Pendulum

Pendulum
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Apendulumisaweightsuspendedfromapivotsothatit
canswingfreely.[1]Whenapendulumisdisplacedsideways
fromitsrestingequilibriumposition,itissubjecttoa
restoringforceduetogravitythatwillaccelerateitback
towardtheequilibriumposition.Whenreleased,the
restoringforcecombinedwiththependulum'smasscauses
ittooscillateabouttheequilibriumposition,swingingback
andforth.Thetimeforonecompletecycle,aleftswingand
arightswing,iscalledtheperiod.Theperioddependson
thelengthofthependulum,andalsotoaslightdegreeon
theamplitude,thewidthofthependulum'sswing.
Fromitsexaminationinaround1602byGalileoGalilei,the
regularmotionofpendulumswasusedfortimekeeping,and
wastheworld'smostaccuratetimekeepingtechnologyuntil
the1930s.[2]Pendulumsareusedtoregulatependulum
clocks,andareusedinscientificinstrumentssuchas
accelerometersandseismometers.Historicallytheywere
usedasgravimeterstomeasuretheaccelerationofgravity
ingeophysicalsurveys,andevenasastandardoflength.
Theword'pendulum'isnewLatin,fromtheLatinpendulus,
meaning'hanging'.[3]
"Simplegravitypendulum"modelassumesno
frictionorairresistance.
Thesimplegravitypendulum[4]isanidealizedmathematical
modelofapendulum.[5][6][7]Thisisaweight(orbob)on
theendofamasslesscordsuspendedfromapivot,without
friction.Whengivenaninitialpush,itwillswingbackand
forthataconstantamplitude.Realpendulumsaresubjectto
frictionandairdrag,sotheamplitudeoftheirswings
declines.
Contents
1Periodofoscillation
Animationofapendulumshowingthevelocityand
accelerationvectors
2Compoundpendulum
3History
3.11602:Galileo'sresearch
3.21656:Thependulumclock
3.31673:Huygens'Horologium
Oscillatorium
3.41721:Temperaturecompensated
pendulums
3.51851:Foucaultpendulum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendulum
1/31
3.61930:Declineinuse
4Usefortimemeasurement
4.1Clockpendulums
4.2Temperaturecompensation
4.2.1Mercurypendulum
4.2.2Gridironpendulum
4.2.3Invarandfusedquartz
4.3Atmosphericpressure
4.4Gravity
5Accuracyofpendulumsastimekeepers
5.1Qfactor
5.2Escapement
5.3TheAirycondition
6Gravitymeasurement
6.1Thesecondspendulum
6.2Earlyobservations
6.3Kater'spendulum
6.4Laterpendulumgravimeters
7Standardoflength
7.1Earlyproposals
7.2Themetre
7.3BritainandDenmark
8Otheruses
8.1Seismometers
8.2Schulertuning
8.3Coupledpendulums
8.4Religiouspractice
8.5Execution
9Seealso
10Notes
11References
12Furtherreading
13Externallinks
Periodofoscillation
Theperiodofswingofasimplegravitypendulumdependsonitslength,thelocalstrengthofgravity,andtoa
smallextentonthemaximumanglethatthependulumswingsawayfromvertical,0,calledtheamplitude.[8]Itis
independentofthemassofthebob.Iftheamplitudeislimitedtosmallswings,[Note1]theperiodTofasimple
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pendulum,thetimetakenforacompletecycle,is:[9]
Theperiodofapendulumgetslongerastheamplitude0
(widthofswing)increases.
Thetrueperiodisshownasasolidpendulum,thesimple
periodequationisshownasanemptypendulum
whereListhelengthofthependulumandgisthelocalaccelerationofgravity.
Forsmallswingstheperiodofswingisapproximatelythesamefordifferentsizeswings:thatis,theperiodis
independentofamplitude.Thisproperty,calledisochronism,isthereasonpendulumsaresousefulfor
timekeeping.[10]Successiveswingsofthependulum,evenifchanginginamplitude,takethesameamountof
time.
Forlargeramplitudes,theperiodincreasesgraduallywithamplitudesoitislongerthangivenbyequation(1).
Forexample,atanamplitudeof0=23itis1%largerthangivenby(1).Theperiodincreasesasymptotically
(toinfinity)as0approaches180,becausethevalue0=180isanunstableequilibriumpointforthe
pendulum.Thetrueperiodofanidealsimplegravitypendulumcanbewritteninseveraldifferentforms(see
Pendulum(mathematics)),oneexamplebeingtheinfiniteseries:[11][12]
Thedifferencebetweenthistrueperiodandtheperiodforsmallswings(1)aboveiscalledthecircularerror.In
thecaseofatypicalgrandfatherclockwhosependulumhasaswingof6andthusanamplitudeof3
(0.05radians),thedifferencebetweenthetrueperiodandthesmallangleapproximation(1)amountstoabout15
secondsperday.
Forsmallswingsthependulumapproximatesaharmonicoscillator,anditsmotionasafunctionoftime,t,is
approximatelysimpleharmonicmotion:[5]
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Forrealpendulums,correctionstotheperiodmaybeneededtotakeintoaccountthepresenceofair,themassof
thestring,thesizeandshapeofthebobandhowitisattachedtothestring,flexibilityandstretchingofthestring,
motionofthesupport,andlocalgravitationalgradients.[11][13][14][15]
Compoundpendulum
ThelengthLoftheidealsimplependulumdiscussedaboveisthedistancefromthepivotpointtothecenterof
massofthebob.Anyswingingrigidbodyfreetorotateaboutafixedhorizontalaxisiscalledacompound
pendulumorphysicalpendulum.TheappropriateequivalentlengthLforcalculatingtheperiodofanysuch
pendulumisthedistancefromthepivottothecenterofoscillation.[16]Thispointislocatedunderthecenterof
massatadistancefromthepivottraditionallycalledtheradiusofoscillation,whichdependsonthemass
distributionofthependulum.Ifmostofthemassisconcentratedinarelativelysmallbobcomparedtothe
pendulumlength,thecenterofoscillationisclosetothecenterofmass.[17]
TheradiusofoscillationorequivalentlengthLofanyphysicalpendulumcanbeshowntobe
whereIisthemomentofinertiaofthependulumaboutthepivotpoint,misthemassofthependulum,andRis
thedistancebetweenthepivotpointandthecenterofmass.Substitutingthisexpressionin(1)above,theperiod
Tofacompoundpendulumisgivenby
forsufficientlysmalloscillations.[18]
ArigiduniformrodoflengthLpivotedabouteitherendhasmomentofinertiaI=(1/3)mL2.Thecenterofmass
islocatedatthecenteroftherod,soR=L/2.Substitutingthesevaluesintotheaboveequationgives
T=22L/3g.Thisshowsthatarigidrodpendulumhasthesameperiodasasimplependulumof2/3itslength.
ChristiaanHuygensprovedin1673thatthepivotpointandthecenterofoscillationareinterchangeable.[19]This
meansifanypendulumisturnedupsidedownandswungfromapivotlocatedatitspreviouscenterof
oscillation,itwillhavethesameperiodasbeforeandthenewcenterofoscillationwillbeattheoldpivotpoint.
In1817HenryKaterusedthisideatoproduceatypeofreversiblependulum,nowknownasaKaterpendulum,
forimprovedmeasurementsoftheaccelerationduetogravity.
