Limits Maths

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD
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SUBJECT: MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: LIMITS CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY
COURSE CODE: AISM-09/M/LIMCD
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Contents- LIMITS CONTINUITY AND

DIFFERENTIABILITY
Limits ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Left and Right Limit.............................................................................................................................. 9
Algebra of limit .................................................................................................................................. 11
Some important theorems: ................................................................................................................... 14
Some Important Results on Limits ......................................................................................................... 15
Frequently Used Series Expansions .................................................................................................... 16
Limits at infinity and infinite limits ..................................................................................................... 22
Limits using Sandwich Theorem ......................................................................................................... 25
L Hospitals Rule ................................................................................................................................... 31
Continuity ............................................................................................................................................. 33
Properties of Continuous Functions ....................................................................................................... 37
Continuity in an Interval .................................................................................................................... 38
Types of Discontinuities ......................................................................................................................... 45
Differentiability ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Geometrical Interpretation of Differentiability................................................................................... 60
List of Derivatives of Important Functions .......................................................................................... 62
General Theorems on Differentiation ................................................................................................ 64
Differentiation of parametrically defined functions............................................................................ 64
Solved Examples .................................................................................................................................... 67
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Limits
Consider a function
=
The function
x = 1,
is defined at all points except at x = a, because at
because at x = a,
which is indeterminate in the language of
mathematics, hence we want to know what value does
approach as x approaches a.
Let y = f(x) be a given function defined in the neighbourhood of x=a, but not
necessarily at the point x = a. The limiting behaviour of the function in the
neighbourhood of x = a when |x a| is small, is called the limit if the function when x
approaches z and we write this as
.
Let
. It would simply mean that when we approach the point x = a from
the values which are just greater than or just smaller than x = a, f(x) would have a
tendency to move closer to take value This is same as saying, difference between
f(x) and can be made as small as we like by suitably choosing x in the neighbourhood
of x = a. Mathematically, we write this as,
f(x) = , which is equivalent to saying
that |f(x) |<
x such that 0 < |x a| <
sufficiently small positive numbers.
and
depends on
where
and
are
It should be clear that the limit of f(x) at x=a would exist if and only if, f(x) is well
defined in the neighbourhood of x = a (not necessarily at x = a) and has a unique
behaviour in the neighbourhood of x = a.
Note:
Normally students have the perception that limit should be a finite

number. But it is not really so. It is quite possible that f(x) had infinite limit
as x a. If
f(x) = , it would simply mean that function has tendency
to assume very large positive values in the neighbourhood of x = a, for
example
1/|x|= .
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Illustration:
Illustration:
Thus, we observe that value of
form could be zero or infinity i.e. its value
depends upon the problem at hand. Hence form is indeterminate form.
It is important to know the various forms of indeterminacy.

Pause:
If the value of a function at and point acquires one of the forms ; 0

then the function is said to be indeterminate at that
point. (The first of these is said to be standard indeterminate form.)
It is again important to note that one is not allowed to manipulate the function
i.e. we cannot write
At
because this we can do only if

this manipulation is not valid due to such restriction, as the
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function, locating a break in the value of f(x) at x = a is almost impossible. So we can

interpret that value of the function at point infinitesimally close to a exists and is finite.
Illustration:
Graph of y =
is shown in figure given below circle at point (a, 2a) means
that the point is excluded from the graph of the function.
It is for this reason that we define limits and also get rid of the manipulation or
simplification constraint of function. So the moment we write
we can write
(Remember
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Now continuing with same argument and considering the same example we can infer
whether the limit exists at a point where the function is not defined
The condition for the existence of limit if a function at x = a is Limit of f(x) as x
approaches a From Left
= Limits of f(x) as x approaches a From Right
i.e. Left Hand Limit (LHL) at x = a= Right Hand Limit (RHL) at x = a or mathematically
For figure given below Limit exist, L is the value of limit whether x approaches
a from left or right, even though f(a) is not defined
For figure given below Limit exist, L is limit when x approaches a from left and
is limit as x approaches a from right.
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Note:
Graphically one can infer that id there is no sudden change or break of

