Chapter Five

Multiple Access
Techniques for Mobile
Communication Systems

Objectives of the chapter

How multiple users share the same medium
Single shared broadcast channel
Going into higher data rates require proper multiplexing of lower
data rates
How two or more simultaneous transmissions possible
How to multiplex users
What are the degrees of freedom to choose from
Problems associated with multiplexing

Interference
Collision: if node receives two or more signals at the same time
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Lecture Outline
Introduction to multiple access techniques
FDMA techniques
TDMA techniques

CDMA techniques
Summary

Used Acronyms
FDMA: Frequency division multiple access

TDMA : Time division multiple access

CDMA : Code division multiple access
DSSS: Direct sequence spread spectrum
FHSS: Frequency hoping spread spectrum
THSS: Time hoping spread spectrum

Introduction to Multiple Access Techniques

Multiplexing: Allowing many (mobile) users to share a given resources

For high quality communication, this must be done without severe

degradation in the performance of the system
Multiple users want to communicate in a common geographic area

Cellular Example: Many people want to

talk on their cell phones. Each phone would
communicate(link) with a BS.
Problem: How should we share our
resources so that as many users as possible

can communicate simultaneously

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 Hence multiplexing is the process of combining a number of

communication channels and transmitting them over one physical

medium
Where as de-multiplexing is the process used to separate and
recover the original channels at the receiver

Main types of

multiplexing techniques
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are: Frequency division multiplexing,

FDM Time division multiplexing, TDM
Code division multiplexing, CDM

 Example: MA techniques in wireless cellular communication

systems

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is an analog MA technique where each transmitter is assigned a

portion of the frequency spectrum (or band)

The transmitted signal spectra component must be confined to the
allocated frequency band

Different users are separated in the frequency domain.

To separate the channels, a guard band may be used

 Example: AMPS (1G, analog) used 30KHz for each user.

Pros

Very simple to design

Narrowband (no ISI)

Synchronization is easy
No interference among users
in a cell

Cons
Static spectrum allocation
High Q analog filters or larg
guard band is required
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 Implementation example: North American FDM telephone

Designed to transmit a large number of analog voice channels
Basic channel is called Voice Channel and has a BW of 0-4 kHz

The voice channel is modulated (frequency shifted) to occupy a

specific frequency band.

With three successive levels of multiplexing, a total of 600 voice
channels are multiplexed together.

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Drawbacks of FDMA
The bandwidths of FDMA systems are generally narrow
FDMA is usually implemented in a narrow band system
Prone to noise problems

Overtaken by TDMA, which is better suited for digital data

Demultiplexing requires a series of band pass filters
FDMA requires tight filtering to minimize adjacent channel
interference.
These filters are relatively complicated and expensive

As a result, receivers in FDMA system are generally expensive

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Time Division Multiple Access Techniques (TDMA)

Each user is allowed to transmit only within specified time

intervals (Time Slots).

Different users transmit in different Time Slots.
When users transmit, they occupy the whole frequency
bandwidth (separation is performed in the time domain).

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 TDMA system may be in two modes: FDD (Frequency division

duplex) and TDD (Time division duplex).
FDD and TDD are the techniques used to separate uplink and
downlink channel signals.

TDMA FDD

TDMATDD
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 TDMA TDD: has a better advantage in case where the

asymmetry of the uplink and downlink data speed is variable.
As the amount of uplink data increases, more bandwidth can
be allocated to that and as it shrinks it can be taken away.

TDMA FDD: is much more efficient in the case of symmetric

traffic.
Uplink and downlink sub-bands are would be separated by the
"frequency offset".
Makes radio planning easier and more efficient since BS do not
hear each other (as they transmit and receive in different subbands) and therefore will normally not interfere each other.
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 TDMA Frame Structure: TDMA requires a centralized control

node, whose primary function is to transmit a periodic reference

burst that defines a frame and forces a measure of
synchronization of all the users.
The frame so-defined is divided into time slots, and each user is
assigned a Time Slot in which to transmit its information.

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 TDMA frame structure

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 TDMA guard times: Since there are significant delays between users,
each user receives the reference burst with a different phase, and its

traffic burst is transmitted with a corresponding different phase within

the time slot.
There is, therefore, a need for guard times to take account of this
uncertainty.
Each Time Slot is therefore longer than the period needed for the actual
traffic burst, thereby avoiding the overlap of traffic burst even in the
presence of these propagation delays.

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 TDMA Preamble: Since each traffic burst is transmitted independently

with an uncertain phase relative to the reference burst, a preamble is

required at the beginning of each traffic burst.

The preamble allows the receiver to acquire the coarse
synchronization provided by the reference burst with a fine estimate
of timing and carrier phase.

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 TDMA frame structure

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 TDMA reference transmitter scheme

Buffer: the symbols of the original signal are organized in groups of

Nbps symbols. Each group is transmitted in a single Time Slot of
duration TS. Time Slots are organized in frames of duration TF.
Coder: the position in time , each group is modified according to the
TDMA code, that is assigned to the user. The TDMA code indicates

which slot inside each frame must be occupied by the user.

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Types of TDM
Synchronous and asynchronous types

Synchronous TDM ( STDM)

Each source is repeatedly assigned a portion of the channel
TDM is understood to imply STDM
Used in circuit switched telephone networks
Asynchronous TDM( ATDM)

Each source is assigned a portion of the channel only when it is

needed
ATDM is used in statistical multiplexers, packet switches, and

asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)

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 TDM Implementation
Bit interleaving: Each channel is assigned a time slot
corresponding to a single bit
Byte/word interleaving: Each channel is assigned a longer time

slot corresponding to some larger number of bits called word.