History
Oneoftheearliestknownusesofapendulumwasa1stcenturyseismometerdeviceofHanDynastyChinese
scientistZhangHeng.[20]Itsfunctionwastoswayandactivateoneofaseriesofleversafterbeingdisturbedby
thetremorofanearthquakefaraway.[21]Releasedbyalever,asmallballwouldfalloutoftheurnshapeddevice
intooneofeightmetaltoad'smouthsbelow,attheeightpointsofthecompass,signifyingthedirectionthe
earthquakewaslocated.[21]
Manysources[22][23][24][25]claimthatthe10thcenturyEgyptianastronomerIbnYunususedapendulumfortime
measurement,butthiswasanerrorthatoriginatedin1684withtheBritishhistorianEdwardBernard.[26][27][28]
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DuringtheRenaissance,largependulumswereusedassourcesofpowerformanualreciprocatingmachinessuch
assaws,bellows,andpumps.[29]LeonardodaVincimademanydrawingsofthemotionofpendulums,though
withoutrealizingitsvaluefortimekeeping.
1602:Galileo'sresearch
ItalianscientistGalileoGalileiwasthefirsttostudythepropertiesofpendulums,beginningaround1602.[30]The
earliestextantreportofhisresearchiscontainedinalettertoGuidoUbaldodalMonte,fromPadua,dated
November29,1602.[31]Hisbiographerandstudent,VincenzoViviani,claimedhisinteresthadbeensparked
around1582bytheswingingmotionofachandelierinthePisa
cathedral.[32][33]Galileodiscoveredthecrucialpropertythatmakes
pendulumsusefulastimekeepers,calledisochronismtheperiodofthe
pendulumisapproximatelyindependentoftheamplitudeorwidthofthe
swing.[34]Healsofoundthattheperiodisindependentofthemassofthe
bob,andproportionaltothesquarerootofthelengthofthependulum.He
firstemployedfreeswingingpendulumsinsimpletimingapplications.A
physicianfriendinventedadevicewhichmeasuredapatient'spulseby
thelengthofapendulumthepulsilogium.[30]In1641Galileoconceived
anddictatedtohissonVincenzoadesignforapendulumclock[34]
Vincenzobeganconstruction,buthadnotcompleteditwhenhediedin
1649.[35]Thependulumwasthefirstharmonicoscillatorusedbyman.[34]
1656:Thependulumclock
ReplicaofZhangHeng's
seismometer.Thependulumis
containedinside.
In1656theDutchscientist
ChristiaanHuygensbuiltthe
firstpendulumclock.[36]This
wasagreatimprovementoverexistingmechanicalclockstheirbest
accuracywasincreasedfromaround15minutesdeviationadayto
around15secondsaday.[37]PendulumsspreadoverEuropeasexisting
clockswereretrofittedwiththem.[38]
Thefirstpendulumclock
TheEnglishscientistRobertHookestudiedtheconicalpendulum
around1666,consistingofapendulumthatisfreetoswingintwo
dimensions,withthebobrotatinginacircleorellipse.[39]Heusedthe
motionsofthisdeviceasamodeltoanalyzetheorbitalmotionsofthe
planets.[40]HookesuggestedtoIsaacNewtonin1679thatthe
componentsoforbitalmotionconsistedofinertialmotionalonga
tangentdirectionplusanattractivemotionintheradialdirection.This
playedapartinNewton'sformulationofthelawofuniversal
gravitation.[41][42]RobertHookewasalsoresponsibleforsuggestingas
earlyas1666thatthependulumcouldbeusedtomeasuretheforceof
gravity.[39]
DuringhisexpeditiontoCayenne,FrenchGuianain1671,JeanRicherfoundthatapendulumclockwas212
minutesperdaysloweratCayennethanatParis.Fromthishededucedthattheforceofgravitywaslowerat
Cayenne.[43][44]In1687,IsaacNewtoninPrincipiaMathematicashowedthatthiswasbecausetheEarthwasnot
atruespherebutslightlyoblate(flattenedatthepoles)fromtheeffectofcentrifugalforceduetoitsrotation,
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causinggravitytoincreasewithlatitude.[45]Portablependulumsbegantobetakenonvoyagestodistantlands,as
precisiongravimeterstomeasuretheaccelerationofgravityatdifferentpointsonEarth,eventuallyresultingin
accuratemodelsoftheshapeoftheEarth.[46]
1673:Huygens'HorologiumOscillatorium
In1673,ChristiaanHuygenspublishedhistheoryofthependulum,HorologiumOscillatoriumsivedemotu
pendulorum.[47][48]MarinMersenneandRenDescarteshaddiscoveredaround1636thatthependulumwasnot
quiteisochronousitsperiodincreasedsomewhatwithitsamplitude.[49]Huygensanalyzedthisproblemby
determiningwhatcurveanobjectmustfollowtodescendbygravitytothesamepointinthesametimeinterval,
regardlessofstartingpointthesocalledtautochronecurve.Byacomplicatedmethodthatwasanearlyuseof
calculus,heshowedthiscurvewasacycloid,ratherthanthecirculararcofapendulum,[50]confirmingthatthe
pendulumwasnotisochronousandGalileo'sobservationofisochronismwasaccurateonlyforsmallswings.[51]
Huygensalsosolvedtheproblemofhowtocalculatetheperiodofanarbitrarilyshapedpendulum(calleda
compoundpendulum),discoveringthecenterofoscillation,anditsinterchangeabilitywiththepivotpoint.[52]
Theexistingclockmovement,thevergeescapement,madependulumsswinginverywidearcsofabout100.[53]
Huygensshowedthiswasasourceofinaccuracy,causingtheperiodtovarywithamplitudechangescausedby
smallunavoidablevariationsintheclock'sdriveforce.[54]Tomakeitsperiodisochronous,Huygensmounted
cycloidalshapedmetal'chops'nexttothepivotsinhisclocks,thatconstrainedthesuspensioncordandforced
thependulumtofollowacycloidarc.[55]Thissolutiondidn'tproveaspracticalassimplylimitingthependulum's
swingtosmallanglesofafewdegrees.Therealizationthatonlysmallswingswereisochronousmotivatedthe
developmentoftheanchorescapementaround1670,whichreducedthependulumswinginclocksto4
6.[53][56]
1721:Temperaturecompensatedpendulums
Duringthe18thand19thcentury,thependulumclock'sroleasthemostaccuratetimekeepermotivatedmuch
practicalresearchintoimprovingpendulums.Itwasfoundthatamajorsourceoferrorwasthatthependulumrod
expandedandcontractedwithchangesinambienttemperature,changingtheperiodofswing.[8][57]Thiswas
solvedwiththeinventionoftemperaturecompensatedpendulums,themercurypendulumin1721[58]andthe
gridironpendulumin1726,reducingerrorsinprecisionpendulumclockstoafewsecondsperweek.[55]
Theaccuracyofgravitymeasurementsmadewithpendulumswaslimitedbythedifficultyoffindingthelocation
oftheircenterofoscillation.Huygenshaddiscoveredin1673thatapendulumhasthesameperiodwhenhung
fromitscenterofoscillationaswhenhungfromitspivot,[19]andthedistancebetweenthetwopointswasequal
tothelengthofasimplegravitypendulumofthesameperiod.[16]In1818BritishCaptainHenryKaterinvented
thereversibleKater'spendulum[59]whichusedthisprinciple,makingpossibleveryaccuratemeasurementsof
gravity.Forthenextcenturythereversiblependulumwasthestandardmethodofmeasuringabsolute
gravitationalacceleration.
