UNIT I MEASURING MACHINES

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The adaptation of optical principles to the practical needs of workshop inspection has given rise
to the construction of toolmakers microscope and projectors. These apparatuses incorporate
every feature of accuracy and refinement in their design, and hence they are known as precision
inspection apparatuses.
Projectors and Toolmakers microscope are made to the highest possible standard and represent
high constructive skill and ingenuity in design. The inspection operation and dimensional
measurement that can be carried out with optical projector are similar to engineering microscope
in many ways. However, there are still differences between these two families of optical
measuring instruments. Microscopes are intended primarily for tool room and gage room
applications and require certain degree of skill in operation. On the other hand, projectors are
basically production-oriented instruments in shop floor by machine tool operators. Optical
projectors are not adaptable to various types of special accessories designed for microscope. But
they provide application advantages in many other respects in comparison to the capabilities of
engineering microscopes.
In this unit, we will discuss the principle of the projection techniques used in various projectors
and toolmakers microscope. Few applications of these will also be discussed. We will also
discuss constructional details in brief.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

familiarise yourself with different types of projectors, their uses and advantages, and

understand the principle and the working of a toolmakers microscope.

TOOLMAKERS MICROSCOPE
Engineering microscopes designed to satisfy various measuring needs of toolmakers are known
as toolmakers microscopes. A plain toolmakers microscope is primarily intended for a
particular application. On the other hand, universal toolmakers microscope is adaptable to an
uncommonly wide range of measuring tasks. A toolmakers microscope is designed for
measurements of parts of complex forms, e.g. profile of external threads, tools, templates and
gauges. It can also be used for measuring center-to-center distance of holes in any planes, as well
as the co-ordinate of the outline of a complex template gauge.

Construction
A general view of the toolmakers microscope is shown in Figure 7.3. A heavy, hollow base
accommodates the illuminating unit. On the top surface of the base, the worktable is carried,
supported on the balls and controlled by micrometer screws. Projection from the rear of the base
is done through a column, which carries the microscope unit and various interchangeable
eyepieces. A longitudinal section is given in Figure 7.4, which also shows the projection
attachment in position. Inspections are made by eye in the normal way, or the projection
attachment may be fitted which turns the beam by mirrors to bring up the image on the back of
the translucent screen. The magnification given depends on the microscope objective. However,
additional magnifying attachments are commonly supplied which facilitate the magnification
from 10X to 100X on the projection screen.

In order to adapt the apparatus to deal with a variety of works, various additional attachments
may be fitted to the worktable. The worktable can be made to revolve on the mounting and

normally has a central recess hole for accommodating a disc of glass. Flat work may be rested
upon the disc of glass. The attachments are available for clamping the work also. Generally, vee
block and credit-centre adaptations are used for this purpose. Linear movements of the table are
controlled by micrometer screws having a movement range of 25 mm and reading to 0.001 mm.
The table slide is held against the ends of the micrometer spindles by light spring pressure so that
movements greater than the micrometer travel may be controlled by interposing a slip gauge of
required dimension between the spindle and the point where it bears against the slide. This
method is preferable, even for movements within the range of the micrometers, as it is positive
and less liable to error.
There are several detachable and interchangeable eyepiece units. The protractor unit is prepared
with radial and cross setting lines and protractor. This may be rotated by a knurled screw for
setting any of the lines to a projected line of the work image, and readings of the protractor may
be made to 1
by means of a scale that divides each degree into 60 parts. The protractor, which
is illuminated, is read by eye through the small hole in the projecting eyepiece. This is shown in
Figure 7.5.

Means are provided for setting the worktable axis correctly relative to the protractor for zero
reading. The thread template unit has selected thread forms arranged round the glass disc in the
eyepiece, and this may be rotated to bring any desired thread form into position for comparison
with the magnified image of the work. Means are also provided for lining this up with the table
and the work diameter so that any thread profile brought into position will occupy the same
angular position as the thread image it is to check. A third type of eyepiece is often available. It
contains a linear scale and sets of radii, which may be superimposed on holes, or radii projected
from the work.
Working
Light from lamp at the extreme right is collimated in the tube connecting the lamp to the center
of instrument and is reflected as a parallel beam by the prism at the end of the tube. On its way