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Example1: T1 digital system

Analog voice signal is sampled at 8-kHz rate, i.e., the time

between samples is 125 second

Each sample is then companded, quantized, and represented by
8 bits (i.e., a time slot)
Thus one voice call/channel is represented by 64-kbps stream
Digital Signalling 0 (DS0): is a basic digital signalling at the rate

of 64 kbps, corresponding to the capacity of one voice channel

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 In the T1 system, 24 time slots are multiplexed together to form a

frame
Here byte interleaving is used
Each time slot is an 8-bit encoded word
One more bit is added for frame synchronization and alignment
If we combine these 64kbps channels together
24 voice time slots x 8 bits per slot = 192 bits
192 bits + 1 framing bit = 193 bits / frame

8000 frames/second x 193 bits/frame= 1.544 Mbps

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 We can achieve wideband transmission rate of 1.544 Mbps

The frame structure is called T1 or DS1 (digital signalling 1)

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 Hierarchical multiplexing from the basic T1 signal is used to get

higher data rates
This is based on bit interleaving
Example 2: T2 or DS2 is generated by multiplexing four T1 lines

in M12 multiplexer. Here, 17 bits added for frame synchronization

(193x4 + 17)x8000 = 6.312 Mbps

T3 or DS3: is formed from seven T2 lines in multiplexer

M23 69 bits for frame synchronization and plus stuffing
results in 5592 bits frame (789x7+69)

T3 bit rate is 5592x8000 = 44.736 Mbps

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 T4 or DS4: from six T3 lines and adds 720 bits for

synchronization and pulse stuffing

Thus, T4 rate is 274.176 Mbps

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Advantage of TDMA Techniques

Data transmission is bursty: low battery consumption,

Tx can be turned off when it is idle
Hand off is simple: b/c BS can listen other BS during idle time
MS can only listen and broadcast for its own time slot.
On the rest of the time it can carry out measurement on the

network.
Detect surrounding transmissions on different frequencies

...
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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Alternative to FDMA and TDMA

What happen if we could allow users to share time and frequency

Eliminates need for tight synchronization among many
different users
Eliminates need for expensive analog filters
May have favourable impact on capacity
But:
How do we separate the users

Wont they interfere with each other

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 CDMA Principles: does not divide up the channel in time (as

TDMA), or frequency (as FDMA), but instead encodes data with a
certain code associated with a channel.

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 Each user is assigned a unique code sequence (spreading code) to

encode its data signal.
The receiver, knowing the code sequence of the user, decodes the

received signal and recovers the original data.

The bandwidth of the coded data signal is chosen to be much
larger than the bandwidth of the original data signal.
Thus, the encoding process enlarges (spreads) the spectrum of
the data signal.

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 CDMA is based on spread-spectrum modulation.

If multiple users transmit a spread-spectrum signal at the same

time, the receiver will still be able to distinguish between users,

provided that each user has a unique code that has a sufficient
low cross-correlation with the other codes.
Spread Spectrum Techniques:
Idea: Spread the signal to a wider bandwidth that is actually

necessary to avoid short, frequency selective distortions

o One form of frequency diversity exploitation

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 Main implementation options of spread spectrum

1. Frequency and Time Hopping

2. Direct Sequence (is the basis for CDMA)

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Types of CDMA:
Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA): The original data signal
is multiplied directly by a high chip rate spreading code.
Frequency Hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA): The carrier
frequency at which the original data signal is transmitted is

rapidly changed according to the spreading code.

Time Hopping CDMA (TH-CDMA): The original data signal is
not transmitted continuously. Instead, the signal is transmitted in
short bursts where the times of the bursts are decided by the
spreading code.
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 Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA): The original data signal

is multiplied directly by a high chip rate spreading code.

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 XOR of the signal with pseudo random number (chipping

sequence or keys)
Many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the
signal. The chipping sequence is termed as code or key
Advantage
Reduces time-selective
fading by frequency diversity

Disadvantage
Precise power control is necessary

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 DSSS: XOR of a long symbol with a chipping sequence/code

DSSS can also be determine by point wise product of vectors
when using +/-1 instead of 0/1
Assign: 1 = -1, 0 = +1
Formally: Transmitted signal, AS(t) for 0 t T,
T symbol time
Represent data by Ad(t) = constant over the duration of a
given symbol
Ak(t) is the chipping key for 0 t T

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The resulting signal has more level changes per time

Higher bandwidth required

Example 1: Sender A sends Ad = 1, chipping key Ak

=010011 Rewrite for only one value per chip as :
Ad = (-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1); Ak = (+1, -1, +1, +1, -1, -1)
Compute transmitted signal As = Ad * Ak (point wise product)

AS = Ad * Ak = (-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1) * (+1, -1, +1, +1, -1, -1)
= (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)

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 Example 2: DSSS transmission on signal level

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 DSSS at Receiver

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 Example 1: CDMA in theory

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 Example2: CDMA by equation

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Summary
In communications, a channel access method is used to share a
communications channel or physical medium between multiple users.
The goal in the design of cellular systems is to be able to handle as many
calls as possible in a given bandwidth with some reliability.

In cellular system, each MS can distinguish a signal from the serving BS and
differentiate the signals from neighbouring BSs. To accommodate a number
of users, many traffic channels need to be made available.
In principle there are three different ways to allow access to the channel:
frequency, time, and code division multiplexing and is addressed by three
multiple access techniques; FDMA, TDMA, CDMA.
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