH
So when we speak of weighing the earth, we mean, in
So far as terrestrial
precise language, determining its mass.
man
is
concerned, there
is
is
attracted
by
objectionable,
tronomy,
know.
We
it is
because,
for
all
practical
need to know
tional pull
This state of
the earth.
how
strongly the earth exerts a gravitathe other planets in the solar system. And
upon
attraction which
formula
may
Force of attraction
two bodies
it
of
known mass.
can, of course, be
ordi-
ASTRONOMY
nary balance; that exerted by the large object of known
mass must be ascertained by means of special experiments.
we know
of the earth
since
attractive
to
always proportional
is
the
body
of
known mass.
We
the
shall
first
so-called
Method," used
by Maskelyne
FIG. 31.
Mountain Method
of
Maskelyne.
Scotland.
He
careful
Mountain
successfully
in
1774
selected
in
for
known
body
and made a very
mass a
describe
of
his terrestrial
Schehallien,
"
it.
Figure 31
Maskelyne, "Account of Observations made on the Mountain ScheRoy. Soc. LXV, Part II,
Hutton, "Calculations from the Survey and Measures taken at SchehalTrans. Roy. Soc. LXVIII, Part II, p. 689.
Maskelyne and Hutton carried out their calculations in such a way
that the density or specific gravity of the earth was made the principal
have modified slightly their presentation
object of their researches.
of the subject, so as to make the earth's mass or weight the object sought.
We
MOTHER EARTH
method
PQ
a portion of the
earth's surface, here supposed spherical, and C is the center
SA and
are two plumb-bobs hung on
of the earth.
shows
his
of procedure.
is
NB
Owing
hill,
both
Now
was
On
also
for
make
of
known.
by means
and S.
terrestrial
latitude.
It
is
always necessary, in adjusting our instruments, to make use of a plumbbob, or its equivalent, a spirit-level, to ascertain the direction of the zenith (p. 36) directly overhead.
It
is
105
ASTRONOMY
Ordinarily,
obtained
results
in
this
way
are
correct:
by the
The
astro-
Schehallien.
and S were
necessarily
it
came out
difference
In
C.
other
words,
the
astronomic
difference C.
The
hill.
distance of the
hill
also
The attractive
by the
earth on the plumb-bobs was ascertained by weighing them
in an ordinary balance; and thus Maskelyne found the
C.
106
force exerted
MOTHER EARTH
relative attractive forces of the earth
and
of the hill
upon
And the ratio of these two attracmade known the relative masses of the earth
and of the hill. We have just seen that the mass of the hill
was ascertained from the borings, etc. and so the mass of
the earth finally became known, too. This great classic
experiment gave the first knowledge as to the mass of our
;
planet.
Unfortunately, the result was not very accurate ; the difficulties inherent in the measurement and testing of the hill
the information
we
possess as to the
if
Indirectly, yet
the earth could be
is
it
planet.
from a
fixed
by means
support
c.
silk
thread
is
fiber cd,
and
will
an ordinary pendulum,
1
until
Phil. Trans.
it is
Roy.
107
ASTRONOMY
by the continued
During
stant"
the balance
of
constant
may
itself
may
be determined.
This
is
if
the fiber
is
The
letter
is
Now
it is
its
for
any
time of vibration
1
;
and
this
such a
way
that
its oscillations
it is
Note
Appendix.
108
12,
MOTHER EARTH
Figure 33 shows the apparatus, the reader being here supit from above, looking down upon it
along
the direction of the supporting fiber cd (Fig. 32).
In Fig. 33 the line ab shows the position in which the
posed to examine
small balls a and b would finally come to rest after oscillating, if the balance were allowed to oscillate quite undis-
stead of ab.
And
are placed at
A"
be
and
6,
so that the
a'b' in-
if
a"b"
for
trans-
FIG. 33.
Cavendish Experiment.
This having been provided, it is posto ascertain by observation the distances a'a" and
sible
b'b"
and this, together with our knowledge of T, will tell
us the quantity of gravitational attractive force exerted by
the big lead balls upon the little balls a and 6.
;
ASTRONOMY
the attractive force exerted on the
little balls
by the big
ones and by the earth, we have once more the ratio between
the masses of the big balls and the earth, since these attractions are proportional to the masses according to
law.
And
for weights,
Newton's
we have
name
The
Cavendish's experiment,
6
The
mined,
size,
it is
gravity.
is
10 27 grams.
shape, and mass of the earth having been detereasy to calculate its average density or specific
This
is,
Knowing the
weight of
In this
way
much
Note
13,
Appendix.
110
of ascertaining the
MOTHER EARTH
mass
of our earth,
composing
we
it,
next
of the materials
consider for a
moment
the
is
when we
ing the borings would speedily acquire a uniform temperaAnd we have further conclusive evidence of great
ture.
interior heat from the volcanoes.
Many
theorists
is
solid.
we now
is
a central
hot enough to
but at the enormous
It is doubtless quite
is
rise
and
fall
of the oceans
solid earth,
it
is
moon. If
would be forced to
attraction of the
rise
and
fell
and
And
fall also,
if
for it
The
tides,
earth's in-
ASTRONOMY
terior
is
equal to that of
Under
steel.
we must regard
equator
at
all
is
must be swinging
everywhere 90
times,
it
in
some way.
And
as the
must
also
be in motion.
Later elaborate observational researches have shown that
such
is
The
earth's pole
is
really in motion,
'
MOTHER EARTH
We now
which
is
is
and annual
orbital revolution.
This explains
on them
And
light
is
sure to
fall
on
all
that some
way
visible.
This same cause produces the apparent bright background of the sky in daytime. Were it not for the atmosphere, the sky
would be dark
the daytime, as it is at
should see the stars at all hours. And the
in
night; and we
blue color of the sky, as well as the other colors seen at
sunset, etc., are doubtless a result of prismatic effects pro-
duced by atmospheric
Twilight
is
particles.
atmosphere.
continues to illuminate particles of the upper atmosphere.
These particles once more reflect the light, so that a certain
until the
113
is
to act as a kind
The sun
ASTRONOMY
sends us rays that are practically all light-rays. Rays of
this kind pass quite easily through the atmosphere, and
heat the earth's surface. Then, at night, when the earth
begins to radiate heat into space, it sends out a kind of heatrays that pass through the atmosphere with the greatest
difficulty only.
Consequently, the earth remains much
warmer than
first
by
by being
the terrestrial surface.
is
phere
atmos-
in the
particularly effec-
Another,
less
important,
Light-rays
the observer.
celestial
Refraction.
The
light of
For
a principle of refraction
down, without change.
that in passing from any stratum to a denser one, light is
not bent when it is perpendicular to the strata. But if it
makes an angle with the surfaces of the strata, it is bent
it is
if it
had come
in a straight line
114
from
but the
S'.
The
figure
is,
effect of refraction
MOTHER EARTH
is
to
make
all
we observe near
still
real horizon.
115
it
should be.
CHAPTER
VII
IN the
last
special reference to
have
in the universe.
We
some extent
and found how various
tion of the ecliptic circle (p. 27), and, for the purpose of a
first
But the
flattened oval or
ellipse,
is
a slightly
near the center of the oval, and called the Focus of the
These facts were first discovered by Kepler, who
ellipse.
if it
were
by means
would be possible to do so
in a very
of observations,
it
simple way.
consist in ascertaining,
any
position on the
remember,
celestial sphere,
of
city
Now
(p.
sive
is
And
circle.
that
tdiptfc Circle
the fact
served positions on
the celestial sphere
thus
all
single
on
lie
great
constitutes
circle,
an
ob-
servational proof
that the earth's
orbit around the sun
is
really
contained
in
single plane,
or flat surface.
Let
Fig. 35,
us
next,
in
FIG. 35.
Orbit of Earth.
resume Fig.
(p. 28),
drawing
it,
and
in
on
Now,
ecliptic circle
on the
celestial sphere,
117
and
let S'
represent
ASTRONOMY
various points at which the sun appears projected, when
observed on different dates. The true position of the sun
We know
is
by the
positions of the
sun,
it
sun on the
ecliptic circle
E will
as yet
lines S'S.
But
know where
on
situated
follows that
all
the points
are
those extended
We know
lines S'S.
somewhere on those
know
to
*
FIG. 36.
Sun
A
Angular Diameter.
they are
lines, but
earth's orbit
the relative
various points
be some-
we do not
we must
ascertain
distances
of
the
of observation.
what
It is quite
angular diameter.
evident from this definition that the sun's
is
is
greater than
when the
earth
is
118
farther
EI.
we can mark off the relative lengths of the distances SE. Whenever the angular diameter was found to
be large, we should make SE proportionately short, and
The first of the lines SE would be made of any
vice versa.
Fig. 35,
When
all this
E
A
will represent
smooth curve
little
But
it
ellipse,
by the
is
most important
we have measured
and
declinations,
angles only;
angular right-ascensions
And it is a
One more
might be
interesting fact
verified experimentally
consideration,
it will
be found
that the line joining the earth and the sun moves in a very
This line is called the Radius Vector.
peculiar manner.
It is clear that it
Note
14,
Appendix.
119
ASTRONOMY
of pivotal point, but
it
also lengthens
first
Each
of these areas
is
by Kepler in 1609,
a
method
of
said,
investigation quite different from that here described.
using, as
we have
the cause of
man,
At a
to
the Seasons.
cold
What
hemisphere
glance, one
of the orbit
first
When
at this
masked
is
so that
The
we
to expect hot
summer
weather.
We
is
above the
To be more
precise,
and each
is
and south
of
the
celestial
at
equator,
is still
these
solstices
in the year,
mid-
heated more or
surface
is
less in
it is
also higher
up
in the
sky when
upon the
earth
in
ASTRONOMY
seasons
is
to the date
to inquire as
We
summer
21
and we
might at
think
first
solstice,
it
about June
maximum
heat per hour and per day. But for a long time after that
date the days continue longer than the nights
in each
;
it is
it
heat
is
tion
increasing, because of increased power of radiaand so there must come a time when a balance occurs,
the outgo
is
if it
were not
the night radiation begins to exceed the daily gain of heat, and the earth
commences
After August
all
is
December
instead of June.
122
there
In the southern
summer, and
make the southern summer somewhat hotter
than the northern summer.
hemisphere
so tends to
On
the other hand, the fact that the radius vector sweeps
over equal areas in equal time-intervals indicates that
the earth must move faster in its orbit when near the sun
make
this clear
Another reference to
when the
earth
is
near
the sun, the triangles have short sides, and therefore the
move through a large angle in a given time-interval so that the short sides of the triangle may be compenearth must
sated
by an
maintained unchanged.
It is
The
when
it is
make
it
half.
in the
from an almanac.
123
ASTRONOMY
and
this
just
the sun.
summer
occurs
it
From
has
cooler
in the
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Summer 186 days (far from sun)
Winter
it
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
179 days (near sun)
186 days (far from sun)
So there
is
no equalization of winter
is in summer.
The
is
but one
way
in
is
system
It
125
ASTRONOMY
1.
The
The
circle (cf
about
34,000 years.
3.
The
of
108,000 years.
While we are considering these peculiar variations of
long period produced by the complicated action and interaction of gravitational forces, it will be of interest to describe
briefly the famous phenomenon known as the Precession
To make
of the Equinoxes.
this
matter
haps be best to
in ancient
tions
by means
vertical pole,
noon
it is
of
easy to
shorter than
is
shadows.
it is
fix
day
of
the
summer
This must, of
solstice
And
(p.
93),
circle
which
is
by the sun
to complete an entire
circuit in
its
due to the
vation,
By
it is
summer
Samos
in
280
number
of
solstice
own
with his
B.C.
In this
fixed
by Aristarchus
observation in 135
of
and
B.C.,
in 145 years.
Dividing this
by 145, he computed a very accurate value of the average
length of the year. It was very nearly 365J days.
days
is
said to
have
may
where
rises
above
This
its heliacal
circle.
rising
it
can occur only on the date when the sun, in the course
of its apparent motion around the ecliptic circle, happens
to appear near the star in question.
By
two ways
is
The sun,
of the ecliptic
than
it
again.
There
The
is
points,
of
127
and
solstice
stars.
ASTRONOMY
In other words, while the sun
is apparently traveling
the
that
circle
must itself be moving
along
ecliptic circle,
slightly in the opposite direction, so as to accelerate the sun's
Or, to be
apparent motion.
more
exact,
if
the sun
is finally
Astronomers
be determined by
interval between
sum
the
call
of the
two motions.
When
which
is
of the sun
farthest north of
its
apparent course,
The point
it
is
required
ecliptic
kind of
by
the sun to
move
Sidereal Year.
The
is
about
Hip-
difference
Now
128
effect is
Hipparchus had no
move
the ecliptic circle did not itself change, and that only the
equator and the equinox points were in motion. For
his star observations
showed that
all
case
if
change
angular
itself in
motion.
distances
But the
(declinations)
stars did
from the
celestial equator.
In
from
fact,
of Timocharis
and
From
Aristyllus,
years before
this
year he then calculated by adding to the length of the tropical year the difference between the two as he had com-
puted
it.
is,
129
We
by the
aid
ASTRONOMY
not truly spherical, but that it is somewhat
This amounts in effect to a spherical
flattened at the poles.
that the earth
is
the equator.
In other words,
material surrounding
the earth has its biggest
Figure 37
terrestrial equator.
its
It
is
intended
shows the
P.), its
and
ecliptic.
Now
moon both
exert a
gravitational attrac-
(Earth
FIG. 37.
Precession.
the
we may add
plane
of
the
moon
also happens
the same
from
to pursue an
But the lunar and solar attractions affect most
plane.
strongly that part of the protuberant ring which is nearest
ecliptic
to them.
The
force
which prevents
diurnal turning
of
this
the earth on
130
rotation
its
axis.
is
due to the
The
earth
is
just mentioned.
The
result
is
to produce
what
is
called
which
is
is
And we have
_ =
It
25,800, approximately.
this precessional
motion
ASTRONOMY
points in March and September, it is for the moment also
in the celestial equator, because the two circles, ecliptic
and equator, cross at the equinoctial points. At such times
the sun does not tend to tip the earth's equator. But at
the time of the solstices, when the sun is far from the equatorial plane, it
has
its
maximum
tipping effect.
The moon's
is
resembles a sort of
An
is
its effect
on
But
made
possible.
hemisphere
it
made
on account
Another important
the celestial pole
This star
is
now
result of precession
is
in the time of
132
PLATE
5.
in the
its center.
tail of
This is
situated at the lowest point of the circle.
in very close agreement with the theory of the precessional
which
is
motion
Of peculiar
interest,
also,
in
the
pole star.
was purposely
There can be
so built
this
Draconis when
view
doubt that
little
and there
is
therefore
it
was
this passage
little
doubt
left as to
we must
consider here.
mean
It is
now
possible to
make
this relation
between the
little clearer.
133
ASTRONOMY
In other words,
mean
solar time
may
be as
much
as sixteen
The equation
Time.
as the quantity of
of time at
its
appears to
move
circle,
circle.
But even
also
various
This, of course,
mean sun
at times,
and
reference to a celestial
equality of the actual solar days.
globe, or to Fig. 6, p. 35, shows that there is a variable angle
on the
celestial
at the solstices,
is
of the
sun on the
For we
move exactly the same distance on the equator each day to
make all the apparent solar days exceed the unvarying sidereal day by exactly the same amount.
To repeat, then,
134
We
and the
second, variable
celestial equator.
solar time
it
An
interesting
at sunrise
when the
horizon
on the meridian.
Furthermore, we have seen (p. 74), when considering standard time, that the times in actual use in certain places
may differ from their proper mean solar times by as much as
This again affects the difference between the
morning and afternoon by twice its amount, or a full hour.
half-an-hour.
On
ASTRONOMY
morning and afternoon
a
half.
Thus
It is
may
much
differ as
as an hour and
November
for
There
of impor-
royal of
very precise observations of the declinations (p. 34) of certain stars, and had found that observations made six months
apart could not be brought into agreement. There was a
slight displacement of the stars on the sky at the end of six
after the lapse of a
months;
Then
it
in direction.
own motion
in-
136
come
to
in a direction similarly
and the
light's
depending on the
velocity combined
was explained.
There
fectly
is
still
seem
in a rain
The drops
to
fall
perpendicularly
will
server's motion.
We
moves
changing
star
its
direction.
seem to describe a
The
little
final result is to
closed curve
make each
is
different
stars,
For
if
light
moved
instantaneously, or
if
the
CHAPTER
VIII
THE CALENDAR
PERHAPS the
chief
27, 1913, is
composed
parts the day of the week, the day of the month, the name
of the month, and the number of the year.
We may then
:
is
THE CALENDAR
Our fundamental problem may present itself in several
For instance, an important event in Ameridifferent forms.
can history happened on March 4, 1865 on what day of the
week did it occur ? This event was the second inauguration
;
of
Abraham
Lincoln as President.
form
of the
following a
leap-year."
century
"
will these
17th day of the month. It also appears from some rein the letter itself that it was written on a Thursday.
mark
month
In what
Thursday
know
we have
mainder."
difficulty could
days
as 6 or 9, can be
To
it
would be necessary
ASTRONOMY
to change either the length of the day or the length of the
But neither of these can possibly be altered, because
year.
both are natural units of time. The day (p. 66) is the
quantity of time required by the earth to make one complete
rotation on
and
ficial
is
and minute.
beyond
So we must perforce deal with the year and
day as we find them; our artificial chronological units are
the week and month. We have just seen that nothing would
our control.
if it were desirable.
Both the week
and the month have acquired, from their antiquity, a species
of historic changelessness which lends them a kind of permanence almost as great as that possessed by the natural
units themselves.
We
chronology.
of
two
We
In chronology,
THE CALENDAR
use one only of these two time-periods, the tropical year.
This is the interval of time between two dates when the
we
the
occurs.
,.;
,:>.
These facts make plain at once the reason for using the
Suppose we have become
tropical year in calendar making.
accustomed to midsummer day occurring on June 21.
It
obvious that
is
midsummer must
necessarily
happen
Now
suppose
differed
that
the
calendar
by a day
year
(to exaggerate)
from the tropical year. If one midsummer day then fell
come a day
in December,,
The one
make
year as
it
is
possible
to
it.
We
way
is
and
ASTRONOMY
The
is
JULIAN CALENDAR
1st year 365 days
2d year 365 days
3d year 365 days
4th year 366 days
Total, 4 years, 1461 days
X 4)
1460.9688 days
.0312 day in 4 years
or
.0078 day in 1 year
calculation
annum.
and
this leads to
calendar.
correct this
method
of introducing
We
Pope Gregory
400 instead of
4.
142
must be
THE CALENDAR
Under this
2000
rule 1912
was a leap-year
but
will be.
Let us
now
The
culation
GREGORIAN CALENDAR
400 years (400 X 365) is
and 97 leap-year days
Total number of days in 400 calendar years
Number of days in 400 tropical years (365.2422
Error of Gregorian calendar in 400 years
Number
of days in
146,000
97
146,097
400)
146,096.88
.12
and
all
may
be
practical purposes.
Sunday,
1,
Monday,
2,
Tuesday,
3,
Wednesday,
Thursday,
Friday,
4,
5,
6,
Saturday, 7.
Let us also designate as the " century number*' the first
two digits of the year number. Thus, in 1913, 19 is the
143
ASTRONOMY
century number and 1913
have the following l
is
Then we
3.
Add
call
the re-
re-
mainder
in Jan.
"
"
And
5.
call
the
Feb,
6,
March;
sum
Divide this
in ordinary years
2, in
2,
ordinary years
5,
in leap-years
1,
in leap-years
number
in all years;
of the five
sum by
7,
remainder.
Then
when
increased
For a demonstration of
144
by
unity, will
;V .;
Note
15,.
Appendix,
THE CALENDAR
As an example,
let
We
to July 4, 1913.
have
2.
3.
1.
second remainder,
The constant
4.
The
5,
20.
is
constant,
20,
Day
of
month, July
2.
5,
6,
4,
4,
for July,
40 divided by 7 gives
5,
40.
fifth
remainder,
5.
gives the
week-day
Therefore July
a Friday.
The above rule applies to the Gregorian calendar;
1913,
4,
is
we may
use
the
first
use
0.
The
it
foregoing
method
if
we simply omit
of calculation
may
but
always
be replaced by
year numbers.
L
ASTRONOMY
and February are
The calendar
to be used.
The
is
Gregorian.
following examples
petual calendar in finding the fourth constituent part of a
date for which three parts are given.
1. What day of the week is July 4, 1913?
Opposite 4,
under
we
Day
of the
Month, and
tical
column
We
in the
column headed
July,
of year numbers.
Running up
this
column to
March 4 is Sunday in
But
the
1860, 1866, 1877, 1883,
only years in this
column that follow leap-years are 1877, 1917, 1945, and 1973.
In these years, therefore, inauguration day falls on Sunday.
Having thus explained the civil calendar in ordinary use,
in the first column.
Consequently,
etc.
we
shall next, to
problem of
in
any given
subject of
all
year.
Following Gauss,
non-essential details;
we
and
Sunday
especially exclude
v.
August 1800.
146
THE CALENDAR
Add
Add
five
seventh remainder
divide
by
7,
and
call
re-
Sunday
and
its
date in April will be found by subtracting the ninth remainder from the seventh, as before, and diminishing the
difference
by
3.
always
is
15.
then always
0,
Gregorian calendar
1. When Easter Sunday comes on April 26 by the
April 19 must be substituted for April 26.
exist in the
rule,
Take eleven times the result of operation 8, and inDivide the sum by
crease the product by the number 11.
2.
30.
than
If
149
ASTRONOMY
and February are
The calendar
to be used.
is
Gregorian.
following examples will illustrate the use of this perpetual calendar in finding the fourth constituent part of a
date for which three parts are given.
The
March, we
we
problem of
in
any given
year.
Following Gauss,
we
Sunday
146
v.
THE CALENDAR
Add
Add
five
fourth remainder,
7,
and
call
Sunday
and
its
date in April will be found by subtracting the ninth remainder from the seventh, as before, and diminishing the
difference
by
3.
15.
Gregorian calendar
Easter Sunday comes on April 26 by the rule,
April 19 must be substituted for April 26.
2. Take eleven times the result of operation 8, and in-
exist in the
1.
When
by the number
11.
Divide the
sum by
If
149
ASTRONOMY
As an example,
in 1913.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
We
let
have
is 15.
is 4.
is 6.
150
+ 28),
or
March
23.
CHAPTER IX
NAVIGATION
THE
ocean
guiding of
is strictly
a problem of astronomy
certainly there
it is
is
among
the
many
for
astronomic problem of
in
consists
ascertaining a ship's latitude and
navigation
longitude by observing the heavenly bodies. If this can
its
solution.
Briefly
the
stated,
and knowing
earth's surface;
and
longi-
Inasmuch
its
destination.
may
it
is
determine their position astronomically at frequent interThese successive astrovals; once each day, if possible.
"
it
called;
and helps
When
the
a very expressive
ASTRONOMY
term which indicates how
their compass, as
little
erring heavens.
Our concern
navigation
is
leadline
is
called a
it
upon it
and the
in degrees, minutes,
telescope
EK
is
and seconds.
The mirror
pivoted in such a
way
that
it
can be
mirror m, the
circle reads 0, because the angle between the two mirrors
is then 0.