up, this beam collects the image of the object to be inspected and this enters the microscope.
Before the rays reach the eyepiece, it is turned by another prism. This is shown in Figure 7.4.
For the most effective manipulation, the magnified image of the work is viewed through the
eyepiece (or is projected), superimposed on a prepared background engraved on glass disk in the
eyepiece.
In order to view screws along the helix angle of the thread, the whole of the column unit with the
underside illuminating arrangement attached may be swung into the helix angle of the thread.
The pivot upon which the column swings may be seen near its base in Figure 7.4. Most of the
uses of this instruments will be on work where the shape of a profile is projected from below, but
surface shapes occur such as the edge of a recess, where surrounding metal prevents light passing
across the profile. These may be illuminated from above by a special attachment, which then
allows the profile to be received in the normal manner, except that the intensity of light will be
reduced from that received directly.
Applications
The application of toolmakers microscopes may be summarized broadly as follows :
Determination of the Relative Positions
It is used for the determination of the relative position of various points on work by measuring
the travel necessary to bring a second point to the position previously occupied by the first, and
so on.
Measurement of Angles
Measurement of angles is possible in toolmakers microscopes by using a protractor eyepiece.
Comparison Measurement
A toolmakers microscopes also do comparisons of thread forms, measurement of pitch and
effective diameter. In this case the comparison is done with master profiles engraved in the
eyepiece.
Comparison with a Scale
Comparisons of enlarged projected images with a scale tracing fixed projection screen are also
done in a toolmakers microscope.

Universal Measuring Machine

Measuring range

mm

0 1000

Max. deviation

Jim

0,7

Repeatability

am

0,1

Resolution

[im

0,1

Length of scale

mm

200

Measuring face dia.

mm

7,5

Adjustable measuring pressure

0-10

Height of measuring spindles

mm

110

Incremental measuring system

Application
For precision measurements of outside and inside diameters, lengths and threads. Ideal for
frequently changing dimensions Within a 200 mm range since no setting gauges are required.
Therefore, this machine is excellent for checking plug gauges, ring gauges, snap gauges, thread
gauges and gauge blocks in the inspection room, and also for checking precision parts in the
production line.

Design Features
Heavy duty, sturdy machine base, made of high density, black granite, which carries the
measuring head, setting carriage and if required support tables. A hand wheel adjusts the setting
carriage which accommodates 200 mm incremental measuring system, connected to a digital
comparator. The measuring anvil in the left hand head is mounted on a parallel having
assembly virtually friction-free and without play. The measuring pressure is adjustable. Anvil
retraction allows a no-contact mounting of the part. Both measuring faces are carbide tipped.
Test Procedures
When determining the deviation of the component under test, the measurement displayed is the
deviation from the nominal value. This nominal dimension of the part is preset on the digital
indicator, which is connected to the incremental measuring system.
Readings are taken from the indicator on the left hand measuring head.
When checking the actual dimension, the latter is displayed. For this operation, the indicator on
the left hand measuring head serves as zero indicator.
The actual dimension is read from the digital display on the right hand head.
For processing of the measuring results of deviation and actual dimension printers or computers
may be connected.
Advantages
Versatility. A large selection of accessories and attachments for many different kinds of
inside and outside measurements on gauges and workpieces are available.
Direct readings within 200 mm range. No setting gauges required within that range.
Digital readings with resolution of 0.1 |im on indicating instrument which is connected to
increamental measuring system.
Optimum sensitivity and accuracy guaranteed through a smooth and even movement of
the anvil which is mounted friction-free and without play on a parallel spring assembly.
The latter is maintenance-free thereby providing consistent accuracy even in continuous
operation.
Adjustable measuring pressure to match size and shape of parts. Even thin-walled, small
components can be checked without deforming them.
Constant measuring pressure is generated by means of weights, thereby eliminating any
interference from the operators personal feel.
Maximum wear resistance. A lever retracts the anvil thereby allowing no-contact
positioning of the component which together with carbide tipped measuring faces reduces
wear to a minimum.
IMAGE SHEARING MICROSCOPE
Image shearing is the technique used for the precise measurement of lateral dimensions of
objects under the microscope. It has several advantages over other methods of linear
measurements. This instrument can be applied to the accurate measurement of integrated circuits,
photomasks and wafers, without the need of time consuming calculations. It does not strain eyes.
Precision settings of 0.01 micron can be easily achieved on 2 micron wide photomask lines.