value of f(x) slightly left and slightly right of point x=a, it means existence
of limit of f(x) at x=a.
Illustration:
Find
Solution:
Let f(x)=
f(1.9) = 3 1.9 + 1 = 6.7
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f(1.99) = 3 (1.99) + 1 = 6.97
f(1.999) = 3 (1.999) + 1 = 6.997
Thus we observe that as
Consider,
f(2.1)=7.3
f(2.01) = 3 (2.01) + 1
= 7.03
f(2.001) = 7.003
i.e. as x
2+, f(x)
7+
we can write
We, observe that, as long as we do not get one of the indeterminate forms, we
can put the value of x in the function in the limiting case as well.
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Now we define limit mathematically
l is said to be limit of f(x), at x = a, if for an arbitrary small number

exist
such that
for all 0
i.e.
is independent and
there
is dependent on .
i.e. Difference between f(x) and l become negligibly small when x is

sufficiently close to a,
is called the neighbourhood of a means x can take
any value from the interval
Mathematically we write as
f(x) = l
Note:
Left and Right Limit

Let y = f(x) be a given function, and x = a is the point under consideration. Left
tendency of f(x) at x = a is called its left limit and right tendency is called its right limit.
Left tendency (left limit) is denoted by f(a 0) or f(a) and right tendency (right limit) is
denoted by f(a + 0) or f(a+) and are written as
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where h is a small positive number.
Thus for the existence of the limit of f(x) at x = a, it is necessary and sufficient that f(a0)
= f(a + 0), if these are finite or f(a0) and f(a+0) both should be either + or .
Remark:
Illustration:
For the existence of the limit at x = a, f(x) need not be defined at x = a.

However if f(a) exists, limit need not exist or even if it exists then if need
not be equal to f(a).
For
what
values
of
f(x)=
Solution:
f(x) =
does
the
f(mx3) = 2m 3;
f(x) =
f(x) exists when
f(x) =
f(x)
2m 3= 2/m 2m2 3m 2 = 0 m = 1/2, 2.
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f(x)
exist
when
Algebra of limit
Suppose
then we can define the following rules:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Caution:
The above rules are applicable only when both
And
exist separately
Let us try to prove some of these Rules:
(i)
To prove the above result we choose

both greater than zero such that
, then by definition of limit, there exist
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Let = min (
) then by algebra, we have |f(x) + g(x0 | < |f(x)g(x)
< whenever 0 < |x a| <
Hence
We have to prove that for
Now |f(x)g(x)
|f(x) g(x) (x)| + |
there exist some
| = |f(x) g(x)
g(x) +
(x) | = ||f(x) || g(x) |
From definition
such that
>0 such that
g(x)
<
Whenever
Where A is the upper bound of g(x) in the neighbourhood of x a. and

whenever
(proved)
Illustration: Find
Solution:
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Enquiry:
If
Can a function have two distinct limits as x approaches a?
exists then it is unique i.e. there cannot be two distinct number L 1 and
L2 such that when x

=L1 and
a the function tends to both L1 and L2. Hence if

L2 then L1=L2.
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Some important theorems:

1.
Let f
in an open interval containing a then
2.
Sandwich Theorem: Let f, g, h be three continuous function such that f<g<h

in an open interval containing a and suppose
Then
also exists and is equal to l
Illustration:
As shown in figure given below, we have f
In (x1, x2) and as x approaches a.
3.
If 0
in an open interval containing a and
exists and is equal to zero.

4.
if and only if
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then
Some Important Results on Limits

If p(x) is a polynomial,
p(x) = p(x)
cos x = 1 (where x is in radians)
If
then the following results will be holdings true:
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in b (b>0)
Frequently Used Series Expansions

Following are some of the frequently used series expansions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. (1+x)n = 1+ nx +
7. ln (1+x)=x
Illustration:
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Using the formulae evaluate the followings
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
find
Solution:
(i)
Method 1:
= 31410=3
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Method 2:
=
= 13=3
(ii)
Note: we know that
(iii)
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(iv)
does not exist
(v)
let x=5+h, where h>0
(i)
let x = 5h, h>0
As x 5. h 0
From (i) and (ii) we conclude
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(ii)
Illustration:
Evaluate x
Let f(x) =
Solution:
Method 1:
(i)
Let x
2+
i.e. x=2+h, h
0, h>0
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(since h
0, we cancel h)
(ii)
Let x
2 i.e. x=2h, h
0, h>0
Method 2:
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Limits at infinity and infinite limits