In all other positions the circle measures the
is
it is
parallel to the
and Q are
sets of colored
eye.
is
152
NAVIGATION
shown the " clamp" by means of which the index can
"
be fastened to the circle, and the
tangent-screw," which
"
will adjust it delicately, after it has been
clamped." I and
are
is
m has
The mirror
surface.
Thus only
one-half reflects;
FIG. 38.
simply transparent
telescope at
will
is
The Sextant.
ed., p. 66,
glass.
Bureau
of Navigation, U. S.
Navy.)
navigator
therefore look
the mirror.
Now it
glass.
153
ASTRONOMY
gathering power is cut
less luminous.
mer,
it is
telescope,
off,
this
view
will
be fainter or dim-
Applying
two things
the mirror m.
If
is
is
in the
hand with
vertical,
it is
its
telescope
still
horizontal,
the other half of the telescope, the solar rays having been
To make this possible, the
reflected from both mirrors.
horizontal telescope must, of course, be aimed at that point
of the sea-horizon which is directly under the sun.
The
solar rays will
first;
be thence
m; and
finally
So the observation consists in so adjusting or turning the mirror M, that the sun and the horizon
can be seen coincidently in the telescope.
into the telescope.
mirrors.
it
remains to explain
for
how
knowledge
latitude and longitude.
To
Note
Appendix.
154
17,
NAVIGATION
Omitting certain very small corrections, the
sun will then have its greatest altitude for the day so that
the navigator need only begin measuring altitudes a few
solar noon.
and "reads"
the latitude
is
The accompanying
H and
zon.
where
zon,
is
is
that
is above the
H' are the south and north points of the
hori-
it is
hori-
intersected
by
is
the
H'PSEH
north
celestial
from the
on the
where
SH
is
SE
is
pole, is
celestial
it
E, 90
a point
FIQ. 39.
equator,
The
angle
SOH,
(p.
or the arc
This declination
the point of the ecliptic circle (p. 27) at which the sun
appears on the date when the observation was made. In
the navigator always has at hand a copy of the
Nautical Almanac, which is a book published annually by
the United States government, in which the sun's declinafact,
tion
is
The
tion
SE
known
declina-
ASTRONOMY
the arc
EH
PE
known;
always 90, because it is the angular
distance from the equator to the pole. Therefore we need
is
also
it is
PE
and
EH
ment
of altitude.
through the
terrestrial
it
comes down to us
we cannot measure
center.
because, as
we know,
is
156
NAVIGATION
nautical almanac,
it,
together
To
process
is
employed.
differences which, as
In principle
we have
it
somewhat
different
seen, exist
The
is
to the longitude
fifteen
degrees of longitude.
He
them on
successive days
with
signals
may
ceeding day.
For instance,
if
a chronometer
is
found to
and gaining
0.3 daily
ASTRONOMY
Knowing the
and rate, the navigator can always obfrom his chronometers, within the limits
error
mean
solar time of
the ship;
this
ascertained
how
remains to explain
by
complished by observing the
we
of latitude determinations;
observations
are made at noon, time
latitude
while
only,
or longitude observations must be made rather early in the
morning, or late in the afternoon.
It is quite obvious that
The
culation
is
possible.
Appendix.
158
18,
NAVIGATION
simplest and most easily understood. Many other methods,
or modifications of the above methods, have been devised,
made
royal,
measuring altitudes existed for centuries before the invention of the sextant.
was forced
to find his
reached.
CHAPTER X
MOONSHINE
its
The moon
is
ward
The
Some-
where in
this great
circle
the
moon
will
always be seen
projected on the sky. The plane of the lunar orbit is inclined to the ecliptic plane by a small angle, about 5
so that
;
between the
ecliptic circle
on the
celestial
1
sphere and the great circle belonging to the lunar orbit.
We
1
learn in Spherical Geometry that the angle between any two
great circles drawn upon a sphere is equal to the angle between the two
planes in which the circles are situated.
160
MOONSHINE
As the moon
it
travels
its orbit,
we
see
its orbital
around the
ecliptic
circle.
No wonder
alike
moving
all
things.
is
is
the sky.
lunar motion in the moon's profar greater than that of the sun in its
back to the same star again in about 27J days, corresponding to an average daily angular motion of about 13. This
period of 27| days, from star to star, is called the lunar
Sidereal Period, and corresponds to the sidereal year (p.
But the
161
ASTRONOMY
minute hand of a watch
The synodic
hand.
is
is
period
To
fixed star.
Then, 27
days
later,
the
moon
will
have
circled
the sky completely, and will be back near the same star.
During the 27 days, however, the sun will have moved
moon
the
will
still
mately 2J days.
29 days long.
Probably the
first
and
man was
27;
is
again seen to be
astronomical phenomenon
"
ever ob-
the
orb
full-moon.
The accompanying
Plate 6
is
we
call
the
a photograph of
What
cause?
We
If
is
not self-lumi-
the
moon were
incandescent, like the sun, we should see it always as a fullmoon, or complete luminous circle. But it is a globe, and
so only one-half its surface can be illuminated by the sun
at any given moment.
Now if the earth happens to be so
162
Photo by Barnard.
PLATE
6.
Full
MOONSHINE
placed that we can see the entire illuminated hemisphere,
full-moon occurs. If the earth is so situated that we see
we
receives light
the sun,
we
when we
moon which
and
moon opposite
moon goes com-
And
as the
at
intermediate
we must be
so
This
is
the
simple explanation
first
phases.
FIG. 40.
Full
Moon.
found by Aristotle.
It follows from the above, as shown in Fig. 40, that fullmoon must always occur when the sun and moon are seen
projected at nearly opposite parts of the celestial sphere.
The figure shows how light from the sun illumines half of
To
is
not
visible,
and
it
is
night.
But
the figure shows that the directions of the sun and fullmoon, as seen from the earth, point toward opposite sides
of the sky, approximately.
It
may
be remarked,
also,
that
163
if
moon
ASTRONOMY
were always in a single plane, the earth, at the time of fullmoon, would be exactly in line between the moon and sun.
It would then cut off the solar light from the moon and give
rise
to the
between the planes that prevents the occurrence of an eclipse during every 29 J-day period of lunar
It is this angle
chapter.
two
successive full-moons or
is
by the
sun, not
by a
star.
of the
6,
small photograph.
It
is
162,
p.
when the
first
minated
faintly.
not come directly from the sun, under our accepted theory
of lunar phases; nor can it be light from the moon itself,
moon to be non-luminous. But it is explained easily if we once more examine Fig. 40, p. 163.
This figure makes clear that when we see the moon in the
for
we know
the
full-moon phase, the earth turns its dark side toward the
As seen from the moon, the earth is in the "new-
moon.
earth" phase.
164
MOONSHINE
we
moon
of Plate 6, p.
"
good
always appear to be turned directly away from the sun r as
they are seen by us projected on the sky. This follows
we can understand
it
we
easily,
paint a ball half black and half white, to represent the moon, with half its surface illuminated by the sun.
if
If
we now hold
narrow
sickle of
the white half, we shall always find the horns of that sickle
turned to the right, if the white half of the ball, which
faces the sun, is turned to the left.
Now
the small photograph of Plate 6 was made by Barnard, at the Yerkes Observatory near Chicago, Feb. 14,
set.
So, in Plate 6,
if
we imagine a
line
drawn
line perpendicular to
second
line,
if
it
ment may be
verified readily
ASTRONOMY
on the two pictures. The photograph of Plate 3,
shows the moon as it would be seen on the meridian
of markings
p. 17,
with an astronomical telescope; to make the large photograph of Plate 6 agree with it, it would be necessary to turn
Plate 6 around through more than a right angle in the direcThe configuration in which the hands of a watch move.
tion of markings
Having now
in agreement.
of the lunar
phenom-
ena of phases and motions, let us next consider a peculiarity hi which the moon differs absolutely from the earth.
The
principal obser-
We
FIO. 4i.
Oc-
the moon, as
earth, travels
it
moves
among
in its orbit
around the
daily
But the
stars are
jected
Therefore
The
S',
star
because
will thereit
meets a
1
The two lines shown in the figure, along which the two stars are about
be occulted, are called "chords" of the moon's disk.
166
MOONSHINE
we would
phere,
particularly as
star,
it
of the
dimming
less
dense
layers of lunar air into the denser layers near the surface.
What
atmosphere with
is
has be-
derived from
it
after collision,
bounced
off in
moon.
hold
It
it.
gravitational attraction
moon
is
is
comparatively
for, as
only about
we
-fa
shall see
part of the
earth's
167
ASTRONOMY
quite conceivable that the moon may have lost its atmosphere by the kinetic method, while the earth, by reason
is
of superior gravitational
attraction,
is
able to retain
it.
However
is
orbit
(p.
117).
It
when
way
is
We
"
between the two observatories as a base-line"
ing the moon's distance.
Nor
168
is it difficult
for calculat-
to
show that
MOONSHINE
make
distance known.
this
It
is
we have now
now
method
angular
is
is
semi-diameter
42,
radius
AC
is
the
is
"
parallax."
moon's
The moon's
or
of ascertaining the
FIG. 42.
Parallax of the
Moon.
the earth's
moon
is
the
lunar parallax. 2
The moon's
is
as
we found was
perihelion, or nearest
(p. 120), so
"
the
Note
19,
Appendix.
169
Note
20,
Appendix.
ASTRONOMY
Here the
crucial fact is
this.
enough to
at
all, if it
matter
will
experiment.
room.
in such a
way
that he faces
it
constantly.
When
he has
gone halfway around the table, always facing it, he will find
that he is looking at that wall of the room toward which his
earth.
170
MOONSHINE
revolves in
on
tion
its
We
orbital revolution
it
its axis in
This
27| days.
it
is
also finishes
of the mystery.
exact,
though
it is
very nearly
see a
somewhat
The
times.
moon around
about 6 J
but
the earth.
it
is
slightly inclined
which
The
is
from
inclination
is
it
small,
were,
6^,
first
the
moon
we
of course,
is
on
greatest
lies
exists.
It is true that
its axis in
the
is
As
variable.
when
moon
rotates
is
account
moon
On
moon
uniform,
in all
is
Consequently,
which
171
ASTRONOMY
as unimportant.
as follows
effect of
them
all
is
is
always
visible,
is
sometimes
visible.
moon and
ocean
tides.
ABE is therefore
The
fully
we know two
172
if
MOONSHINE
the
number
of
miles
in
lunar
the
diameter
AB.
The
average angular diameter is measured easily with astronomical instruments; it is found to be about 31' of arc.
This,
diameters,
it
follows
the earth
is
someFIG. 43.
Moon
Diameter.
moon
(64
volume
moon.
A somewhat more
=
is
4X4X4). More
accurately
"
problem is the weighing" of
the moon, which, as we have already seen in the case of
the earth (p. 103), really means a determination of the
moon's mass. Curiously enough, the mass of the moon is
difficult
closely that
substituting
which actually
new
affairs
resembling
and afterwards
successively, each more
exists in nature,
explanations
we can
finally con-
ASTRONOMY
And by
course,
the
center.
earth's
moon
we mean,
the earth
And by
center of gravity
Moon
FIG. 44.
And owing
the
and Moon.
to the great
of the earth as
moon,
gravity
earth's center than the moon's.
It
is,
is
mass
compared with
Center
this
much
of
nearer the
earth's surface.
Now
utmost importance.
Not only
orbit
it is
little
Thus the
it.
to
revolve
MOONSHINE
common
about their
not
make
little
moon
can-
imposes on
moon.
little
The
final result is to
a point on the
opposite the
orbit; therefore this center
circle
ecliptic
must show
of gravity effect
or retarding
the
itself
sun's apparent
directly
by slightly advancing
motion in the ecliptic
circle.
amounting to a
apparent place on the ecliptic
change
circle of only 12" of arc.
Yet this can be measured with
accurate instruments; and a simple calculation then shows
that the common center of gravity of earth and moon is
This is
distant only 2880 miles from the earth's center.
about /2 P ar ^ f the total distance between the centers of
these two bodies
therefore the lunar mass must be about
total
is
very
slight,
in the sun's
g*j
1
part of the earth's mass.
Having thus found the moon's volume to be about
^ that
and
its
and these
ratios of
Note
21, Appendix.
175
ASTRONOMY
make
obtained
of the earth.
Its length
is
called
manner analogous
of the
(p.
to the relation
We
65).
have seen
The
case of the
moon
is
precisely similar
of sidereal
time.
The
moon
52 minutes later each night means that it will also rise and
But this is only an
set about 52 minutes later each night.
in
of
the
New
latitude
York, for instance,
average figure;
the daily retardation of moonrise may vary
1 hour 17 minutes.
all
the
way from
23 minutes, to
When
minimum
of 23 minutes, the
time of moonrise
moon
moon
also
happens
nights.
to be almost a full-moon
176
is
at the
the
on such an
MOONSHINE
we have
occasion,
Moon.
This
is
phenomenon known
the
as the Harvest
moon,
To
ascertain
when
we must
discuss the
principal cause of these large variations in the daily retardaFor this purpose we may, with
tion of the time of moonrise.
close
This being premised, it is clear that the time-interval between the moonrises on two successive nights will depend
horizon
it
is
part of the
of the ecliptic
circle.
was
HH
VV part
at the intersection 7
moon
when
Exactly twenty-four hours later
the point 7 will be again rising above the horizon HH. But
in those twenty-four hours the moon will have moved along
the ecliptic to the point 7', about 13 from 7.
How much
(p. 35).
This
is
well illustrated
177
ASTRONOMY
graph of Plate
6, p.
162.
The
moon's horns
being nearly horizontal, the ecliptic must be nearly perpendicular to the horizon if the horns are to point directly away
Moreover, near the eastern horizon, it will be at a minion the same date. That the ecliptic rises very high
mum
occurs
also
shown
the full-moon
if
is
vernal equinox
minimum.
moon
is
may
and
it is
For certain
of consequence
falls.
The
their
work
full-moon, being
sets,
which occurs
and
will
remain
next morning.
Still another phenomenon of interest arises from the fact
178
MOONSHINE
that the full-moon always appears opposite the sun in the
Near the time of the winter solstice (p. 121) in Decemsky.
ber the full-moon must be near the summer solstice point
of the ecliptic circle, in order that
sun.
It follows
from
it
may
be opposite the
appear
sun in summer.
summer
sun in winter,
down
in the
i/
which
is
understood without
difficulty.
But
for
the moon, the almanacs give only the time of rising or the
time of setting,
never both. And both are not needed.
If
the
it will
moon,
for
instance,
rises
shortly
after
sunset,
It will therefore
be in the sky when the sun rises, and will set during daya phenomenon not usually observable. In other
light,
words, only one of the two phenomena, moonrise or moonset,
can be observed on any given date, and the almanac always
gives the time of the observable phenomenon.
But
this introduces
another complication.
As the lunar
In
fact, this
179
ASTRONOMY
On
when the moon does not rise, the abbreviated word "morn" is then substituted in the moon column
The following numbers in
for the usual time of moonrise.
the column then indicate that the moon rises after midnight,
rise.
the date
in the
morning.
In the lunar orbit there exists
still
much
has
To an
an
ellipse or
oval curve
ellipse at all.
not really an
traveling around the
is
is
far as
first,
space is compounded of the two motions involved
the lunar motion around the earth and second, the terrestrial
motion around the sun. Now the earth's linear velocity of
:
is
much more
is
known
is
itself
also
And
moving through
it
is
space,
the earth and the whole solar system, including the moon. This motion would also affect the shape
but we shall here consider only the two
of the lunar orbit
carrying with
it
around the earth, and the earth's motion around the sun.
It is a very singular thing, and one not altogether easy
to understand, that the combination of these motions
of the
makes
the sun,
MOONSHINE
as
shown
the sun
The arrow
in Fig. 46.
2
E\,
E%, etc., are five successive positions of the
earth in its annual orbit around the sun, separated by an
;
period
The
(p. 161).
points MI,
moon
M M
2,
moon.
etc.,
3,
MI and
are new-
M
MMM
a full-moon position
2 and
4 repThe
whole
line
MiM2 3 4 5
quartered phases.
represents a part of the moon's actual orbit in space with
positions
resent
FIG. 46.
When
moon
in
diameter.
In
the
center
of
the
crater
there
is
Note
22,
Appendix.
181
ASTRONOMY
had become too feeble to throw its lava far from the eruptive
The moon's surface also shows many "rills" or
center.
crooked valleys radiating from certain craters. These
surface features are well seen in Plate 7.
At the bottom of
photograph is the great crater Theophilus, with
rugged central mountain peak.
this
its
The
moun-
(Cf. p. 172.)
Then, from the calculable
which sunlight falls on the lunar surface at the
moment when the shadows were measured in the telescope,
and the known shadow lengths in miles, we can compute
angular lengths.
angle at
182
by methods
well
known
PLATE
Photo by Ritchey.
7.
Lunar Enlargement.
CHAPTER XI
THE PLANETS
IN discussing the
celestial
sphere
(p.
23)
of stars
are the
on
wanderers,"
Uranus
Saturn.
may
their fellows
the Planets.
(p.
These
10).
also
The
distinguishing
thing
is
that
elliptic,
the orbit,
(p.
of
116).
When
by which the form of the terrestrial orbit might be determined experimentally. These simple observations were also
183
ASTRONOMY
found capable of establishing for the earth a law of planetary
orbital motion first discovered by Kepler; viz. that the
"
radius vector" (p. 119), or line joining the planet and the
sun,
equal times.
in
Thus,
Fig. 47,
2
represents the sun, PI,
PS,
four positions of a planet in
orbit,
PI to
in
4,
its
accomplished in the
same interval of time required for
2
is
motion from
FIG. 47.
$P
Law
of Areas.
to
4.
Then the
triangular area
$PiP2
included be-
and that
seen
(p.
all
it is
law of gravitation.
exists
universally to
an attraction
P,
and let us first examine what the planet's FIG. 48. Planetary
Motion.
motion would be if there were no such
We may suppose
thing as an attraction toward the sun.
the planet to be traveling with a certain velocity, and in a
certain direction, such as would carry it to P2 at the end of
184
THE PLANETS
one second of time.
be regarded,
if
we
first
existence.
and direction
Therefore
motion which
of
it will,
it
lines
SPi
SP SP
2,
S,
vector.
The area
second
is
traveled over
the triangle
the triangle
is
areas;
and
P2 P3
this constitutes
in equal times,
attraction whatever toward the sun.
if
there exists no
but that
second of time.
end of the
2,
first
and that
it
Suppose the
first
vector
'
1
Readers familiar with geometry will recognize that these triangles
are equal because they have a common vertex at S, and equal bases
PiP2 and P 2 P 3 situated upon a single straight line.
185
ASTRONOMY
pulse toward the sun to have acted alone during one second.
But the planet at 2 is also subject to the original force,
in the second
subject to two
is
forces,
to
it
Where
it
to
and the
it
to
evidently
move
direction
in
That
between
P P and P P2'.
be P P
and at
3
3 ',
Law
FIG. 49.
by the
$P/; and
radius vector
of Areas.
$P P
2
3 '.
It is
not
difficult to
tri-
show that
the areas of these two triangles are also equal. 2 Consequently, under our present supposition as to the nature of
the attraction toward the sun, the planetary orbit
still satisfies the law of areas.
It is evident that
any number
of impulses
PiP2 P3
'
if
results.
we suppose
we can
from a
Note
23,
Appendix.
186
Note
24, Appendix.
for
THE PLANETS
every curve
number
may
be regarded as made up of an
infinite
And
mands an
Newton's law
(p.
103).
To
satisfy the
law of areas,
it
is
satisfy the law of areas, proves merely that they are moving
under the influence of a central force, but not necessarily
But
in addition to this
we know under
observation.
by Kepler;
they are
of
follows
1.
called, to
The
is
an
ellipse,
ASTRONOMY
2.
The
is
by any planet
to complete a revolu-
We
is
of areas,
to prove,
by the
all
three laws
Newtonian law.
Newton's work,
known
explanations of planetary
Tnen
2
Note
*i
25,
<2
oi
Appendix.
188
3
:
a23 .
THE PLANETS
literature
of
it
a few pages
enough, at
may well
least, to
be devoted to a description
of its peculiarities.
the Copernican. 1
Ptolemy (140
A.D.), following
of the universe.
but an imaginary
planet, represented by a point.
planet
The
itself,
actual
another
planet
circle
called
moved
the
in
"
epi-
surface
of
perfectly
trans-
FIG. 50.
Ptolemaic Theory.
but to
it
were fastened
all
This
spheres."
189
ASTRONOMY
star-sphere
also
rotated
around
the
polar axis of
the
heavens.
The
diurnal
phenomena we now
believe
to
result
all
the
from the
And
The
deferents of
deferent.
The imaginary
manner
The
periods of revolu-
assumed equal to
that of the sun, as was the case for the inferior planets
Mercury and Venus and in this way the observable phe;
nomena were
In this
to
of
reproduce
methods
all
irregularities
of observing brought
190
motion,
them
as
to light.
able
improving
THE PLANETS
In contradistinction to the above, the Copernican theory,
as we have already seen, supposes the sun immobile, and the
planets
moving
focus.
The
long prevented
adoption by
its
men
of science, is this
the
earth
if
really
revolves in an orbit
change
should
their
parent
ap-
positions,
and
E" two
Let
S be
the sun;
As a matter
of fact
we
Copernican
On
line
if
and E"P".
There would
center at S.
ASTRONOMY
first
time, Bessel
difference
then appeared
that the trouble arises from the extreme minuteness of the
certain star in the constellation Cygnus.
angle
E'PE" caused by
',
It
all
so excessively distant, in
earth's orbit.
and
in the case of
Copernican theory.
Of historic importance even
greater
than
the
above
we found
ecliptic circle
ter-
restrial
also
be a fact that any planetary orbit plane cuts the ecliptic plane
in a straight line, because any two planes in space must intersect in a straight line.
is
called
THE PLANETS
the line of nodes of the orbit.
Twice
revolution around the sun the planet must reach this line
of nodes.
When this occurs, the planet is for a moment in
much time to
Kepler had
dif-
at his
The original
Kepler's works are in Latin, and are difficult to read.
"
book from which we quote in modernized form is called Astronomia Nova
1
sen physica coelistis tradita commentariis de motibus stellae Martis ex obserIt was published in 1609, but there is a
vationibus Tychonis Brake."
langae."
in 1804
Lauderdale.
193
ASTRONOMY
disposal a long series of observations of the planet Mars,
March
5,
10
m
6 41
selected
m
,
1593, Dec. 8, 6
12 m ,
He
1
servations separated
interval of time;
d
686 23 h 31
which
|M
known
the
accompanying
In
Fig.
Mars must
the
same
position
occupy
52, therefore,
FIG. 52.
Kepler's
Mara Observations.
M on each of
the above
E, F, G, H.
These
points on a
circle
with
its
center at B,
be equidistant
if
we suppose
this supposition,
any
Mars
194
THE PLANETS
Whatever and wherever this
Mars must return to the same point after
may
orbit
be,
had Tycho's observation of the position of Mars as projected on the ecliptic circle, or rather the position of that
point on the ecliptic circle which was nearest to Mars. This
from the earth to
gave the direction of the sight-line
Mars. The directions of the lines from the center B to the
earth, and from the center to Mars, were furnished by the
tables of planetary motion in Tycho's possession.
Thus
EM
EBM
obtained by subtraction.
But when the three angles of a triangle are known, it is
possible to calculate the relative lengths of the triangle's
sides.
By
computed
BE =
BF =
EG =
.66774
BH
.67478
.67467
.67794
X
X
X
X
BM.
