MA3003 Heat Transfer

Semester 2, AY 2014-2015

(2) Heat Conduction Equation

by
Assoc Prof Leong Kai Choong
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Read Chapter 2 of textbook

before these lecture slides

Learning Objectives
At the end of these lectures, you should be able to
understand multidimensionality and time dependence of
heat transfer, and the conditions under which a heat
transfer problem can be approximated as being onedimensional,
derive the heat conduction equation in various
coordinate systems and simplify it for the steady-state
one-dimensional case,
identify the thermal conditions at the boundaries of solids
and express them mathematically as boundary or initial
conditions, and
appreciate the different solution methods for simple and
complex heat conduction problems.
2

Scope of these lectures

Basic Concepts
Fouriers Law as a Vector Equation
Derivation of the Heat Conduction Equation
Boundary and Initial Conditions
Formulation of Heat Conduction Problems
Introduction to Solution Methods

Note that unless otherwise indicated, figures are taken from the prescribed
textbook, engel, Y.A., and Ghajar, A.J., Heat and Mass Transfer:
Fundamentals and Applications, 5th Ed. (SI Units), McGraw-Hill, 2015.

Basic Concepts
Temperature & Heat Transfer Scalar & Vector
quantities

Coordinate Systems

or Cartesian coordinates

Steady (or steady-state) versus Transient Heat

Transfer

Fouriers Law as a Vector Equation

For an isotropic material, for which the thermal
conductivity is the same in all directions, Fouriers
law in Cartesian coordinates is
T
q x = k
;
x

T
q y = k
;
y

T
q z = k
z

.... (1)

where
q x
T
x

=
=

heat flux component in x direction

partial derivative of T ( x,y,z,t ) with respect to x

In vector form, Eq. (1) can be written more

compactly as
where

q =
T =

q = kT

Conduction heat flux vector

Gradient of scalar temp. field

In Cartesian coordinates

q = iq x + jq y + kq z
T
T
T
T = i
+j
+k
x
y
z
where i, j and k are the unit vectors in the x, y
and z directions, respectively.
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Vector representation of Fouriers Law

q y

Heat Transfer Vectors and Isotherms

10

Derivation of Heat Conduction

Equation in Cartesian coordinates
Q z + dz

Q y + dy

Q x

Q x + dx

Q y
Q z
Source: Incropera et al. (2013) with change of symbols

11

Energy balance:
Rate of heat rate conducted into solid + rate of
heat rate generated inside solid - rate of heat
conducted out of solid = rate of increase of
internal energy (or rate of heat stored)

dE

system

Ein + E gen Eout = Est simplified form of

dt

Q x + Q y + Q z + egen (dxdydz )

(dxdydz )
Qx + dx + Q y + dy + Qz + dz = c p
t
where e=
genrate of heat generation per unit
volume (W/m3)

.......(2)

12


Rate of heat conducted into solid across face at x is Q
x
Using Taylor series expansion and neglecting
higher order terms, the rate of heat conducted out
of the solid at x + dx is
Negligible
2
3

Q
Q

Qx
2
3
x
x

(dx ) + 3 (dx ) + ...

Qx + dx = Qx +
dx +
2
x
x
x
Using Fouriers law, net heat inflow in x

direction

Q x Q x + dx

Q x

T
dx = k
=
(dydz )dx
x
x
x
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Do the same for y and z directions.

Net heat conduction into volume =
T T T
k
+ k
+
(dxdydz )
k
x x y y z z

Rate of heat generation within elemental

volume =

egen (dxdydz )

where egen = rate of heat generation per unit

volume (W/m3)
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Substituting in Equation (2) and dividing

throughout by dxdydz,
T
T T T

k
k
e
c
k
+
=

+
+
gen

t
x x y y z z

...(3)

- general form of heat conduction equation in

Cartesian coordinates.
If k is not a function of temperature and position,
2T 2T 2T egen 1 T
.....(4)
+ 2 + 2 +
=
2
x
y
z
k
t
k
where thermal diffusivity =
c p
15

Thermal Diffusivity
Table 1: Thermal diffusivity of typical materials

Average
temperature
C
Copper
0
Zinc
0
Brick, fireclay
204
Rubber, soft

Diffusivity
106
m2/s
114.1
41.3
0.516
0.077

16

Semi-infinite medium initially at Ti = 100C.

