The Human Body

Body:: Anatomical
R i
Regions,
Regions
, Directions
Di
Directions,
ti
, and
d Body
B d
Cavities

An Introduction to the Human Body

ody
Anatomy
science of structure
relationships revealed by dissection (cutting
apart)
imaging techniques

Physiology
Ph i l
science of body functions
normal adult physiology is studied
some genetic variations occur

Overview of Anatomy
y and Physiology
y
gy
Anatomy the study of the structure of body parts
and their relationships to one another
Gross or macroscopic
Microscopic
Developmental
Physiology the study of the function of the bodys
structural machinery

Gross Anatomy
Regional all structures in one part of the body
(such as the abdomen or leg)
Systemic gross anatomy of the body studied by
system
t
Surface study of internal structures as they relate to
the overlying skin

Specialized Branches of Anatomy

Pathological anatomy study of structural
changes caused by disease
Radiographic anatomy study of internal
structures visualized by X ray
Molecular biology study of anatomical structures
at a sub-cellular level

Microscopic
p Anatomy
y
Cytology study of the cell
Histology study of tissues

Developmental Anatomy
Traces structural changes throughout life
Embryology study of developmental changes of
the body before birth

Anatomical Position
The anatomical position is a
standardized method of observing
or imaging the body that allows
precise
i and
d consistent
i t t anatomical
t i l
references
When in the anatomical position
position,
the subject stands
standing upright
facing the observer, head level
eyes facing forward
feet flat on the floor
arms at the sides
palms turned forward (ventral)

Basic Anatomical Terminology

Reclining Position
If the body is lying face down
down, it is in the prone
position
If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine
position

SPINE
SUPINE

Anatomical Position

Body
y erect
Feet slightly apart
Palms facing forward
Thumbs point away from
body

Figure 1.7a

Directional Terms Used to Describe the

Position off one Structure
S
to Another
A
h
Superior/Inferior
(Cephalic/Caudal)
Anterior/Posterior
(Ventral/Dorsal)
Medial/Lateral
Intermediate: Between
Ipsilateral/Contralateral
Proximal/Distal
Superficial/Deep

Directional Terms
Superior and inferior toward and away from the
head respectively
head,
Anterior and posterior toward the front and back
of the body
Medial, lateral, and intermediate toward the
midline away from the midline,
midline,
midline and between a more
medial and lateral structure
Proximal and distal closer to and farther from the
origin of the body
p
and deep
p toward and away
y from the
Superficial
body surface

Directional Terms

Table 1.1

Directional Terms

Table 1.1

Regional Terms: Anterior View

Axial head, neck,
and trunk
Appendicular
appendages or
limbs
Specific regional
terminology

Figure 1.7a

Regional Terms: Posterior View

Figure 1.7b

Body Planes
Sagittal divides the body into right and left parts
Midsagittal
g
or medial sagittal
g
plane that lies on the
p
midline
Frontal or coronal divides the body into anterior
and
d posterior
t i parts
t
Transverse or horizontal (cross section) divides
the body into superior and inferior parts
Oblique
q section cuts made diagonally
g
y

Basic body planes or sections

These terms are used

for p
planes or sections
that cut the body,
organs, tissues, or cells

Body Planes

Figure 1.8

Example of how planes

would cut the brain

Body Cavities

Figure 1.9a

Body Cavities
Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is
divided into two subdivisions
Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases
the brain
Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral
p
cord
column and encases the spinal
Ventral cavity houses the internal organs
(viscera) and is divided into two subdivisions: (viscera),
Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities

Body Cavities

Figure 1.9b

Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity
y is subdivided into p
pleural cavities,,
the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity
Pleural cavities each houses a lung
Mediastinum contains the pericardial cavity,
and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
Pericardial cavity encloses the heart

Body Cavities
The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the
superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped
di h
diaphragm
It is composed of two subdivisions
Abdominal cavity contains the stomach,
intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
Pelvic cavity lies within the pelvis and contains
the bladder
bladder, reproductive organs,
organs and rectum

Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Parietal serosa lines internal body
y walls
Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
Serous fluid separates the serosae

Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Figure 1.10a

Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Figure 1.10b

Other Body Cavities

Oral and digestive mouth and cavities of the
digestive organs
Nasal located within and posterior to the nose
Orbital house the eyes
Middle ear contain bones (ossicles) that transmit
sound vibrations
Synovial joint cavities

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Right
Ri
ht upper (RUQ)
Left upper (LUQ)
Right lower (RLQ)
Left lower (LLQ)