BM.
BM.
BM.
some point
1
uniform
;
is
not at the
but that
it is
Kepler was
is
195
ASTRONOMY
of this point C and the corredistance
between
the earth and the sun.
sponding changing
These results were of course obtained long before he perfected
able to
the most
difficult
human
knowledge.
is still another remarkable peculiarity about the
like the foregoing, of
planetary distances from the sun
There
When we compare
these distances,
Let us number
Mars, which
is
planet number
itself
4.
This gives
16.
Then
from the
1.
is
we
scientific investigators.
196
THE
PLANETS
historic
methods
we shall next
of studying the
planetajyy distances, etc.,
give a somewhat more detailed description of the planetary
and the exact nature of ^Qe observations by means
When we deterof which we study them in Jnodern times.
mine the position of a plaif^b by observation, we really determine only the direction m, which we see it projected on
orbits,
may be supposed to be
with a very fine pair of cross threads to mark the center.
Then, if the telescope mounting be provided with suitable
" :
"
circles, we can read the angles measured by
graduated
those circles, and thus ascertain the direction of the planet
of view, which, for this purpose,
fitted
and
lines,
such as the
we measure
In other words,
celestial poles and equator.
the planet's right-ascension and declination (p. 34), as
seen projected on the celestial sphere.
We
1
it is
ASTRONOMY
was made, thus fixing the moment when the planet's direcThere are other methods
tion from the earth was measured.
making these observations in addition to direct measurement with graduated circles attached to the telescope but
of
in
Direct
question.
observation
no information
gives
only
If several
its
direction in space.
made
at
by a number
of days,
moved
consider-
own orbit in the interval between the observaThe planet will also have moved in its own orbit.
tions.
Consequently, both ends of the line will have moved in
ably in
its
different orbits
and with
so that the
different velocities;
will
have been
of
an extremely
complicated nature.
But the changes in space of one end of the line are well
known to us,
the earth end. For we know the orbit of
the earth around the sun, and can calculate the terrestrial
position in space accurately for each
moment
of time
when
made
at the time
t2 ,
2,
THE PLANETS
was seen
excepting
E Pz.
in the direction
its
But
is
to
2,
And
length.
it
P we
again
the same
know
is
the line
EJP^
lines
and plane-
from observations of
kind.
this
But we know
that
sun
it is
is
an
ellipse or oval
in the focus;
certain
We know
that the
earth from our knowledge of the terrestrial orbit, since the sun is also in the
focus of that orbit.
Both
orbits
have
know
FlG 53
'
et
Obser -
thus
it
is
re-
in three
points, such that the radii vectores to the sun or focus from
ASTRONOMY
methods by which this problem can be
but several interesting things about it can be
enumerated. In the first place, the problem always has
to deduce here the
solved
two solutions
an
ellipse
lines
in its
it
own
Kepler's law.
we know
six
only;
we must know
its
orbit at
some
200
definite time
and we must
THE PLANETS
the position of the orbit in its own plane. As we
have already seen (p. 120) the planet is said to be in perihelion when it is so placed in its orbit as to be at its nearest
know
which
is
use for one of the orbital elements the exact time of periThis element fixes the position in the orbit
helion passage.
The
six
following
1.
These
fix
the orbit.
or degree of flattening J
Inclination of orbit plane 1 These fix the position in space of the orbit
2. Eccentricity,
3.
4. Position of lines of
nodes
plane.
Time
of perihelion passage.
6. Direction of orbital major axis in its
5.
own
plane.
the Period,
usually added
or time required for a complete orbital revolution of the
But this element is not really an independent one
planet.
is
jected
on the
celestial sphere,
earth, the
problem can be inverted, and the subsequent apparent projected positions of the planet calculated from the elements.
Thus
is it
201
ASTRONOMY
are tabulated for every
day
is
In
it
The measurement
is
is
effects
And
considerable
observations.
number
much improved by
of rotations to elapse
If this
allowing a
effect of
any
error
when
Our knowledge
is
therefore
still
as
very
defective.
If the
move
THE PLANETS
planetary disk, can be mapped with sufficient accuracy, we
can further ascertain from them the location of the planetary rotation poles, the inclination of the planetary equator
to the plane of the orbit, and other related matters.
Unfortunately, information of this kind
very meager, on
account of the lack of suitable spots on the surfaces of most
is still
planets.
We
size, its
measurement
and volume.
of a planet's
We have seen
FIG. 54.
Planetary Diameter.
of 10
whether
Now
its
two
lies in
if
(p.
we thus observe
direction
makes an angle
If the
celestial equator.
would be
0;
if
we have
at once
"
matter.
planet.
The
is
ASTRONOMY
on the
The
small angle at
is the difference of these two directions, and it is the angular diameter
of the planet, which is measured by observation.
celestial sphere.
it
available,
is
it
is
And
the same
number cubed
For
earth's.
it is
of their diameters;
and
their
somewhat more
difficult
problem
is
the determination
of a planet's mass.
triangle
204
THE PLANETS
We
easy.
by
planet's
own diameter
in
miles.
From
data the
these
1
planet's mass can be computed.
"
elongations," or occasions
motion around
when the
moon
satellite's
to its greatest
orbital
it
our
own
And
itself
of a close satellite
That the planets have an increased diameter at the equator, and a corresponding polar
flattening, has been verified by direct measurements in the
For the other planets its existcase of our earth (p. 97).
ence
is
Note
Appendix.
205
26,
ASTRONOMY
we
permanence or "stability" of
attraction as
of
if
more than an
extremely small in comparison with the great sun. Neverand contheless, they do possess mass in a certain degree
;
sequently there
shows
is
itself in slight
After the lapse of sufficient centuries, the planetary interactions and perturbations effect changes in the orbital ele-
in
com-
it,
requiring
many
The
THE PLANETS
known from
follows
1.
change.
2.
The
inclinations
and
eccentricities
vary in an
oscilla-
tory manner.
3. The nodal points and perihelion points move around
the ecliptic and orbital planes, respectively.
4. All changes of whatever kind are probably oscillatory
is
stable
and permanent.
After
place's
5.
mathematical demonstrations.
There
is
in the solar
"
in variable plane,"
system an
But there
exists
When we
year
(p.
of planetary period.
128)
Thus,
we imagine an
if
207
ASTRONOMY
same
star,
period
concerned, then, the earth
condition as all the other planets.
is
We
also
found
(p.
in precisely the
same
It is called the
period
(p.
moon.
pose, in
Fig.
To
define
55,
we have
it,
supthe
and Jupiter.
For both planets the sidereal
time required to
revolutions
from any
complete
two points such as
and / back
year
is
the
again to the
for Jupiter,
as
FIG. 55.
Synodic Year.
line
sun at
is
defined
We
Jupiter to
first
in a single plane.
lie
in planes
which the
This
may
be done as a
approximation for
orbits
in
lie
all
Both the sun and Jupiter are seen from the earth projected on the background of the celestial sphere; conse208
THE PLANETS
when they
quently,
line position,
and therefore
proximity, as seen
At such a
time,
"
con j unction
"
is
thus
celestial
sphere.
The
These
periods
defined
in
the same
have
way
as
lie
and synodic
the corresponding
sidereal
The
Note
Appendix,
209
27,
is
the
ASTRONOMY
time required by Venus to complete an orbital revolution
around the sun, from any fixed star back to the same star
again, supposed seen
will
When Venus is
in conjunction.
and
phenomenon Inferior Conjunction
when the sun is between Venus and the
;
earth,
FlG
nferior
an et
we
call it
Superior Conjunction.
The
following
little
Note
Appendix.
210
28,
THE PLANETS
planets the synodic periods are far smaller than the sidereal periods; and they are all nearly equal in duration. 2
It is plain that
the sun,
we
shall
is
in conjunction with
be unable to see
will, of course,
it.
overcome the
faint planet,
bility
a planet's angular distance from the sun, as we see it proAt the time of conjunction, the planet's
jected on the sky.
We
have
it may even be zero.
elongation is very small
seen in Figs. 55 and 56 the state of affairs when a conjunc;
and inferior
Note
211
ASTRONOMY
As the synodic motion advances
planet.
after conjunction,
senting
Jupiter
(Fig.
</,
repre-
57),
the
FIG. 57.
Superior Planet.
Greatest
when
there
when
i.e.
a right angle at
there is a right angle
is
of earth
planet.
When
projected
of the page.
in
for the
to be
elon-
inferior planets
Cf. p. 51.
212
Note
30,
Appendix.
THE PLANETS
we must always
of the sun,
it
must appear
This
is
much
greater, as
extreme of
it is
we have
When Mercury
seen.
its oscillation, it is in
is
greatest elongation.
is
at either
When
of the sun,
visible a short
But owing
to the
is
always projected
the
rather
of
the
bright background
against
sky near the
point where the sun rises or sets at the horizon. Thus
Mercury
is
see.
maxima
of elonga-
is
very
depends on synodic motion; as
before, the planets cannot be seen near the time of conjunction.
But as their synodic motion advances, these planets
different.
Visibility
still
we have already seen, the superior planets have their oppositions when their elongation from the sun is 180; then
they are directly opposite the sun
213
ASTRONOMY
able on the visible part of the celestial meridian at midnight, when the sun is on the lower and invisible part
51).
(cf. p.
These
oscillations cause
them
to per-
"
apparently among
west to east, which
motion.
is
"
stationSometimes, too, they have temporary
ary points," appearing immobile for a short
time, like fixed stars.
To understand
us consider for a
moment
not drawn to
FIG. 59.
Motion
Retrograde
of Mars.
At the end
of one
month, Mars
will
be at
'
M"
three
EM
or contrary
apparently retrograded back of the direction
to the direction of orbital motion for both planets.
At
E"M" Mars has again begun to move forward in its ap,
parent motion
will evidently
THE PLANETS
about the time the apparent motion changes from
retrograde to direct, Mars will for a short time appear
clear that
planet
is
of opposition,
when the
but one more peculiarity of importance in connection with this apparent motion of the planets as seen
from the earth, and projected on the sky. It arises from
There
is
They have
ecliptic
circle,
when
it
215
ASTRONOMY
1
This method cannot be used for the inferior
equation.
planets, as they do not have oppositions.
The accuracy
divided
by
500.
Furthermore,
it
was necessary
sitions, to eliminate
to
Note
27,
Appendix.
216
CHAPTER
XII
now be
many
we know very
Therefore
so far as they
cause, great
summers,
217
ASTRONOMY
In the telescope, Mercury exhibits phases like our moon,
and due to the same cause. It has little or no atmosphere
in all probability
is
no rapid
If the planet
(p. 202).
making an
If this
be
so,
moon,
orbital circuit
there
must be a
The
surface of
calculated that
falling
upon
it.
Mercury
it reflects
is
not very
brilliant.
It
has been
The
its
in full
day-
sun.
The
telescopic phases of
Venus range
218
all
the
way from a
Venus
circle
It
is clear,
sun
could
never
be
as
a right angle;
FIG. 60. Ptolemy's Theory of Venus.
and so Venus could never
show a phase bigger than the half-moon, according to the
as
small
the
turned
Galileo
moment
the
first
wrong with
detail
of
this particular
the sacrosanct
Ptolemaic
FIG 61.
remove
it
8, p. 225,
219
theory:
,.~
To
lj
this
difficulty,
necessary for
Ptolemy to
however,
..
a reproduced photograph.
ASTRONOMY
Venus gives a good example
does not attain
earth, nor
when
its
greatest luminosity
when
nearest the
conjunction
we
(p.
210).
grows; and the light reflected toward us increases in proportion to the increasing area of the visible disk. But
at the same time the distance from Venus to the earth
earth
Thus, in the
figure,
the
has
VE
to V'E'.
Thus we
much more
inferior conjunction,
brilliant
so there
to
our eyes.
must be a
certain
moment
of
maximum
it is
its
suffice
conjunction,
Venus
when
it
Moreover, Venus
is
When
these
about to occur, and just as the planet is beupon the solar disk, as seen from the
ginning to encroach
lines.
From
of
the
days, which
is
If this
be correct,
Venus must always turn the same face toward the sun.
The planet Mars, which we shall next consider, differs
Its orbit is exterior
greatly from Mercury and Venus.
to that of the earth and varies quite considerably from an
exact circular form, so that the planet's distance from the
sun, and its distance from the earth, undergo very wide
variations, corresponding to the planet's motion in its orbit.
Furthermore, unlike Mercury and Venus, Mars has certain
very well-defined and constantly visible surface markings.
These have enabled astronomers to ascertain with precision
the length of the Martian day, or period of axial rotation. It
found to be about 24f of our terrestrial hours, or nearly
the same as the day of our earth. The diameter of Mars is
is
221
ASTRONOMY
corresponding angle of inclination in the case of the earth is
66^, it is clear that the Martian seasons will resemble closely
by
ourselves.
by our
seeing con-
quently,
of its
to
it is
respects the
special
in
of their periods of
some
Their
planet,
orbital
move among
222
its
In other
!
period of
We
hour
it
in
its
one
30.3
36
jj60!
in
oU.o
^4.7
is
therefore
360
~j=*
The
make an apparent
It will therefore
is
rotation of 360
around
have the unusual condition that the lunar day is far longer
"
than the lunar month," or sidereal period.
"
Approaching now the question of Martian inhabitants,"
we must
and
their canals,
This
any?
is
first
planetary
only
if
we
must stand or
fall
in the
air.
ASTRONOMY
been constructed
surface.
When
first
seen
by
Schiaparelli the
water vapor.
by means
If
of
the solar
"
tary atmosphere containing water vapor, its
spectrum,"
as seen in the spectroscope, will show certain bands called
atmosphere.
terrestrial
only
us the terrestrial plus the Martian effects. Any observable
difference between the two is due to Martian vapor alone.
;
cessful
there
if
is,
the
method
of observation
cannot be suc-
there
is
summit
of
necessary
spectra of
ft.)
in 1909.
He
took the
Photos by Barnard.
PLATE
8.
Mars and
At the
existence.
previously ignorant of
its
destitute
even the
faintest.
On
of
And
the Martian
having been
m
22 between the
made
an interval
of l
pumped
ASTRONOMY
But
it
we
in this
way
we
Note
Appendix.
226
31,
book
cordingly, in his
Mars and
entitled
its
Canals, pub-
Venus observa-
engraving."
in
is
changed
some reason,
his opinion.
who was
is
furnished
by Mr. A. E.
Canals of Mars."
This
and
Vision,
tion of
his actual
words
many
(sic) is
to
faint canals
says
1
and the
title
"Illusions of
entitled
Science Monthly,
illusion,"
he
Monthly Notices
of the
ASTRONOMY
"The double
Perrotin and
canals of Schiaparelli in
Thallon in 1886
are
.
1881-2 and of
.
due to
this
cause."
And
again
"Thus,
in conclusion,
we
defects in the
correctness
come
of
an
observation.
At
may
least
impair
im-
five
perfections
examination,
into
play
after passing
what we think we
came through the eye and
pression;
it
later.
is
distinguish
Now
if
and
indistinct,
of visibility,
trembling, as
it
And
this
seeing
it,
or bring
ings.
see so
they
may
visible.
The theory
also furnishes
number
an explanation of the
of observers think they
faint canals.
Coming now to a consideration of the photographic observations, we must mention one or two matters that are
not well known to the general public. In the first place
the size of a Mars picture made by direct exposure of a
photographic plate at the focus of the Lowell telescopes is
not larger than the head of an ordinary pin. From so small
a picture
Therefore
are
Two
229
ASTRONOMY
method.
and secondly,
The cause
it
is
The
total
Mars
Experiment has shown the greatest photographic enlargements that can be made in this way with
the Lowell telescopes and the negatives of Mars, including
the most recent ones made in the Andes, never exceed threein the sky.
photographs
is
may
strong as
be necessary.
particles
upon the
plate,
been exposed to
light.
arate
of
particles
wherever
The
silver.
its sensitive
picture
is
surface has
230
is
very different
if
we magnify
same
difficulty occurs
effect is lost.
made by
the same
observers
We
artificial
network of markings
whether geometric
inhabitants
if
We
Minor Planets
1
Those shown in Plate 8, p. 225, made with the 40-inch Yerkes' teleand they show
scope, are about twice as large as the Lowell photographs
no signs of geometric canal networks.
;
231
ASTRONOMY
orbits situated
up
to the present
Much
ever observed,
still
more peculiar
for this
and
And
Jupiter.
of the
ingly organized to
unknown
planet.
make a
observations.
repetition on
Sometimes he found an
error,
which
observed
it
on another night.
232
also
an additional star
close by,
The conclusion
was irresistible that the new star was the same one he had
observed before, and that it must have moved among the
remained unobserved on the previous night.
This motion
among
the stars
is
magnitude and
many
visible easily
and from
in
solving
at Gottingen, Gauss
this
difficult
by
problem;
was easy
to find the planet again as soon as the apparent motion of
the sun in the ecliptic had brought the planet to a position
where it could again be sought in darkness.
A year later, in 1802, the second minor planet Pallas was
his published orbit
233
and ephemeris
it
ASTRONOMY
found.
was not
From
and
in 1807, Vesta.
;
It
in
1847.
that
several hours
work attached
it
would move
slightly
during the period of photographic exposure; and consequently its image in the picture would be drawn out into a
instead of appearing as a round dot like the
Thus the presence of a line would infallibly
stellar images.
short
line,
betray the existence of a planet. As many as seven planetoids have been thus found on a single plate so the method
;
effective.
To
enormously
our minor planet knowledge during the past twenty years.
Plate 9 is a photographed field of stars, with two planetoid
"
trails."
They will be found near the middle of
lines, or
is
it
The
two planetoids.
Photo by Barnard.
PLATE
9.
Discovery
of Planetoids.
some
peculiarities.
no
interesting
orbits
appear.
|, etc.,
which
will
relation
is
(p.
206)
must
|,
result,
that Jupiter has forced the minor planet orbits out of these
critical positions in space, and made them congregate at
intermediate positions.
As to the size of the planetoids, it has been computed
that the mass of the entire group can be but a small fraction
of the earth's mass.
The individual planetoids are probably
not more than one ten-thousandth as massive as the earth,
and their diameter will not average more than twenty miles.
into a single
an exceptional case
in cosmic evolution.
235
ASTRONOMY
Among the minor planets is one very remarkable one,
discovered by Witt in 1898 and by him named Eros. Its
orbit comes well within that of Mars, and it approaches the
earth at times nearer than any other planetary body except
our own moon. It can pass within about 13 J million miles
is
Markings
mysterious ring.
character exist
of a
more
or less permanent
planet's equator.
are
for Jupiter
must have retained, and must possess, a deep layer of atmosphere, on account of his very high gravitational attraction
and since there is also a high albedo, or
(see pp. 167, 222)
;
power, we should
reflecting
The
axis is only 3
ture
must be very
no considerable seasonal
differences of temperature.
If this
be correct,
a small telescope.
by
The
follow-
Evening Post.
when he
satellites of
7,
1610.
first
Jupiter?
He had
al-
ready viewed the planet through his earlier and less powerful
glass, and was aware that it possessed a round disk like the
moon, only
smaller.
Now
took to be
Long afterwards,
in one
old English by
he
declared
that
"one
sole
experiment sufficeth
Salusbury,
to batter to the ground a thousand probable Arguments."
ASTRONOMY
that the third was behind the planet's disk. The positions
of the two visible ones were altogether different from either
of the previous observations.
On
1892,
who
followed Galileo.
To understand
the
memory
of
universe.
satellite
no
becomes invisible.
At other times a satellite will " transit" between us and
Then it generally becomes invisible, too, unless
Jupiter.
it happens to be projected against a dark part of the Jovian
surface, such as one of the cloud-belts.
Finally, a satellite
sunlight to reflect in our direction,
and
satellite receives
so
may
None of the
all
the satellites
when an
eclipse occurs,
If
we note
and compare
it
multiplied
by
15,
And
this,
He
time for
its
eclipses,
transmission.
239
satellite
ASTRONOMY
During half the year they came too soon, by
gradually increasing amounts; during the other half-year
intervals.
approaching Jupiter
too late
when
was increasing
it
its dis-
at
sooner,
and
the
observers
saw the
event
too.
is
It
earth
sooner,
clear
from
difference
celerated
eclipses
EiE2
bit.
FIG. 62.
lows that
Roemer's Discovery.
when the
earth
is
at EI,
an
eclipse will
be observed
it
result
light
and the
earth's
Since
that light
240
this
number by 998
The
by the
planet Saturn
ancients.
is
and
this
number
is
correct.
The most
from
Galileo,
who saw a
couple of
"
handles" or ansce
was unable
them up as
to see
them
at
The
all.
is
story
that he gave
inexplicable.
Huygens published a
book De Saturni Luna Observatio Nova, in which he announced
the discovery of a satellite, and also gave a correct explanaBut Huygens was not quite
tion of the mysterious ansce.
He was most
certain that his explanation was right.
of
anxious to secure for himself the priority
discovery, and
to
make
a
and
he
was
premature
unwilling
possibly inyet
Nearly half a century later, in 1656,
correct
announcement.
device of a
"logogriph," or puzzle.
Saturni Luna as follows 1
De
It
appears in the
aaaaaaa
ccccc
mm
1111
eeeee
nnnnnnnnn
ttttt
It
was not
oooo
pp
h
q
iiiiiii
rr
uuuuu
book
entitled
It
may
be found in
's
2
:
241
ASTRONOMY
"Annulo
tenui piano,
cingitur,
nusquam
cohaerente,
ad
'
eclipticam inclinato.'
At the same
exhibiting
time,
several
he re-published a
incorrect
series of
interpretations
of
drawings
the
ring
served 1610
Fig. 2,
by
Scheiner, 1614
Figs. 3, 8, 9, 13,
by
Ricciolus,
fine
any other astronomer had published the true explanation after 1656, Huygens could have
proved his claim to priority by re-arranging the letters of his
On the other hand, if further researches showed that
puzzle.
his explanation was wrong, he would never have made
known the true meaning of his logogriph, and would thus
have escaped the ignominy due to publishing an erroneous
So the method of announcement was comexplanation.
If
axes of
all
Same
edition, p. 634.
242
CO) CO)
PLATE
10.
Saturn.
This
there.
circle
circle
necessarily
meets the
ecliptic
sphere.
Saturn revolves in
about 30 years.
its
Therefore,
it
When
Ecliptic
FIG. 63.
Phases
of the
Saturn
nodes
is
thus
Plane
of Saturn's Ring.
illustrated
in Fig. 63
then
lie
H in its
node at H'.
on the
line
node
S'.
ASTRONOMY
so that
it is
When
the earth
ring edgewise
is
invisible,
on
But the
on the other.
ring
is
illuminated
system.
telescopes will
This
light.
p. 242),
still
show
appearing like
it,
but powerful
a fine line of
is
in the ring.
in Plate 11,
we have added a
fine photothe
graph,
by Barnard, showing
open phase. This
negative was made Nov. 19, 1911, with the 60-inch reflecting
telescope at the Mt.. Wilson observatory in California.
edgewise phase
also
of ring-disappearance occur
fifteen years.
is
But the
open into a circle, for the earth can never be elevated more
than 28 above the plane of the ring, since 28 is the angle
between the ring plane and the ecliptic plane, in which the
earth
is
always situated.
