Chapter No 3

CHAPTER NO.
3
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Chapter 3
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Ferrocement is often described in the professional literature as a wonder material that does not
crack and that has a variety of marvelous properties. In effect, ferrocement can be considered a
small-scale model of a super reinforced concrete; it does indeed crack, but cracking in
ferrocement under service loads can be so fine that it is not visible to the naked eye.
For ferrocement to show its outstanding mechanical properties it must satisfy a number of
requirements involving the mesh content and properties, the cement matrix, dimensional
constrains. [14]
The range of properties that can be obtained using ferrocement extends from the properties of the
plain cementitious matrix to the properties of a composite containing a large volume fraction of
uniformly distributed reinforcement leading to a high specific surface of reinforcement. Some
current limits of common mechanical properties are given in table 2.1. Ferrocement is a
composite which by definition gives, in some cases, better properties than either one of its
components taken alone. For instance, with proper reinforcement the matrix may, through fine
multiple cracking, be made to assume the ductile characteristics of the reinforcement. As well,
ductility can also be obtained even if the reinforcement is brittle.
Table 2.1 Mechanical properties of ferrocement reinforced with conventional steel meshes and
cement mortar matrices.
Ultimate Tensile Strength:

Modulus of Rupture:
bending strength)
Compressive Strength:
strength.
Ultimate Tensile Strain:
reinforcement.
Crack Widths:
reinforced
up to 35 MPa
up to 70 MPa (equivalent elastic
80 to 100 percent of mortar matrix
up to the tensile strain of the
up to 100 times smaller than in
STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

INSITU LAMINATE MATERIAL
DANISH AZAD AHTESHAM ALTAF IMRAN ASLAM MUHAMMAD UMER ABDULLAH
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CHAPTER NO.3
3.2
TENSILE PROPERTIES
The reader is referred to Chapters 1 and 3, where the tensile response of ferrocement is described
in detail. Typical examples of stress-strain curves in tension are shown in Figs. 1.18a and 1.18b
for low and high yield strength steel meshes. Figures 2.1 shows essential curves comparing
square and hexagonal steel meshes with low yield strength. These figures show that the direct
tensile strength of ferrocement using commonly available steel meshes can reach up to 25 MPa.
Higher stresses can be achieved with meshes having higher yield strengths. Figures 2.2 and 2.3
provide additional information on typical development of cracking in ferrocement as well as the
variation of crack spacing and width with the applied load. [15]
It suffices to note that the tensile strength of ferrocement is limited by the tensile strength of its
reinforcement taken alone in the direction of loading. Generally, in evaluating tensile strength for
design, the yield strength of steel meshes is used instead of their ultimate tensile strength, which
leads to additional safety. Moreover, it is believed that the presence of the transverse
reinforcement imparts some additional strength and safely to ferrocement. Values of no and yield
strength recommended as a first approximation for design can be found in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
Figure 2.4 also allows the evaluation of hypothetical examples of ferrocement tensile members
with meshes having different yield strengths, and could be used to estimate allowable tensile
stresses in the composite assuming a factor of safety toward tensile strength, such as 2 or 2.5.

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CHAPTER NO.3

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CHAPTER NO.3
3.3
FIRST CRACKING
The first cracking strength of ferrocement is often referred to in the technical literature as a
property of interest. First cracking may be subjective and may depend on the means by which
cracking is observed, be it the naked eye or a microscope. In a typical tensile test, micro cracks
develop randomly throughout the length of the specimen itself. When some of these micro cracks
coalesce, join, and percolate throughout a section, a first structural crack can be considered to
have occurred. This is often described as first cracking. To minimize the subjectiveness of the
definition, the term first cracking is often associated with a specified crack width. In a number of
Russian and Polish studies, first cracking is defined by a crack width ranging from 0.005 mm
(for which a microscope is needed) to a value visible to the naked eye, of the order of 0.03 to 0.1
mm. The onset of first cracking is also defined as the first deviation from linearity of the loadelongation or load-deflection curve of the ferrocement material. Such curve can be obtained from
tests or predicted analytically. There is general agreement that, everything else being equal, the
first cracking strength of ferrocement in tension increases with an increase in the specific surface
of reinforcement; however, in bending, the rate of increase is not as significant as in tension. [16]
3.4
ELASTIC MODULUS IN TENSION
The elastic modulus is a measure of the change in stress due to a change in strain between two
points of the tensile stress-strain response of a material; it is considered a fundamental property
of the material. It is generally defined as: [17]
E =
While the above definition is general, the selection of the two points on the stress-strain curve
leads to different modulus values. For instance, if the first point is the origin and the other point
is very close along the initial linear portion of the curve, we get the tangent modulus or the
initial modulus. However, if the second point is taken arbitrarily along the curve, we then get
the secant modulus. Generally the tangent or initial modulus of ferrocement is implied when
the composite is in the un cracked state.
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CHAPTER NO.3
3.4.1 Un cracked Member