In this instrument an optical system is used to prod

produce
uce two identical images of the object which
can be superimposed or sheared across each other by means of a precisely calibrated mechanism.
Measurements are taken when the two images are just in edge to edge contact, a condition that
can often be set to better
tter than one
one-tenth
tenth of the optical resolution of the microscope objective. The
required edge to edge or just touch setting can be made with great precision as the eye
readily detects the desired condition of minimum intensity change across the images. For greater
accuracy the images can be set so that they only just touch and are then sheared across one
another until their opposite edges are touching (double shear) (Refer Fig. 17.28).

Fig. 17.28. Image shearing principle.

Image shearing has important advantages over the use of filar micrometers or graticules for
measurements through the microscope. In particular, the precision of measurement is not
radically impaired by vibration of the microscope or by small movements of the
t object. Also,
many objects in a given field of view can be rapidly measured without the need to move each
object to a reference point. And, a very high precision can be achieved in making the shear
setting for the two contacting edges to virtually vanis
vanish.
The earlier type of image shearing microscope eyepiece consisted of an interferometer, built in
the form of two identical prism blocks, each having a rhomboidal and a right-angle
right
prism
cemented together with a half-silvered
silvered interface. The two prism bloc
blocks
ks are pivoted mid-way
mid
along their length so as to rotate about the vertical axis. A simple linkage between the two blocks
ensures that each rotates by an equal amount in opposite directions. The prism blocks are made
to move by manual operation of a micro
micrometer
meter screw. On operating the micrometer, the two
prism blocks contra-rotate,
rotate, moving the two images in relation to each other. The degree of shear
is exactly proportional to the micrometer travel. Provision is made for inserting a red filter in one
light path
ath and green filter in the other light path to differentially colour the images. Differentially
coloured images are useful in avoiding confusion when there are a large number of objects in the
field of view.
In order to measure the width of any vertical oorr horizontal feature, the image shearing eyepiece is
rotated to bring the shearing direction at right angles to the line to be measured.
Modified instruments use compact image shearing optical module which can be fitted directly
between the top of a standard
rd microscope and a binocular viewing head. Image forming light
from microscope objective enters the base of the instrument and is reflected into the left-hand
left
side arm by the 45 degree face of the prism.
Contained in this side arm is a K
K-prism which can bee rotated by the operator about an axis in line
with the entering beam. This allows the operator to rotate the microscope image as required.

The image forming light is now passed to the beam splitting cube. The 45 degree interface of this
cube is specially coated to transmit light polarized in the horizontal plane and to reflect light
polarized in the vertical plan.
Having been split into equal but oppositely polarized beams the light fractions travel through
suitably orientated quarter wave plates to refle
reflectors.
ctors. The reflected beams pass back through their
respective quarter wave plates to the cube interface. Double passage of the beams through the
quarter wave plates turns their directions of polarization through 90 degrees.
The beam previously transmitted through the interface is now reflected by it and the beam
previously reflected at the interface is now transmitted.
In zero shear adjustment the two oppositely polarized beams travel on from the interface exactly
along the same path with no spatial separat
separation.If
ion.If now the two beam reflectors are rotated
together, taking the geometrical centre of the beam splitter as axis, the two beams will shear
apart by an amount directly related to the degree of rotation. Any object images in the
microscope
field
will
now
be
split
into
two
separate
images.
The light beams from the beam splitting cube are reflected upwards by the exit prism to the
binocular viewing head.
A birefringent component and analyser can be inserted directly above the modules exit prism if
required, in order to tint the oppositely polarized beams in complementary colours, red and
green.
The two beam reflectors are mounted on a carrier pivotted on an axis through the centre of the
beam splitting cube. This carrier is rotated by means of a lever system coupled to a micrometer
screw.The calibrated control projecting from the side of the instrument operates the micrometer
screw to control the amount of shear. A control knob on the other side of the instrument permits
the operator to rotate the image throu
through
gh just over 180 degrees and a small control at the rear of
the instrument permits the dichroic element for colouring the images to be inserted.
Direct dimensional readout is possible by coupling a multi
multi-turn
turn precision potentiometer to the
shearing control and feeding the output of this potentiometer to a special electronic voltmeter
fitted with a digital output display.

Fig. 17.29. Optical layout of image shearing module.