1851:Foucaultpendulum
In1851,JeanBernardLonFoucaultshowedthattheplaneofoscillationofapendulum,likeagyroscope,tends
tostayconstantregardlessofthemotionofthepivot,andthatthiscouldbeusedtodemonstratetherotationof
theEarth.Hesuspendedapendulumfreetoswingintwodimensions(laternamedtheFoucaultpendulum)from
thedomeofthePanthoninParis.Thelengthofthecordwas67m(220ft).Oncethependulumwassetin
motion,theplaneofswingwasobservedtoprecessorrotate360clockwiseinabout32hours.[60]Thiswasthe
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firstdemonstrationoftheEarth'srotationthatdidn'tdependoncelestial
observations,[61]anda"pendulummania"brokeout,asFoucaultpendulums
weredisplayedinmanycitiesandattractedlargecrowds.[62][63]
1930:Declineinuse
Around1900lowthermalexpansionmaterialsbegantobeusedforpendulum
rodsinthehighestprecisionclocksandotherinstruments,firstinvar,anickel
steelalloy,andlaterfusedquartz,whichmadetemperaturecompensation
trivial.[64]Precisionpendulumswerehousedinlowpressuretanks,whichkept
theairpressureconstanttopreventchangesintheperiodduetochangesin
buoyancyofthependulumduetochangingatmosphericpressure.[64]The
accuracyofthebestpendulumclockstoppedoutataroundasecondper
year.[65][66]
Thetimekeepingaccuracyofthependulumwasexceededbythequartzcrystal
oscillator,inventedin1921,andquartzclocks,inventedin1927,replaced
pendulumclocksastheworld'sbesttimekeepers.[2]Pendulumclockswereused
astimestandardsuntilWorldWar2,althoughtheFrenchTimeService
continuedusingthemintheirofficialtimestandardensembleuntil1954.[67]
Pendulumgravimetersweresupersededby"freefall"gravimetersinthe
1950s,[68]butpenduluminstrumentscontinuedtobeusedintothe1970s.
TheFoucaultpendulumin
1851wasthefirst
demonstrationoftheEarth's
rotationthatdidnotinvolve
celestialobservations,andit
createda"pendulummania".
Inthisanimationtherateof
precessionisgreatly
exaggerated.
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Clockpendulums
Longcaseclock
(Grandfather
clock)pendulum
Ornamented
Mercurypendulum
pendulumina
French
Comtoise
clock
Gridiron
pendulum
Ellicottpendulum,
anothertemperature
compensatedtype
Invarpendulum
inlowpressure
tankinRiefler
regulatorclock,
usedastheUS
timestandard
from1909to
1929
Usefortimemeasurement
For300years,fromitsdiscoveryaround1581untildevelopmentofthequartzclockinthe1930s,thependulum
wastheworld'sstandardforaccuratetimekeeping.[2][69]Inadditiontoclockpendulums,freeswingingseconds
pendulumswerewidelyusedasprecisiontimersinscientificexperimentsinthe17thand18thcenturies.
Pendulumsrequiregreatmechanicalstability:alengthchangeofonly0.02%,0.2mminagrandfatherclock
pendulum,willcauseanerrorofaminuteperweek.[70]
Clockpendulums
Pendulumsinclocks(seeexampleatright)areusuallymadeofaweightorbob(b)suspendedbyarodofwood
ormetal(a).[8][71]Toreduceairresistance(whichaccountsformostoftheenergylossinclocks)[72]thebobis
traditionallyasmoothdiskwithalensshapedcrosssection,althoughinantiqueclocksitoftenhadcarvingsor
decorationsspecifictothetypeofclock.Inqualityclocksthebobismadeasheavyasthesuspensioncansupport
andthemovementcandrive,sincethisimprovestheregulationoftheclock(seeAccuracybelow).Acommon
weightforsecondspendulumbobsis15pounds(6.8kg).[73]Insteadofhangingfromapivot,clockpendulums
areusuallysupportedbyashortstraightspring(d)offlexiblemetalribbon.Thisavoidsthefrictionand'play'
causedbyapivot,andtheslightbendingforceofthespringmerelyaddstothependulum'srestoringforce.Afew
precisionclockshavepivotsof'knife'bladesrestingonagateplates.Theimpulsestokeepthependulum
swingingareprovidedbyanarmhangingbehindthependulumcalledthecrutch,(e),whichendsinafork,(f)
whoseprongsembracethependulumrod.Thecrutchispushedbackandforthbytheclock'sescapement,(g,h).
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Eachtimethependulumswingsthroughitscentreposition,itreleasesonetoothoftheescapewheel(g).The
forceoftheclock'smainspringoradrivingweighthangingfromapulley,transmittedthroughtheclock'sgear
train,causesthewheeltoturn,andatoothpressesagainstoneofthepallets(h),givingthependulumashort
push.Theclock'swheels,gearedtotheescapewheel,moveforwardafixedamountwitheachpendulumswing,
advancingtheclock'shandsatasteadyrate.
Thependulumalwayshasameansofadjustingtheperiod,usuallybyanadjustmentnut(c)underthebobwhich
movesitupordownontherod.[8][74]Movingthebobupdecreasesthependulum'slength,causingthependulum
toswingfasterandtheclocktogaintime.Someprecisionclockshaveasmallauxiliaryadjustmentweightona
threadedshaftonthebob,toallowfineradjustment.Sometowerclocksandprecisionclocksuseatrayattached
neartothemidpointofthependulumrod,towhichsmallweightscanbeaddedorremoved.Thiseffectively
shiftsthecentreofoscillationandallowstheratetobeadjustedwithoutstoppingthe
clock.[75][76]
Thependulummustbesuspendedfromarigidsupport.[8][77]Duringoperation,any
elasticitywillallowtinyimperceptibleswayingmotionsofthesupport,whichdisturbs
theclock'speriod,resultinginerror.Pendulumclocksshouldbeattachedfirmlytoa
sturdywall.
Themostcommonpendulumlengthinqualityclocks,whichisalwaysusedin
grandfatherclocks,isthesecondspendulum,about1metre(39inches)long.Inmantel
clocks,halfsecondpendulums,25cm(9.8in)long,orshorter,areused.Onlyafew
largetowerclocksuselongerpendulums,the1.5secondpendulum,2.25m(7.4ft)
long,oroccasionallythetwosecondpendulum,4m(13ft)[8][78]asisthecaseofBig
Ben.[79]
Temperaturecompensation
Thelargestsourceoferrorinearlypendulumswasslightchangesinlengthdueto
thermalexpansionandcontractionofthependulumrodwithchangesinambient
temperature.[80]Thiswasdiscoveredwhenpeoplenoticedthatpendulumclocksran
Pendulumandanchor
slowerinsummer,byasmuchasaminuteperweek[57][81](oneofthefirstwas
escapementfroma
GodefroyWendelin,asreportedbyHuygensin1658).[82]Thermalexpansionof
grandfatherclock
[83]
pendulumrodswasfirststudiedbyJeanPicardin1669. Apendulumwithasteel
rodwillexpandbyabout11.3partspermillion(ppm)witheachdegreeCelsiusincrease,causingittoloseabout
0.27secondsperdayforeverydegreeCelsiusincreaseintemperature,or9secondsperdayfora33C(59F)
change.Woodrodsexpandless,losingonlyabout6secondsperdayfora33C(59F)change,whichiswhy
qualityclocksoftenhadwoodenpendulumrods.Thewoodhadtobevarnishedtopreventwatervaporfrom
gettingin,becausechangesinhumidityalsoaffectedthelength.
Mercurypendulum
Thefirstdevicetocompensateforthiserrorwasthemercurypendulum,inventedbyGeorgeGraham[58]in
1721.[8][81]Theliquidmetalmercuryexpandsinvolumewithtemperature.Inamercurypendulum,the
pendulum'sweight(bob)isacontainerofmercury.Withatemperaturerise,thependulumrodgetslonger,but
themercuryalsoexpandsanditssurfacelevelrisesslightlyinthecontainer,movingitscentreofmasscloserto
thependulumpivot.Byusingthecorrectheightofmercuryinthecontainerthesetwoeffectswillcancel,leaving
thependulum'scentreofmass,anditsperiod,unchangedwithtemperature.Itsmaindisadvantagewasthatwhen
thetemperaturechanged,therodwouldcometothenewtemperaturequicklybutthemassofmercurymighttake
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adayortwotoreachthenewtemperature,causingtheratetodeviateduringthattime.[84]Toimprovethermal
accommodationseveralthincontainerswereoftenused,madeofmetal.Mercurypendulumswerethestandard
usedinprecisionregulatorclocksintothe20thcentury.[85]
Gridironpendulum
Themostwidelyusedcompensatedpendulumwasthegridironpendulum,inventedin1726byJohn
Harrison.[8][81][84]Thisconsistsofalternatingrodsoftwodifferentmetals,onewithlowerthermalexpansion
(CTE),steel,andonewithhigherthermalexpansion,zincorbrass.Therodsareconnectedbyaframe,asshown
inthedrawingattheright,sothatanincreaseinlengthofthezincrodspushesthebobup,shorteningthe
pendulum.Withatemperatureincrease,thelowexpansionsteelrodsmakethependulumlonger,whilethehigh
expansionzincrodsmakeitshorter.Bymakingtherodsofthecorrectlengths,thegreaterexpansionofthezinc
cancelsouttheexpansionofthesteelrodswhichhaveagreatercombinedlength,andthependulumstaysthe
samelengthwithtemperature.