When the term limits at infinity is used, it obviously means functions limits to be
evaluated as x
For example
The term infinite limit means that when x tends to a particular value a. then the limit
of the function tends to infinity i.e.
Evaluation of the limit at infinity in a problem is solved by changing the expression f(x)
to g
form. Here, we have to find the value of the function f(x) as x
Illustration:
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Solution:
Given expression has been changed from f(x) to g
form.
=12
Note:
When infinite limit is encountered i.e. 0 in the denominator as x a, then

either (x-a) get cancelled from numerator and denominator both and if it
is not possible then the limits value is put as infinity. Such limits are
called improper limits i.e.
Illustration:
Solution:
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Since, the highest power of x is 3, we divide both numerator and denominator by
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Limits using Sandwich Theorem

Let f(x).g(x) and h(x) be there real numbers having a common domain D such that h (x)
f(x) g(x) x D. If
h(x)
g(x)= . This is known as Sandwich Theorem.
Illustration: Examine
Solution:
Therefore
Since,
does not exist
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Illustration: Evaluate the following limits, if these exist;
(i)
(ii)
Solution:
(i)
(ii)
Clearly in this case (sin x)x in not defined towards the left of x=0.
Hence the given limit will not exist.
Illustration: Evaluate
Solution:
This is of the form
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Illustration: Evaluate
Solution:
Illustration:
Prove that
, where [.] denotes the greatest integer
function.
Solution:
We know that x 1 <|x|
So,
for x>0
And
Also,
for x<0
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Illustration:
Evaluate
, where [.] denotes the greatest
integer function.
Solution:
We know that x 1 < x
x + 2x + . + nx n<
<
Now,
and
Using Sandwich theorem we find that
Alternative solution:
We know that [rx] = rx = rx {xr} for r=1, 2, 3, .. n and 0

for each r.
Also
where k < n (since each {xr}<1).
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Hence
Illustration:
Evaluate the following limits, if these exist. Here {x} denotes the
fractional part and [.] the greatest integer part.
(i)
(ii)
(a, b, c, d are positive)
(iii)
Solution:
(i)
(ii)
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(iii)
Towards the right of x = 3, [x]=3
[x] 3=0, in the right neighbourhood of x=3
Towards the left of x=3, [x]=2
[x] 3=1, in the left neighborhood of x =3
. Thus
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does not exist.
L Hospitals Rule
We have dealt with problems which had indeterminate from either 0/0 or .
The other indeterminate forms are
We state below a rule, called L Hospitals Rule, meant for problems on limit of the form
0/0 or .
Let f(x) and g(x) be functions differentiable in the neighbourhood of the point a, except
may be at the point a itself. If
=
or is
f(x) = 0 =
g(x) or
f(x)= =
g(x), then
provided that the limit on the right either exists as a finite number
.
Illustration:
Evaluate
Solution:
(of the form 0/0) =
(algebraic simplification)
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(still of the form 0/0)
(L Hospitals rule again)
Illustration:
Evaluate
Solution:
; [0/0] =
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Continuity
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x= a if
f(x)=
i.e. L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f(a)= value of the function at a i.e.
f(x)=f(a)
f(x)=f(a)
If f(x) is not continuous at x= a, we say that f(x) is discontinuous at x=a.
For the function to be continuous at any point x=a, the function must be defined at that
point and limiting values of f(x) when x approaches a, is equal to f(a).
Continuity means the function should not have any break or sudden jump at any
point in the given domain.
(i)
Continuous function in [a, b]
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(ii)
Discontinuous function at x=c
(iii)
Discontinuous at x=c
So the condition for continuity if function at x=a can be defined as L.H.L.=f(a)=

R.H.L. i.e.
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i.e. left hand limit is equal to the value of the function at that point and is equal to the
right hand limit of the function at that point.
F(x) will be discontinuous at x=a in any of the following cases:
f(x) and
f(x) and
f(x) exist but are not equal.