1. Window
2. Entry-exit prism
3. Lens field lens
4. K prism for image rotation
5. Quartz plate
6. Lens 2
7. Single image shutter (polar)
8. Rhomboid polarizing beam splitter
9. Image shearing mirror
10. Shearing flexure spring
11. Strain gauges
12. Lens 3
13. Dichroic filter
14. Compensator glass
15. Lens 4
A new image shearing module, developed with the aim of overcoming mechanical problems of
wear in the micrometer screw thread, wear in the transfer linkage and mirror pivot system etc., is
described below.
Fig. 17.29 shows the optical layout of a recently developed image shearing module to overcome
above problems. The layout is similar in many respects to the earlier image shearing module, but
the shearing components now consist of a double rhomboid polarizing prism and a tiltable
mirror.The image forming light entering the double rhomboid prism is divided into two equal
intensity but oppositely polarised beams at the interface coating. The beam which is transmitted
by this coating is reflected at the rear face of the prism and is then reflected off the tiltable mirror
and front face of prism to be once again transmitted by the coating.
The beam which is reflected by the coating follows the same path as the other beam, but in the
opposite direction, to be reflected once again at the coating. The two beams are then passed upto
the binocular eyepiece by the combined entry-exit prism.The tiltable mirror is fixed to a specially
designed flexure spring on which are mounted four resistance strain gauges, connected together
in the form of bridge network. This flexure acts both as a pivot for the mirror and as the
transducer for converting the angular deflection of the mirror into a corresponding electrical
signal. The output from the strain gauge bridge is fed directly into the electronic digital display
unit.

Computers in Metrology (Metrology)

Like any other field, Metrology too is getting revolutionised very fast and it has also undergone
enormous changes in recent years. The fast developments taking place in electronics, particularly
microprocessors, has dramatically changed the nature and scope of metrology, too. The
introduction of micro-processors, i.e. computer on chip has brought about a great revolution.
These are cheap, versatile, fast and can be easily interfaced with metrology equipment. In such
measurement systems where lot of data has to be gathered from several measuring instruments
and data has to be processed, stored and displayed, the use of such device (microprocessor) is
highly desirable. Either general purpose or special purpose software could be used depending on
the application. The design of systems is such that operator need not have any programming
knowledge. An alpha numeric display guides each step of its integrated inspection routines.
Usually soft key concept is used thereby eliminating the need of codes and complex keyboards.
Programs to define axes (using non-linear data fitting library) and analysing circles (by accepting
upto 20 points on the circumference of a circle) have been developed and are very useful and
provide a powerful and comprehensive ability to cope with all variations of axes descriptions.
A big advantage of computer is its prcessing capability and presenting data in a form which
would be of utmost interest to the metrologist. It clearly shows the trends of dimensions and
summarises of dimensional details. Data is presented in graphical format. The features and faults,
which otherwise could not be detected, are easily revealed.
With use of computer systems, it has become possible to prevent making defective parts rather
than rejecting them at the end of the whole cycle. Vital information needs to be generated for the
optimisation of the production process and the upgrading of the manufacturing capability of the
plant. Data handling system organises all the inspection results into statistical form, analyses
them in real-time, and performs full monitoring of the production line with diagnosis of the
whole production process.
It is now not necessary to take parts to be inspected to measuring machine, but a robot arm
having 4 degrees of freedom (3 rectangular linear motions plus wrist motion) is brought for
inspection near the equipment while being machined. It incorporates various attachments and
accessories such as electronic probes, automatic tool magazines, sensors and devices for parts
recognition. The motion of the robot arm is controlled by a microprocessor which performs
simultaneous multi-axis control of position, speed and acceleration and thus provides high
dynamic
performance
of
the
arm.
The inspection data handling is organised at two levels; one to perform the dimensional analysis
of the part being inspected to discriminate good, bad and reworkable parts. Second, the
inspection data is reduced on real-time statistical basis to derive trends, relationships and
cumulative results from which potential dimensional problems can be spotted for immediate
corrective action.
Another use of computers in metrology is for on-line non-contact dimensional measurement in
which a television camera, using charge-coupled photodiode arrays, is focused on the workpiece