For an un cracked ferrocement composite subjected to tension in the longitudinal direction of the
mesh, the rule of mixture can be applied to determine an upper bound modulus:
(Ec)u = EmVm + ErVrL
Where the subscript u stands For: upper bound or un cracked, m stands for the matrix, r for the
reinforcement, and VrL is the volume fraction of the mesh in the longitudinal (loading) direction.
A similar expression could be developed for loading in the transverse direction. For non-welded
square or rectangular meshes, the elastic modulus of the mesh reinforcement is different from
that of the mesh material.
3.4.2
Cracked Member

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CHAPTER NO.3
The effective modulus of a cracked ferrocement composite, (Ec)cr, depends on numerous
parameters including the volume fraction of reinforcement and the extent of multiple cracking.
Typically, it is a fraction of the value given by Eq.2.2. In lieu of a more accurate formula the
following approximation can be used:
(Ec)cr = (EmVm + ErVrL) /
Where
is a factor taken between 2 and 3. A value of 3 is recommended for low volume
fractions of reinforcement. In case of doubt and for a large scale or repetitive application, it is
better to determine the modulus of ferrocement from a direct tensile stress-strain test.
3.5
BENDING
Bending reflects the combined influence of parameters controlling both tensile and compression
properties, such as mortar compressive strength, mesh type, mesh properties and mesh
orientation. Moreover, it is believed that the two-way nature of the mesh reinforcement generally
imparts some additional strength and safety when bending is considered in one direction only
(one-way bending). [18]
3.5.1
Typical Behavior
Figure 2.7 illustrates the typical load versus deflection response of ferrocement in bending.
Several portions of the curve can be identified:
An initial portion where structural cracking does not occur.

A multiple cracking region where cracks develop and their width increases with
increasing load.
A region where gradual yielding of the steel reinforcement occurs; gradual yielding
occurs even when steel mesh has definite yield point, because several layers of mesh,
placed at different depths of the section, undergo yielding at different loading levels.
A post-yielding plastic or strain-hardening region during which the maximum or ultimate
load is attained.
A post-peak portion where failure occurs either due to mortar failure in compression or
due to failure of the extreme layer of mesh.

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CHAPTER NO.3
2.6 FATIGUES UNDER BENDING
[19]
Fatigue loading leads to gradual increases in deflection and crack widths, and a decrease in
stiffness. Typical behavior is described in Fig. 2.16.
The fatigue life of ferrocement in bending is governed by the tensile fatigue properties of the
mesh just as for the case of reinforced and pre stressed concrete beams. Balaguru, Neman and
Shah observed that, for a volume fraction of steel mesh reinforcement ranging from 2 to 6
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CHAPTER NO.3
percent, failure of ferrocement specimens subjected to flexural fatigue was always due to failure
of the steel mesh in tensile fatigue.
Test carried out on ferrocement specimens reinforced with square steel meshes (woven and
welded) led to the following prediction equation useful to estimate fatigue life:
sr = 1050 134.5 logN
Where sr is the limiting stress range in the outermost layer of steel mesh in MPa, and N is the
number of cycles of failure. The actual stress range can be calculated using linear elastic analysis
of the cracked section.
2.7
SHEAR
Ferrocement is primarily used in the form of thin elements where the span-to-depth ratio in
bending is large enough that one-way shear does not control the failure mode. Moreover,
ferrocement structural elements contain a high volume fraction of mesh reinforcement which
contributes to the dowel action resistance in shear. [20]
Thus the design of beams is mostly easy to estimate bending resistance; shear resistance can thus
be readily estimated for design. However, this seems to contradict some experimental
observation.
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CHAPTER NO.3
Paramasivam and Tan carried out an extensive investigation of the punching shear resistance of
square ferrocement plates simply supported along their four edges and loaded in punching mode
by a single concentrated load at their center. The load was applied via a rigid square steel plate.
They drew the following conclusions:
Inclined shear cracking planes usually from at the periphery of the loaded area on the top
surface of the plate.
Controlled by bending. Also, ferrocement does not have shear reinforcement except for the ties
that are provided to tie the mesh layers together this is also true in thin reinforced concrete slabs.
Shear reinforcement does not seem to be needed in all one-way shear applications.
ACI Committee 549 State-of-the-Art Report on Ferrocement reports that the shear strength of
ferrocement was found to be approximately equal to 32 percent of its equivalent bending strength
regardless of the type and content of the mesh or the mortar strength used. Since it is the average
distance of the critical perimeter from the edge distance of the loading plate was about 4.22 times
the effective depth.
2.8
Of the six parameters tested, the degree of reinforcement, the mortar compressive
strength, and the size of the loading plate were found to influence considerably the
punching shear strength, while the span to depth ratio, the thickness of the slab, and the
spacing of skeletal steel had little if any effect.
COMPRESSION
The compression properties of ferrocement are controlled to a great extent by the properties of
the cementitious mortar matrix. Thus common parameter known to control the compressive
strength of concrete, such as water to cement ratio and typical ferrocement products ranging
from 30 to 70 MPa are common. However, compression test results obtained from ferrocement
prism generally show large scatters in compressive strength, strain at peak load and elastic
modulus. [21]