Zincsteelgridironpendulumsaremadewith5rods,butthethermalexpansionofbrassisclosertosteel,so
brasssteelgridironsusuallyrequire9rods.Gridironpendulumsadjusttotemperature
changesfasterthanmercurypendulums,butscientistsfoundthatfrictionoftherods
slidingintheirholesintheframecausedgridironpendulumstoadjustinaseriesoftiny
jumps.[84]Inhighprecisionclocksthiscausedtheclock'sratetochangesuddenlywith
eachjump.Lateritwasfoundthatzincissubjecttocreep.Forthesereasonsmercury
pendulumswereusedinthehighestprecisionclocks,butgridironswereusedinquality
regulatorclocks.
Gridironpendulumsbecamesoassociatedwithgoodqualitythat,tothisday,many
ordinaryclockpendulumshavedecorative'fake'gridironsthatdon'tactuallyhaveany
temperaturecompensationfunction.
Invarandfusedquartz
Around1900lowthermalexpansionmaterialsweredevelopedwhich,whenusedas
pendulumrods,madeelaboratetemperaturecompensationunnecessary.[8][81]These
wereonlyusedinafewofthehighestprecisionclocksbeforethependulumbecame
obsoleteasatimestandard.In1896CharlesdouardGuillaumeinventedthenickel
Mercurypendulumin
steelalloyInvar.ThishasaCTEofaround0.5in/(inF),resultinginpendulum
Howardastronomical
temperatureerrorsover71Fofonly1.3secondsperday,andthisresidualerrorcould
regulatorclock,1887
becompensatedtozerowithafewcentimetersofaluminiumunderthependulum
bob[2][84](thiscanbeseenintheRieflerclockimageabove).Invarpendulumswere
firstusedin1898intheRieflerregulatorclock[86]whichachievedaccuracyof15millisecondsperday.
SuspensionspringsofElinvarwereusedtoeliminatetemperaturevariationofthespring'srestoringforceonthe
pendulum.LaterfusedquartzwasusedwhichhadevenlowerCTE.Thesematerialsarethechoiceformodern
highaccuracypendulums.[87]
Atmosphericpressure
Theeffectofthesurroundingaironamovingpendulumiscomplexandrequiresfluidmechanicstocalculate
precisely,butformostpurposesitsinfluenceontheperiodcanbeaccountedforbythreeeffects:[64][88]
ByArchimedes'principletheeffectiveweightofthebobisreducedbythebuoyancyoftheairitdisplaces,
whilethemass(inertia)remainsthesame,reducingthependulum'saccelerationduringitsswingand
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increasingtheperiod.Thisdependsontheairpressureandthedensityofthependulum,butnotitsshape.
Thependulumcarriesanamountofairwithitasitswings,andthemassofthisairincreasestheinertiaof
thependulum,againreducingtheaccelerationandincreasingtheperiod.Thisdependsonbothitsdensity
andshape.
Viscousairresistanceslowsthependulum'svelocity.Thishasanegligibleeffectontheperiod,but
dissipatesenergy,reducingtheamplitude.Thisreducesthependulum'sQfactor,requiringastrongerdrive
forcefromtheclock'smechanismtokeepitmoving,whichcausesincreaseddisturbancetotheperiod.
Soincreasesinbarometricpressureincreaseapendulum'speriodslightlyduetothefirsttwoeffects,byabout
0.11secondsperdayperkilopascal(0.37secondsperdayperinchofmercuryor0.015secondsperdayper
torr).[64]Researchersusingpendulumstomeasuretheaccelerationofgravityhadtocorrecttheperiodfortheair
pressureatthealtitudeofmeasurement,computingtheequivalentperiod
ofapendulumswinginginvacuum.Apendulumclockwasfirstoperated
inaconstantpressuretankbyFriedrichTiedein1865attheBerlin
Observatory,[89][90]andby1900thehighestprecisionclockswere
mountedintanksthatwerekeptataconstantpressuretoeliminate
changesinatmosphericpressure.Alternatively,insomeasmallaneroid
barometermechanismattachedtothependulumcompensatedforthis
effect.
Gravity
Pendulumsareaffectedbychangesingravitationalacceleration,which
variesbyasmuchas0.5%atdifferentlocationsonEarth,sopendulum
clockshavetoberecalibratedafteramove.Evenmovingapendulum
clocktothetopofatallbuildingcancauseittolosemeasurabletime
fromthereductioningravity.
Accuracyofpendulumsastimekeepers
Diagramofagridironpendulum
A:exteriorschematic
B:normaltemperature
C:highertemperature
Thetimekeepingelementsinallclocks,whichincludependulums,
balancewheels,thequartzcrystalsusedinquartzwatches,andeventhe
vibratingatomsinatomicclocks,areinphysicscalledharmonicoscillators.Thereasonharmonicoscillatorsare
usedinclocksisthattheyvibrateoroscillateataspecificresonantfrequencyorperiodandresistoscillatingat
otherrates.However,theresonantfrequencyisnotinfinitely'sharp'.Aroundtheresonantfrequencythereisa
narrownaturalbandoffrequencies(orperiods),calledtheresonancewidthorbandwidth,wheretheharmonic
oscillatorwilloscillate.[91][92]Inaclock,theactualfrequencyofthependulummayvaryrandomlywithinthis
bandwidthinresponsetodisturbances,butatfrequenciesoutsidethisband,theclockwillnotfunctionatall.
Qfactor
Themeasureofaharmonicoscillator'sresistancetodisturbancestoitsoscillationperiodisadimensionless
parametercalledtheQfactorequaltotheresonantfrequencydividedbythebandwidth.[92][93]ThehighertheQ,
thesmallerthebandwidth,andthemoreconstantthefrequencyorperiodoftheoscillatorforagiven
disturbance.[94]ThereciprocaloftheQisroughlyproportionaltothelimitingaccuracyachievablebyaharmonic
oscillatorasatimestandard.[95]
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TheQisrelatedtohowlongittakesfortheoscillationsofanoscillatortodieout.TheQofapendulumcanbe
measuredbycountingthenumberofoscillationsittakesfortheamplitudeofthependulum'sswingtodecayto
1/e=36.8%ofitsinitialswing,andmultiplyingby2.