and interfaced to a computer which can analyse shapes and sizes of the image. Laser illumination
is commonly used for projecting shadows because the beam is well defined. The image is
processed using microprocessor-based system. Vision systems break down images into sectors
and segments and then recognise and measure their geometry. A vast array of information about
various geometrical features is stored, with which the digitised information of the processed TV
image is compared.
It uses solid state camera containing an array of photodetectors viewing a slit through a lens
system. The photodetector signals are electronically sampled at very high rates to
produce a video signal which is an electric analogue of the light intensity distribution across the
scanned lines. The field of view and resolution of the camera are defined by the number of
detectors within the array and the parameters of the lens system.
For moving objects, a scanner using a laser beam is used. It projects laser beam onto a multifacet mirror to produce a fan beam. A parabolic mirror holds the beam at constant angle to the
material surface across the entire beam span. When the light beam hits the material, any
irregularity on the surface modulates the reflected light, which is detected by a video processor
and microcomputer in an evaluation unit.
Stroboscope technology is used for freezing optically the motion of rotating or reciprocating
parts. Remote inspection is possible by fibre optics.

Use of Computers in the Field of Metrology.

In the field of metrology computer can be used for (i) controlling the function of a piece of
measuring equipment (for which the movements of the measuring instrument/machine have to be
motorised) and (ii) processing the output of the measurement process. Most manufaturers of
measuring machines suitable for computer control offer a specific computer, and a range of
general purpose software to cater for all the functions and capabilities of the machine. In these
machines the measuring system is linked to the movement of motors in such a way that the
movement will come to a halt in a precise predetermined position. The operation may be either
fully automatic, (entirely unattended) which when once initiated, will run the machine till the
task is complete or be semi-automatic. In automatic process, hundreds of readings may be taken,
processed, analysed and hard copy results produced. Universal probes are used to carry out
automatic inspection. In the semi-automatic operation, operator intervention is required at
different stages and thus operation stops at different stages for operator to note and analyse and
give command for further operation to continue.
The software for computer may be either written by the user, which is usually a difficult task, or
be supplied by the manufacturer, or the computer be programmed to compile an operating
program from the procedure used when a sample component is being measured manually. In the
last technique, the procedure followed whilst measuring the sample will be automatically
followed for subsequent components.

The application of using computer for processing the output of measuring instruments is
unlimited. Nowadays micrometer screw gauges, vernier calipers, height gauges, etc. are available
so that they can produce output in digitised form which can be fed into computers. A hand held
computer is connected to these devices to store and process the inputs it collects from measuring
instruments. It can also feed its contents into the large capacity central computer. The central
computer can thus be fed with large quantities of data from different inspection locations in the
plant and analyses them collectively. The output, after analysing, can be presented as numerical
tabulations, or in a variety of graphical forms, or as three dimension represenation of complex
profiles so that same surface is visible on CRT screen as would be viewed from all the corners.
Today, height gauges with built-in integral computer with keyboard and printer mounted on the
height gauge itself, have been developed. The computer in such cases has limited printing and
computing facilities required for all sorts of applications. The programs are permanently
incorporated into the computer.
Similarly slip gauge box with bulit in computer and printer has been developed. The computer
assists in selecting various combinations of gauges to develop any dimension. The required
dimension has to be fed to computer and it displays the combination of gauges required. Not
only this, it also illuminates the arrows above the actual block required to build the desired
dimension. It also keeps in memory all the deviations from the precise size of all the blocks,
prints the total deviation from the combination of blocks for a required size, stores and displays
the
information
regarding
calibration
requirements.
The roundness measuring machine fitted with computer exploits fully the ability of a computer to
carry out almost instantaneously, a large number of tedious calculations. Computer can easily
define the circle if three points on its circumference are completely defined. Manually this job is
painstaking and lot of time consuming. Similarly in gear measuring machine, the use of
computer is made to do all tedious calculations and give final results in no time and very
accurately.

Machine Vision (Metrology)

Machine vision or Computer Aided Inspection (CAI) is finding slowly its place for on line
inspection, in line with the introduction of Computer Aided Machining (CAM). Machine vision
is defined as a technique which allows a sensor to view a scene and derive a numerical or logical
decision without further human intervention. Machine vision systems have the advantages of
consistency, high speed and reliability.
The fundamental principle on which machine vision is based is that of digital image processing
using a TV camera. The output of most TV cameras is a continuous video signal corresponding
to a line-by-line scan of the image focused on the face of the camera tube. The signal is sampled
at equally spaced intervals along each line, and a digital value assigned to the magnitude of the
signal at those points. Line-by-line, a sampled image is constructed within the image processing
computer as a 2-dimensional array. The sampling is analogous to laying a 2-D grid over the
image of the scene and assigning numbers to the intensities within each element of the grid. The
number of rows and columns comprising the grid are limited by both sensor and processor
memory.