And
244
elevated 90
ring as a circle.
moving
in
orbits
of
for a
with which the edges of the ring approach the earth, or recede from it, as the ring performs its axial rotation around
the polar axis of Saturn. Now it can be shown mathematically that if the ring is really a mass of satellites, its outside
its
inside edge. 1
On
the
other hand,
if
that the outside of the ring was moving 10 miles per second ;
the inside, 12| miles; and he thus verified observationally
the correctness of Clerk-Maxwell's mathematical conclusion.
Note
is
destined to rank as a
Appendix.
245
32,
ASTRONOMY
We
classic observation.
an ancient
But
and incapable
ring constitution
of
method
all this
essentially novel,
constitutes a chain of
Although he worked
very hard at his music, he found time to study also his
favorite sciences of mathematics and astronomy.
Having
nothing on
faith,
my own
telescope,
each of greater size than the last and with each he made a
re-survey of the entire visible heavens. On his tomb is
;
was
made with
to
of
the
new
orbit,
and that
it
must
be a new planet.
an unexplained difficulty in the Laplacian nebular hypothesis (p. 235), which would seem to require all satellites to
revolve in the same direction.
servations of
it
its
But
it
had always
its
ASTRONOMY
planetary character on sight, even in the telescope. But no
orbit could be found which would bring these early observations into accord with the
accumulated immediately
soon refused to live up to
after discovery.
its
And
to be
the planet
modern observations,
also.
throw
it
alternately in advance of
and behind
orbital position
its
proper
it.
an orbit
him
new
object
on the sky.
We now know that this position given by Adams was correct
"
within 2, so that a little careful sweeping" with the telescope would undoubtedly have revealed the planet. But the
with his big telescope in a certain definite position
Leverrier,
by August,
was
the story
also
is
working
had
letter.
was an
been seen at
One
moment
exciting
the
last.
curious fact
is
(p.
that both
Adams and
Leverrier
made
for the
exact for
it fails
all
planet's orbit.
success
gravitation
it is
proper to divide
It is certainly great
Adams and
known
satellite.
it.
There
is
but one
further planets
made
But there
in the heavens.
is
The
ASTRONOMY
whole thing may perhaps be best explained as a ring of
excessively minute planets, revolving around the sun in
an orbit larger than that of the earth. Those near the sun
would, of course, be the brightest and the Gegenschein would
be the combined effect of an infinitude of these particles
;
CHAPTER
THIS TIDES
affection
between
allied bodies
may
In the
level
changes considerably.
During six hours, approximately, the waters rise ; and again, for about six hours, they
fall.
In each day there are ordinarily two high tides and two
Furthermore, in addition to merely rising and
the
water also flows along the coast, in one direcfalling,
tion during a period equal to the time of rising tide, more
loir tides.
or
less,
and
a period corre-
tide.
Thus strong tidal
and navigators frequently take advantage
currents exist;
them to increase the speed of ships, especially in the case
of sailing vessels engaged in the difficult business of beating
of
an adverse wind.
a moment as a globe
uniformly covered with a shallow ocean. The most im(as it is called) against
We
251
ASTRONOMY
portant cause of tides on such an imaginary globe would
be the gravitational attraction of the moon. We know,
from Newton's law, that such gravitational attraction diminan increase in the distance separating the
attracted particle from the moon.
Consequently, the moon
attracts the water on the earth's
beneath
We
it.
The
FIG. 64.
t
Tides.
earth which
moon.
But there
opposite the
solid earth
;
because
it is
moon
M,
heap
that
nearest to the
is
also
and
to
this
it is
earth at
is
should there-
moon
moon
tending to heap
it
up
and
at 0,
it
should pull
moon is not
any given
252
place,
it is
pulling the
THE TIDES
water particles eastward with the horizontal fraction of
After crossing the meridian, it of course pulls
westward and therefore the result should be an oscilla-
the force.
them
day
(p.
176)
solar hours.
would follow the moon around, as the earth rowould not be under the moon. It can be shown
tates,
that it would, in fact, ordinarily be 90 distant from the
point under the moon. And there would be a second crest
The
crest
but
it
opposite the
Fig.
first,
moon
around.
is
of the semi-diurnal
it
equal
size.
In general,
is
now
of un-
still
reason as
FlG 65
-
Diurnal inequality
of Tides.
ASTRONOMY
the tidal crests to be under the moon and opposite it, and
the earth rotating around the axis NS, a person at P will not
have as high a high tide as he will have twelve hours later,
It is due, of
the
moon
really
is
sphere
equator at
(p. 160),
two
which must,
points.
And
circle of
the celes-
it
is
actual tidal observation that the diurnal inequality disappears twice each month. Then the two tides are equal.
To complete
must be mentioned.
First,
we
two more
details
When
it
is
perigee
any other time.
In
about
greater at
moon, but
its
THE TIDES
only about ^T of the lunar tide.
The sun is far larger than the moon, but its greater gravitational attraction due to mass or bulk is more than counterforce, so that the solar tide is
5 to 11
5,
or 8 to
3,
be-
of the lunar.
T\
outline of tidal theory
is
to
be
large.
The water
will
practically
oscillate
about a
ASTRONOMY
But
basins overlapping,
nearly as stated.
more
or
less.
result
is
When we come
Here the
is
local
oscillation,
set
up by
a special
In such cases,
is
more.
Tidal phenomena produce results of importance other than
Tidal evolution is a term
is
(p. 2) tells
us that there
THE TIDES
can be no manifestation of new energy, such as we have
just mentioned, without an equal and corresponding dimthe manifestation
inution of
is
of
The
axial rotation,
and
minute
ages of time.
have
But there
siderations
is
another interesting consequence of these condoes terrestrial tidal friction affect the
how
moon's motions?
celestial equator,
moon
is
shown
in the
and the
cording to theory, as we
(p. 253), these
have seen
protuberances or
crests should be at
,
and
90
B,
tidal
much
But
FIG. 66.
the terrestrial rotation, must also make the two protuberances lag behind their proper positions at A and B. This
increases the lunar
nearer the moon than H'
brings
attraction at
celerates
arrow.
Now
it
s
can be demonstrated
257
ASTRONOMY
mechanics, that increasing the velocity of a body moving in
an orbit will increase also the size of the orbit and the period
of revolution of the body in the orbit.
Therefore, tidal
and
must also lengthen the lunar sidereal period. In the hands
of G. H. Darwin, these simple principles have led to an
extremely plausible theory as to the formation of our moon.
According to Darwin, the moon once formed part of the
earth
the entire mass was in a semi-liquid or plastic condition and was in quite rapid rotation about an axis.
There
was a tremendous flattening of the earth at the poles, due
It can be shown mathematically that such a
to plasticity.
rotatory flattened plastic body may assume any one of
friction
earth,
several shapes.
The
fact
prove that the pear-shaped figure actually was the one that
happened to prevail. The rotating pear-shaped figure should
then pass over into an hour-glass from that to a dumb-bell,
with unequal weights at the ends. Finally comes a separation; a true planet with a moon, both revolving rapidly
;
about their
common
other.
Now come
gigantic tides
tides
Frictional forces
they were
and
dominating forces. The moon was driven
farther from the earth; and the lunar sidereal period was
lengthened, until both bodies reached the condition now
farther
existing.
If this
theory
is
correct,
it
THE TIDES
ages the final condition of our moon,
when the
last stage of
its axis in
moon making an
in precisely the
orbital revolution
same
period.
an unbending bar.
259
CHAPTER XIV
THE SOLAR PARALLAX
WE
we have assumed
in fact,
all
the elements
200) of the
(p.
mean
simply
half
Solar Parallax.
FIG. 67.
SU PP OSed to
>
be seen
from
the
C and
earth at
at
angudiameter of the earth as seen from the sun, and is therefore the solar parallax.
A simple equation exists, 1 by means
lar
If,
angle
tan
TT
L)
OT
=
tan
TT
(Cf.
Note
260
20,
Appendix.)
of
parallax"
is
"
solar distance.
"
The
The
is
8."80.
We
now
shall
The reader
will
consider various
is
This difficulty can be obviated in some degree by measuring the solar distance in an indirect manner. The distance
is
planetary orbits.
law
(p. 188),
we can
of Kepler's
harmonic
orbits, here
261
ASTRONOMY
date,
if
we have
Such a map
will
map.
To
know
map
ascertain this,
the
number
of miles
will
it
be
sufficient to
known
map
of the solar
system
also
becomes
in miles.
This work will be most accurate, if we select for measurement a planet which comes comparatively near the earth,
after
all,
approach.
For,
distance from the
diameter in the
we
way
sur-
POM
by
OM
OM
We
1
can, of course, substitute a solution of the triangle
for the geometrical construction.
262
by trigonometry
this
The
time
is
planet
selected
two
the line joining the two obcan use the "diurnal" method. In this
Or we
is
on
carry the
263
ASTRONOMY
us disregard the slow orbital motions
and the earth, since these will amount to but little
Mars
of
in the
let
FIG. 70.
Diurnal Method.
MW
the earth.
an auxiliary some
small star appearing near Mars on the sky.
In Fig. 71, which represents a part of
way to
Star
FIG. 71.
Observation of Mars.
observe
is
to use as
method
server's
is
of observation,
shown.
In either
to the ob-
owing
change of position from one end of
tion,
in
all
and
same
measured
Mars
way
(p.
as seen
in the
is
described later.
the distance of
earth.
O Ow
e
at
Comparatively simple
all
be made by one
struments, etc.
and
differences
necessarily separated
by
between
different in-
if
but they
265
ASTRONOMY
the two planetary orbits produce slight indirect inaccuracies
in the resulting parallax determination.
But
in the two-observatory
method
it
is
by no means
The two
weather
is
is
The
when it
on the earth.
Indeed,
as
purpose.
the diurnal base-line might be a long one. For at the pole,
of course, the diurnal circle shrinks into a mere point.
Gill obtained the value 8. "78 for the sun's parallax from
the Ascension expedition, but it appeared that various
causes interfered to render the result less exact than was
desired.
Chief
among
these causes
was the
difficulty of
266
of
course,
of personal
like
star
arise.
measuring the
made
this value
all
is
now regarded
as the
authorities to determine
work
of Gill's
nearer than any other object in the heavens except our own
moon. Consequently, its distance from the earth must
One
of
(cf.
the close
p. 263),
267
ASTRONOMY
time by the newly perfected method of photographic
observation.
Results have been published only very reand
they confirm Gill's value, 8. "80.
cently,
this
is so superior
other methods are of historic interest only; but,
historically, the famous determinations from transit of
that
all
Venus
when
is
It
happen whenever the inferior conjunction takes place at about the time when
will
or, in
is
other words,
on the line of
sun in a
line
ground,
planet
is
when near
268
"new Venus,"
of the
if
the analogy
moon.
His method
FIG. 73.
is
shown
in Fig. 73.
Two
be determined.
would be possible to observe the durations belonging to the two chords within two seconds of
In actual observable transits of Venus this would give
time.
Halley thought
it
because Venus
has an
atmosphere
durations
in
the
observed
errors
introduces
which
(p. 220)
of
1874 and
transits
modern
in
the
Even
of the chords.
possible,
principally
XXIX,
p. 1716, or
Hutton's
ASTRONOMY
an interesting astronomical story connected with
It seems that in the year
1639 there was a young curate in England a man living in
miserable circumstances, but nevertheless inspired with an
There
the
first
is
own person two of the most poorly paid proof an unbeneficent clergyman of the estabthat
fessions,
A diligent student
lished church, and an astronomer.
united in his
occur on Nov.
4,
1639.
He was
unable to
fix
the exact
had a little telescope, and prepared himwatch the sun through the entire day.
Now comes the peculiarly human part of the story. He
found that the eventful date would occur on a Sunday. It
seemed of the last importance to secure the observation,
which was at that time an unprecedented one the circumstances therefore found him undecided between his duty at
church and his keen desire to secure fame as an astronomer.
hour, but he
self to
His sense of duty prevailed he decided to give to the telescope only the intervals between services. And he had his
:
and in November.
seen in Westminster Abbey,
commemorating this famous
d' Astronomic,
tion
was
still
is
to
At that time the Horrocks observafounds many calculations upon it. The
270
quite independent
Briefly stated,
it
way
is
consists in
measuring the
method.
slight perturba-
motions of
produced
the planets. These perturbations are caused by gravitational attractions between the bodies concerned, and the
tions (p. 403)
possible to
tions
or,
be computed.
in Sole Visa, published by Hevelius in 1662 at Dantzig.
reads, "Ad majora avocatus quae ob haec parerga negligi
1
Note
34,
Appendix.
271
The quotation
non decuit."
CHAPTER XV
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
IT is not easy to understand the details of instruments
from printed descriptions and illustrations. A short verbal
explanation, by an astronomer in an observatory, with the
observatory, we give here a brief account of the most important kinds of astronomic apparatus, prefacing it with Plate 12,
a photograph of the famous Lick observatory buildings on
the
summit
of
Mt. Hamilton,
in California.
To
filled
upon
it falls
image of the celestial body near the small end of the tube
where the observer places his eye. Between this focal
image and the object glass, the tube is empty.
The other
or microscope, and
is
is
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
that the observer will see
more
detail
made up
of
it
By
this
compounding
But each compound lens really acts like a simple lens, except
it does its work better.
Galileo's telescope of 1610,
which found the moons of Jupiter and the spots on the sun,
had single lenses only.
Telescopes intended for terrestrial use have an extra lens in
"
the eye-piece, called an
erecting" lens. For the simple
that
right
and
in
quence
and a round planet
the other.
inverted.
But
may
This
of
no conse-
is
is
no up or down in space,
be observed just as well one way as
we must have
ob-
This
another form:
T
"How
ASTRONOMY
moon?"
The moon's
distance
miles
away.
From what
just as great as
we care to make
it.
Suppose we are observing a planet, such as Mars, for inThe quantity of light received from Mars may be
stance.
we double
from Mars
is
an image.
Now
we
if
shall
of light
and
so
Increase of magnifying
the image is dimmer than before.
in
the
the
image and brings out
power
eye-piece enlarges
more detail; but it makes that detail fainter (cf. p. 230).
unable to see
it
on account
of faintness.
powers.
274
It
is
"
battery" of
customary
for
the
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
astronomer to try gradually increasing powers until he finds,
by experiment, the one that gives the best result. It will not
especially clear.
As soon
increase
as the
is
reached, no further
the
enlarge
object glass; or,
the whole telescope bigger. With a
make
glass we can
in other words,
larger object
is
we
possible, unless
must
dim for practical use. Experience has shown that under the most extremely favorable
it
too
web
for
When
ASTRONOMY
of a star
brought to the exact intersection of the crossthreads, by moving the telescope, the instrument is aimed or
"
is
FIG 74
threads
Cross
in a
precision
(cf.
is
p. 197).
Sometimes the
by a
ment
and
cc' is fixed.
The two
bb
shown
replaced
In such an arrangement
are made movable, while
is
in Fig. 75,
moved
nearer
measuring accurately their distance asunder. This arrangement is called a micrometer (p. 265), and with it short
for
Mars
The methods
(p.
118)
of
276
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
There is no
rotation axis, firmly attached to the telescope.
motion of the instrument, except rotation around this one
but a complete rotation about that axis is possible.
is made to point due east and west when in
axis;
The
line
AX
made
is
it
perfectly
So the telescope
point north or
level.
must
it
0, until
beyond
it
sphere,
it
sphere at
the
(p.
meet that
some point of
will
meridian
celestial
36).
And
telescope
through
rotation
is
if
the
turned
$^$$$^$^
complete
around the
FIG. 76.
Meridian
Circle.
axis
AX,
It
circle
results
277
ASTRONOMY
sions of stars
astronomers.
and
circles c
By
c',
(p. 36) of
From
the star, or
moment when
at the
this
its
it
measurement
is
possible to
of altitude
it is
possible to calculate
the
moment
of observation.
"
employ
is
brass
be reduced below
The above
amount.
observing stars of
make known
this small
unknown
method
of
their right-ascensions
278
PLATE
13.
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
known
by
stars
and
will
then
clock.
astronomic standard
may be
"
we must next
(cf. p. 18).
instrument
consider the
all
inches
vator, so that
the observer
of
sky.
strument
itself is
lowered.
under
The
James
mounting
first
essential of such a
"universal joint," so
not
telescope
it.
of the sky.
is
the
A single axis,
sufficient.
circle,
A'
279
ASTRONOMY
tions furnishes a universal motion, giving access to
any
so constructed
toward the
celestial pole
Since the stars
(p. 32).
around that
33)
(p.
it fol-
pole,
them around
the
axis
polar
equatorial.
plifies
the
of
This
sim-
strument;
for
a star
The
tele-
^$^w$$$^^^^
FIG. 77.
For the
Equatorial.
The
tronomer
without
is
thus
left free to
pursue
his observations
telescope.
If there
as-
were no
inclined polar axis, but, in its place, a pair of axes, one verti280
PLATE
14.
The Crossley
Reflector.
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
cal and the other horizontal, this simple clock-work plan
would be impossible.
The equatorial carries two circles, c and c', divided into
With the circle
degrees, and attached to the axes A and A'.
c' it is possible to measure the declination (p. 34) of an object
in the field of view
and with the circle c its hour-angle (cf
.
p. 68)
can be measured.
object which
is
angle,
The
"
when
it
And
invisible to the
known
the object's
will at
we wish
if
known
two
and hour-
declination
field of
view.
refractor" with
its
object-glass
object-glass lens
is
replaced
eye-piece.
But there
reflector," in
which the
and
is
to find a
"
by a curved
This
mirror.
The
focal
(p. 4).
are
always mounted equatorially, and their clock-work mechanism is made especially precise. For when it is desired
make
to
If this
ASTRONOMY
To be
negative."
With
at once
show
itself
move
telescope, while
it is
being
astronomer can
and
for this
purpose the
The
last
is
being exposed.
to be described
instrument
astronomic
important
here is called the Spectroscope, of which Fig. 78
The reader
that if we
will
recall
look
at
The
Spectroscope.
green,
blue,
indi g>
yellow,
The
orange, red.
there
is
lens, 0, to
The
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
other brass tube is merely a little view telescope O'E, with
"
which to examine the spectrum" and to magnify it. Frequently it is better to substitute for the prism a glass plate
on which a great number of very close parallel lines have
Such a
glass spreads
end of the big Lick telescope. Three prisms are used and
the eye-piece of the view telescope is replaced by a plateholder, so that stellar spectra may be photographed.
;
we send
is
if
as follows
we send
in white light,
which
is
number
of slit-images side
by
it
But
if
mine the
the
lines.
name
We
This
is
well
shown
in
singular thing of
and potassium.
all relates
to the
"
absorp-
this is
sift
out,
283
and absorb,
precisely those
ASTRONOMY
which the gas or vapor would itself
were incandescent, and which would then appear as
light-rays or colors
emit
if it
formation of
lines
and
And there is
stars.
may
still
another kind.
of
It is
in-
ordinarily seen in
the spectrum.
We
are taught
in the
Now if a
light-waves; violet light, the shortest waves.
source of light, such as a star, happens to be increasing its
distance from us at the time of observation, we shall receive
fewer light-waves per second than would be the case if the
distance were stationary. But if we receive fewer lightwaves per second, they will seem to be longer waves, and
The effect
therefore more like the waves from red light.
is to shift the observable lines toward the red end of the spectrum. This shift can be measured with a micrometer, and
from such measurements it is actually possible to determine the velocity with which a star is approaching us or
receding from us in space (cf. p. 245).
The planet Venus has often been observed to test this
principle; and the photographed spectrum of Venus in
Plate 16,
6,
to
shift of
Venus
the spectral
lines.
its
PLATE
16.
Various Spectra.
ASTRONOMIC INSTRUMENTS
edge of the orbital motions of Venus and the earth, it is
possible to check this result by an entirely independent method
and thus no doubt remains as to the correctof calculation
;
ness of the
Doppler
principle.
such an instrument
it is
possible to photograph
on a
single
spectra;
also
shift in
but the
slit
instrument
is
285
CHAPTER XVI
SUNSHINE
IN Chapter
XIV we have
distinctly
modern
in the venerable
science ;
knowledge we have of the sun is
knowledge obtained during the last hundred years. The
ancients knew little or nothing about it.
Our subject falls readily into two parts first, information
for almost all
own
This
particular combination of such rays.
to
the
sun, gives the following result.
principle, applied
sorbing
its
The body
the outer gaseous layers of the sun, the absorption phenomena take place and so the regular solar spectrum appears
;
number
of black lines.
These
lines are
by a vast
SUNSHINE
where we should see bright
iron in the laboratory,
we vaporized some
Fraunhofer dark
lines,
named from
their discoverer.
The double
So
much
being premised,
3.
we can now
explain the
method
com-
position.
an ordinary telescope
Now
(p.
283)
this
:
artificial
and
if
Fraunhofer
sun.
Many
terrestrial
is
Next we
287
ASTRONOMY
We
hofer dark lines are due to absorption in the outer gases of the
sun.
But these gases are themselves so hot as to be incan-
and
so
It is
latter are
it is
possible to observe
visible.
At that
exciting
moment, and
at that
moment only,
all
like
And
this is precisely
what
occurs.
If
we
is
line spectrum.
Each bright line corresponds accurately to
one of the vanished dark lines, since the dark lines were
This phenomenon
called
is
when we turn a
the Photosphere.
It
288
is
appropriately termed
telescope
not uniformly
brilliant,
Photo by Fox.
PLATE
17.
The Sun.
SUNSHINE
"
see
of
solar
atmosphere.
is
"
Probably
atmosphere.
"
Young
(p.
We
17).
when
we speak
of their size
less certain
when we attempt
They
or storms.
In that case
drift
toward
it,
So the real cause of the spots must be regarded as unknown. They may be eruptions from the interior; they
be gases rushing downward into hollows. But we
cannot help thinking they are vast storms of some kind;
may
Plate 17.
289
ASTRONOMY
storms of which the materials are incandescent gases, moving
than 18 months
and the
"umbra,"
is
nous surrounding solar material. They have also a periodicand this is perhaps the
ity, discovered in 1843 by Schwabe
;
is
a period of extra
its
importance
an eleven-year
period in the frequency of terrestrial magnetic storms
and especially great sunspots are always accompanied with
very strong magnetic disturbances and auroral displays on
great spot frequency.
to the
known
earth.
magnetic relation
some intimate
it
has not
made
The accompanying
We
similar in principle to
moon and
290
SUNSHINE
angular diameter (cf. p. 203); and this we find to be 32' 4",
on the average. In Fig. 79 we then have, as usual, a long,
narrow triangle, of which the base is the sun's linear diameter
AB.
Sun's Diameter.
FIG. 79.
on the
we know the
The
earth.
comes
result
out nearly nine hundred thousand miles for the sun's linear
diameter.
Comparing
(p. 97),
we
with
this
known
the
terrestrial
diameter
To
mass
is
little
more
difficult
than to
but
it
matical methods, 1
times the earth's mass.
We
on the
surface of a sphere
mass
is,
we then
consider
all solar
by the square
of its radius.
quantities expressed in
solar
mass
-r
= 330000 =
(golar radiug)
If
terms of the
we have
28, approximately.
35,
Appendix.
291
ASTRONOMY
weigh 28 pounds, if transported to the sun's surface, and
there weighed with an ordinary terrestrial spring-balance.
The
solar
(HO)
3
.
earth's.
of the earth
that
is,
as 1 to
And
is
proportional
solar density,
or only about
>
The
latter,
com-
The quantity
is
ages so gigantic
source of
He computed
ered
SUNSHINE
The
fact that
size is therefore
Up
to this
a highly heated interior of more or less unknown constitution, surrounded by an atmosphere of incandescent gases
lines
They
intermingle,
doubtless,
at
interruptions.
atmosphere
is
strongly illuminated
become
visible.
other.