Inaclock,thependulummustreceivepushesfromtheclock'smovementtokeepitswinging,toreplacethe
energythependulumlosestofriction.Thesepushes,appliedbyamechanismcalledtheescapement,arethemain
sourceofdisturbancetothependulum'smotion.TheQisequalto2timestheenergystoredinthependulum,
dividedbytheenergylosttofrictionduringeachoscillationperiod,whichisthesameastheenergyaddedbythe
escapementeachperiod.Itcanbeseenthatthesmallerthefractionof
thependulum'senergythatislosttofriction,thelessenergyneedsto
beadded,thelessthedisturbancefromtheescapement,themore
'independent'thependulumisoftheclock'smechanism,andthe
moreconstantitsperiodis.TheQofapendulumisgivenby:
whereMisthemassofthebob,=2/Tisthependulum'sradian
frequencyofoscillation,andisthefrictionaldampingforceonthe
pendulumperunitvelocity.
isfixedbythependulum'speriod,andMislimitedbytheload
capacityandrigidityofthesuspension.SotheQofclockpendulums
isincreasedbyminimizingfrictionallosses().Precisionpendulums
aresuspendedonlowfrictionpivotsconsistingoftriangularshaped
'knife'edgesrestingonagateplates.Around99%oftheenergyloss
inafreeswingingpendulumisduetoairfriction,somountinga
penduluminavacuumtankcanincreasetheQ,andthusthe
accuracy,byafactorof100.[96]
TheQofpendulumsrangesfromseveralthousandinanordinary
clocktoseveralhundredthousandforprecisionregulatorpendulums
swinginginvacuum.[97]Aqualityhomependulumclockmighthave
aQof10,000andanaccuracyof10secondspermonth.Themost
accuratecommerciallyproducedpendulumclockwastheShortt
Synchronomefreependulumclock,inventedin1921.[2][65][98][99][100]
ItsInvarmasterpendulumswinginginavacuumtankhadaQof
110,000[97]andanerrorrateofaroundasecondperyear.[65]
AShorttSynchronomefreependulum
clock,themostaccuratependulumclock
evermade,attheNISTmuseum,
Gaithersburg,MD,USA.Itkepttimewith
twosynchronizedpendulums.Themaster
penduluminthevacuumtank(left)swung
freeofvirtuallyanydisturbance,and
controlledtheslavependulumintheclock
case(right)whichperformedtheimpulsing
andtimekeepingtasks.Itsaccuracywas
aboutasecondperyear.
TheirQof103105isonereasonwhypendulumsaremoreaccuratetimekeepersthanthebalancewheelsin
watches,withQaround100300,butlessaccuratethanthequartzcrystalsinquartzclocks,withQof105
106.[2][97]
Escapement
Pendulums(unlike,forexample,quartzcrystals)havealowenoughQthatthedisturbancecausedbythe
impulsestokeepthemmovingisgenerallythelimitingfactorontheirtimekeepingaccuracy.Thereforethe
designoftheescapement,themechanismthatprovidestheseimpulses,hasalargeeffectontheaccuracyofa
clockpendulum.Iftheimpulsesgiventothependulumbytheescapementeachswingcouldbeexactlyidentical,
theresponseofthependulumwouldbeidentical,anditsperiodwouldbeconstant.However,thisisnot
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achievableunavoidablerandomfluctuationsintheforceduetofrictionoftheclock'spallets,lubrication
variations,andchangesinthetorqueprovidedbytheclock'spowersourceasitrunsdown,meanthattheforceof
theimpulseappliedbytheescapementvaries.
Ifthesevariationsintheescapement'sforcecausechangesinthependulum'swidthofswing(amplitude),this
willcausecorrespondingslightchangesintheperiod,since(asdiscussedattop)apendulumwithafiniteswing
isnotquiteisochronous.Therefore,thegoaloftraditionalescapementdesignistoapplytheforcewiththeproper
profile,andatthecorrectpointinthependulum'scycle,soforcevariationshavenoeffectonthependulum's
amplitude.Thisiscalledanisochronousescapement.
TheAirycondition
In1826BritishastronomerGeorgeAiryprovedwhatclockmakershadknownforcenturiesthatthedisturbing
effectofadriveforceontheperiodofapendulumissmallestifgivenasashortimpulseasthependulumpasses
throughitsbottomequilibriumposition.[2]Specifically,heprovedthatifapendulumisdrivenbyanimpulsethat
issymmetricalaboutitsbottomequilibriumposition,thependulum'samplitudewillbeunaffectedbychangesin
thedriveforce.[101]Themostaccurateescapements,suchasthedeadbeat,approximatelysatisfythis
condition.[102]
Gravitymeasurement
Thepresenceoftheaccelerationofgravitygintheperiodicityequation(1)forapendulummeansthatthelocal
gravitationalaccelerationoftheEarthcanbecalculatedfromtheperiodofapendulum.Apendulumcan
thereforebeusedasagravimetertomeasurethelocalgravity,whichvariesbyover0.5%acrossthesurfaceof
theEarth.[103][Note2]Thependuluminaclockisdisturbedbythepushesitreceivesfromtheclockmovement,so
freeswingingpendulumswereused,andwerethestandardinstrumentsofgravimetryuptothe1930s.
Thedifferencebetweenclockpendulumsandgravimeterpendulumsisthattomeasuregravity,thependulum's
lengthaswellasitsperiodhastobemeasured.Theperiodoffreeswingingpendulumscouldbefoundtogreat
precisionbycomparingtheirswingwithaprecisionclockthathadbeenadjustedtokeepcorrecttimebythe
passageofstarsoverhead.Intheearlymeasurements,aweightonacordwassuspendedinfrontoftheclock
pendulum,anditslengthadjusteduntilthetwopendulumsswunginexactsynchronism.Thenthelengthofthe
cordwasmeasured.Fromthelengthandtheperiod,gcouldbecalculatedfromequation(1).
Thesecondspendulum
Thesecondspendulum,apendulumwithaperiodoftwosecondssoeach
swingtakesonesecond,waswidelyusedtomeasuregravity,because
mostprecisionclockshadsecondspendulums.Bythelate17thcentury,
thelengthofthesecondspendulumbecamethestandardmeasureofthe
strengthofgravitationalaccelerationatalocation.By1700itslengthhad
beenmeasuredwithsubmillimeteraccuracyatseveralcitiesinEurope.
Forasecondspendulum,gisproportionaltoitslength:
Earlyobservations
Thesecondspendulum,apendulum
withaperiodoftwosecondssoeach
swingtakesonesecond
1620:BritishscientistFrancisBaconwasoneofthefirsttoproposeusingapendulumtomeasuregravity,
suggestingtakingoneupamountaintoseeifgravityvarieswithaltitude.[104]
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1644:Evenbeforethependulumclock,FrenchpriestMarinMersennefirstdeterminedthelengthofthe
secondspendulumwas39.1inches(990mm),bycomparingtheswingofapendulumtothetimeittooka
weighttofallameasureddistance.
1669:JeanPicarddeterminedthelengthofthesecondspendulumatParis,usinga1inch(25mm)copper
ballsuspendedbyanaloefiber,obtaining39.09inches(993mm).[105]
1672:ThefirstobservationthatgravityvariedatdifferentpointsonEarthwasmadein1672byJean
Richer,whotookapendulumclocktoCayenne,FrenchGuianaandfoundthatitlost212minutesperday
itssecondspendulumhadtobeshortenedby114lignes(2.6mm)shorterthanatParis,tokeepcorrect
time.[106][107]In1687IsaacNewtoninPrincipiaMathematicashowedthiswasbecausetheEarthhada
slightlyoblateshape(flattenedatthepoles)causedbythecentrifugalforceofitsrotation,sogravity
increasedwithlatitude.[107]Fromthistimeon,pendulumsbegantobetakentodistantlandstomeasure
gravity,andtableswerecompiledofthelengthofthesecondspendulumatdifferentlocationsonEarth.In
1743AlexisClaudeClairautcreatedthefirsthydrostaticmodeloftheEarth,Clairaut'stheorem,[105]which
allowedtheellipticityoftheEarthtobecalculatedfromgravitymeasurements.Progressivelymore
accuratemodelsoftheshapeoftheEarthfollowed.
1687:Newtonexperimentedwithpendulums(describedinPrincipia)andfoundthatequallength
pendulumswithbobsmadeofdifferentmaterialshadthesameperiod,provingthatthegravitationalforce
ondifferentsubstanceswasexactlyproportionaltotheirmass(inertia).
