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We know that Bernoulli numbers appear everywhere in mathematics. I will consider here two topics:
basic formulae for integrals leading to Euler-Maclaurin type formulae and Fourier transformations formulae
for calculations of function at even points. In both cases naturally appear the same series of polynomials...
Shortly: Bernoulli Polynomials are polynomials {Bn } of the degree n which are convenient for integration
by part as well as polynomials {xn }. They also are orthogonal to constant function. Bernoulli numbers are
values of Bernoulli polynomials in boundary points.
1 Integral and area of trapezium
Rb
Everybody who heard about integral knows that a f (t)dt equals approximately to the area of trapezoid
with altitude (b a) and parallel sides equal to the values of the function f at the points a, b:
Z
f (t)dt (b a)
a
f (a) + f (b)
2
(1)
R
Very simple question: How this formula follows from the formula of integration by parts ( f (x)dx =
xf (x) . . .)? (I was surprised realising that I never asked myself this simple question before.)
R
R
R
R
Answer: Instead f (x)dx = xf (x) xf 0 (x)dx take f (x)dx = (x + c)f (x) (x + c)f 0 (x)dx putting
x + c instead x, where c is an arbitrary constant. Thus we come to
Z
b
a
b
f (t)dt = (x + c)f (x)a
(t + c)f 0 (t)dt
(2)
b
a
Z b
b
a+b
ba
a+b
f (t)dt = x
f (x) a
f 0 (t)dt =
(f (a) + f (b)) + . . .
x
2
2
2
a
(2a)
One can go further performing integration by part. Keeping in mind formula (2a) instead an expansion
Z
f (x)dx = xf (x)
x2 0
x3
x4
f (x) + f 00 (x) f 000 (x) + . . .
2
3!
4!
(3)
we consider an expansion
Z
B2 (x) 0
B3 (x) 00
B4 (x) 000
f (x)dx = B1 (x)f (x)
f (x) +
f (x)
f (x) + . . . ,
2
3!
4!
where polynomials {B1 (x), B2 (x), B3 (x), . . .} are defined by the relations
B1 (x) = x + c1 , B2 (x) = 2
B4 (x) = 24
dBk+1 (x)
dx
(3a)
= kBk (x):
x2
x
x2
+ c1 x + c2 , B3 (x) = 6
+ c1
+ c2 x + c3 ,
2
6
2
x3
x2
x4
+ c1
+ c2
+ c3 x + c4 , and so on ,
24
6
2
(3b)
f (t)dt =
a
N
X
(1)n1
n=1
Bn (x) (n1)
(1)N
f
(x)|ba +
n!
N!
BN (t)f (N ) (t)dt =
(4)
(5)
(5a)
f (t)dt = (b a)
a
(6)
n2
(2.1a)
B0 (x) = 1
B1 (x) = x 21
B2 (x) = x2 x + 16
B3 (x) = x3 32 x2 + 21 x
1
B4 (x) = x4 2x3 + x2 30
5 4
5 3
5
B5 (x) = x 2 x + 3 x x6
1
B6 (x) = x6 3x5 + 52 x4 13 x2 + 42
7 5
7 3
1
7 6
7
B7 (x) = x 2 x + 2 x 6 x + 6 x
...
[0,1]
(2.2)
[a,b]
Exercise 1 Show that relation between normalised polynomials Bn in (7) and polynomials Bn
xa
[a,b]
n [0,1]
Bn (x) = (a b) Bn
ba
is
(2.3)
We have
1
1
1
1
b0 = 1, b1 = , b2 = , b3 = 0, b4 = , b5 = 0, b6 =
, b7 = 0, . . .
2
6
30
42
Interesting observation:
Proposition 1 Bernoulli numbers bn are equal to zero if n is an odd number bigger than 1.
This proposition follows from the following very beautiful property of Bernoulli polynomials:
Proposition 2 Let {Bn (x)} be a set of Bernoulli polynomials corresponding to the interval (a, b) (see
eq. (7)). Let P be a reflection with respect to the middle point a+b
2 of the interval (a, b):
P : x 7 a + b x
(2.4)
(2.5a)
(2.5b)
and
Indeed it follows from (2.5b) that bn = Bn (a) = Bn (b) = bn for odd n 3. Thus bn = 0 for
n = 3, 5, 7, . . ..
The statement of this Proposition 2 is irrelevant to the choice of a, b. To prove the Proposition it is
suffice to consider the special case a = b. In this case the transformation P in (2.4) is just x 7 x.
Thus in this case the statement of Proposition is that Bernoulli polynomials Bn (x) are even polynomials
(Bn (x) = Bn (x)) if n is even, and they are odd polynomials if n is an odd number greater than 1
(Bn (x) = Bn (x)).
Prove
R a it by induction. Suppose
R a that for n 2N this is true. Then consider polynomial B2N (x). We have
that a B2N (x)dx = 0, hence 0 B2N (x)dx = 0 since by induction hypothesis this is an even polynomial.
Hence
Z x
B2N +1 (x) = (2N + 1)
B2N (t)dt .
0
0
Indeed this polynomial obeys the differential equation B2N
+1R(x) = (2N + 1)B2N (x) This polynomial is also
a
an odd polynomial. Hence it obeys the boundary condition a B2N +1 (x)dx = 0. It remains to prove that
Rx
B2N +2 is an even polynomial. We have that B2N +2 (x) = 0 B2N +1 (t)dt + c2N +2 , where c2N +2 is a constant
Ra
chosen by the boundary condition a B2N +2 (x)dx = 0. We see that B2N +2 is even since B2N +1 is an odd
f (t)dt = (b a)
a
(3.1)
n2
(3.1a)
(3.1a)
(b a)
n2
(b a)
k1
(b a)
f (a) + f (b) 1
1
+ (b a)2 (f 0 (b) f 0 (a)) (b a)4 (f 000 (b) f 000 (a)) + . . .
2
6
30
3
f (x)dx =
0
1
1
2
N 1
1
f (0) + f
+f
+ ... + f
+
f (0)+
2N
N
N
N
2N
+
X (1)2k1 b2k
f (2k1) (1) f (2k1) (0)
2k
(2k)! N
k1
1
Bn (x), e2ik =
Bn (x), e2ikx n
k
0
Hence
X 1
Bn (x), e2ik
= (2n)
k 2n
Notice that square of the norms of Bernoulli polynomials can be expressed via Bernoulli numbers due to
their properties...