Figure 1.12

Abdominopelvic Regions

Umbilical
E i
Epigastric
t i
Hypogastric
Right and left iliac or
inguinal
Right and left lumbar
Right and left
hypochondriac

Figure 1.11a

Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions

Figure 1.11b

Anatomical Variability
Humans vary slightly in both external and internal
anatomy
Over 90% of all anatomical structures match
textbook descriptions
descriptions, but:
Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of
p
place
Small muscles may be missing

Extreme anatomical variations are seldom seen

Principle
p of Complementarity
p
y
Function always reflects structure
What a structure can do depends on its specific
form

Levels of Structural Organization

g
Chemical atoms combined to form molecules
Cellular cells are made of molecules
Tissue consists of similar types of cells
Organ made up of different types of tissues
Organ system consists of different organs that work
closely together
Organismal made up of the organ systems

Levels of Structural Organization

Smooth muscle cell
Molecules
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules

Atoms

Smooth
muscle
tissue
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules

Heart
Cardiovascular
system

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues

Blood
vessels

Blood
vessell
(organ)

6 Organismal level
The human organism is
made up of many organ
systems

5 Organ system level

Organ systems consist of different organs
that work together closely
Figure 1.1

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability
y to maintain a relatively
y
stable internal environment in an ever-changing
outside world
The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic
state of equilibrium
Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to
maintain homeostasis

Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis or the bodys
y normal
equilibrium
Overwhelming of negative feedback mechanisms
allowing destructive positive feedback mechanisms
to take over

Levels of Organization
el

Division of Labor and Level One

Within multi-cellular organisms there is division of
labor i.e.
i e the work (labor) of keeping the organism
alive is divided (division) among the different parts of
the body. Each part has a job to do and as each part
d
does
it special
its
i l job,
j b it works
k iin h
harmony with
ith all
ll th
the
other parts.
The arrangement of specialized parts within a living
thing is sometimes referred to as levels of
organization Cells of course,
organization.
course are the first level of
organization.

Cells: Various

Nerve Cells

Skin Cells

Level Two: Tissues

In any multi-cellular organism, cells rarely work alone.
Cells that are similar in structure and function are
usually
ll joined
j i d together
t
th tto fform tissues.
ti
Ti
Tissues
are the
th
second level of organization
There are four basic/major types of tissues in the
human body: Muscle tissue, nerve tissue, connective
tissue, and epithelial tissue
Other kinds of tissue include bone tissue (a strong
solid tissue that gives you shape and support) made of
bone cells in your body form bone tissue
Blood cells in your body are part of blood tissue, a
liquid tissue responsible for transporting food and
oxygen throughout the body

Connective tissue connects and supports parts of the

body. Blood, fat, ligaments, cartilage, bones, and tendons
are all connective tissues.
Nerve tissue carries messages back and forth between the
brain and every other part of the body
body. The brain
brain, spinal
cord, and nerves are made up of nerve tissue.
Muscle tissue can contract, or shorten. Because of this,
muscle tissue makes parts of your body move.
Epithelial tissue covers and lines the surfaces of your
body and organs
organs, inside and out
out. They primarily serve as
protective barriers. Skin is one example.

Level Three: Organs

When a bunch of different types of tissues work together
together,
they form an organ

Level Four: Organ Systems

Each organ in your body is
part of an organ system; a
group off organs that
th t work
k
together to perform a major
function.
e.g. your heart is part of
your circulatory
y
y system,
y
,
which carries oxygen and
other materials throughout
your body
body. Besides the
heart, blood vessels are
organs that work in your
circulatory system.

The nervous system detects

and interprets information
from the environment
outside the body and from
within the body;
y; controls
most body functions.
The immune system fights
disease.
The excretory system
removes wastes.
The endocrine system
controls many body
processes by means of
chemicals,
h i l lik
like
hormones.

The muscular system

enables the body to move;
moves food through the
digestive system, and keeps
the heart beating.
The skeletal system
supports
t and
d protects
t t the
th
body, and works with the
muscular system
y
to allow
movement; makes and
stores blood cells and
stores some other
materials.

The digestive system takes

food into the body,
y, breaks the
food down into smaller
particles, and absorbs the
digested materials
materials.
The respiratory system
takes oxygen into the body
and eliminates carbon
dioxide.
The reproductive system
produces sex cells that
p
can unite with other sex
cells to create offspring;
controls male and female
characteristics.