1737:FrenchmathematicianPierreBouguermadeasophisticatedseries
ofpendulumobservationsintheAndesmountains,Peru.[108]Heuseda
copperpendulumbobintheshapeofadoublepointedconesuspended
byathreadthebobcouldbereversedtoeliminatetheeffectsof
nonuniformdensity.Hecalculatedthelengthtothecenterofoscillation
ofthreadandbobcombined,insteadofusingthecenterofthebob.He
correctedforthermalexpansionofthemeasuringrodandbarometric
pressure,givinghisresultsforapendulumswinginginvacuum.
Bouguerswungthesamependulumatthreedifferentelevations,from
sealeveltothetopofthehighPeruvianaltiplano.Gravityshouldfall
withtheinversesquareofthedistancefromthecenteroftheEarth.
Bouguerfoundthatitfelloffslower,andcorrectlyattributedthe'extra'
gravitytothegravitationalfieldofthehugePeruvianplateau.Fromthe
densityofrocksampleshecalculatedanestimateoftheeffectofthe
Borda&Cassini's1792
measurementofthelengthof
thesecondspendulum
altiplanoonthependulum,andcomparingthiswiththegravityofthe
EarthwasabletomakethefirstroughestimateofthedensityoftheEarth.
1747:DanielBernoullishowedhowtocorrectforthelengtheningoftheperiodduetoafiniteangleof
swing0byusingthefirstordercorrection02/16,givingtheperiodofapendulumwithaninfinitesimal
swing.[108]
1792:Todefineapendulumstandardoflengthforusewiththenewmetricsystem,in1792JeanCharles
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deBordaandJeanDominiqueCassinimadeaprecisemeasurementofthesecondspendulumatParis.
Theyuseda112inch(14mm)platinumballsuspendedbya12foot(3.7m)ironwire.Theirmain
innovationwasatechniquecalledthe"methodofcoincidences"whichallowedtheperiodofpendulumsto
becomparedwithgreatprecision.(Bouguerhadalsousedthismethod).ThetimeintervalTbetweenthe
recurringinstantswhenthetwopendulumsswunginsynchronismwastimed.Fromthisthedifference
betweentheperiodsofthependulums,T1andT2,couldbecalculated:
1821:FrancescoCarlinimadependulumobservationsontopofMountCenis,Italy,fromwhich,using
methodssimilartoBouguer's,hecalculatedthedensityoftheEarth.[109]Hecomparedhismeasurementsto
anestimateofthegravityathislocationassumingthemountainwasn'tthere,calculatedfromprevious
nearbypendulummeasurementsatsealevel.Hismeasurementsshowed'excess'gravity,whichhe
allocatedtotheeffectofthemountain.Modelingthemountainasasegmentofasphere11miles(18km)
indiameterand1mile(1.6km)high,fromrocksampleshecalculateditsgravitationalfield,andestimated
thedensityoftheEarthat4.39timesthatofwater.Laterrecalculationsbyothersgavevaluesof4.77and
4.95,illustratingtheuncertaintiesinthesegeographicalmethods.
Kater'spendulum
Theprecisionoftheearlygravitymeasurementsabove
waslimitedbythedifficultyofmeasuringthelength
ofthependulum,L.Lwasthelengthofanidealized
simplegravitypendulum(describedattop),whichhas
allitsmassconcentratedinapointattheendofthe
cord.In1673Huygenshadshownthattheperiodofa
realpendulum(calledacompoundpendulum)was
equaltotheperiodofasimplependulumwithalength
equaltothedistancebetweenthepivotpointanda
pointcalledthecenterofoscillation,locatedunderthe
centerofgravity,thatdependsonthemassdistribution
alongthependulum.Buttherewasnoaccuratewayof
determiningthecenterofoscillationinareal
pendulum.
Togetaroundthisproblem,theearlyresearchers
MeasuringgravitywithKater's
aboveapproximatedanidealsimplependulumas
AKater's
reversiblependulum,fromKater's
closelyaspossiblebyusingametalspheresuspended
pendulum
1818paper
byalightwireorcord.Ifthewirewaslightenough,
thecenterofoscillationwasclosetothecenterof
gravityoftheball,atitsgeometriccenter.This"ballandwire"typeofpendulumwasn'tveryaccurate,becauseit
didn'tswingasarigidbody,andtheelasticityofthewirecauseditslengthtochangeslightlyasthependulum
swung.
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HoweverHuygenshadalsoprovedthatinanypendulum,thepivotpointandthecenterofoscillationwere
interchangeable.[19]Thatis,ifapendulumwereturnedupsidedownandhungfromitscenterofoscillation,it
wouldhavethesameperiodasitdidinthepreviousposition,andtheoldpivotpointwouldbethenewcenterof
oscillation.
BritishphysicistandarmycaptainHenryKaterin1817realizedthatHuygens'principlecouldbeusedtofindthe
lengthofasimplependulumwiththesameperiodasarealpendulum.[59]Ifapendulumwasbuiltwithasecond
adjustablepivotpointnearthebottomsoitcouldbehungupsidedown,andthesecondpivotwasadjusteduntil
theperiodswhenhungfrombothpivotswerethesame,thesecondpivotwouldbeatthecenterofoscillation,
andthedistancebetweenthetwopivotswouldbethelengthofasimplependulumwiththesameperiod.
Katerbuiltareversiblependulum(shownatright)consistingofabrassbarwithtwoopposingpivotsmadeof
shorttriangular"knife"blades(a)neareitherend.Itcouldbeswungfromeitherpivot,withtheknifeblades
supportedonagateplates.Ratherthanmakeonepivotadjustable,heattachedthepivotsameterapartandinstead
adjustedtheperiodswithamoveableweightonthependulumrod(b,c).Inoperation,thependulumishungin
frontofaprecisionclock,andtheperiodtimed,thenturnedupsidedownandtheperiodtimedagain.Theweight
isadjustedwiththeadjustmentscrewuntiltheperiodsareequal.Thenputtingthisperiodandthedistance
betweenthepivotsintoequation(1)givesthegravitationalaccelerationgveryaccurately.
Katertimedtheswingofhispendulumusingthe"methodofcoincidences"andmeasuredthedistancebetween
thetwopivotswithamicroscope.Afterapplyingcorrectionsforthefiniteamplitudeofswing,thebuoyancyof
thebob,thebarometricpressureandaltitude,andtemperature,heobtainedavalueof39.13929inchesforthe
secondspendulumatLondon,invacuum,atsealevel,at62F.Thelargestvariationfromthemeanofhis12
observationswas0.00028in.[110]representingaprecisionofgravitymeasurementof7106(7mGalor70
m/s2).Kater'smeasurementwasusedasBritain'sofficialstandardoflength(seebelow)from1824to1855.
Reversiblependulums(knowntechnicallyas"convertible"pendulums)employingKater'sprinciplewereused
forabsolutegravitymeasurementsintothe1930s.
Laterpendulumgravimeters
TheincreasedaccuracymadepossiblebyKater'spendulumhelpedmakegravimetryastandardpartofgeodesy.
Sincetheexactlocation(latitudeandlongitude)ofthe'station'wherethegravitymeasurementwasmadewas
necessary,gravitymeasurementsbecamepartofsurveying,andpendulumsweretakenonthegreatgeodetic
surveysofthe18thcentury,particularlytheGreatTrigonometricSurveyofIndia.