f(x) exist and are equal but not equal to f(a).
f(a) is not defined

At least one of the limits does not exist.
Illustration:
F(x)
Solution:
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Hence f(x) is continuous at x=2
Note:
Another way is that if you given a function and you are needed to
comment on the continuity of the function then simply finding points on
domain where function is not defined may solve the problem.
Illustration:
Comment on the continuity of
y = logc (x2 + x 12)

Solution:
The function can be written as
y = loge ((x-3) (x + 4)
And since log of non positive number is not defined so we have region of
discontinuity as 4 < x < 3
For all other value of x the function is continuous ( log function is a continuous
function)
A few examples of continuous function are xn, sing x, log x, ex, cos x etc. in the
domain x | , | except for log x where x |0, |
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Properties of Continuous Functions

Let f(x) and g(x) be functions, both continuous at x=a. Then
cf (x) is continuous at x =a where c is any constant

f(x)
g(x) is continuous at x= a.
f(x).g(x) is continuous at x= a.
f(x) g(x) is continuous at x= a, provided g(a)
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0.
Continuity in an Interval
A real function f is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) if it is
continuous at every point in the interval (a, b). Function f is said to be continuous for
closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous
(a, b) and
and
f(x)=f(b)
Here the limits of end points of interval are one sided limit while solving
problems one does not evaluate continuity condition at all points in the interval but
uses his elementary knowledge of the function to find points of discontinuity and if
none exists then function is continuous in the entire interval.
Let us define a function h(x) given by
h(x)
= f(x) for a < x < b
= g(x) for b < x < c
Where f(x) and g(x) are continuous in their respective intervals. Then continuity if h(x)
is checked only at x = b, as it is the only point where h(x) changes from f(x) to g(x) and
hence is a likely point of discontinuity.
Important 1:
The necessary and sufficient condition for continuity of f at x = a

(a being finite) is that both
and
should
exist and be equal to f(a)
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2.
eg
If a function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], a and b are

necessarily finite, it is bounded on it. It may not be always true in
case of open interval (a, b).
f(x)=
The functions is continuous but not bounded in the interval (0. 1)
f(x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every point in

this interval. f(x) is said to be continuous in the closed interval [a, b] if
f(x) is continuous in (a, b)
f(x)=f(a)
f(x)=f(a)
Illustration:
Consider f(x) =
Discuss the continuity of f(x)
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Solution:
If we look at x2, 2x1 or x+3, these functions are continuous in their respective
intervals (Because every polynomial function is a continuous function). Hence we will
check the continuity of f(x) at x=1 and x=2, because these are the points where the
function is changing values. Consider x=1
f(1)= 2-11=1
Both limits equal to f(1), hence f(x) is continues at x=1
Consider x=2
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= e e = e2
Since f(x) is continuous at x = 0,
f(x) = f(0)
a2 = k
Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 0 when k = e2
Illustration:
Discuss the continuity of f(x)=
Solution:
We rewrite f(x) as f(x) =
As we can see, f(x) is defined as a polynomial function in each of

the intervals ( , 2). (2, 0), (0, 3), and (3, ). Therefore it is
continuous in each of these four intervals.
At the point x = 2
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f(x)=
Therefore,
(x1)=1, and
f(x) =
(2x+3)=1
f(x) does not exist.
Thus f(x) is discontinuous at x=2. At a point x = 0
f(x) =
f(x) = f(0)=3,
Therefore f(x) is continuous at x=0. At a point x = 3
f(x) =
f(x) = f(3)=12
Therefore, f(a) is continuous at x=3.
So, we conclude that f(x) is continuous at all points in R except at

x=2.
Illustration:
Let f(x) be a continuous function and g(x) be a discontinuous function. Prove that
f(x) + g(x) is a discontinuous function.
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Solution:
Suppose that h(x) = f(x)+g(x) is continuous. Then, in view of the fact that f(x) is
continuous, g(x)=h(x)f(x), a difference of continuous functions, is
continuous.
But this is a contraction since g(x) is given as a discontinuous

function.
Hence h(x) = f(x) + g(x) is discontinuous.
Continuity of Composite Functions
If the function u = f(x) is continuous at the point x=a, and the function y=g(u) is
continuous at the point u = f(a), then the composite function y=(gof)(x)=g(f(x)) is
continuous at the point x=a.
Illustration:
Find the points of discontinuity of y =
where u=
Solution:
The function u = f(x)=
is discontinuous at the point x=1.
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The function y = g(u)=
is discontinuous at
u = 2 and u =1.
When u = 1
Hence the composite function y = g(f(x)) is discontinuous at three