Surface x = 0 suddenly lowered to 0C. What
is the time taken for x = 30 cm to reach 50C ?

x = 30 cm

Table 2: Effect of thermal diffusivity on the

rate of heat propagation

Material
10
m2/s

Time

Silver Copper Steel Glass

170
103
12.9 0.59
9.5
min

16.5
min

2.2 h 2.00
days
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Expressing the heat conduction equation for

constant k in compact form using the Laplacian
operator 2, we have

1 T
T+
=
k
t
2

egen

......(5)

In Cartesian coordinates,

For egen = 0,

2
2
2

2 = 2 + 2 + 2
x
y
z

2T 2T 2T 1 T
..... (6) Fourier' s Equation
+ 2 + 2 =
2
z
t
x
y
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For steady - state and no heat generation conditions,

T T T
+ 2 + 2 = 0 .... (7) Laplace' s Equation
2
x
y
z
For 1 - D case from Eq. (3),
2

i.e.

d dT
k
=0
dx dx
dq x
=0
dx
q x = const
19

Pierre-Simon Laplace
Born: 23-Mar-1749 (son of a farmlabourer)
Birthplace: Beaumont-en-Auge,
Normandy, France
Father: Farmer
Died: 5-Mar-1827
Location of death: Paris, France
Cause of death: unspecified
Occupation: Mathematician,
Politician.
Jean le Rond d'Alembert was his
mentor.
Fourier was his student.
At 27, he was called the Newton of
France
Source: http://www.nndb.com/people/871/000031778/

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Cylindrical Coordinate System

Q z + dz

Q r

Q + d

Q r + dr

Q z
21

Spherical Coordinate System

Q + d

Q r

Q + d

Q r + dr

22

General Heat Conduction Equations

Cartesian coordinates:
T T T
T

+
+
k
k
k
+
e
=

gen
p

x x y y z z
t

Cylindrical coordinates:
1 T 1 T T
T

+ k
k
+ egen = c p
+ 2
kr
t
r r r r z z

Spherical coordinates:
T

T
T
1 2 T
1
1
k + 2
k sin + egen = c p
+ 2 2
kr
2
r r
t

r r sin r sin

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Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions for the heat conduction
Specified or prescribed
equation at surface x = 0
temperature

1. Constant surface
temperature
(First-kind or Dirichlet *)

T (0, t ) = Ts
* Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet

Born: 13 Feb 1805 in Dren, French

Empire (now Germany), Died: 5 May 1859 in Gttingen, Hanover (now Germany).
Studied under Georg Ohm and provided proof of Fermats Last Theorem.
No three positive integers a,

b, and c can satisfy the equation

an + bn = cn for any integer value of n greater than 2.

30

2. Constant surface heat flux

(Second kind or Neumann # )
(a) Finite heat flux

T
k
x

q s

= q s
x =0

(b) Adiabatic surface

T
x

=0
x =0

# John von Neumann (December 28, 1903 February 8,

1957) was a Hungarian American mathematician who made

major contributions to a vast range of fields.

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3. Convection surface condition

(Third kind or mixed)

T
k
x

= h[T T (0, t )]
x =0

Note that T at x = 0 is unknown and hence we do not

write it as Ts.