Similarly, the range of numbers used to describe the intensities are also dependent on these two
factors. The number of picture elements in the grid (called pixels or pels) determines the spatial
resolution of the stored image, and the range of numbers used to describe the brightness affects
intensity resolution. By reducing spatial and intensity resolution, the amount of information held
within the image decreases.
The design of vision systems requires a multi-disciplinary approach with a knowledge of sensors,
optics, illumination, mechanical handling, as well as computer image processing techniques.
A machine vision system does not actually have to produce a recognisable image as part of its
processing, as all the work is done on an electronic representation of the image. Vision system
can be used for checking dimensions, checking overall shape conformity and checking surface
finish.
With machine vision systems, it is quite possible to automatically measure dimensions to a
fraction of a micron, using an image analyser and conventional microscope optics. The operator
judgement about where to define an edge can be completely eliminated and highly reproducible
measurements can be obtained.
In regard to checking overall shape conformity, it is done by checking the component against a
master set of information and looking for discrepancies. The master information is a set of
geometric measurements like area, perimeter, number of holes, amount of thinning of image
possible before it breaks up, etc. Thus, the component need not be exactly aligned with the
master as in conventional methods, and the handling requirements are also much simplified.
For checking surface finish by machine vision, the surface is treated as a kind of mirror (though
it may not be perfect reflector). The vision system looks at an image of a light source
reflected in the surface, and changes to that image signify a defective area. It is also possible to
look for defects directly, if the defects can be relied upon to have a distinct contrast with the
correct surface. The vision sensor can be mounted on a robot arm for inspecting complicated or
large surfaces automatically.
The absolute resolution of the system is dependent upon the choice of optical lens system.
Various types of image acquisition systems for different resolutions are : thermionic TV camera,
solid state two-dimensional array cameras, linear array cameras. Thermionic TV tubes have the
problem of drifting, especially during the first half hour or so after switching on, and under the
influence of electromagnetic fields. However, they are best to distinguish small changes of tone
than any solid state camera. Solid state sensors are preferred in general because these retain the
spatial relationship between pixels (the smallest measurable unit, picture element) far more
accurately. Solid state sensor systems can be calibrated for linearity of sensor and optics on a
one time basis, allowing automatic correction of all subsequent measurements. The sensors in
solid state cameras consist of an array of light-sensitive cells fabricated into a single silicon chip.
These sensors are rugged, small and stable and thus usually fixed at the end of a robot arm. Solid
state cameras are available with resolutions approaching those of CRT television camera devices
(576 x 384 elements). In many cases, cameras embodying these devices give out digital data
directly. Solid state sensors are also available as linear arrays. In such cases much higher

resolutions (upto 4096 elements in one chip) are available. These are especially useful for
applications requiring high precision as for dimensional checking.
Laser scanners can also be used. They comprise can arrangement of rotating mirrors to scan a
laser beam spot rapidly over an object. The reflecting beam from the object is then directed on to
a single photo-sensor, the output giving an indication of the surface reflectance at that point.
Where it is required to inspect a fast moving part, or to capture a transient event, it is possible to
use an image sensor to freeze the motion. This is done by applying a short pulse of light and
thereby storing the image as a coarse pattern on the sensor. The image may then be read, at a
slower rate, from the sensor into the computer. For measuring length of a shaft very accurately,
linear sensors are used at each end of the shaft with a known dead space in between. If the
component is such that it has several important dimensions to be checked in between also (i.e.
not only the end dimensions of the component) then the vision system is integrated with a wellengineered stepping table. The specimen is then viewed in a number of steps which can be
programmed to produce precisely abutting fields of view.
Image processing computer is usually a conventional mini- or micro-computer with the addition
of a frame-grabber and frame store. The frame-grabber is a fast A/D converter which converts
the analogue voltage levels of the camera into digital words needed by the computer. The frame
store has memory to hold the entire image. The vision systems as such suffer from drift problem
due to change in lighting. This is taken care of by compensating for varying ambient light, using
a circuit which measures the peak white output of the sensor and adjusting the artificial light to
maintain a constant peak white output.
The various vision systems are binary vision, gray-scale vision and three dimensional vision.
Binary vision technique involves location and shape analysis of flat objects. The object is
backlighted to produce a high contrast image which is then converted to binary (black and white)
image by thresholding. Several methods are then available to determine the position, orientation
and shape of the object. The binary image can be thinned to produce a skeleton of the object
which may then be analysed to identify links, nodes and end points. The position, size and
number of these can be used to identify shape. Often, simple parameters such as area and
perimeter can be used as simple shape descriptors.
By forming the convex hull of an object (equivalent to stretching a rubber band around it), the
concavities or bays in the object may be isolated and labelled. A description of the number and
size of these may be used as a crude description of shape.
To establish position and orientation of an object, the centroid may be easily computed and then
the axis of least (or most) moment of inertia can define the orientation.
A series of concentric circles centred on the centroid of the object may be used to define shape.
The intersections of the circles with the objects perimeter provide a number of (r, 0) pairs which
can then be correlated with a reference set of (r, 0) pairs.
In grey scale vision, 2-dimensional digital signal processing techniques are used to enhance and
then extract the relevant features from the image. Grey-scale operations include contrast
enhancement, spatial filtering (to remove spot noise, etc.) edge enhancement (to highlight areas
of rapid intensity change) and texture anlysis.