x = 1/2, x = 1 and x =2.
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points
Types of Discontinuities
1.
Discontinuity of first kind (or) ordinary discontinuity)
And L1 L2 where L1 and L2 are finite real number.
Illustration :
Consider f(x) =[x], where [x] is greatest integer < x.
Solution:
Consider x =1. Where I is some integer
RHL =
and
LHL =
Hence both RHL and LHL are finite real numbers but they are not equal.
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2.
Discontinuity of second kind: This kind of continuity exists when neither

nor
exist.
Illustration:
Consider x = a where a is a real number.
Solution:
Here
irrational. Likewise
can have value 1 or 0 depending upon whether a+ is rational or

does not have a definite value.
Hence both RHL and LHL do not exist.
3.
Mixed discontinuity: If any one of

does not.
Illustration:
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or
exists and the other
Solution:
Here
exists but
does not, as log x is not defined for negative
values of x.
4.
Removable discontinuity
If
f(x) exists but is not equal to f(a), then f(x) has removable discontinuity at x = a
and it can be removed by redefining f(x) for x=a.
Illustration:
Redefine the function f(x)=[x] + [x] in such a way that it becomes continuous for
(0, 2).
Solution:
Here
f(x) = 1 but f(a)=0
Hence, f(x) has a removable discontinuity at x= 1.
To remove this we define f(x) as follows
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f(x)=[x]+[x], x
= 1,
(0, 1) (1, 2)
x=1.
Now, f(x) is continuous for x
(0, 2)
5.
Non-removable discontinuity
If
f(x) does not exists, then we can remove this discontinuity so that this become a
non-removable or essential discontinuity.
e.g. f(x) = [x+3] has essential discontinuity at any x 1.
6.
Jump discontinuity: A function f(x) is said to have a jump discontinuity at a

point x=a if,
and f(x) and may be equal to either of
previous limits.
Illustration:
denotes greatest integer has jump discontinuity at all integer

values.
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Differentiability
Before introducing the concept and condition of differentiability, it is important
to know differentiation and the concept of differentiation.
Differential coefficient of a function y= f(x) is written as

or f (x) or f (1) (x) and is defined by
f'(x)=
f(x) represents nothing but ratio by which f(x) changes for small change in x and
can be understood as
f(x) =
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Then f(x) represents the rate of change of y w.r.t. x or in other words f (x)
represents slope of the tangent drawn at point x of the curve f(x).
Let us understand the geometrical meaning of differentiation:
Slope of PQ =
Let point Q approach point P, which the curve = y= f(x) i.e.
0.
Then, we observe graphically that the slope of chord PQ becomes the slope of the
tangent at the point P. which is written as
or f(x).
Since, point Q is approaching point P from the Right Hand side, we obtain f(x +)
as follows:
f(x+)=
(Right hand derivative)
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Similarly,
f' (x) =
(Left hand derivative)
Note: For a function to be differentiable at x=a, we should have f(a )=f(a+)
i.e.
From the above graphs, one must not infer that a curve is non-differentiable only
at points of discontinuity. Non differentiability conditions also arise when the curve is
continuous and the curve suddenly changes direction. The easiest example of a curve
being continuous and non-differentiable is y=|x| at x=0. However when there is a
smooth change or gradual change in slope or trajectory of curve, the derivative exists.
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Few more illustrations are given below:
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Refer to the following graphs:
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Page 54
In figure (i), f(a) exists and is finite. In figure (ii) both f(a ) and f(a+) exist but
they are not equal. Hence f(a) does not exist. Figure (iii) and (iv) have infinite
derivatives, i.e. f(a) = + and f (a) = respectively. In case of figure (v) we have f(a)
= + and f(a+) = and hence f(a) does not exist.
Note:
Differentiability implies continuity but continuity does not imply
differentiability
Let y = f(x) be continuous in (a, b). Then the derivative or differential coefficient of f(x)
w.r.t. x at x (a, b), denoted by dy/dx or f(x), is
.. (1)
provided the limit exists and is finite and the function is said to be differentiable.
To find the derivative of f(x) from the first Principle