32

4. Radiation boundary condition (Fourth kind)

T
4
4
(
)
T
0
,
t
= 1 Tsurr

k
,1
x x = 0

Note that T at x = 0 is unknown and hence we do not write

it as Ts. Temperatures must be in kelvins!
Homework: Write down the four kinds of boundary
conditions for the surface x = L of the plane wall.
33

5. Interface boundary conditions

TA ( x0 , t ) = TB ( x0 , t )
TA
kA
x

x = x0

TB
= k B
x

x = x0

34

6. Phase change boundary condition

For block of ice melting in warm water,
T
k
x
T
k
x

T
= m
'' (hs hu )
k
x s
u

T
'' h fs
+m
=k
x u

'' has units of kg/m 2 s

Mass flux m

h fs = hs - hu enthalpy (or latent heat) of fusion of ice

35

7. Generalised boundary conditions

For surfaces experiencing convection, radiation
and specified heat flux simultaneously,
Heat transfer Heat transfer

to the surface = from the surface

in all modes in all modes

See Examples 5 and 6 of your textbook.

36

Formulation of heat conduction

problems
The formulation of a problem is often more essential
than its solution, which may be merely a matter of
mathematical or experimental skills. To raise new
questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems
from a new angle, requires creative imagination and
work
- A. Einstein and L. Infeld in The Evolution of Physics (1938)

37

Thermal and geometric symmetry

Boundary conditions & geometrical shape are
symmetrical about a common axis or plane.
Hence, temp. distribution is symmetrical about
the same axis and heat conduction analysis is
greatly simplified.

T
= 0 at symmetry axis or plane
x
38

Thermal & geometric symmetry

about a plane wall

39

Solve for just half the wall from x = 0 to x = L/2 with

the following boundary conditions
T
x
T
k
x

=0
x =0

= h [T ( L / 2) T ]
x=L / 2

Surface at x = 0 may also be considered to be

adiabatic (or perfectly insulated).
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41

Initial conditions
For transient heat conduction problems,
temperature of the entire solid must be known at
some instant of time (usually t = 0) before the
subsequent variation in temperature with time can
be determined.
For example,

T ( x,0) = T0

42

Example 1: Heat Conduction in the

Base Plate of an Iron
Mathematical formulation to
find T(x) in base plate?
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state
conduction (2) 1-D in x since
surface area is much larger than
thickness L
(3) Constant k (4) No heat
generation in the base plate (5)
Perfect insulation at upper part
of iron
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Solution :
Start with general heat conduction equation
T T T
T

k
+ k
k
+
+ egen = c p
x x y y z z
t

d 2T
= 0 where T = T(x)
2
dx
2nd Order ODE in space two (2) boundary
conditions
Q s
dT
k
= q s =
dx x =0
Ab
dT
k
= h[T (L ) T ]
dx x = L

44

Example 2: Heating of a copper bar

Model

egen

Ti = To
Mathematical formulation to find T(x,t)?
Source: Incropera et al. (2007) with change of symbols

Assumptions: (1) 1-D in x since W >> L and bar is long (2)

Uniform heat generation, and (3) Constant properties (k, ).
45

Solution :
Start with general heat conduction equation
T
T T T

k
+ k
k
+
+ egen = c p
t
x x y y z z

2T egen 1 T
+
=
2
k
x
t

where T = T(x, t)

2nd Order PDE in space two (2) boundary conditions

T
k
x

= h[T ( L, t ) T ]
x=L

egen

T (0, t ) = To

1st Order PDE in time one (1) initial condition

T ( x,0) = To

46

Example 3: Steady-state heat

conduction across a circular pipe
Inside surface of circular pipe of inside radius r1,
outside radius r2, and thermal conductivity k is
maintained at Ti by flowing steam. The outside
surface dissipates heat by convection with a heat
transfer coefficient h into ambient air at
temperature T
Develop the mathematical formulation of the
problem of determining the steady-state heat
conduction across the pipe.
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Start with general heat conduction equation,