Invariablependulums:Katerintroducedtheideaofrelative
gravitymeasurements,tosupplementtheabsolute
measurementsmadebyaKater'spendulum.[111]Comparing
thegravityattwodifferentpointswasaneasierprocessthan
measuringitabsolutelybytheKatermethod.Allthatwas
necessarywastotimetheperiodofanordinary(singlepivot)
pendulumatthefirstpoint,thentransportthependulumtothe
otherpointandtimeitsperiodthere.Sincethependulum's
lengthwasconstant,from(1)theratioofthegravitational
Measuringgravitywithaninvariable
pendulum,Madras,India,1821
accelerationswasequaltotheinverseoftheratioofthe
periodssquared,andnoprecisionlengthmeasurementswerenecessary.Sooncethegravityhadbeen
measuredabsolutelyatsomecentralstation,bytheKaterorotheraccuratemethod,thegravityatother
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pointscouldbefoundbyswingingpendulumsatthecentralstationandthentakingthemtothenearby
point.Katermadeupasetof"invariable"pendulums,withonlyoneknifeedgepivot,whichweretakento
manycountriesafterfirstbeingswungatacentralstationatKewObservatory,UK.
Airy'scoalpitexperiments:Startingin1826,usingmethodssimilartoBouguer,Britishastronomer
GeorgeAiryattemptedtodeterminethedensityoftheEarthbypendulumgravitymeasurementsatthetop
andbottomofacoalmine.[112][113]ThegravitationalforcebelowthesurfaceoftheEarthdecreasesrather
thanincreasingwithdepth,becausebyGauss'slawthemassofthesphericalshellofcrustabovethe
subsurfacepointdoesnotcontributetothegravity.The1826experimentwasabortedbythefloodingof
themine,butin1854heconductedanimprovedexperimentattheHartoncoalmine,usingseconds
pendulumsswingingonagateplates,timedbyprecisionchronometerssynchronizedbyanelectrical
circuit.Hefoundthelowerpendulumwasslowerby2.24secondsperday.Thismeantthatthe
gravitationalaccelerationatthebottomofthemine,1250ftbelowthesurface,was1/14,000lessthanit
shouldhavebeenfromtheinversesquarelawthatistheattractionofthesphericalshellwas1/14,000of
theattractionoftheEarth.Fromsamplesofsurfacerockheestimatedthemassofthesphericalshellof
crust,andfromthisestimatedthatthedensityoftheEarthwas6.565timesthatofwater.VonSterneck
attemptedtorepeattheexperimentin1882butfoundinconsistentresults.
RepsoldBesselpendulum:Itwastimeconsuminganderrorpronetorepeatedlyswingthe
Kater'spendulumandadjusttheweightsuntiltheperiodswereequal.FriedrichBessel
showedin1835thatthiswasunnecessary.[114]Aslongastheperiodswereclosetogether,
thegravitycouldbecalculatedfromthetwoperiodsandthecenterofgravityofthe
pendulum.[115]Sothereversiblependulumdidn'tneedtobeadjustable,itcouldjustbeabar
withtwopivots.Besselalsoshowedthatifthependulumwasmadesymmetricalinform
aboutitscenter,butwasweightedinternallyatoneend,theerrorsduetoairdragwould
cancelout.Further,anothererrorduetothefinitediameteroftheknifeedgescouldbemade
tocanceloutiftheywereinterchangedbetweenmeasurements.Besseldidn'tconstructsuch
apendulum,butin1864AdolfRepsold,undercontractbytheSwissGeodeticCommission
madeapendulumalongtheselines.TheRepsoldpendulumwasabout56cmlongandhada
Repsold
pendulum,1864
periodofabout34second.ItwasusedextensivelybyEuropeangeodeticagencies,andwith
theKaterpendulumintheSurveyofIndia.Similarpendulumsofthistypeweredesignedby
CharlesPierceandC.Defforges.
VonSterneckandMendenhallgravimeters:In1887AustroHungarianscientistRobertvonSterneck
developedasmallgravimeterpendulummountedinatemperaturecontrolledvacuumtanktoeliminatethe
effectsoftemperatureandairpressure.Theseused"halfsecondpendulums,"havingaperiodclosetoone
second,andwereabout25cmlong.Theywerenonreversible,soitwasusedforrelativegravity
measurements,buttheirsmallsizemadethemsmallandportable.Theperiodofthependulumwaspicked
offbyreflectingtheimageofanelectricsparkcreatedbyaprecisionchronometeroffamirrormountedat
thetopofthependulumrod.TheVonSterneckinstrument,andasimilarinstrumentdevelopedbyThomas
C.MendenhalloftheUSCoastandGeodeticSurveyin1890,[116]wereusedextensivelyforsurveysinto
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the1920s.
TheMendenhallpendulumwasactuallyamoreaccuratetimekeeperthanthehighestprecisionclocksof
thetime,andasthe'world'sbestclock'itwasusedbyAlbertA.Michelsoninhis1924measurementsof
thespeedoflightonMt.Wilson,California.[116]
Doublependulumgravimeters:Startingin1875,theincreasingaccuracyofpendulummeasurements
revealedanothersourceoferrorinexistinginstruments:theswingofthependulumcausedaslight
swayingofthetripodstandusedtosupportportable
pendulums,introducingerror.In1875CharlesSPeirce
calculatedthatmeasurementsofthelengthoftheseconds
pendulummadewiththeRepsoldinstrumentrequireda
correctionof0.2mmduetothiserror.[117]In1880C.
DefforgesusedaMichelsoninterferometertomeasurethe
swayofthestanddynamically,andinterferometerswereadded
tothestandardMendenhallapparatustocalculatesway
corrections.[118]Amethodofpreventingthiserrorwasfirst
suggestedin1877byHervFayeandadvocatedbyPeirce,
CellrierandFurtwangler:mounttwoidenticalpendulumson
thesamesupport,swingingwiththesameamplitude,180out
ofphase.Theoppositemotionofthependulumswouldcancel
PendulumsusedinMendenhallgravimeter,
1890
outanysidewaysforcesonthesupport.Theideawasopposed
duetoitscomplexity,butbythestartofthe20thcenturytheVonSterneckdeviceandotherinstruments
weremodifiedtoswingmultiplependulumssimultaneously.
Gulfgravimeter:Oneofthelastandmostaccuratependulum
gravimeterswastheapparatusdevelopedin1929bytheGulf
ResearchandDevelopmentCo.[119][120]Itusedtwopendulums
madeoffusedquartz,each10.7inches(270mm)inlength
withaperiodof0.89second,swingingonpyrexknifeedge
pivots,180outofphase.Theyweremountedina
permanentlysealedtemperatureandhumiditycontrolled
vacuumchamber.Strayelectrostaticchargesonthequartz
pendulumshadtobedischargedbyexposingthemtoa
radioactivesaltbeforeuse.Theperiodwasdetectedby
reflectingalightbeamfromamirroratthetopofthe
QuartzpendulumsusedinGulfgravimeter,
1929
pendulum,recordedbyachartrecorderandcomparedtoa
precisioncrystaloscillatorcalibratedagainsttheWWVradiotimesignal.Thisinstrumentwasaccurateto
within(0.30.5)107(3050microgalsor35nm/s2).[119]Itwasusedintothe1960s.
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RelativependulumgravimetersweresupersededbythesimplerLaCostezerolengthspringgravimeter,invented
in1934byLucienLaCoste.[116]Absolute(reversible)pendulumgravimeterswerereplacedinthe1950sbyfree
fallgravimeters,inwhichaweightisallowedtofallinavacuumtankanditsaccelerationismeasuredbyan
opticalinterferometer.[68]
Standardoflength
BecausetheaccelerationofgravityisconstantatagivenpointonEarth,theperiodofasimplependulumata
givenlocationdependsonlyonitslength.Additionally,gravityvariesonlyslightlyatdifferentlocations.Almost
fromthependulum'sdiscoveryuntiltheearly19thcentury,thispropertyledscientiststosuggestusinga
pendulumofagivenperiodasastandardoflength.