If we obtain the derivative of y = f(x) using the formula
we are finding
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, we say that
For example, y = cos 2x.
Here f(x) = cos 2x and
Right Hand Derivative

Right hand derivative of f(x) at x = a is denoted by, Rf(a) or f(a+) and is defined as
Rf(a)=
Left Hand Derivative
Left hand derivative of f(x) at x = 1 is denoted by Lf(a) or f(a ) and is defined as
Lf(a)=
Clearly, f(x) is differentiable at x=a if and only if Rf(a)=Lf(a).
Page 56
Illustration:
Consider the function
f(x) =
Since, the function f(x) changes its value at x = 0, there is a possibility of its being nondifferentiable at x = 0
Consider,
f(0+) =
= does not exist
Also, f (0-) =
(does not exist.)
f (0) does not exist.
Note:
fluctuates between 1 and 1.
Note: Whenever at x = a, f(a+) = l1 (a finite number) and f(a) = l2 (a finite number) and
if l1 l2, then f (a) does not exist, but f(x) is a continuous function at x = a.
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Illustration:
A function is defined as follows:
f(x)=
. Discuss the differentiability of the function at
x=1.
Solution:
We have R.H.D. = Rf(1)=
and L.H.D. = Lf(1)=
Rf(1)
Lf(1) f(x) is not differentiable at x=1.
Illustration:
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Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function
f(x)=
at x = 0.
Solution:
The given function may be written as f(x)=
For continuity,
f(x) =
For differentially,
f'(0)=
Page 59
Since f(0) f (0+), f(x) is not differentiable at x=0.
Geometrical Interpretation of Differentiability

Geometrically we interpret f (x)=
as the slope of the tangent to the graph
of y = f(x) at the point (x, f(x)). Thus if there is no tangent line at a certain point, the
function is not differentiable at that point. In other words, a function is not
differentiable at a corner point of a curve, i.e., a point where the curve suddenly
changes direction. See the following graphs:
Page 60
Note that if a function is discontinuous at the point x = a then three is necessarily a

break at that point in the graph of function. So, every differentiable function is
continuous but the converse is not true. That is, a continuous function need not be
differentiable.
Illustration:
Let: RR is a function defined by f(x) = max {x, x3}. Find the set of all points on
which f(x) is discontinuous and f(x) is not differentiable.
Solution:
We have from the graph of y=x and y=x3
f(x)=
Page 61
Clearly, there is no break in the graph so f(x) is everywhere

continuous but there are sudden change of directions at x=-1, 0, 1.
So, f(x) is not differentiable at x {1, 0, 1}
List of Derivatives of Important Functions
(cosec x)=cosec x cot x
(x)=1
Page 62
Page 63
General Theorems on Differentiation
Chain Rule
If y = f(u) and u = g(x), then
e.g. Let y = [f(x)]n. We put u = f(x). so that y = un.
Therefore, using chain rule, we get
Differentiation of parametrically defined functions

If x and y are functions of parameter t, first find dx/dt and dy/dt separately.
Page 64
Then
e.g., x=a( + sin ), y = a(1cos ) where is a parameter.
Higher Order Derivatives
is called the nth order derivative of y with respect to x.
Illustration:
If y = (sin1x)2 + k sin1x, show that (1x2)
Solution:
Here y = (sin1x)2 + k sin1x.
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we have
Page 65
Differentiating this with respect to x, we get
(1x2) 2
Illustration:
If y =
, find
in terms of x.
Solution:
Here y =
. Differentiating with respect to x, we get
Differentiating with respect to y, we get
Page 66
Solved Examples
Example 1:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Solution:
(i)
If we divide the polynomial in numerator and denominator by x 4 (as x4 is highest

power of x in denominator and numerator.
(ii)
Rationalize the expression by multiplying and dividing by
Page 67
(Highest power of x in numerator and denominator is . Dividing numerator and