293
ASTRONOMY
phere, the second a bright-line spectrum from the incandes-
Now,
if
we employ in the
"
tinue thus increasing the
dispersion" of the spectroscopic
diminish
the luminosity of the atwe
shall
prisms,
finally
and we
it
disappears practi-
nence.
Now,
as
we know,
become images
of the prominences,
We
In 1891 Hale invented an instrument called a spectroheliograph, with which the prominences may be photographed
without an
ment.
gen,
is
eclipse.
Plate 19 was
instru-
plentiful in the
give a fine bright line in the middle of the usual dark Fraunhofer calcium line due to the photosphere and reversing
The spectrum is allowed to fall on a screen having a
layers.
second narrow
calcium
line
294
SUNSHINE
the calcium light which originated in the prominence passes
to a photographic plate, so that the plate receives
prominence
the photographic plate with light from the outer solar layer
only, and thus to secure a photograph of the prominences.
Still another extraordinary solar phenomenon has been
discovered during total eclipses. This is the Corona, which
bursts into view when the sun is completely concealed by
belongs to the sun, because its spectrum is that of an incandescent gas, not a continuous solar spectrum, such as
it
would be
reflected in
if
we had
some way
Plate 20
eclipse,
is
posed moon.
The form
of the sun
this
miles high.
ASTRONOMY
It is found that they always
case of the planets, p. 202.)
from
east to west; and when
seem to cross the solar disk
(cf.
203).
p.
The
but on
straight.
FIG. so.
is
Sun's
The
83.
1
11
angle
is
about
length of year
296
CHAPTER XVII
ECLIPSES
We
.,
is
it
..
us
own Vlight
i_j.
its
j.T_
;
the
f Sun \
Solar Eclipse
Moon
moon
/*
"X
V-unar
the
moon
Eclipse
Sun
(
FlG 81
Eclipseg>
inter-
poses between us and the sun, thereby preventing our seeing it; but a lunar eclipse happens when the earth passes
it
visible.
eclipsed
moon
it is
invisible
Thus
in the
light
there
way
cannot reach
is
not neces-
merely because
it is
dark for
their occurrence.
result
moon
during
ASTRONOMY
each
revolution
of
the
moon
earth.
plicated
by the
in its
affairs is
the
is actually
to the ecliptic plane, in which the earth's
inclined about 5
orbit
Moon's
situated (p.
is
Figure 82
160).
FIG. 82.
around
orbit
is
supposed to represent
a Portion of the SUr-
clfptic
Circle.
MS>
is
is
NM
always seen
the point of intersection of these two great circles on the celestial sphere, the
is called
angle between them being 5 only. The point
ecliptic (p. 160).
is
the
"node"
and there
is
another similar
We
earth,
to travel
will occur.
;
for
if
Furthermore,
it
will
moon appear
lie
ECLIPSES
can also happen when the sun and moon
are in opposition, or 180 apart, as seen projected on the
But an
eclipse
If
line,
somewhat analogous
ecliptic,
a phenomenon
of
and makes
Up
it
the
terrestrial
interesting.
to this point
we have supposed
eclipses to occur at
Each
if
the sun
just touch
if
we suppose
FIG.
sa.
Contact
Eclipse.
center.
ASTRONOMY
moon
the
center
c,
is
|.
is
there would be no
advanced to
ScM
MI
at
moon had
from
It is clear
moon, as
Obseirocmthe
Surface of the
is
1|, approximately,
Now referring
when the
S and M,
we
see that
if
some
the conjunc-
NM
NS,
to
make
the distance
SM just H.
is
But
in
this
17;
years,
NM
when conjunction
an eclipse.
from
15 to 19
way
different
This distance
so that
all
the
on account
largely
of
small
periodic
(p.
206).
The number
As we have
17
is
called the
"
Note
Appendix.
300
36,
ECLIPSES
case of oppositions of the sun
eclipses
a lunar eclipse
shadow
will
happen
if
the
moon
by the
Lunar
FIG. 85.
and
earth.
Eclipse.
by an angular distance
and there
new-moon
if
the date
all
in
falls
round numbers.
(2)
The
301
ASTRONOMY
the larger, solar eclipses must be
than lunar eclipses.
between the sun and moon, and the moon thus enters the
earth's shadow, it becomes dark at once, because it gives no
own. Consequently, any one on the earth who
should be able to see the moon will fail to see it on account
light of its
of the eclipse.
be
visible
is
a lunar
see
it.
But
sun
is
not
made
dark.
The
sun's light
and
it is
is
will
see the
moon
FIG. 86.
moon
Solar Eclipse.
in the direction
it
BM,
instead of
AM.
This
will pro-
ject it in the
disks of the
an
ECLIPSES
throughout an entire hemisphere of the earth, like
lunar eclipses. In fact, the distances of the sun and moon
visible
from the earth are such that any total solar eclipse can
be seen from a very narrow strip of the earth's surface
not more than 70 miles wide at the most, and extending through a distance of much less than a hemisphere.
only
295)
(p.
which are
is
of sufficient interest to
shadow, into
The
be mentioned.
earth's
eclipsed, is not
' '
or partial shadow.
' '
Figure 87 shows
how
the
penumbra
' '
is
FIG. 87.
ceives light
The Penumbra.
regions receive light from part of the sun, while the rest of
space behind the earth receives light from the entire solar
surface.
It is evident that the darkness of the penumbra
where
it
303
ASTRONOMY
and the darkening will
becomes practically complete, as
the moon enters the umbra. The same gradual phenomena
will be repeated in the inverse order towards the end of the
and be
first,
partially darkened;
it
eclipse.
be total where the true shadow cone cuts the earth, and
partial where the penumbral regions meet the terrestrial
will
surface.
and consequent
the distance between the earth and moon, it
^~rr^
:==:=::=:::=:::::
\"
^^====^^^^^^_J
Earth
\^_^-*=^^~
)
FIG. 88.
orbit,
'
Solar Eclipse.
>
is
central, the
sun
will
appear
Such
eclipses
are
called
Annular
eclipses,
A total solar
eclipse
and
occur, of
can never
last
There
exists
dicted easily.
The
304
ECLIPSES
motion around the sun we found the tropical year to be
shorter than the sidereal year by about twenty minutes,
on account of precession of the equinoxes (p. 126).
In a similar way, on account of the motion of the moon's
nodes, the time required by the moon to travel in its orbit
is
shorter than
the sidereal period, and two days seven hours shorter than
the synodic period. So we have *
:
Sidereal period
Draconitic period
Synodic period
=
=
=
27
27
29
12
approximately
An
successive new-moons,
one synodic month, because the synodic month is the interval between two successive overtakings of the sun by the
moon, in their respective apparent motions around the
And
such a period of days, both the lunar phase and the node
passage must both repeat. Therefore, if there was an
eclipse at the first
must
new
or full
moon
be an eclipse at the
succeeding Saros period.
also
Note
first
new
Appendix.
305
37,
or full
moon
of the
ASTRONOMY
In the
light of the
above explanation
of eclipses,
it
may
be possible to make somewhat clearer the allied phenomenon called a transit of Venus (p. 268). Such transits also
occur in the case of Mercury, but they are then of lesser interest.
The planetary nodes do not move around the
ecliptic rapidly, like the lunar
The
note that
=
=
8 years, nearly
Since conjunctions of Venus occur at intervals of one synodic period, any given transit may be followed by another
at the same node eight years later.
But there could not be
become
effective.
But
306
at the other
may happen
CHAPTER
XVIII
COMETS
THE
comets,
stellce
cometce, or stars
come
comet's "tail."
its orbit, it
pushes
its tail
out
it.
307
ASTRONOMY
large.
and the
tails
may
evidenced by the
total absence of gravitational perturbations (p. 206) in the
motions of the earth and Venus, even when a big comet
longer.
little
mass, as
is
least,
of
of
may
by observations
existence of
lines,
of their spectra,
gas in a
We
The
researches
of
COMETS
Clerk-Maxwell
(the
who proved
same
mathematically
pressure
This pressure
reach.
is
Now
we imagine a
particle
diminishes more rapidly than the area. But the solar gravitational attraction is proportional to the mass consequently,
the solar attraction diminishes more rapidly than the light
;
We
Still
have therefore
and the
light
smaller particles
be repelled.
attracted,
the
comet has no
pressure
sifts
tail
by the
repelled,
sun.
Probably the
tail until it
and
left
If
light
we
finally
suppose both
repulsion to be exerted
tails.
ASTRONOMY
The number
of comets
is
very great
first
process
is
to
"
sweep
"
less
like
them
small
nebulae.
The only
is
to
learns at last to
know
at sight,
all
Great Bear.
And
eye-piece,
know
all
the
little
nebulaa too,
rounding small
stars.
When he sweeps
310
PLATE
Photo by Curtis.
22.
Halley's Comet,
COMETS
he does not ordinarily need to delay his work
by testing for motion; he recognizes the object at once, if
it is one of the known small nebulae.
ject into view,
Comets
are usually
name
named
though
of
of orbital calculations.
p. 269)
cometary
perihelion
The period
more than a
few months, although its average duration has been lengthened considerably in recent years, because modern giant telescopes can observe the comets long after their orbital motion
has carried them quite beyond the range of ordinary glasses.
Concerning these orbital motions, the mists of antiquity
certainly enshroud
notions.
There was
Tycho Brahe
proved from
was
ASTRONOMY
surely farther from the earth than
alive.
Hooke,
is
the moon.
Kepler
and hyperbola
of conic sections,
and
it is
draw a
easy to
figure illustrat-
FIG. 89.
Forms
of
Comet
Orbits.
it is
how
nearly alike
all
COMETS
the comet
all, it is
is
To
its
only
position,
observations
is
it is
circle
accurately, through
3.
But
if
2,
we were
asked to draw a
circle
P3 ',
through P/,
we might not be able
to decide
Now
curves
"
2 ',
between the
the ellipse
is
circle
and the
a closed curve;
circle C.
The
But
is
periodic or not.
make
But
certain whether
it is,
after
all,
really
The exact
details of
any comet
by means
we can now
known about
orbits,
"
their
For there are in existence most
families."
comets,
curious kinships between various groups of comets.
Coming
back to Kepler's amusing notion that they are alive, we
must expect
to find
close relationships
313
ASTRONOMY
some that are merely distant cousins, as it were. The
"
most remarkable " blood-relations are the great comets of
1668, 1843, 1882, and 1887.
They must be brother-comets,
for they all pursue practically the same orbit, though travelalso
their
all lie
far
enough
If
upon them.
haps
It is
first arrival,
place where
per-
them around
took place.
This
is
the well-
to our
points
very hazy.
314
is till
hazy,
CHAPTER XIX
METEORS AND AEROLITES
THE
particles of
Sometimes they do
not appear merely as isolated bodies; but regular showers
leave a long visible trail behind them.
trails
directed
single point
is
called the
the meteor
all
short in
its this
on the
its vicinity.
sphere
is
point R
the radiant.
as
The
state of affairs.
celestial
Figure 91 exhib-
FIG. 91.
Radiant of Meteor
Shower.
away from
;
trails originate
the earth.
315
ASTRONOMY
such as AiBi and
AB
2
To
2.
the observer at
the meteors
will
/
~
offhe Earth
of
trails.
can
Radiant
appear
the
near
sky
meteors that seem to
have short
FIG. 92.
And
the
in
surface
AC
2.
A?
and
Aid
if
frO
Meteor Shower.
distinguished
m all others
,
not by
ni,
all
its
Leo
at intervals of 33 years.
The cause
and recurrences of
Each shower travels
individual showers
is
quite simple.
in a definite orbit
(p. 313).
earth;
or,
of intersection
it.
if it
of the
two
orbits
on the
We
out
all
once in 33 years.
very interesting fact about the meteors is that we ordinarily observe more of them per hour just before sunrise
than we do just after
Circfe
The reason
sunset.
shown
in Fig. 93.
is
EI
is
fore sunrise.
The sun
is
projected on the
ecliptic at &, which is
seen
point
of
the
horizon.
The
earth's orbital
tion
is
for the
moment
towards
directed
the
FIG. 93.
point P, 90 west of S,
where the sun appears on the ecliptic. The earth's orbital
motion takes place in the direction of the curved arrow, so
that at six in the morning
in respect to its orbital
we
meteors.
same instant 6
There
it is
at the
made a
reversed
half-turn on
its
rotation axis;
conditions are
six in
the evening.
ASTRONOMY
We
is said,
way
as
a friction match
surface.
(p. 2).
and
this,
of course,
will
known
just
why
it
Plate 23
tail
and these
It is
not
many
a photographic reproduction of a
meteor trail, showing two remarkable variations of brilliancy.
The negative also contains a couple of interesting nebulae of
minutes.
is
irregular form.
It is altogether probable that the meteors, and especially
the meteoric showers, are nothing else but fragments of disintegrated comets. As soon as periodicity in the recurrence
it
318
PLATE
Photo by Barnard.
23.
Meteor
Trail.
The
conclusion
is
possible that
is itself
procession
of the material involved in the whole transaction.
;
Certain
now widely
been
In
visible since.
its orbit,
separated
and
it
has never
tain
observationally the
extent of the terrestrial
Since the
atmosphere.
meteor becomes visible
when
only
the
it
earth's
penetrates
envelope
Height
of Meteors.
of
air,
if
to
do
this is to select
and make
Figure 94 shows
how
this is done.
319
ASTRONOMY
on the earth's
If observers
meteor
and $2
M projected on the
,
it is
clear that
surface, at Oi
and
2,
see the
celestial
we
MH
fall
on the
fall,
so
itself.
When
seen
Occasionally there
is
air.
stances
known on
321
CHAPTER XX
STARSHINE
We may
tant
we
be quite sure that the stars are all excessively disare troubled by no doubts in this respect, as were
from
it
we know
existence through observable perturbations (p. 206) produced in the motions within our solar system. And this it
actual
measurements,
be
described
later,
is
to
322
PLATE 24.
The
Constellation Serpentarius.
1690.)
STARSHINE
But
this last
argument
is
This
objection,
of
course,
its
usual meaning.
It
has no relation to
We
somewhat more
297) was the first
in detail.
magnitude
classes
though with
difficulty.
down
scale,
we
find the
num-
Total, 3391.
of sixth-magnitude stars.
"
ASTRONOMY
nosities of
And
this
"
light-ratio."
VlOO times
first-magnitudes would be
VlOO
etc.
Consequently, the
Now
is
To
fix
Thus, Aldebaran
times as
is
a standard
their
other stars can be compared with it
first-magnitude
light- ratio measured by observation; and the magnitude
:
comes out from photometric observaminus 1.4. The sun's stellar magnitude is about
the enormous luminosity being in this case due to
tions as
26,
made
us to glimpse the
star.
we
It is
of
we use
is
if
Note
Appendix.
324
38,
STARSHINE
making the telescope smaller and smaller, and there must
come a time when it has been made so small that it will
From the size
just fail to show the star under observation.
of the aperture in this last diaphragm,
it is
possible to cal-
There are also other, and perhaps better, forms of photometers, in which the star under examination is compared
with an
The
measured photographically.
little
dots produced on
larger dots.
us to estimate star-magnitudes.
But all astronomic photometric measures are subject to
"
"
considerable error on account of
in
light-absorption
the terrestrial atmosphere.
in passing through our air.
for stars near the zenith;
Some
This
effect
is,
is lost
of course, smallest
its
path
is
much
atmosphere at a
longer, before
it
How much
is
This question has been widely studied, but only the very
1
Note
Appendix.
325
39,
ASTRONOMY
roughest results have been obtained.
sidereal
like
invisible to the
is almost evanescent;
of
it
have been rendered
indications
the
only
very slightest
perceptible by the most delicate thermometric apparatus
so far invented.
It is also possible to obtain a
similar results
a rather faint
we
star,
see,
sun
is
really
of all stars
is
strictly constant
Some vary
it
others
show no
regularity
and
rise
fall;
Demon).
1
Note
Appendix.
326
40,
STARSHINE
The number
whose
of stars
one
direction
is
frequent.
13
irregular variable
is
77,
in the con-
stellation
Argo
John Herschel saw
it
Cape
of
Good Hope.
It
is still
on the
has been
in process
of change.
Temporary
since
stars
men began
most famous
is
Tycho Brahe's
star
of
1572, which
The
was
brighter than any other star, and lasted only sixteen months
This is the star that first interested Tycho in
all together.
astronomy
it is
new
which appeared in
and
is all
327
ASTRONOMY
wonderful astronomic objects ever observed. The accompanying Plate 25 shows the manner in which this nebulosity
What
rapid.
explain.
pounded
of
two
And
the
Certain stars
of light.
The
was
way
but
until 1889,
it
when
period of
minimum
pos-
STARSHINE
tulates (Fig. 95) a dark but massive
star,
their
common
companion
to the visible
center of gravity.
The
orbit plane
about
is
sup-
we
see
time when the smaller dark body will be at D, and the luminous body at L. An observer on the earth, in the direction
As soon as the
over,
the
eclipse
luminous
is
body
as in the positions
and L
From a combination
f
.
of
known
the
light-variations
FIG. 95.
of
Algol, Vogel
329
ASTRONOMY
The more complicated
stars
may
also
luminous body
and the
same as the
larger
body would
emit alone.
The next
thing
we have
way
to consider
from the
is
the important
After all,
solar system.
we have
to dis-
dimensions
actual
of the magnificent
sidereal universe.
let
define
"
allax
FIG. 96.
Stellar Parallax.
"
stellar par(p.
^
192).
Solar parallax
(p.
260) has been explained to be half the earth's angular diamIn a similar way, stellar pareter, as seen from the sun.
is
at E.
We
a right angle at
and the star $', then the angle
is
STARSHINE
earth
itself in
radius
is
the vertex
if
subtend an angle at
all
appreciable,
situated at the vast distance of the stars.
this
At
parallactic
displacement must
one-half of
its orbit,
is
parallactic orbits,"
in
and the
circle
The measurement
of a star's parallax
straight line.
is
therefore nothing
of the
of course, at the
the sky.
331
"pole" of the
ecliptic circle
on
ASTRONOMY
The
method
right-ascension and
one.
star's
absolute
declination
at
various
dates
capable of
we
possess no instruments
The
differential
a micrometer
(p.
orbit of a star
is
method
is
better, since
is
it
etc.,
within the
here necessary.
enables us to use
an
Differen-
infinite
latter,
on account
and S2
'.
These
of their minuteness,
may
star S.
It is clear that
of
this
may
The
first
STARSHINE
measurement was made by Bessel
He used the differential method, and applied
1838.
to a star of moderate magnitude in the constellation
Cygnus
192).
(cf. p.
When we come
new and
measurements.
It is called the
velocity of light is
year, in miles,
amounts
of seconds in a year.
distance
but
it is
would travel
in a year.
As the
light-
by the number
an enormous unit of
about 60,000 times the distance from the earth to the sun, and corresponds to a paraldistances in space.
Its length is
tances
already seen (p. 7) that the objects called fixed stars are
not really fixed in space.
They are all actually drifting
across the sky; it is only because of their vast distance
that their motions seem to us small and slow.
their velocities are of the
same order
of
In
reality,
magnitude as those
but to the
the planets of our solar system
rough instruments of the ancients these motions remained
unrevealed; and so the stars received their designation of
existing
among
"fixed," to distinguish
And
planets.
possible
to
change of the
star's right-ascensions
333
and
declinations.
As we
ASTRONOMY
have already seen
284)
(p.
we can now
sight";
right-ascensions,
and
it
we count
also
shifts
the celestial
declinations.
is
observations
nation.
by a
These
motions of the
a
star's
in
astronomy
may
stars.
"proper motion."
:
it is
This term
applied only to
is
now
a century old
celestial
sphere; not to motion in the line of sight, revealed specThe latter has been separately denominated
troscopically.
"radial velocity." Proper motion is measured in seconds of
arc per annum ; radial velocity in linear miles per second.
numbered V 243 in a
Cordova in South America.
made
at
known
The next
largest and,
belongs to a star
numbered
STARSHINE
about the year 1790. This star is often called the " runaway" it travels seven seconds in a year.
;
The
relation of proper
is
indi-
draw SiSi perpendicular to SiE, to indicate the star's apparent motion across the celestial sphere as seen from E. In the
same unit of time the star will have receded from the earth by
a distance $i$2 '; and this will
represent its annual radial ve-
The
locity.
may
star, 8182,
really
made up
be regarded as
of two parts,
it
possible to ascertain
at last
is
from ob-
Before
we had
the spectro-
FIG. 98.
us
new and
essential
astronomic science,
Not infrequently
knowledge
in the oldest
department of
it
stars are
335
ASTRONOMY
that five of the bright stars in the Dipper (p. 52) probably
There can be little
possess such a community of motion.
number
They
is
also probably a
member
of the
Dipper group
of stars.
If
be
this
drifting
Dipper region.
We have seen quite enough to make clear the high value
to science of these very modern measures of radial velocity
:
able .extension
stars
then
first
of
Good examples
earth's
own
is
about 18|
STARSHINE
miles per second,
we
the same order of velocity as those existing within the confines of the solar system.
Spectrum photographs
of the
artificial
spectra,
stellar
spectrum
produced in the
are receding;
of o Ceti,
its
ring
(cf. p.
245).
is
It
moving
him
it
led
also to the
stars,
Red
stars,
All
the
z
spectroscopic
observations
337
lines.
stellar
ASTRONOMY
chemistry similar to that of the solar system. The entire
seems to contain but one set of chemical
sidereal universe
its
it.
ing.
the stars projected near the point of the sky where they
seem to be approaching us. Towards this point on the sky,
then, the solar motion
is
for the
moment
directed. 1
It is called the
"apex
of
the
sun's way."
predominate in Campbell's
this
common
It
drift
there-
and if so,
But however this
series of observations
may
might
may be, he finds the region near Vega to contain the apex,
and 13 miles per second as the " cosmic linear velocity" of
the solar system.
1
Note
Appendix.
338
41,
STARSHINE
Another fact that
may
whose
For we do not
find all
of motions of approach.
number
proper motions
method
well
is
(p.
illus-
If
two lampL2 on
and
LI
there
are
posts,
sides
opposite
of a
,,
street, the
angular
FIG. 99.
Determination
of the
Apex
(Herschel).
dis-
viewed from
to
His
much
larger
when they
are
be closing in.
In other words, near the apex stellar proper motions directed
away from
that point
towards the
had at
critical
must predominate
"
Herschel
ASTRONOMY
thirteen
insight of rare
genius, he so
sifted this
much more
modern material
elaborate
at
command.
They
But they
important peculiarity.
If
the proper
own.
motion
indicated
stars
But largeness
is
of proper
of
for at a sufficient
distance, even large proper motions would shrink into apparent nothingness. Therefore it is within the bounds of
possibility that our
stars, to
sun
is
member
of a drifting stream of
also.
belong
In the light of the above discussion of cosmic motions of the
sun and
sider
an interesting
special
problem which
may
be solved
Observations of Vega's
STARSHINE
own
it is itself
;
so
we
receding from us
are overtaking
it
at
93000000
200000
miles.
0.11
To
by the
solar
We
93000000
200000
0.11
Xx
o"
365
24
60
60
10
has a proper motion across the sky of 0."5 per year, which is
about four times its parallax angle. Figure 100 will explain
At a
certain
across the sky, as seen from the solar system, through the
Since this angle is four times the parallax
angle ViSV2
.