The third dimension in machine vision system can be measured be the structured light principle,
by a process of triangulation.
gulation. When a light pattern such as dots, bars or grids is projected onto an
object, the pattern becomes deformed by the height contours of the object. A standard camera is
used to sense these deformations is the projected pattern and a computer interperts
interpe this as height
information. A single light strip is projected from a source inclined at an angle to a conveyor belt
and spans its width. Objects passing underneath cause, by their height profiles, excursions in the
strip when viewed from another direct
direction.
ion. A range map is constructed from consecutive pictures
of the deformed light line as the object moves along the conveyor and under the light pattern.
The intensity in the picture corresponds to height information. And there is enough information
held in the map for a surface plot to reconstitute the original shape.
Machine vision can carry out inspection tasks which are not practical for human to carry out at
speed, like dimensional checking of hot metal.
Machine vision, based on the processing of interp
interpretation of electro-optical
optical (television) images is
being introduced into practice for a number of diverse programmable automation applications
like inspection, material handling, and robot assembly. Vision machines are designed to
recognise or identify workpieces,
kpieces, their stable states, and to determine their positions and
orientations.
A vision system consists of a light source, an image sensor, an image digitiser, a feature
extractor/data compactor, a system control computer, and output and peripherals. (Refer
(Re
Fig.
17.33).
The image sensor is usually either a vidicon TV Camera or a solid
solid-state,
state, charge-coupled
charge
device
camera, or charge-injected
injected device camera. The image digitiser is usually a very fast, six-to-eight
six
bit, analog-to-digital
digital converter which stores the digitised image in the main memory.

Fig. 17.33. Vision system.

Some systems use an analog computer and a computer
computer-controlled
controlled threshold to convert the video
information to a binary image rather than a 6 to 8 bit gray
gray-scale
scale image. In some systems, gray
scale image (stored earlier) is converted to a binary scale image before any image processing
takes place. The feature extractor/data compactor provides high speed processing of the input
image data. Pattern recognition algorithms are employed to gene
generate
rate a simple feature data set.
The system control computer makes the decisions about the part being inspected.

Two basic vision systems in use are : edge finders and correlators. Edge finders look for
transitions form black to white, white to black, or from gray to non-gray level. When such a
transition occurs, the edge finder system notes where it occurs (by line in the vertical direction,
and by clock count in the horizontal direction). When a second transition occurs, it is also noted
and the number of picture elements (pixels) between the transitions is noted. If a measurement is
desired, then the system will have been calibrated (the size of pixel determine) and the physical
distance between the two transitions can be computed. Correlation systems are template
matching systems.
A complex image is stored in memory and the correlator searches the scene for a match to the
image stored in memory. This method may be described by imagining a clear plastic template
which has an image of the object printed on it. To locate the object, the template is moved until
the printed image is aligned with the actual object. Using several templates, many objects can be
identified and located. In a digital system the template is stored in memory as a two-dimensional
matrix. This matrix is referred to as the reference. When a frame of video is loaded by the
camera, the system overlays the reference on the upper left corner of the video and calculates the
number of matches. This process, referred to as correlation, continues until the reference has
been compared with the video throughout the field of view, the x, y coordinates where the best
match occurs are then output. If there is no acceptable match anywhere in the field of view
another reference may be used and the process repeated. This continues until the object is
identified and located. Some vision systems employ light-striping systems. These use stripes of
light projected onto an object with a laser or lamp. The distance of an object is determined by
triangulation and the objects shape is determined from the distortion of the light stripes.