denominator by
(iii)
Observe that 1 2 = 1
34 = 1
56 = 1, and so on.
In numerator, each group of two terms is reduced to 1, and there are n groups.
Page 68
Now the expressions becomes,
= 1
(iv)
Method 1:
On expanding (1 + x)5 we get
Page 69
Method 2:
= 5.14.
= 5/3
(v)
Alternatively we can write the given expression in terms of
Page 70
Example 2:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Solution:
(i)
= L (say)
Let x = 1 h
L=
L=
Page 71
Note:
0 (quantity between 1 and 1)
=0
= 0 (quantity between 1 and 1)
=0
(ii)
(iii)
As x
|x| = -x
Page 72
Highest power of x is 3 in denominator and numerator both. Dividing numerator

and denominator by x3
(iv)
Page 73
(v)
Important:
x-
If x
some value other than i.e. , them it is useful to make.
=h
Page 74
= sin
.cos .1
= sin
cos.
Example 3:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Solution:
Page 75
(i)
1/x
0 let h = 1/x
Method 1:
Let h =
Page 76
=
=
Methods 2: We can use the result
directly
L=
= e1/2
(iii)
Page 77
Let us do some analysis here
Let g(x) = x2 + 5/2
So as x
Hence
, g(x)
is very similar to the expression
and so we
can equate this to the expression of e1. So the given limit is simplified to finding limit of
as
e
= e-8
(iv)
Page 78
=
+ term containing x.
(v)
Method I:
Do these problems using L Hospitals Rule, if you know, otherwise we shall

study this rule in next chapter.
Page 79
Method 2:
here put x = (1 + h)
Note: cot ( + h) = cot
h=
Example 4:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Solution:
Page 80
(i)
Let P =
P sin
Proceeding similarly we get
P.
P=
Page 81
(ii)
L=
At sin x = 0; i.e. x = n
L=
At sin x = (1) i.e. x = m /2 (m is odd integer)

L=
For other values of x we have

0<sin2 x <1
L=
Not defined. (indeterminated)
Where
Note: (1.1)1 = 1.1

(1.1)2 = 1.21
(1.1)3 = 1.331
Page 82
(1.1)3 = 1.03
Thus we observe that

approaches infinity if y
approaches one if x 1+ faster than y

faster than x 1+.
(iii)
Let x = 1 + h
As x
1, h 0
Page 83
. And
Example 5:
Does
exist?
Solution:
f(2+) =
as x>2, x2>0
f(2) =
as x<2, x2<0
= 4
As f(2+) f(2)
Hence given limit does not exist.
Page 84
Example 6:
F(x)
Check the continuity and differentiability of function f(x)
Solution:
f(1/2)=
f(1/2+)=
Page 85
As f(1/2-)= f(1/2)
at x = , function is discontinuous.
Discontinuity implies non-differentiability. Hence at x= 1/2 function is nondifferentiable. This is removable discontinuity. If f
then f(x) is continuous at x= .
At x = 0, Right hand derivatives should exist for differentiability at x = 0. (Function is

not defined to the left of x=0. So we cannot find left hand derivative).
f(0+) =
Hence the function is differentiable at x=0.
Example 7:
Check the continuity and differentiability at f(x) at x=0 if.
F(x) =
Page 86
Solution:
F(0) =
Since
Value of sin always oscillates between 1 and 1.
f(0)=
= 0 [value between 1 and 1]
=0
Also f(0) = 0 given

f(0) = (0+) = f(0)
Function is continuous at x = 0
Test for differentiability
Let f(0) =
Page 87
= Value between 1 and 1.
Left-hand derivative has no definite value. So left-hand derivative is not defined. Hence
given function is non-differentiable at x=0.
Example 8:
Examine the continuity if the function
f(x)=
Solution:
f(x) =
When cos2 x = 0 then
As n
(not exactly )
Page 88
When 0< cos2 x<1
We have to check continuity of function at x=k
(k I) and at x =
(k is odd) as
changes are only at these values of x.cos2 x=0 when x = k /2 (k is odd) while cos2 x=1
when (k I) x = k .
f(k /2)=
Hence function is continuous at x = k /2 (k is odd)

At x= k (k
I)
f(k )=
= (Indetermined)
f(k +)=
=0
Hence function is discontinuous at x=k
Example 9:
Page 89
(k
I)
Let f(x) be defined in the interval [2, 2], such that f(x)=
and g(x)=f(|x|)+|f(x)|. Test the differentiability of g(x) in (2, 2)
Solution:
Let us find f(x) in [2, 2] i.e.