Note
42, Appendix.
341
ASTRONOMY
angle EViS, it must follow, approximately, that ViV2 is
four times ES. Therefore, ViVz is 4 X 93,000,000 miles, or
372,000,000 miles.
So we see that
Vega should be
when
in 560,000 years,
FIG. 100.
Vega
will
have moved at
least
of Vega,
which we have
X 200000"
"TOST
93000000
with
its
.,
miles
'
its
present parallax.
brief
is
account
of
certain
quite
His idea
recent
that
researches,
we need
made
extensive
by Kapteyn.
knowledge of stellar distribution, more than direct
measures of a few parallaxes. He therefore undertakes to
principally
is
statistical
STARSHINE
tude, separating the stars thus
reason that the fainter ones
by magnitudes
may
be expected to average
sky
is
then shows
SSi
how much
In
fact,
SS'
CYCY
ooi
i_-
/
,
i_
which
re
affects
^i.
the
FIG. 101.
Kapteyn's Researches.
an-
gular distance from the star to the apex; and Si'S', which
does not affect that distance, being at right angles to SA.
Now Kapteyn " resolves" (as it is called) all known
"
proper motions into two such
components," one directed
away from the apex, the other at right angles to the first.
system's own
tions near the apex
(p.
343
ASTRONOMY
that the star's
own motions
tion as another,
balance, as
it
It follows that
were.
components would
any
difference of the
Now this
average difference
is
FIG. 102.
Kapteyn's Researches.
This
of
investigation
has
star's
enabled
Kapteyn
He
method
beautiful
linear
I,
two types
of stars sepa-
The
II, solar
STARSHINE
than are the Sirian
Kapteyn has
also obtained
some further
interesting results
as to stellar distribution.
and
he
space,"
that a star on
an observer at
be about three
its center.
light-years.
The length
of this radius
would
it
Now
all
that exist.
radius 5
This conclusion
may
ASTRONOMY
not be very accurate; but it constitutes a most important
addition to our knowledge of sidereal astronomy, since even
a rough approximation
is
absence of
information.
And Kapteyn
compute the
1
velocity of the solar system.
move a
move through
a distance
enormous
as these are.
The above
conclusions
all relate
to averages
and we know
1
Knowing the star's parallax, or distance, and the angular annual
proper motion across the sky, we compute the linear velocity component
parallel to the celestial sphere in the same way that we obtain a planet's
linear diameter from its measured angular diameter.
Then, knowing the
radial velocity, and the linear velocity at right angles to it, as computed
from the proper motion, we can finally calculate the actual velocity.
346
STARSHINE
one or two stars that probably have far greater velocities
than the average. For instance, the star 1830 Groombridge
334) has a velocity of perhaps 140 miles per second. We
must conclude that this particular star is passing through
our sidereal universe, and will leave it altogether in a few
(p.
million years.
it
random
them happen
In both cases, such collisions are extremely freonly, in the gas, the word "frequent" signifies a very
to collide.
quent
minute fraction of a second
:
may mean
Perhaps
same word
centuries.
this kinetic theory of stars
material modification
if
we admit
that
observed
all
stellar
motions are not necessarily random ones, and that there may
be star-groups of common motion, and star-streams of vast
But however
extent.
researches are
all
may
this
be,
these
still
magnificent
it is
extraordi-
of
human
knowledge,
(cf. p. 9).
Each component
twin
star
micrometer
1
(p. 276),
is
347
a photograph of a binary.
ASTRONOMY
the angular distance between the two components in seconds
of arc, and also the angle between the line joining them on
the sky and a line drawn from the principal one to the celes-
tial pole.
'
"
FIG. IDS.
find
it
But
Binary
If
be an oval or
to
ellipse,
often very
real orbit,
much
flattened.
this is
the plane of the binary star's orbit happens to be perpendicular to our sight-line that the apparent orbit coincides with
But
it
is
of
motion
(p.
187)
been done, we
"
have only a relative" orbit, representing the motion of
one component star of the binary pair with respect to the
to the apparent orbit.
this has
other.
For a very few binaries, the actual orbit of both components has been separately determined, by means of micrometric
when we
are so fortunate as to
the binary,
we can
know
stars.
And
Photo by Barnard.
PLATE 27.
STARSHINE
angular diameter of the sun to its real linear diameter
In the few cases for which such researches have
(p. 118).
been carried out with success, the linear size of the orbits
appears to be comparable with the orbital radii we find in
the solar system. So we conclude that the binary systems
are not extremely large, speaking cosmically.
Certain binary stars have been recognized as such
spectroscopic instead of micrometric observations.
by
We have
But Pickering
also
photographed with a
approaching
us,
ing, in
lines.
When
lines only.
It is
each other on the sky that the most powerful telescope shows
but a single object at all times. This was a great triumph
for the spectroscope
correct explanation of
classic
annals of astronomy.
we can
ASTRONOMY
masses of these binary stars for which both orbits and parallaxes have been observed.
As we have just seen, we then
know
of the
same order
of
magnitude as the
sun's mass.
not
now
believed
(p. 235) is the only poseven probable one. For the Laplacian idea leads
to a single central sun, with many planets of far smaller
size
But
whirling nebula
may have
approximating
the
revolving, gave
is
it
possible
that an original
formation
rise,
to
first,
an egg-shaped,
later,
dumb-bell shaped,
revolving body. The latter, finally
separating, should produce twin suns, at first revolving with
their surfaces almost in contact.
Such a condition might
stars.
Later,
there
might
arise
perturbative
and
terrestrial oceans.
farther apart
star.
Nor
is
(cf. p.
there
258),
any
to a visible binary
some
of
by planets. Only, if
such planets are no larger than Jupiter, we could not possibly
hope to see them with the most powerful of our telescopes.
It is
Note
Appendix.
350
43,
PLATE
28.
The
Photo by Barnard.
Pleiades.
STARSHINE
still more wonderful, in which three or more incandescent
suns revolve about their common center of gravity in plain
view of the telescope. For instance, the constellation Lyra
"
contains an important double star, the
double double,"
in which each component is itself a binary, forming all to-
sky.
Two
Pleiades group
of
it
are
shown
in the
accompanying Plate 28
The
views
one con-
We
single objects,
only.
of stars,
have practically identical proper motions in the same direction on the sky, pointing to a community of real motion in
And secondly, many close clusters have been found
space.
to contain a
stars,
of variable
cluster.
351
ASTRONOMY
Unfortunately, it has not yet been possible to measure
the parallax of any cluster. We can but make guesses at
their distance
on the
size
probably not
than 400 light-years. If removed to that distance, our
own sun would give us no more light than a star of the
less
way and we
;
them
find
to be about
two
light-
orbital
it
man
(cf. p.
Closely related
322).
to the clusters are the nebulae
(p.
3).
interwoven with
clouds
of
matter, and
stars, that one
nebulous
with
is al-
"
"
Planetary nebulae are a class of nearly circular lightclouds possessing almost planetary central disks. Their
352
STARSHINE
spectra contain certain lines belonging to nebulae only,
and ascribed to incandescence of a hypothetical substance
At
"nebulium."
One
on the verge
of
starry.
have
tempted to
development, and
There exist also a few
imagine them
becoming
this class
is
ring-formed nebulae.
(cf.
complex by us seen as a
spiral nebula.
for
We
much
parallax
larger than
would reveal themselves to our instruments. But assuming this parallax, and the known angular
diameter of the nebula (one and a half degrees of arc), it
this,
or traces of
must have a
it
and the
sun. 1
2A
Note
44, Appendix.
353
ASTRONOMY
the earth.
is
only
It
OIT^FO "oo
much
earth as
may
o"
theories
the Milky
Way,
have
This
is
band
star
r-
dust
FIG. 104.
encircling
the sky almost like
the celestial equa-
The Galaxy.
has
many
starless rifts
and
lanes,
It
not-
America" nebula,
so
named because
of its shape.
ecliptic circle.
celestial sphere,
of
makes an angle
of
intersection
solstices,
and
eclip-
tic.
is
shown
at S,
and the
galactic
is
in the direction
or
B
1
from
Note
S,
we
shall look
Appendix.
354
45,
through the
Photo by Barnard.
PLATE 29.
STARSHINE
thick part of the galaxy, and see an enormous
stars
C,
projected on the
we
number
we
sphere but
on the sky only a thin part
celestial
if
of
look toward
of the
surface at
ANGULAR DISTANCE
FROM GALAXY
90
60
30
4
7
18
122
The unexplained
of the galaxy
still
difficulty
remains.
However
this
is
"
which
all
stated,
no evidence in the
central sun "around
As already
more nearly resemble
we now
355
CHAPTER XXI
THE UNIVERSE ONCE MORE
THE
reader
may
we commenced our
recall that
name given
its life-history
there
none in
ing to the mind of man
to be misled into fields of mere speculation, quite outside
the domain of strictest logic, based on irrefragible observa;
tional premises.
(p.
place's idea.
It will
The planetary
1
:
The
is
the same
same plane;
MDCCCXLVI.
356
p. 470, in Oeuvres de
3.
torial planes of
of
their
satellites,
fundamental
the
all
of
coincide
satellites' orbital
motion
is
of
published.
Now, as a matter of logic, a correct theory must explain
single contrary
every observed fact within its range.
satellite of
Mars
(p. 222),
and the
respectively.
The
(pp. 167, 222) that a gas like hydrogen would all be lost into
space from each planet in the form of molecules, soon after
the ring was thrown off from the sun, on account of the very
Yet we
still
find hy-
ASTRONOMY
The throwing
3.
off of
the rings
is
in itself
acceptance, on account
difficult
of
culties.
of
an hypothesis
the
presumably
extreme rarity of the outer parts of the solar nebula, and
consequent lack of cohesion. And why was the process of
expelling rings intermittent instead of continuous ?
4. The mechanical movements in the system present diffi-
momen-
of the total
the sun.
its
mass,
They
call it
two
stars.
place,
in orbits
around
their
common
center of gravity.
If
the
would be open
most comets when they approach
the sun (p. 312). The two bodies would separate after a
certain time, and would never again pass near each other.
But while they were together, the gravitational effect of
each on the other would be tremendous.
Doubtless each
would eject masses of highly heated gaseous matter, much as
close, these orbits
the great red hydrogen prominences (p. 293) are ejected from
Upon these ejected gases, and upon the other outer
our sun.
stars,
Photo by Keeler.
Owl Nebula.
PLATE
30.
Nebulae.
Photo by Hate.
Consequent gigantic
tidal effects
would
star,
dotted
lines
orbits
the
full lines
,
various
indicate
,
show the
.
FJG. 105.
Planetesimal Hypothesis.
points reached at a given instant of time by the several planetesimals pursuing the
dotted orbits.
When we
Now
353) establish the fact that the spiral is the normal type
For comparison with Plate 2, p. 4, we give in
of nebula.
ASTRONOMY
shows the "owl" nebula
in
like
gas
from a
close
(p. 347).
stage of
in our solar
system?
Of course,
is
we might perhaps
it is
provided,
They are unusually large occasional planetesimals, increased
gradually by the accretion of other smaller ones, swept up
that
it
stage
that
it
makes a
cycle of cosmic
life
and death
and
Photo by Hale.
PLATE
31.
The
Trifid Nebula.
The
the
cause will be a
some
fresh approach to
will
of cosmic
life
and death.
361
APPENDIX
THE
Note
sky from the star to the equator, and perpendicular to the equator.
Such a circle, drawn for the purpose of measuring decimation,
is called an Hour-circle.
The point where the hour-circle meets
The
the celestial equator may be called the foot of the hour-circle.
a
star
is
defined
as
then
the angular distance,
right-ascension of
measured on the celestial equator, from the vernal equinox point
on the equator to the foot of the hour-circle drawn from the star
to the equator.
Note
2.
Hour-angle,
the term
"
on the
celestial equator,
106.
363
which
is
ASTRONOMY
visible to us.
The large circle
represents the horizon; and the celestial hemisphere is
projected down upon the plane of this horizon. The zenith,
NESW
shown
shown at N and S.
The celestial north
pole,
which
is,
by
meridian, will
project down to
some point P. The
celestial equator,
everywhere 90 distant from the pole
FIG. 106.
The
Celestial Sphere.
into
P, will project
J
,
^
Tll/rri
the circle
.
WME.
Any
star selected at
DM
is
the hour-angle of the star. The arc S'A is the star's altitude, or
Finally, if we draw a
angular elevation above the horizon.
short piece of the projected ecliptic circle, we may take V to be
WME,
one of
we have
star S'
is
364
APPENDIX
between the vernal equinox
V and
terms
Zenith
Ecliptic Circle
All hour-circles
Altitude
Horizon
Hour-angle
Meridian
Right-ascension
Declination
The
Vernal Equinox
Note
3.
of a simple diagram.
The
on the surface at 0.
outer concentric circle
is
HPZE
the
celestial
The
sphere.
be directly over
the observer at 0, on the
zenith
will
must be
at
FIG. 107.
some point
by
E'CO
will
be the
365
ASTRONOMY
from the terrestrial equator at E'.
angular distance of the point
The angle PCH is the altitude or angular elevation of the celestial
For H, as
pole above the horizon at H.
point of the horizon for an observer at 0.
we know,
is
the north
HC
tude will be 90
the latitude
where the
Note
is
to
90
0.
4.
Note
arc
Sidereal
5.
The
Time
(p. 67).
is
the
VM in Fig. 106.
To make
the definition of sidereal time perfectly general, asall hour-angles westward from the meridian, and
tronomers count
l
angle
time,
Note
them
allow
to increase continuously to 24
Thus, an hourh
sidereal
east from the meridian, corresponding to 23
would be
6.
h
.
(p. 67).
VM
The
time
may
definitions
also
We
VD
DM =
VM =
sidereal time.
366
APPENDIX
And
from
since,
Fig. 106
VM
it
= VD
+ DM,
Hour-angle
The
last
sidereal time
+ hour-angle.
right-ascension.
and have a
Note
If
it
Terrestrial
8.
we imagine a
will
pierce
sphere at
the
server's zenith.
line
the
ob-
The
terrestrial meridian,
by
definition, passes
through
the
north
also
by
meridian,
definition,
north pole
zenith.
ian
is
of
the
terrestrial
FIG. 108.
outward
meridian
on the celestial sphere.
Figure 108
addition of a second celestial meridian.
celestial
sphere projected
down upon
367
is
Time
like
The
Differences.
Fig.
the horizon of
New
York,
ASTRONOMY
of which the zenith appears as before at Z.
the zenith of Greenwich at the same instant
PZ'M'
The
is
projection of
at Z'
Therefore
.
DM
S'
sphere.
VM and VM
MM'
Note
Gnomon
Angle of
9.
"
(p. 79).
is
of the latitude.
In Fig. 24,
and
ac tan bac,
tan latitude, the construction of the
the angle bac equal to the latitude, as required
be
if
figure will
for the
Note
make
is
gnomon.
10.
Mathematical Principles
To demonstrate
The accompanying
solution of right-angled spherical triangles.
The large
Fig. 109 represents the conditions of the problem.
circle
ZPNQS
is
The
circle
NIVS
is
the
The
horizon, on the plane of which the dial is to be drawn.
of the dial is at
and QP is the axis of the celestial sphere. As
the edge of the gnomon is parallel to the axis QP, we may regard
center
it as lying in that axis, because the sun will appear to rotate around
the edge of the gnomon (p. 84). So we may consider the edge of
368
APPENDIX
the
gnomon
direction
Now
to start at 0,
and
OP.
remembering that
we
solar time
NIVS,
at four o'clock.
to be
Then,
"four
recall that
o'clock"
sun's
is
falls
is
hour-angle
four
60
We
may
hours, or 60.
suppose the sun to appear
at the point S' at four
Then, from the
o'clock.
of
definition
hour-angle
is then
(p.
from the
distant 60
ZPS'
the
or
meridian;
angle
The op-
60.
is
also
Now let us
Sundial.
FIG. 109.
60.
(p.
NPIV, which
365).
is
is
perpendicular to
makes
In the same way, we can calculate the dial angles for the oneThe twelve-o'clock line, or noon-
2u
369
ASTRONOMY
ON
line, is of
course
the shadow of a
for at
gnomon
center 0.
NO
tan
And
if
we
let
NIV =
tan
NPIV
PN.
any hour,
corresponding hour-angle of the sun,
latitude of the place,
is
u =
tan
sin
by
this
I.
56'
II.
20
40'
III.
33
10'
are as follows
I.
XII.
IV.
V.
VI.
It
sin
The
or
u =
New York
NIV,
0'
48 32'
67 42'
90
0'
now remains
(Fig. 25) is in
figure
we
tan cal
The
factors given in
tan 15 sin
I.
Me
latitudes
I.
Me =
We made
the angle
cMI
ca sin
I.
(1)
370
APPENDIX
angle, or
cl,
15.
we have
^= tan 15,
Me
or:
Ic
tan 15.
Me from equation
Ic
or
= Me
(1) gives
ca tan 15 sin
tan 15
I,
sin
I.
(2)
ca
tancoJ.
(3)
ca
tan cal
tan 15 sin
we have
Note
tan
sin
is
proved, since
I.
We
may walk
371
ASTRONOMY
of the string ; yet the plane of oscillation will remain constantly
parallel to itself.
pendulum when we
start
it
swinging, and
suppose
it
of this meridian.
position NA'B'C'S.
But the pendulum will
$
FIG. 110.
still
swing parallel
Experiment.
lines.
If
a.
It is well
known
that on a
map
of the earth's
meridians" there
cault effect.
the meridians
is
maximum
BM
In this
geometry
372
APPENDIX
certain the angle of convergence between two neighboring meridians
on the earth in any latitude, such as that of New York, for instance
and this angle will be the Foucault pendulum rate of rotation.
We see at once from Fig. Ill that, in any latitude, we have
from the triangle A'B'M\
;
MB'
MA'
tana
and since
equal,
we may
write
=!-:
Referring again to Fig. 110, which we may now take to represent
the earth instead of the celestial sphere, we observe that the latitude
A A', BB'
'.
NA'B'S
etc.
But the
So
it
arcs themselves
Let us
call
A A'
and
I'.
and BB'
which we may express by the following equation,
cosines,
is
BB'
But, from Fig. Ill:
- AA' =
K (cos V -
cos Q.
AA'.
in
which
ASTRONOMY
Consequently, from the preceding equation
K (cos V
MB' =
cos
(2)
I).
Now, in Fig. 110, draw the line A'Q perpendicular to P'B', completing a little right-angled triangle A'B'Q.
(We may regard the
short arc A'B' as here equivalent to a straight line.)
Then we
have
and
cos V
A'B'
sin
QB =
QB =
QA'B' =
cos
I,
QA'B'.
B'OC' = Z';
=
A'B' sin
QB'
A'B' = (Z- Z').
QB' = cos - cos Z =
But:
therefore:
I'.
But:
Consequently
I'
MB' =
We also have,
j(Z
(Z
Z')
sin
Z'.
Z')
sin
(3)
MA' =1-1'.
finally
(3)
(4)
and
(4) in
equation
(1),
we
K sin
I'.
(5)
It
(5).
is
in equation
quite easy to find the value of the constant
=
=
sin
I'
since
I'
90.
pole,
1,
Therefore,
= K.
at the pole the pendulum
in 24 hours.
So it
revolution of 360
374
must
must
APPENDIX
there revolve at the rate of 15
this value of
Rate
In
New
(15' per
With
minute) sin
V.
Rate of rotation
=
=
40
48', sin
0.65.
Note
108).
torsion constant
from the
pendulum from
physics that
t
I
g
TT
=
=
=
=
if
its
we
time of vibration.
let
It is
shown
in books
on
then:
An
b.
and those readers who are acquainted with the science of mechanics
will note that 2m( is the "moment of inertia" of the entire
)
\2/
balance.
375
ASTRONOMY
Solving this equation for
T gives
m_
"
*W
.
'
2t*
and this equation will make known the value of T for any torsion
balance after we have observed its vibration time t, measured
Note
13.
M
m
mass
mass in grams of either small ball,
measured distance in centimeters from the position
of rest b'
to
(p. 110).
now to
Returning
meters,
the force with which both big balls turn the balance.
Now, according to Newton's law, the attractive force between
b' is (p.
103)
G*>,
in
which formula
is
a so-called
"
The
(1)
is
it.
is
Both
-'
proportional to
forces (1)
and
(2)
is
They
376
APPENDIX
Furthermore, the entire force
"
(1)
component"
We
can easily find this component, which acts from B' upon a' so
"
as to turn the balance. According to the so-called parallelogram
of forces" this
component
is
or:
G
finally:
or,
Mm
Vd +
Mmd
n
Or
(d
The
f o\
(6)
P)'
and
resulting
ball
will
i/ =
(?Wl -\d?
For brevity,
let
us put
(rf2
(4)
fyftj
*
(5)
2
(d
Then we have
The
force
2
1 )
J/ =
and, solving for
GMmD,
we obtain
(6)
B"
center of the
allowing a strong
377
ASTRONOMY
thence reflected upon a scale at some distance from the apparatus.
The rotation of the balance is thus magnified, and can be measured
without
difficulty.
let
Q=
This would be
We must also
allow for the well-known fact that a moving reflected beam changes
This reduces the
its direction twice as fast as the mirror turns.
Finally,
we must
2(J
have measured
disturbance.
its
Now
it is
or fibers,
twice as
will
note that
is
really
APPENDIX
This expression (9) is not yet equal to the force /, because / is
applied at the ends of the balance arms where the small balls are.
The length
of this balance
equal to /
2
From
we have
/(observed)
We
-,
must be
=.
T as follows
we
this
arm being
(11)
(p.
With the help of equations (11) and (12) we can compute the
observed force / from our observations of a and Q, and the known
etc., of
dimensions,
R =
E=
Then we have
Equation
G-jj^'
tt
if
we
(13)
recall
mass
of the earth
it
force existing
by the weight
379
ASTRONOMY
of
any object
is
force of gravity,
shown
g.
to be equal to its
So we have
mg.
of equations (13)
(14)
and
(14)
or:
E-
(16)
(JT
If
we now
by equation
(7),
we obtain
(17)
We now
by measurements and weighings before the torput together. The time of vibration, t, is found in
seconds by observing the combined duration of a considerable number of oscillations, made with the big lead balls entirely removed.
In the actual apparatus mounted for use in the astronomical
ties are
ascertained
sion balance
is
New
d
I
g
TT
=
=
=
=
=
=
281.5 seconds,
5.3 centimeters,
3.6 centimeters,
981 centimeters,
3.1416 centimeters,
2750 grams,
380
APPENDIX
and the radius
of the earth
R =
With
these
is
6.371
108 centimeters.
E=
0.30
10 27
and
2 grams.
Therefore
(19)
Q =
=
189 centimeters,
Q =
17.4,
E=
5.22
10.86 centimeters.
10 27 grams.
of the earth's
10
27
grams
mass
is
is
fairly
satisfactory.
Note
14.
(p. 119).
draw the
It is not possible to do so
with
the
because,
given angles, we do not
know whether we should make it of the
triangle.
.,,.,->
size B, or any other
,,
size
A, or the
know
size.
mTo
Distance from
FIG. 112.
Angles,
Note
15.
Calendar Rule
(p.
itself
to scale.
144).
ASTRONOMY
vestigation,
in the
interval.
because
it is
moment
1,
year
to
0,
Mar.