1 T 1 T T
T

k
+ k
kr
+ 2
+ egen = c p
r r r r z z
t

For 1-D, steady-state, constant k and no heat generation,

1 T
r
r r r

=0

T
or r
= constant
r

Constant temperature boundary condition on inner

surface

T = Ti

at r = r1

Convection boundary condition on outer surface

dT
k
dr

= h[T (r2 ) T ] at r = r2
r = r2

48

Example 4: Transient heat

conduction across a plane wall
A plane wall of thickness L with constant thermal
properties is initially at uniform temperature T0 . At
time t = 0, the surface at x = L is subjected to
heating by a flow of hot gas at temperature T
while the surface at x = 0 is kept perfectly insulated
(adiabatic). The heat transfer coefficient between
the hot gas and the surface is h. There is no energy
generation within the wall.

49

Schematic of plane wall example

50

Develop the mathematical formulation of the

problem of determining the unsteady heat
conduction across the plane wall.
Do not solve the problem.

51

Solution:
1-D, time-dependent problem with constant
thermal properties and no heat generation.
Differential equation :
2T

1 T
for 0 < x < L, t > 0
=
2
t
x
Boundary conditions :
T
at x = 0, t > 0 Adiabatic surface
=0
x x = 0
T
at x = L, t > 0
= h[T ( L) T ]
k
x x = L
Initial condition : T (x,0) = T0

for all x
52

Example 5: Combined convection and

radiation from a metal ball
A spherical metal ball of radius ro is heated to a
certain temperature Ti and is then taken out of the
oven to cool in ambient air at temperature T. The
thermal conductivity of the ball material is k and the
heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface is h.
The emissivity of the ball surface is and the
temperature of the surroundings is Tsurr. There is no
energy generation within the wall. Develop the
mathematical formulation of the problem.

53

Start with general heat conduction equation,

1 2 T
1
1
T

T
T
k
+ 2
kr
+ 2 2
k sin + egen = c p
2
r r sin r sin

r r
t

For transient conduction, constant k and no heat

generation,
1 2 T 1 T
Boundary
Conditions:

r 2 r

=
r t

At the inner surface T

r r = 0

=0

Convection & radiation boundary

condition on outer surface

Thermal & geometric

symmetry

T
4
= h[T (ro ) T ] + T (ro )4 Tsurr
k
r r = r
o
Initial condition: T (r ,0) = Ti

54

Example 6: Combined convection,

radiation and heat flux
Boundary conditions on inner and
outer surfaces of house?
Tsky = effective sky temperature (here it
includes sky, ground and surrounding
structures); q solar = incident solar heat flux
Steady-state, one-dimensional problem
with boundary conditions

dT
k
dx
dT
k
dx

= h1 [T1 T (0 )]
x =0

4
= h2 [T (L ) T 2 ] + 2 T (L ) Tsky
q solar
4

x=L

55

Basic Steps in the Solution of Heat

Transfer Problems

56

Solution Methods
Mainly grouped under
(1) Analytical methods
e.g. separation of variables & transform methods
Requires
1. simple geometry
2. boundary conditions to be of simple mathematical
forms, and
3. constant thermophysical properties.
(2) Numerical methods
e.g. finite difference & finite element methods
57

58

59

 Note the limitations of analytical methods.

You may wish to read more about the finite difference
method in Chapter 5 of engel and Ghajar (2011).

60

Some Review Questions

1. How does transient heat transfer differ from steady state heat
transfer?
2. How does one-dimensional heat transfer differ from twodimensional heat transfer?
3. Which property of a material determines (a) the amount of
heat it can store per unit volume, (b) the heat it can conduct
under steady-state conditions, and (c) the rate at which it will
react to transient temperature changes?
4. What physical principles are represented by the general heat
conduction equation?
5. What are the typical boundary conditions for heat
Read Chapter 2: Sections 2-5, 2-6 and 2-7 and
conduction?
Chapter 3: Sections 3-1 to 3-5 of the textbook
before the next lecture!

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