2 < x < 2
0 < |x| < 2
Hence f(|x|) = |x|1, 2 < |x| < 2
(1)
Now |f(x)| =
|f(x)| =
.. (2)
Adding (1) and (2)
|f(x)|+|f(x)| =
g(x)=
On further simplification
Page 90
g(x)=
clearly g(x) differentiable g(x)=

polynomial
because it is a linear
At x = 0
Lg(0) =
Rg(0) =
Lg (0)
Rg (0). Therefore g(x) is not differentiable at x=0
At x = 1
Lg(1) =
Page 91
Rg(1) =
Lg (1)
Rg (1)
Therefore g(x) is not differentiable at x =1
Hence g(x) is not differentiable
in (2, 2)
Example 10:
Discuss the continuity of the function

g(x) = |x| + [x]
Solution:
Let us simplify the definition of the function
(i)
If x is an integer
[x]=x and [x] = x g(x) = x x =0
Page 92
(ii)
If x is not an integer
Let x = n + f where n is an integer and f
(0, 1)
[x] = [n + f]=n
And [x]=[nf]=[(n1)+(1f)]=n1
Hence g(x) = [x]+[x]=n+(n1)=1
g(x) =
Let us discuss the continuity of g(x) at a point x = a where a
L.H.L.
g(x)=1 as x a, x is not an integer
R.H.L.
= g(x)=1 as x a+, x is not an integer.
1.
But g(a) = 0 as a is an integer.
Hence g(x) has a removable discontinuity at integral value of x.
Let us check the continuity at
X = b 1, (b in not an integer)
Page 93
g(x)= 1
g(x)= 1
g(b) = 1
g(x)is continuous
x=b1
Example 11:
Evaluate
without using series or LHospitals rule.
Solution:
Let 1 =
Let x = 30
As x 0, 0 0
1=
Page 94
1=
Example 12:
If f(x) = sin x
And g(x) =
Evaluate
g(f(x)).
Page 95
Solution:
g(f(x)) =
g(f(x))=
Page 96

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General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

BRINGiiT on Study Pack

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Contents- LIMITS CONTINUITY AND

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

is defined at all points except at x = a, because at

which is indeterminate in the language of

mathematics, hence we want to know what value does

Normally students have the perception that limit should be a finite

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Thus, we observe that value of

form could be zero or infinity i.e. its value

depends upon the problem at hand. Hence form is indeterminate form.

It is important to know the various forms of indeterminacy.

If the value of a function at and point acquires one of the forms ; 0

because this we can do only if

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

function, locating a break in the value of f(x) at x = a is almost impossible. So we can

is shown in figure given below circle at point (a, 2a) means

that the point is excluded from the graph of the function.

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

= Limits of f(x) as x approaches a From Right

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Graphically one can infer that id there is no sudden change or break of

f(1.9) = 3 1.9 + 1 = 6.7

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

f(1.99) = 3 (1.99) + 1 = 6.97

f(1.999) = 3 (1.999) + 1 = 6.997

Thus we observe that as

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Now we define limit mathematically

l is said to be limit of f(x), at x = a, if for an arbitrary small number

i.e. Difference between f(x) and l become negligibly small when x is

Left and Right Limit

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

where h is a small positive number.

For the existence of the limit at x = a, f(x) need not be defined at x = a.

f(x) exists when

2m 3= 2/m 2m2 3m 2 = 0 m = 1/2, 2.

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

then we can define the following rules:

The above rules are applicable only when both

Let us try to prove some of these Rules:

To prove the above result we choose

, then by definition of limit, there exist

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

We have to prove that for

there exist some

>0 such that

Where A is the upper bound of g(x) in the neighbourhood of x a. and

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Can a function have two distinct limits as x approaches a?

L2 such that when x

a the function tends to both L1 and L2. Hence if

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Some important theorems:

in an open interval containing a then

Sandwich Theorem: Let f, g, h be three continuous function such that f<g<h

As shown in figure given below, we have f

In (x1, x2) and as x approaches a.

in an open interval containing a and

exists and is equal to zero.

General Physics AISM-09/M/LIMCD

Some Important Results on Limits