1,
year y
365 y
+ 59.
As each
number of
Then
it is
clear that
years will be
i (y
r,)
i (c
n).
0.
Thus, if we divide 1913 by 4, we find the quotient Q is 478
and the remainder R is 1. If we now subtract this remainder 1
from the original number 1913, we have for N R, 1912. This
being divided by the same divisor 4, gives the old quotient Q as
This shows that our expression
478, but the remainder is now 0.
be
for the
We
382
APPENDIX
Now, if March 1 in the year y is a Sunday, like the first day of
the era, the above number must be divisible exactly by 7. But if
March 1 in the year y is Monday, one day later than Sunday,
and
divisible
number
by
if
we subtract
Monday, minus 1.
Similarly, for Wednesday, for which the week-day number is 4, we
would subtract 3. In general, let us indicate by w the week-day
number of March 1, whatever it may be in the year y, and subtract
w 1 from the above total number of days. This gives
it;
the week-day
is
for
365 y
59
f (y
r3 )
} (c
n)
(w
1),
tracted
is
divisible exactly
by
subtract
364 y
add
ri
and so our
total
This number
is
now made up
r2),
(c
+ 5n +
5 r3
r 4)
number becomes
r2
56,
7 r3
3 (y
subtract
We shall add
7.
3 r4
(w
of remainders only.
it
is
still
divisible exactly
by
7.
It
will
is
1).
It will
is
and thus (w
1) is
be a
larger than 6;
therefore clear that
and
4,
1 in
the year
y.
by
ASTRONOMY
But we need to find (w
1) for any day in the year y, not merely
March 1. To accomplish this for any other day in March,
say the 3d, for instance, we have merely to add 2 to the above
number, before dividing by 7, because March 3 comes two days
later than March 1.
In general, if we indicate by d the date in
March for which the week-day is required, we must add (d
1)
This gives, for March d th
to the above number.
for
+5n +r +
2 + 5 n + r -f
3
or
and
this
5 r3
5 r3
+
+
3 r4
3 r4
+ (d +d
1),
1) of
March
d for a remainder.
The same expression will hold for April, if we add 31, because
there are 31 days in March. Adding 31, and deducting 28, an exact
multiple of
7,
r2
r,
3 r4
d.
a difference occurring
only in the
dicate
in-
in
The values
of
-f-
r\
-f r2
5 r3
3 r4
+ d.
But
1
February
The
form.
29.
entire rule
That part
may
of the formula
by
r6
384
final
APPENDIX
CALCULATION OF WEEK-DAY, GREGORIAN OR JULIAN CALENDAR
where
^
#
= 5 r\
= 0,
(Gregorian
+
=
Week-day No. =
Note
1 6.
r2 ,
Gregorian
Julian.
20,
r5
1.
(p. 148).
To demonstrate
first,
Gregorian calendar.
The lunar month of chronology, or the period of the moon's
orbital revolution around the earth, is approximately 29J days
In making the ecclesiastical calendar it was therefore
long.
decided to have lunar months of 29 and 30 days occur alternately
as a general rule.
But
is
inserted at the
moment,
end of every
third year for six successive periods of three years each, or eighteen
years in all. Then, one year later, at the end of the nineteenth
year, an additional extra lunar
serted in the calendar.
2c
month
385
of 29
days
is
further in-
ASTRONOMY
The lunar calendar
The above
no account
calculation takes
1062 days
30 days
5460 days
354 days
29 days
Total 6935 days
.
of leap-years,
which
To get these
occur every fourth year in the Julian calendar.
leap-years into the lunar calendar, too, the ecclesiastical chronologists adopted the simple plan of putting an extra day into the
lunar
February.
In 19 years this
will
it is
happen
times
civil month of
when any one
on the average
+
+
5,
4,
and
The mean of these figures is 6939f days and this is the average
number of days in 19 lunar years, according to accepted chronologic
;
rules.
if we write
follows from this agreement
the calendar dates of full-moon for a period of 19 years, these calen-
dar dates
19-year cycle, the year 2 the third, and the year 19 the first of the
next cycle. It is clear that, in general, if we divide the year
1 will be
number y by 19, and call the remainder r 6 then r 6
,
APPENDIX
The next
moon,
to
fall
step
is
to find for
full-moon
March
21
-f-
March
March
1,
to be car32.
Now
the Easter
P was then
15.
a lunar twelve-month, it is
29|) days
(12
clear that in the year 1 Easter full-moon must have occurred 11
(which is 365-354) days earlier. And in each succeeding year of
the 19-year period, Easter full-moon must have occurred either 11
in
It is clear that
we
15
19 z
P =
15
19 (x
or:
because, to get
we
let v
and x be
P =
if
11
v,
+ v) -
equation
v
30
v.
r 6,
P=
19 r 6
15
387
30
v.
v.
So we
and
may
ASTRONOMY
From
in the division of 19 r 6
we can
15
is
by
30.
calendar thus
is
full-
moon.
this
same
when
This
will of course
difference of one
From
will
days, etc.
It is clear that
we can
in
M
But this value of M
15
+c-
(c
n).
is
388
APPENDIX
required in 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300, 3600, 3900, all at intervals of 300 years.
But the next following correction does not
come until 4300 instead of 4200, on account of the eighth period
being one of 400 years. This condition will be satisfied for all
time if we divide 8 c
13 by 25, call the remainder rs and subtract
from
M the correction
13
r8
25
This
may
be verified readily by drawing up a table of this corit will be found to have the value 5 for y = 1799,
when
rection,
in the proper
We
way.
M = 15 + - \ - n) - A + 13 and wnen M
greater than 30, we may subtract from
c
r8 )
(8 c
(c
have,
is
it,
if
we
And in the
now March
21
March 21
^7,
we must now
find the
full-moon date,
March 21
we
5 r3
-f-
r7
which remainder we
divide
3 r4
by 7 the quantity
+K+2+
389
r7
shall
call
ASTRONOMY
Now
if
comes out
r9
and Easter
is
0,
If r$ is
March 21
r-i
number
the
7-r.
Collecting all our formulas, we can now find the date of Easter
Sunday as follows and thus the rule given on p. 148 is demon;
strated.
As an example,
We
1913.
r3
have
1, r 4
2,
Easter Sunday
let
is
M=
24, r 6
on March 28
20,
= 1, r 9 =
13, r 7
= March 23.
6;
March
19, or earlier in
390
APPENDIX
will
But
if
the
March full-moon
is
on the
As
this
cannot occur in
directed that
by
That
1.
reality, the
20th,
then r 7 shall be diminished arbiwe must use 28 instead of 29, or move the
r7
29,
ordinarily also
r9
29 and r 9 =
will the
depends on r 7
Only when r^
change of r 7 from 29 to 28 have any effect. For when r 9 = 0,
a diminution by 1 will change it into 6, and r 7
r 9 will be diminished
by 7, making Easter exactly one week earlier. But when r 7 = 29
and r 9 = 0, the rule always makes Easter come on April 26.
Therefore the exception is as stated
whenever Easter comes by
the rule on April 26, use April 19 instead. There will be an example
.
of this in 1981.
complication.
We
occur.
must
therefore investigate
In determining
when
first
the
exception occurs.
first
exception can
r7
209r 6
11
M + 11
330
+ 319 +
391
11
330 v
+ 330.
ASTRONOMY
member is now divisible exactly by 30 theremember is also so divisible. But the division of
To make this disleave a remainder of 29 r 6
209 r 6 by 30 will
1 1 by 30 must be
appear, the remainder in the division of 1 1
r6
But r6 is always less than 19 by its definition. Therefore the
.
M+
M+
11
exception will occur whenever, in the division of 11
by 30, the remainder is less than 19.
But again, as in the case of thie first exception, the change of
first
r7
from 28 to 27
unless r9
will
When
0.
make no
r7
28 and
if TI
28 and
r9
Easter Sunday
0,
by the
is
on April
An example
rule.
18, instead of
two cases
Note
angle between the mirrors is half the altitude of the sun, imagine
the plane of the paper to be the plane of the circle of the sextant.
Then, in Fig. 113, the plane of the circle is supposed to be held
vertically, in such a way that it will pass throngh the sun at S.
The navigator
TmMS
angle
MTm
angle at
prove that
is
is
Angle
The
lines
M and m.
the
It is necessary to
MP'
and
mP
MTm
are
2 angle P.
drawn perpendicular
to the mirrors
APPENDIX
To the Horizon
FIG. 113.
Theory
of Sextant.
the reflection of light from plane mirrors, the two angles a are
equal and so are the two angles 6. Furthermore, the angle SMm,
or 2 a,
is
Angle 2 a
angle
26
mMT.
angle
Consequently
MTm,
or:
Angle
Similarly,
MTm
2 (angle a
mMP'
angle a
angle
6).
angle
6.
Therefore,
Angle
P =
angle a
angle
6.
Angle
MTm
2 angle P.
Q. E. D.
393
ASTRONOMY
Note
A reference to Fig.
makes
known the arc P/S', or the angular polar distance of the sun.
The ship's latitude is also supposed to be known; without
it,
longitude
PN
the celestial pole above the horizon. This latitude being subtracted
from 90, gives the arc ZP, or the angular distance from the celestial pole to the zenith.
Thus these three subtractions from 90
make known the three sides of the spherical triangle ZPS'.
It is a principle of trigonometry that any spherical triangle can
be solved completely, and all "its parts made known, if we know
its
three sides.
the vertex
is
the celestial
the sun S'
DM
at the pole,
DM
for
19.
394
APPENDIX
hemisphere;
The observatories of
Good Hope, for instance,
The angle
equal to the arc 00'
andjthe lines CO and CO' are
each known radii of the earth.
two
observatories.
OCO'
is
Therefore, by simple trigonometry, we can solve the triangle OCO' and gain a knowledge of the distance 00', which
',
to be our base-line,
is
and
of
simultaneously,
with suitable
astronomic
in-
FIG. 114.
Moon's Distance.
the instant
These
altitude
same meridian
same celestial
moon by simply
subtracting
395
ASTRONOMY
From these we again subtract the angles COO' and
CO'O, found above, thus obtaining values of MOO' and MO'O.
These now make possible a trigonometric solution of the triangle
MOO', of which we now know the base 00' and the two adjoining
and O'M in miles. After that we can
Thus we get
angles.
solve the two triangles COM and CO'M, since we know the length
and MO'C.
OM
of the
and
two
sides
CO and OM,
COM
CM,
Note
20.
Lunar Parallax
(p. 169).
Figure 42 shows that the moon's parallax and distance are connected by a very simple trigonometric formula
:
sin parallax
CM
radius of earth
distance of
moon
Note
21.
its
distance.
(p. 175).
is at Ci, the earth at EI, and the moon at MI, the sun will
appear from the earth projected in the direction Si. This is exactly
the same as would be the case if there were no moon, for then the
earth would itself be at Ci. But when the center of gravity is at
and the sun will be seen projected in
Cz, the earth will be at E2
the direction $2 ', instead of 2 which is its direction as seen from
Cz and which would be its direction from the earth if there were
no moon.
gravity
396
APPENDIX
Thus the sun
will
The
retarded.
total range
is
C2 SE2 we know
,
the angle
S2 SS2
C2 SEZ
is
6".
to be
2$
the dis-
E S,
and
the sun,
to
ured.
Solving
we
the
triangle,
find the side
C2E2
be about 2880
miles.
We then
to
form
tion
the
propor-
moon s mass
Earth's mass
FIG. 115.
Mass
of the
Moon.
in the propor-
tion are
Note
22.
Sun
We
(p. 181).
It is evident
shown at
s
Difficulty arises only in the case of the
new-moon phase, shown at MI and
6
Therefore, in Fig. 116,
we shall examine especially the new-moon phase. Let EI, MI, and
full-moon,
the small circles represent the lunar orbit around the earth. While
the earth moves from EI to E2 we may suppose the moon to move
to
2.
In other words,
397
if
the
moon
did
ASTRONOMY
not revolve around the earth, it would be at C when the earth
reached E2
Designate the angle EiSE^ by the letter 6, and let
re and r m represent radii of the earth's orbit around the sun and
the moon's orbit around the earth. Finally, let EiT be a tangent
.
EP
draw
Eif
perpen-
dicular
to
EiS;
EB
parallel
to
EiS',
and
MA
to EiT.
be a small
angle, MiM2 will be a
small part of the moon's
path near new-moon
it will evidently be concave towards the sun if
parallel
we
If
let
is
the entire
FIG. 116.
fell
lunar
away from
orbit
the tan-
moon
but the
AB.
Therefore the
tance of
EiP
Now we
AB.
re
AB =
But:
have, evidently
re cos 0,
rm
rm cos
(1)
M EzA.
(2)
M E A = M E C + CE A.
2
Also:
MEC =
is
CE2A =
because
0,
MEA
It follows that:
AB
is
its
orbit
parallel to EiS.
14 6
AB =
rm
398
-rm cosl40.
(3)
PHILOSOPHIC
NATURALIS
PRINCIPI A
MATHEMATICA
Autore
J S. NEJfTON,
Profeflbre Ltucafiano^
J'rin.
Coll.
Mathefeos
Cantab. Sac.
I i.
IMPRIMATURS.
E P Y
S,
Reg.
Soc.-
R &
S.
5.
L
luflu Sorietatit Regime
32.
J,
Streater.
ac Typis
Jofephi
plures Bibliopolas.
PLATE
ND1N
Anno
Profiat
MDCLXXXVIL
apud
APPENDIX
r2
simple
93,000,000, gives
= 1,
rm
240,000,
#iP =
16,000 miles,
AB =
7130 miles.
moon
miles in one day, while the earth is moving about 1 in its orbit
around the sun. This proves that the moon's true orbit is concave towards the sun, even at the time of new-moon.
Note
Law
23.
and equal
to
how
PP
2
'
'
it
PP
2
Note
'
have
$P P
two motions
Law of
24.
We
and
and
2 ',
still
Areas
PP
2
3.
186)
to prove the triangles
(p.
$PiP2
'
Fig. 117,
we
P S. And we
to
SPiP 2
may be found in the first edition of Newton's immortal Prinwhich the title-page is reproduced as Plate 32. The president of
the Royal Society, whose name appears on the title-page as having authorOn p. 13 of the Principia apized the printing, is the famous diarist.
1
Figure 117
cipia, of
"
pears Corol. I:
eodem tempore
describere,
ductis describunt
399
ASTRONOMY
Harmonic Law (p. 188).
25.
would carry us too far afield in mathematical astronomy to
give here the demonstrations by which Kepler's three laws may be
derived from Newton's single law but there is little difficulty in
considering by elementary methods the special case of a circular
Note
It
We
must
first
investigate the
force
Let PP'
Fig. 118.
be a very short arc of a circle,
accompanying
whose center
is
at S.
Draw
PD
the
PP'
PC = PD
PP',
or:
PC =
Now
let
our
circle
PD
be a planetary
orbit,
400
APPENDIX
PC, which would be the planet's actual motion in a second if
attraction toward the sun operated alone.
Now PP' is the planet's velocity in its orbit per second, which we
shall call
r.
and
But
move
How
planet was brought into existence. The question now is
the
attractive
solar
force
must
be
to
cause
a
fall
to
great
planet
:
from a position of
rest at
a second ?
This raises the question of
suitable unit of force?
how
Now
fall
PC
or # in
What is a
not applied
it is applied continuously.
Consethe short distance x toward the sun
forces are measured.
is
with a uniformly increasing velocity, faster and faster, but beginning with zero velocity at P. Its average velocity would be
attained halfway between
would move
in
a second
is
and C.
of course the
But
is
in a second, multiplied
by the
solar attractive
ASTRONOMY
must be represented by the number 2x.
force
celeration
/,
we thus have
/=2x;
and
this,
gives
(1),
172
'"7Now
<
is
irr
2>
and
the planetary orbital velocity V is of course equal to the circumference divided by the period of orbital revolution.
It follows
that
have
if
we
call this
period
t,
we
shall
If
or:
exerted
or:
f*
Ti*
== TI 3
402
T%
(4)
and
(5) gives
APPENDIX
This is the third (or harmonic) law of Kepler, which is therefore
thus demonstrated as a consequence of Newton's law in the case
A similar proof is possible, by the aid of the
of circular orbits.
higher mathematics, without this assumption as to the form of
the orbit; but a small correction is always required, because we
approximation,
We
shall
/=47r^
(6)
which r is now the distance from the earth to the moon, and t the
moon's sidereal period (p. 161). This equation is correct, if the
Newtonian law of gravitation extends to the moon, and not otherin
wise.
Newton's
by means
test
of /calculated
method.
the time of Newton, that the earth attracts an object situated on
"
its surface with a force which is called the
force of gravity," and
which produces an acceleration designated by the letter g in physics.
known
It is also
exterior to
trated at
Now
surface
R',
it
its
acts as
center. 1
is
its
Newton, we
is r.
It follows that
square of
moon
its
by
if
may
1
403
ASTRONOMY
/,
due to the earth's attraction upon the moon, and g due to the
upon surface objects
:
earth's attraction
or:
we
d h
m
laboratory experiments. The moon's sidereal period is 27 7 43
s
11.5 or 2360591.5 seconds.
The moon's distance, r, is 238,840
The earth's radius is 3858.8 miles,
miles, or 1,261,075,200 feet.
,
or 20,902,464 feet.
The value of IT is 3.1416. Making the calcuby means of logarithms, the above data give, by the aid
of equation (8)
lation
which
32.5,
found directly by
most astounding
that
a
series
of
can
thus
be
thing
quantities
brought together,
as it were, from various parts of the solar system
the moon's
distance determined by astronomic observations at Greenwich
is
Good Hope
APPENDIX
of
we obtain by
which
without
all circular.
Consider-
where
r is
now
(p.
403)
may
period of revolution.
is
at once,
where
is
distances, etc.
Now
r2
or:
405
ASTRONOMY
and
the
on
of the planet
satellite.
satellite pro-
If
we now equate
or
two bodies
is
we have
satellite,
or:
Mi + mi: Mt + m*
=?:<
With the help of this general proportion, we can now find the
mass as compared with that of the earth. We need only
let the subscript 1 refer to the earth and moon, and the subscript 2
Then everything is known in the
to the planet and satellite.
if we have determined by direct
2 + w2
proportion except
observation the distance and period of the satellite with respect to
its planet.
It is to be noted that this method gives only the sum
of the masses of the planet and its satellite, not the mass of the
planet alone. But this is of minor importance, since the satellites
planet's
406
APPENDIX
are almost always very small compared with their planets
and,
in any case, it is the combined mass of the system, including both
:
we
really
need to know.
For
it
is
this
and it is
pulls upon other bodies in space
the pulling force upon such other bodies which must be used in
any further calculations relating to orbits, etc.
When
a planet has no
satellite, as in
we cannot employ
where
To
We
Therefore
we have
in general
know,
Mass = Volume
for the earth's
Density.
mass M.
M. = FA,
where A, represents the
volume.
And
terrestrial density,
we have
M, = FA407
and V. the
earth's
ASTRONOMY
Consequently
*Y*
A.F.
But, again using
= *L
M.
JLp
D3
V.
Therefore,
if
over a fraction of
will pass
its
360
by
and Jupiter
</sld
if
we take
the difference
360
360
Sid
fail
day
this
will
p. 208).
360
^syn
360
-^sld
408
360
^sid
APPENDIX
J_ = J_
or:
^syn
"sid
-^sid
E^
Note
28.
(p. 210).
as in the case of a superior planet, again
the earth's orbital motion as well as on that of the
As
planet.
earth
may be
360
represented
by
360
and --
r 8 id
-Esid
the daily synodic motion of Venus, supposed seen from the sun.
This quantity
is
360
360
motion
of
an
inferior
planet
perfectly analogous to that for a superior planet, except
This is of course due to
that the terms are now interchanged.
is
the fact that the superior planet has a slower angular motion
around the sun than the earth, while the inferior planet has a
faster angular
motion.
But, as before,
if
VByn
be the synodic
and we
*syn
have
360
^syn
= 360 _ 360
Vsid
-^sid
Note
29.
It will
table (p.
find:
ASTRONOMY
reduced to days
cals of
from
periods arise.
As the
"
numbers
Difference
in the final
by means
of the formula
or:
sin of greatest elongation
= distance
410
APPENDIX
Obviously, the greatest elongation will be
happens when the planet is in that part of its orbit which
is farthest from the sun.
We shall therefore make the calculation
twice, using the two values just given for the distance from Mercury
to the sun. We have
to 43.5 million miles.
larger
if it
Note 31.
The
Temperature of Mars
Mars
distance from
(p. 226).
to the sun is about 1J times that
from
by
as
receives only
come
that,
much heat
as the earth, or f as
on the average,
amount
much.
We
all
;
Now we have
a law of physics
known
perature
(Fahrenheit),
for
But
if
we have:
Mars,
Q =
Qm =
Q.
(458
(458
much
4
411
+ F.Y,
+ FJ*.
heat as
it
receives,
ASTRONOMY
Therefore
(458
(458
Now
+ F,Y
+ Fm
=9
4*
)*
we may put
F = 60.
e
Therefore
=
|,
+ Fn = -v/l (518) =
458
So that
Fm = - 33
This result
is
518
0.82
is
f(518)*,
= 425.
Fahrenheit.
we cannot be sure
Mars and the
It
earth.
(458
body radiating
f =
J==
'
to r 2
the planet.
to 1.25.
There
is
Note 33.
We
must
seconds of arc.
In Fig. 119,
let S, V\,
412
and
APPENDIX
and the earth at the moment
sun, Venus,
of inferior conjunc-
Let
in
days, from the definition of the synodic period.
In
one
Therefore,
we
let
FIG. 119.
Halley's Method,
Angle S
But
SEV we have
S:smE = V E:V S,
sin
2,
since the sines of the angles of any plane triangle are proportional
to the opposite sides.
Therefore
sin
V
VE
SI
But the
ratio -=^=
is
# =VS
*
known from
sin
the
known
relative lengths of
the radii of the two orbits belonging to Venus and the earth (cf. p.
The angle S being also known, as has just been shown, it
262).
We
(Fig.
VA
ASTRONOMY
Va
the relative distances of Venus and the earth from the sun.
0.723
if
Aa is
Therefore
1.000.
Va VA = 723 277
:
and
ab, in miles, is
AB
is
is
easy
of
the
FIG. 120.
arc as seen
earth,
we
from
easily
Halley's Method.
the sun.
The simple
usual
r (miles)
r (miles)
ab (miles)
tan ab (seconds)
(p. 271).
t
has his telescope pointed in the
direction tT; that the earth, carrying the observer and telescope, is for
the
moment moving
orbit
in
the
in
direction
annual
its
tt',
with the
Now
the telescope
And suppose
in the position tT.
this light travels with a velocity of
miles per second in the direction ST.
is
Now indicate by
the angle
tTt'.
414
FIG. 121.
Aberration of Light.
Then we may
say, as
it
were,
APPENDIX
V are properly proportioned to fit the
in the telescope tube" while the tube
will
the
"stay
light
angle
We shall then have
is moving from tT to I'T'.
that
if
This equation signifies that a star at S will really appear proIn other words, the aberrajected on the sky in the direction t'T'.
the
tion of light displaces
apparent position of the star on the sky
And
there
is
no
difficulty in
for the
must be
in opposite directions
We
From
we
this
easily
about 41" of
aro.
For the
Note
35.
To
(p.
402)
= Yl =
2
(velocity of planet in orbit)
approximately
circular,
r is
93,000,000 miles.