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CHAPTER NO.3
Figure 2.18 and 2.19 show typical compression test results of ferrocement prisms. These and
other experimental observations suggest that for low mesh content, the compressive strength of
ferrocement is smaller than that of the matrix alone. However, the compressive strength picks up
again at higher mesh content.
It seems that delaminating and buckling of the mesh reinforcement in compression account for
the reduction in strength. Also, everything else being equal, the mesh type and its orientation will
influence the compressive strength. Thus hexagonal and expended metal meshes oriented in the
direction of loading are less effective than similarly oriented welded square meshes; meshes
oriented at 45 degree are also less effective than meshes aligned along the loading direction.
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2.9
IMPACT IMPERMEABILITY
Resistance to impact is often measured by the amount of energy absorbed during impact loading.
There are also qualitative ways to describe impact damage, such as by the extent of cracking, or
leakage. The impact strength of ferrocement increases with the volume fraction and the specific
surface of reinforcement. The dispersion and distribution of the reinforcement promote an
increase in impact strength. [22]
Shah and Key indirectly determined the impact strength by measuring the damage caused by a
swinging pendulum impacting on ferrocement plates. The damage was assessed by the relative
discharge of water through the damaged surface for a fixed amount of impact energy. They
concluded that ferrocement has good resistance to dynamic punching load.
Kobahachi et al. carried out extensive tests of impact using ferrocement flexural plates subjected
to mid span single impact load dropped from different heights to achieve different velocities
ranging from 1.4 to 4.8 meter per second. The plates were 25 mm in thickness and had a total
volume fraction of reinforcement of 3.8 to 4 percent. Following is a summary of their
conclusions:
1. The strain at first crack under impact was approximately equal to that at static load, and
was stable irrespective of striking velocity. The deflection at first crack increased with
striking velocity.

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CHAPTER NO.3
2. The peak load was proportional to the striking velocity. The peak load also increased with
the yield of the mesh and the strength of the mortar.
3. Two types of impact damage were observed; one where extensive tensile cracks
developed on the tensile face of the specimen prior to failure, and the other where
compressive failure occurred in the compression zone on the loading side due to localized
damage by the striker and led to failure.
4. The energy absorbed by localized damage was about 25 percent of input energy and was
proportional to the drop height.
2.11
FIRE RESISTEANCE
In general, the fire resistance of a concrete element depends primarily on the thickness and mass
of that element. Similarly to reinforced concrete, ferrocement does not burn. Its fire rating or
ability to maintain a good mechanical resistance when exposed to fire is not very good, simply
because it is a thin material with a very small cover to the reinforcement. A fire rating of 30
minutes is sometimes suggested for thin ferrocement walls while higher values can be assumed
for sandwich type construction. [23]
In considering fire resistance for any application, it is fair to compare ferrocement with
alternative materials of similar thickness such as wood, plywood, steel, or fiber glass. In such
case, ferrocement compares very favorably.
2.12
DURABILITY
Durability can be defined as the resistance to deterioration of properties when the ferrocement
composite is subjected to various loading and environmental exposure. [24]
The main issue related to durability is summed up in the following paragraph taken from the
State-of-Art Report on Ferrocement by ACI Committee 549.
1. The cover of mortar to the mesh reinforcement is abnormally low (of the order of 1 to 2
mm), so it is relatively easy for liquids or corrosive agents to reach the reinforcement.
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CHAPTER NO.3
2. The surface area of the reinforcement is unusually high, so the area of contact over which
corrosion can take place, and the resulting rate of corrosion are potentially high; should
corrosion occur, the depth of corrosion need to be very deep to affect significantly the
tensile strength capacity of small diameter wires or thin sheets.
3. Although many reinforcing meshes used in reinforcement are galvanized to prevent
corrosion, the zinc coating can have some adverse effects from gas bubble generation.
Ferrocement is a noble construction material, because,

while complex, it is also
So simple, so versatile, so forgiving and so reliable.

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CHAPTER NO.

Ultimate Tensile Strength:

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

ELASTIC MODULUS IN TENSION

3.4.1 Un cracked Member

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

is a factor taken between 2 and 3. A value of 3 is recommended for low volume

An initial portion where structural cracking does not occur.

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

2.6 FATIGUES UNDER BENDING

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

Ferrocement is a noble construction material, because,

STRENGTHENING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM USING FERROCEMENT CAST

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