Microprocessors in Metrology
The microprocessor is becoming a constantly increasing part of our environment. The
microprocessor provides a cheap and compact means of manipulating digital data. It replaces a
quantity of logic circuits in all applications requiring logical decisions, calculations, etc. It can
solve data management applications and the processing of results speedily and effectively. The
use of microprocessors in gauges has become generally accepted. Microprocessor in a gauge can
mix signals from displacement transducers, compare the measurements with nominal value and
display the results on a visual display unit (VDU) screen. The microprocessor based gauge is
thus ideal for measuring and data processing instrument used in quality control.
While in analog measurement the total measuring range may be divided into 100 graduations,
with digital electronics it is possible to break the same into 5000 parts, providing much greater
precision for the same measuring range.
In the manipulation of data a processor can remove the tedium, preclude the risk of error, and
provide results rapidly, more reliably and with constant interpretation. Microcomputers can
handle very complex signal combinations with no reduction in accuracy.
The microprocessor also makes it possible to operate in realtime within a machining process,
providing in-process dimensional gauging with adaptive feedback to the machining algorithms to
achieve a consistent accurately dimensioned components.

The application of micro-processor to metrology field has resulted in an extensive range of

digital
measuring
instruments
combining
accuracy
and
ease
of
use.
The processor improves set up procedures and de-skills operations in general. For example,
hours need not be wasted in setting up for spindle error measurement to minimise misalignment
of the measuring system. A microprocessor can log errors at high speed on-the-fly, and then
remove set-up errors using mathematical techniques ; such as least squares fit. Automatic
correction of systematic errors can be performed within a measuring system in real-time, with
interpreting between fewer reference points, to increase the measurement accuracy by at least a
factor of ten. The microprocessor also makes it possible to operate in real-time within a
machining process, providing in-process dimensional gauging with adaptive feedback to the
machining algorithms to achieve consistent accurately dimensioned components.
While analog computing systems are expensive and a one-of-a kind device for a particular
application, microprocessor based systems are less expensive and perform the same function
developed in a software only and thus hardware remains same.
A process can also synchronise continuous movement, in realtime, of multiple axes of a machine
to generate mathematically correct 2- or 3-dimensional standardsas in gear measurement.
Use of microprocessor permits a very high degree of flexibility in comparison with conventional
methods. The same instrument can be used for very varied tasks simply by modifying the
software.
These have low initial cost, low operating cost, and are accurate across the full range of scale
(pneumatic gauges tend to lose precision near the ends of the scale). Microprocessors can reduce
the costs of multi-dimesional gauges. It is quite easy to design amplification for different scale
ranges and to transfer the gauging output signal to some other more sophisticated statistical or
record gathering and reporting system. Different types of readout on the screen are possible. One
type is a series of bars resembling the readout from a bank of column gauges. Alternatively, a
graphics display can depict the workpiece and indicate the amounts of error at gauged points on
the surface of the workpiece. Memory is an important facility offered by the microprocessor,
which allows the data to be stored and recalled. Thus a sequence of measurements can be
subjected to further processing. While a mechanical gauge (GO and NO GO type) can only
indicate whether or not a workpiece is acceptable; a microprocessor based gauge can serve as an
important information system which can be used for data collection, recording and printout of
data, networking, closed-loop tool compensation, production control, statistical process control
(SPC), etc.
The hardware of microprocessor based dimensional control instrument broadly consists
of:
a processing system composed of a microprocessor, with a read-only memory containing the
operating system, and a memory containing the application program and variables.
an interface with the operator composed of a keyboard, screen display signal lamps, etc.
an interface to measure the lengths, etc.
Interface with different peripherals such as a printer, another computer, mass memory etc.
Softwares are of two types :
Basic software (operating software). It allows access to different resources of the system by
means of simple and well defined orders. These orders constitute the part accessible to the
programmer who can also work in high level-languages.