Circumference
415
2 mr
ASTRONOMY
and
by the number
of seconds in a sidereal
we
year,
/
If
ity,
0.233 inch.
we now let g, as usual, represent the constant of terrestrial gravwe may write a simple proportion by the aid of Newton's law
f
1
sun's
=_
mass
earth's
(sun's distance)
This proportion
is
mass
(earth's radius)
makes
attractive
forces
the distance from the center to the surface, where gravity acts.
In the proportion everything is known but the solar mass we
:
Note 36.
To
it.
(p. 300).
tri-
sin
sin
MicO'
MiO'c
= MiO'
MIC
But, as the sines of these small angles are proportional to the angles
themselves,
we may
write
MIC
MiO'c
But
MiO' = O'O
- MiO =
93,000,000
- 240,000,
very nearly
240,000.
But
MicO'
MiO'c
nnnn
93000000\ - OA
240000
240000
MiO'c =
solar parallax
386.
8".8.
MicO'
also
416
as seen
APPENDIX
Therefore
M
And
if
MicS
lC
S =MicO' + 0'cS = 5r
16' =
1J, approximately.
will
Note 37.
We
Draconitic Period
have seen
305).
(p.
O
,
In one month
or 18.5.
The moon
itself
move
to
will
it
Therefore
it
'
or
will
1 54
~
about
will require
move about
.04
move
1.54.
motion
S
,
or 0.54
per hour.-
Hence the
Note 38.
Stellar
Magnitudes
(p. 324).
by means
of
Then
or,
passing to logarithms
m)
N
From
this
we
also obtain
n
2s
m=
2.5 log
417
0.4(n
m).
ASTRONOMY
These two equations enable us to calculate the light-ratio from
the difference of magnitudes, and vice versa.
Note
39.
Stellar
Photometry
To understand how
(p.
325).
we shall first consider the following interesting question. What are the faintest stars that can
be seen with a telescope of given size ? The answer here depends
this
is
done,
An
is
object-glass
great,
and
will
will
it
d2
If
we assume
this star to
= light
jj
And then
or,
of a
light of a
n-
ninth-magnitude
ninth-magnitude star
d2
2.51og^=
9
star,
2.5 log
2.5 log d2
d2
visible in a telescope of
Note 40.
As we have
(p. 326).
418
APPENDIX
equivalent to -jrsWinnnF
sun ^g^-
Therefore,
we
receive from
Vega:
1
sunlight y^
sunlight
66000000000'
2000'
33000000
and the word "sunlight" here means the quantity of light received
from the sun. Then, since the intensity of light diminishes proportionately to the square of our distance from its source, Vega
must emit
:
light
*
<
2
(distance of sun)
66000000000
But Vega
is
Vega's distance
_ 182000a
sun's distance
Therefore,
or,
approximately
Note
41.
Motion
of Solar
System
(p.-
49.
338).
Figure 122 may make this matter clearer. The solar system is
for the moment imagined stationary, and the stars all moving
FIG. 122.
Motion
of Solar System.
ASTRONOMY
(cf. p. 399).
Only the part SSi affects the velocity of approach or recession with respect to the solar system. The entire
arrow SSi indicates approach on the right-hand side of the figure,
and recession on the left-hand side. At the lower edge of the
diagram appears a star none of whose real velocity SSi will appear
grams
The
tion.
Note
latter hypothesis
Distance of Vega
42.
is,
of course, the
more probable.
(p. 341).
The
by
v
^*"
'
FIG. 123.
Distance of Vega.
is,
definition, the
angle
parallax
0".ll,
angle,
EVS,
sub-
at
Vega
tended
by the
radius of
,J~
,,
the earth
...
orbit
ES
SV
But tan 0".ll
is,
tanO'Ml
approximately
0.11
'
200000
and
so
of Vega,
is
93000000
200000
0.11
Note
43.
Mass
Referring to
system
is:
of
Binary Star
Note 261
(p. 350).
(p. 405),
Mass
of
system
^,
O
t
420
APPENDIX
where S
is
Note 44.
Size of
Andromeda Nebula
(p.
353).
Figure 124 will make this clear. S is the sun E, the earth and
N, the center of the nebula. C and C' are points on the circumference of the nebula. The
;
angle
ENS
since
it
by
definition
FIQ. 124.
Size of
Andromeda Nebula.
A^-,
or 540,000.
away from us
as the sun.
Therefore the
310000000.
It follows that the nebular density may be as slight as sioooooin?of the solar density, and yet the earth be attracted by the nebula as much as by the sun.
421
INDEX
Apparent solar time, table of differences
from mean solar time, 82
Arago, compliments Herschel, 247
Areas, Kepler's law of, 120, 184, 399
Aristarchus of Samos,
his solstice observation used by Hip-
Aberration of light,
explanation of, 136
solar parallax from, 271, 414
Absolute method of measurement, 331
Absorption,
of light by gases, 283
in the sun, 573
of starlight by atmosphere, 286
parchus, 127
Aristotle, explains lunar phases, 163
Aristyllus, star observations, 129
used in photometry,
Artificial
star,
Albedo, 218
of Mercury, 218
of Venus, 220
Aldebaran,
standard first-magnitude star, 324
Alexandria, Eratosthenes measures earth
there, 94
Algol, variable star, 328
325
Ascension island, Gill's Mars expedition
to, 266
Aspect of heavens, on different dates, 72
Astronomer
Bradley, 136
office established by Charles
Greek, 30
popular questions concerning, 2
value as a study, 21
value for practical purposes, 18
Atmosphere,
353
size of, 421
Angle, defined, 29
Angular diameter,
in,
338
Aphelion, 263
Apogee, tides
at,
Apollo, ancient
254
name
of planet
Mercury,
217
Apparent
Apparent
orbit, of
solar day, 65
variable in length, 71
Apparent solar time, 65
explanation
of,
67
159
of moon, 173
of planets, 203
of sun, 118
Angular distance, defined, 29
Annular eclipses of sun, 304
Apex of sun's motion in space,
II,
Astronomy,
Almanac,
nebula
royal,
Airy, 31
423
INDEX
Central,
Axis, rotation,
direction in space, planets, 202
sun, 296
of celestial sphere, 32
of earth, 31
of equatorial mounting, 279
of telescope mounting, 276
force, in
sun, 355
and
stellar,
286
stars,
by Huggins, 337
Bureau
Church
of Standards at
Washington, 102
of
Good Hope
observatory,
267
computes Horrocks' observation,
270
Cassiopeia, constellation, how to find, 54
Cavendish, weighs the earth, 107, 376
Cayenne, Richer swings pendulum at, 98
Celestial equator, precessional motion,
129
Celestial meridian, 36
correspondence with terrestrial, 73, 367
Celestial poles, 32
motion of, seen by a traveler, 39
position with respect to horizon, 40,
365
Celestial sphere, 24
apparent rotation of, 30
oblique, 42
parallel, 41
right, 40
Center of gravity,
binary stars, 347
earth and moon, 174
Cassini,
at,
Ecclesiastical
diurnal, 33
see
Circle,
perpetual, 147
Cape
calendar,
calendar
ecliptic, 28
graduated, on sextant, 152
on telescope, 278, 281
great, defined, 27
meridian, 277
Clerk-Maxwell,
constitution of Saturn's ring, 245
light-pressure theory, 309
Clock,
astronomic, standard, 278
of equatorial telescope,
regulator, jeweler's, 279
Clusters of stars, 351
280
distance and
size, 352
nebulous matter in, 352
Coal-sack in Milky Way, 354
Collimator, in spectroscope, 282
Collision,
of stars,
347
Coma,
of comets,
Comets,
14,
307
307
tails,
309
periodic, 313
Compound lenses of telescope, 273
424
INDEX
Conic sections, Newton's comet orbits,
312
Conjunction, 209
superior and inferior, 210
of Venus, produces transit, 268
Conservation of energy, 2
effect on tidal friction, 256
Constant,
of torsion balance, 108
in calendar calculations, 144
Constellations, 7
diagrams of principal, 63
Demon
stellar distribution,
295
Cosmic
velocity,
of solar system,
of stars, 346
345
sun, 292
Copernicus,
solar,
Algol
354
nebulae,
Corona,
star, see
Density,
comets, 308
earth, 110
moon, 175
338
Cosmogony, 356
Council of Nice, 146
Crests, of tidal waves, 253
Cross-threads, in telescope, 275
Crystal sphere, in Ptolemaic theory, 189
Curvature, of earth,
arguments proving, 87
measurement of, 97
Curves in planetary motion, 215
Cygnus, constellation, diagram
of Vega,
of,
61
circles,
origin,
420
Diurnal,
33
258
Date, in calendar,
four parts of, 138
of Easter, 148
263
Doppler principle, with spectroscope, 284
Double
Date-line, international, 75
Day, 65
apparent
solar,
lengthening
lunar, 176
of,
67
by
tidal frictions,
121
257
on Mars, 221
Mercury, 218
Venus, 221
planetary, 202
sidereal, 66
solar, unequal, 71
Day and night, 31
at the pole, 42
equal at equator, 40
in temperate regions, 43
longest
and
Earth,
an astronomic body, 15
atmosphere of, 113
curvature of, 87, 97
density of, 110
flattening of, 97
interior of, 111
shortest, 121
425
INDEX
Earth, shadow of, in eclipses, 303
shape a geoid, 101
weighing it, 103
Earth-shine on moon, 164
Easter, date of, 148, 385
Eccentricity of planetary orbits, 200
Ecclesiastical calendar, 146
Focus,
of earth's orbit, 116
of telescope, 272
Eclipses, 297
Force,
centrifugal, on earth, 98
central, in planetary motion, 187
lunar, 301
solar,
297
periodicity
tidal,
26
locating it on sky, 47
pole of, 131
maximum,
of satellites
410
from planets, 205
of planets, 212,
Geography,
latitude and longitude
terrestrial
meridians
in,
in,
of,
34
73
Georgium
name
Sidus,
for Uranus,
247
Gill,
of sextant, 152
of telescope, 281
Gravitation,
action of, inside nebulae, 4
force of, on sun, 102, 291
Major
circle of sphere, defined, 27
Greatest luminosity of Venus, 219
Great
227
61
Way
Galileo,
Graduated
ecliptic, 30
size of earth, 92
measures
Fixed
252
426
Ursa
INDEX
Greenwich, initial meridian, 34, 73
Gregorian calendar, 138
Groom bridge,
catalogue of stars, 334
his
runaway
star,
347
of planetary orbit,
Heat,
interior of earth, 111
of meteors, cause of,
of stars, 326
318
oscillations of,
Iris,
Gill,
267
Jupiter,
appearance in telescope, 13
atmosphere, 236
comet family of, 314
distance from sun, 240
how
to find, 51
influence on planetoid orbits, 235
in nebular hypothesis, 358
.
239
markings on, 236
rotation, axial, 236
satellites, 237
seasons and temperature, 237
Horrocks,
observes transit of Venus, 270
Hottest day of summer, 122
Hour-angle,
denned, 66, 363
measures time, 66
observed by
213
Hipparchus,
200
Inequality,
diurnal, of tides, 253
of morning and afternoon, 135
Inferior planets, 209
conjunctions, 210
Kapteyn,
353
Kepler,
ellipticity of earth's orbit,
116
sun, 193
427
INDEX
arc, 99
Lagrange, planetoid orbits, 235
Lowell,
La Condamine, Peru
Laplace,
capture theory of comets, 314
nebular hypothesis, 235, 356
binary stars, 350
satellites of Uranus, 247
Lapland, arc measured in, 99
Lassell, satellites of Uranus, 247
Latitude,
arcs of, used in
^odesy, 99
of,
Lava, source
of,
273
Leo, constellation, diagram of, 62
Leonid meteors, 316
Leverrier, discovers Neptune, 248
Lexell, explains
Uranus, 247
Libration,
of
of
moon, 171
Mercury, 218
Light,
aberration of, 136
solar parallax, 271, 414
absorption
by gases, 283
atmosphere, 325
of,
terrestrial
325
velocity of, 333
Light-pressure in comet tails, 309
Light-ratio of star magnitudes, 324
Light-year and stellar parallax, 333
Limits, in eclipses, 300
total, of stars,
how
to find, 51
inhabitants, 223
Mean
Mean
82
Mercury, 217
how
to find, 50
transits of, 306
Meridian,
celestial, 36,
Line-of-sight,
motions of stars in, 334
of telescope, 277
circle,
73
276
428
INDEX
Meridian,
planets on
volume, 173
weight or mass, 173, 396
Morning and afternoon unequal, 135
Morning and evening stars, 22
Moulton, planetesimal hypothesis, 358
Mountain,
used to weigh the earth, 104
'
measurement of lunar, 182
Mountings, for telescopes, 276
Multiple stars, 351
at midnight, 52
right-ascension of, 67, 366
shape of terrestrial, 97
it
standard, 74
Meteors, 315
Micrometer, 276
used for binary stars, 347
Mars, 265
stellar parallax, 332
day, 121
Mira, variable
Month,
Moon,
star,
328
sextant
Neap
Nebulas,
density, 354
effect of internal gravitation, 4
gaseous constitution of, 4
in Andromeda, 353, 421
in star clusters,
352
surface features, 16
152
255
in,
tides,
nebulium
353
5
planetary, 352
resolving them, 3
ring form, 353
spiral form predominant, 5, 353
spiral, in planetesimal hypothesis, 359
Nebular hypothesis, 235, 356
satellites of Uranus in, 247
"Nebulium" in nebulae, 353
Nebulosity of cometary coma, 307
Neptune, planet, 247
New Haven observatory, 267
number
New
in,
of,
stars, see
Newton,
comet
Temporary
stars
orbits, 312
determines flattening of earth, 98
law of gravitation, 103, 184
test of earth's rotation, 91
Nice, council of, 146
Night, radiation from earth in, 122
Nodes,
motion of lunar, in eclipses, 299
of Milky Way, 354
planetary orbital, 200
transit of Venus in, 268
Nodules, of sun, 289
429
INDEX
Nova,
see
Temporary
measurement
of, 331
331
photographic method, 332
relative, 332
Parallel sphere, 41
Pendulum, Foucault's experiment, 89
Richer's, at Cayenne, 98
shape of earth from, 101
Penumbra, eclipse shadow, 303
Perigee, lunar, 169
stars
Nucleus,
orbits,
350
Observations,
correction of, 156
imperfections of visual, 228
planetary, for orbit determination, 199
Occultations, of stars, 166
used for determining longitude, 239
Olbers, telescopic constellations, 310
Opposition, of planets, 212
of Mars, favorable, 263
Orbit, binary star's, 347
cometary, 312
elements
of, six,
201
moon's, shape
of,
168, 181,
397
253
tides,
254
earth
in,
123
215
on
tides,
in,
99
255
in eclipses, 301
Mars, 222
Mercury, 218
Saturn's ring, 242
Venus, 218
Phobos, inner satellite of Mars, 222
in nebular hypothesis, 357
Photographic observations, Mars, 229
planetoids, 234
stellar magnitudes, 325
stellar parallax, 332
stellar spectra, 336
Photographic telescopes, 281
430
INDEX
position of, above horizon, 40, 365
Photometer, stellar, 324, 418
processional motion of celestial, 131
Photosphere, solar, 288
Pole star, effect of precession on, 132
Piazzi, discovers Ceres, 232
how to find, 53
Pickering, spectroscopic binary stars,
Position angle, binary stars, 348
349
Power of telescope, light-gathering, 275
Plane, invariable, 207
Planetesimal hypothesis, 358
magnifying, 273
Precession of equinoxes, 126
Planetoids, 183, 196, 231
cause of, 129
Ceres, the first one, 232
changes right-ascension, etc., 334
Eros, 236
determines date of pyramids, 133
mass and size, 235
effect on pole star, 132
Pallas, Juno, Vesta, 233
Prime meridian, Greenwich, 34, 73
Wolf, photographic discovery, 234
Prism, in spectroscope, 282
Planets, axial rotation period, 202
Proctor, motion of "Dipper" stars, 335
brilliancy, 46
curves in motion of, 215
Prominences, solar, 293
disks visible in telescope, 13
Proper motion, of stars, 334
determines apex, 339
elongation from sun, 211
in Pleiades, 351
field-glass view of, 52
identification of, 47
Ptolemy, phases of Venus, 219
planetary theory, 189
inferior, 209
mass measured, 204, 405
Pyramid, date of construction, 133
Pythagoras, earth's motions, 87
morning and evening stars, 22
motion among stars, 10
Radial velocity, stellar, 334
names, 10, 183
determines apex, 338
near ecliptic always, 47
not self-luminous, 11
Radiant, of meteor showers, 315
on meridian at midnight, 52
Radiation of heat from earth, 122
Radius vector, 119
opposition of, 212
orbital elements, 200
law of areas, 120, 184
orbits determined, 197
Rate of chronometers, 157
oscillations of, 213
Recurrence, of eclipses, 304
of meteor showers, 316
periods in Kepler's laws, 188
phases, 11
Refraction, atmospheric, 114
correction of sextant observations, 156
planetesimal hypothesis, 359
"Regulator" clocks, 279
proximity to us, 10
Relative stellar parallax, 332
revolution around sun, 10, 183
rotation poles of, 203
Retrograde motions of planets, 214
Reversing layer, in solar spectrum, 288
retrograde motions, 214
sidereal period, 207, 408
Richer, Cayenne observations, 98
size measured, 203
Right-ascension, 34, 363
measured, 278
superior, 209
of meridian, 67, 366
surface and volume measured, 204
sidereal time and hour-angle, 367
synodic period, 207, 408
twinkling, 50
Right sphere, 40
Rigidity of earth, 112
ultra-neptunian, 249
Ring nebula, 353
visibility of, 211
Ring of Saturn, 13, 241, 412
Planisphere, 63
constitution of, 245
Pleiades, motion in, 336
"Pointers," constellation, see Ursa Major
disappearance of, 244
Polar axis, in telescope mounting, 280
Keeler and Maxwell, 245
Poles, celestial and terrestrial, 32
phases, 242
motion of, seen by travelers, 39
Rising and setting, 31
rotation of celestial, 132
heliacal, 127
of ecliptic, 131
of moon, 176
planetary, position of rotation, 203
Roomer, observes Jupiter's satellites, 239
.
431
INDEX
Rotation, axial, celestial sphere, 30
earth, 15,
Sidereal,
day, 65
30
Foucault experiment, 89
Jupiter, 236
Mars, 221
Mercury, 218
moon, 169
Newton's experiment, 91
planets, 202
position of poles, 203
sun, 295
tidal effect on earth's, 253
Venus, 221
Runaway star, 335
Sirius,
88
Salusbury, translator of Galileo, 88, 237
Salviati, character in Galileo's Dialogue,
88
Sappho, planetoid, 267
Saros, eclipse period, 304
Satellites,
summer,
360
Jupiter, 237
43, 122
Space,' 2
unit of sidereal, 345
Specific gravity of earth, 110
Mars, 222
Saturn, 246
Saturn, appearance in telescope, 241
how
Spectroheliograph, 294
Spectroscope, 282
to find, 51
moons, 246
Schehallien,
Schiaparelli,
319
Schwabe, periodicity of sunspots, 290
Scintillation, see Twinkling
Scorpius, constellation, diagram, 62
Seasons, explanation, 44, 120
Mars, 222
Mercury, 217
Jupiter, 237
Secchi, stellar chemistry, 337
Secular perturbations, 206
Seeing, process of, 228
93, 121
winter, 121
Sosigenes, arranges Julian calendar, 138
Southern hemisphere, conditions there,
slitless,
285
Mars, 224
Nebulse, 4
Saturn's ring, 245
Spectrum,
bright-line
classification of stellar,
cometary, 308
288
287
reversing layer in solar, 288
shift of lines in, 284
Semi-diameter, in sextant observing, 156
Semi-diurnal tides, 253
Sphere, celestial, 23
Sextant, in navigation, 152
apparent rotation, 30
theory of, 393
oblique, 42
Shadow, of earth in eclipses, 303
parallel, 41
Shooting stars, see Meteors
right, 40
Showers of meteors, 315
crystal, in Ptolemaic theory, 189
flash, in solar eclipses,
Fraunhofer
432
lines in solar,
INDEX
Spiral nebulae, 5
Spots on the sun, 17, 289
Spring tides, 255
Stability, of planetary orbits, 206
Stadium, Greek linear measure, 94
Standard clocks, astronomic, 278
Standard magnitudes, stellar, 324
Standard meridians, 74
Standard pound, 102
Standard time, 65, 74, 83
Stars, analogy to sun, 6, 322
artificial, for photometry, 325
average distance asunder, 346
binary, 347
change in distance of, spectroscopic, 284
chemistry of, spectroscopic, 284
clusters, 351
collision, 347
community of motions, 335
cooling, 6
cosmic velocity, 346
dates when on meridian at 9 P.M., 58
rising and setting, 9 P.M., 60
density of, in sidereal space, 345
distance, 330
double, 8
excessively remote, 322
faintest visible in telescope,
fixed, 7,
heat
of,
twinkling, 6
variation of brightness, 8, 326
in clusters, 351
Stationary points, in planetary motion,
215
Statistics of stars,
342
289
Streams,
stellar,
347
120
longer than winter, 123
Sun, absorption in outer layers
Summer, heat
of,
of, 286
analogy to stars, 6, 322
angular diameter, 118
annular eclipses, 304
apex of its cosmic motion, 338
axial rotation, 17, 295
central, 355
chemistry of, 286
chromosphere, 293
corona, 295
density, 292
dimensions, 17, 290
direction of rotation axis, 296
distance, from Jupiter's satellites, 240
scale of solar system, 262
see Parallax
418
eclipses,
297
333
326
faculae,
Fraunhofer
6,
287
in space, 7, 338
nodules, 289
photosphere, 288
planetesimal hypothesis, 360
position on sky, 25, 27
323
lines,
magnitudes,
maps, 45
289
runaway, 335
prominences, 293
reversing layer, 288
semi-diameter correction, 156
source of light and heat, 292
spots, 17, 289
stellar magnitude, 324, 326
twin suns, 347
volume, 292
Sundial, 78
self-luminous, 6
spectra photographed, 336
number
visible to eye, 7
originate in nebulae, 4
parallax, 330
periodically variable, 328
points of light only, 12
streams
of,
347
subject to gravitation, 7
total light of,
2F
325
mathematics
of,
368
433
INDEX
Surface, area of planets, 204
at,
94
308
326
effect
Time,
apparent solar, 67
determined by observation, 279
differences, 72
equation of, 134
mean
solar,
sidereal,
71
65
standard, 65, 74
sundial, 82
Timocharis, 129
Torsion balance, 107
constant of, 108, 375
Triangulation, geodetic, 95
Tropical year, 128
141
effect of
effect
of,
meteors, 315
Telescope, 272
Temporary
length
of aSrolites, 321
periodic,
328
system reaching
341
Velocity, cosmic, of solar system, 338
of stars, 346
of light, 333
"
"
of
runaway star, 347
434
it,
INDEX
Witt, discovers Eros, 236
Wolf, photographs planetoids, 234
Wave
motion,
tidal,
Week, calculation
of
255
day
of,
number
of days in it, 70
and tropical, 128
synodic, 208
143
sidereal
Zenith, 36
stars brightest near, 325
Zero, a stellar magnitude, 324
Zodiacal light, 249
435
ita
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF
25
CENTS
19
1840
29
1944
r,j
LD
21-100m-7,'39(402s)
YC 22209