Untilthe19thcentury,countriesbasedtheirsystemsoflengthmeasurementonprototypes,metalbarprimary
standards,suchasthestandardyardinBritainkeptattheHousesofParliament,andthestandardtoiseinFrance,
keptatParis.Thesewerevulnerabletodamageordestructionovertheyears,andbecauseofthedifficultyof
comparingprototypes,thesameunitoftenhaddifferentlengthsindistanttowns,creatingopportunitiesfor
fraud.[121]Enlightenmentscientistsarguedforalengthstandardthatwasbasedonsomepropertyofnaturethat
couldbedeterminedbymeasurement,creatinganindestructible,universalstandard.Theperiodofpendulums
couldbemeasuredverypreciselybytimingthemwithclocksthatweresetbythestars.Apendulumstandard
amountedtodefiningtheunitoflengthbythegravitationalforceoftheEarth,forallintentsconstant,andthe
second,whichwasdefinedbytherotationrateoftheEarth,alsoconstant.Theideawasthatanyone,anywhere
onEarth,couldrecreatethestandardbyconstructingapendulumthatswungwiththedefinedperiodand
measuringitslength.
Virtuallyallproposalswerebasedonthesecondspendulum,inwhicheachswing(ahalfperiod)takesone
second,whichisaboutameter(39inches)long,becausebythelate17thcenturyithadbecomeastandardfor
measuringgravity(seeprevioussection).Bythe18thcenturyitslengthhadbeenmeasuredwithsubmillimeter
accuracyatanumberofcitiesinEuropeandaroundtheworld.
Theinitialattractionofthependulumlengthstandardwasthatitwasbelieved(byearlyscientistssuchas
HuygensandWren)thatgravitywasconstantovertheEarth'ssurface,soagivenpendulumhadthesameperiod
atanypointonEarth.[121]Sothelengthofthestandardpendulumcouldbemeasuredatanylocation,andwould
notbetiedtoanygivennationorregionitwouldbeatrulydemocratic,worldwidestandard.AlthoughRicher
foundin1672thatgravityvariesatdifferentpointsontheglobe,theideaofapendulumlengthstandard
remainedpopular,becauseitwasfoundthatgravityonlyvarieswithlatitude.Gravitationalaccelerationincreases
smoothlyfromtheequatortothepoles,duetotheoblateshapeoftheEarth.Soatanygivenlatitude(eastwest
line),gravitywasconstantenoughthatthelengthofasecondspendulumwasthesamewithinthemeasurement
capabilityofthe18thcentury.Sotheunitoflengthcouldbedefinedatagivenlatitudeandmeasuredatanypoint
atthatlatitude.Forexample,apendulumstandarddefinedat45northlatitude,apopularchoice,couldbe
measuredinpartsofFrance,Italy,Croatia,Serbia,Romania,Russia,Kazakhstan,China,Mongolia,theUnited
StatesandCanada.Inaddition,itcouldberecreatedatanylocationatwhichthegravitationalaccelerationhad
beenaccuratelymeasured.
Bythemid19thcentury,increasinglyaccuratependulummeasurementsbyEdwardSabineandThomasYoung
revealedthatgravity,andthusthelengthofanypendulumstandard,variedmeasurablywithlocalgeologic
featuressuchasmountainsanddensesubsurfacerocks.[122]Soapendulumlengthstandardhadtobedefinedata
singlepointonEarthandcouldonlybemeasuredthere.Thistookmuchoftheappealfromtheconcept,and
effortstoadoptpendulumstandardswereabandoned.
Earlyproposals
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OneofthefirsttosuggestdefininglengthwithapendulumwasFlemishscientistIsaacBeeckman[123]whoin
1631recommendedmakingthesecondspendulum"theinvariablemeasureforallpeopleatalltimesinall
places".[124]MarinMersenne,whofirstmeasuredthesecondspendulumin1644,alsosuggestedit.Thefirst
officialproposalforapendulumstandardwasmadebytheBritishRoyalSocietyin1660,advocatedby
ChristiaanHuygensandOleRmer,basingitonMersenne'swork,[125]andHuygensinHorologium
Oscillatoriumproposeda"horaryfoot"definedas1/3ofthesecondspendulum.ChristopherWrenwasanother
earlysupporter.Theideaofapendulumstandardoflengthmusthavebeenfamiliartopeopleasearlyas1663,
becauseSamuelButlersatirizesitinHudibras:[126]
UponthebenchIwillsohandleem
Thatthevibrationofthispendulum
Shallmakealltaylorsyardsofone
Unanimousopinion
In1671JeanPicardproposedapendulumdefined'universalfoot'inhisinfluentialMesuredelaTerre.[127]
GabrielMoutonaround1670suggesteddefiningthetoiseeitherbyasecondspendulumoraminuteofterrestrial
degree.Aplanforacompletesystemofunitsbasedonthependulumwasadvancedin1675byItalianpolymath
TitoLivioBurratini.InFrancein1747,geographerCharlesMariedelaCondamineproposeddefininglengthby
asecondspendulumattheequatorsinceatthislocationapendulum'sswingwouldn'tbedistortedbytheEarth's
rotation.BritishpoliticiansJamesSteuart(1780)andGeorgeSkeneKeithwerealsosupporters.
Bytheendofthe18thcentury,whenmanynationswerereformingtheirweightandmeasuresystems,the
secondspendulumwastheleadingchoiceforanewdefinitionoflength,advocatedbyprominentscientistsin
severalmajornations.In1790,thenUSSecretaryofStateThomasJeffersonproposedtoCongressa
comprehensivedecimalizedUS'metricsystem'basedonthesecondspendulumat38Northlatitude,themean
latitudeoftheUnitedStates.[128]Noactionwastakenonthisproposal.InBritaintheleadingadvocateofthe
pendulumwaspoliticianJohnRiggsMiller.[129]WhenhiseffortstopromoteajointBritishFrenchAmerican
metricsystemfellthroughin1790,heproposedaBritishsystembasedonthelengthofthesecondspendulumat
London.Thisstandardwasadoptedin1824(below).
Themetre
InthediscussionsleadinguptotheFrenchadoptionofthemetricsystemin1791,theleadingcandidateforthe
definitionofthenewunitoflength,themetre,wasthesecondspendulumat45Northlatitude.Itwasadvocated
byagroupledbyFrenchpoliticianTalleyrandandmathematicianAntoineNicolasCaritatdeCondorcet.This
wasoneofthethreefinaloptionsconsideredbytheFrenchAcademyofSciencescommittee.However,on
March19,1791thecommitteeinsteadchosetobasethemetreonthelengthofthemeridianthroughParis.A
pendulumdefinitionwasrejectedbecauseofitsvariabilityatdifferentlocations,andbecauseitdefinedlengthby
aunitoftime.(However,since1983themetrehasbeenofficiallydefinedintermsofthelengthofthesecond
andthespeedoflight.)ApossibleadditionalreasonisthattheradicalFrenchAcademydidn'twanttobasetheir
newsystemonthesecond,atraditionalandnondecimalunitfromtheancienregime.
Althoughnotdefinedbythependulum,thefinallengthchosenforthemetre,107ofthepoletoequator
meridianarc,wasveryclosetothelengthofthesecondspendulum(0.9937m),within0.63%.Althoughno
reasonforthisparticularchoicewasgivenatthetime,itwasprobablytofacilitatetheuseoftheseconds
pendulumasasecondarystandard,aswasproposedintheofficialdocument.Sothemodernworld'sstandard
unitoflengthiscertainlycloselylinkedhistoricallywiththesecondspendulum.
BritainandDenmark
20/31
BritainandDenmarkappeartobetheonlynationsthat(forashorttime)basedtheirunitsoflengthonthe
pendulum.In1821theDanishinchwasdefinedas1/38ofthelengthofthemeansolarsecondspendulumat45
latitudeatthemeridianofSkagen,atsealevel,invacuum.[130][131]TheBritishparliamentpassedtheImperial
WeightsandMeasuresActin1824,areformoftheBritishstandardsystemwhichdeclaredthatiftheprototype
standardyardwasdestroyed,itwouldberecoveredbydefiningtheinchsothatthelengthofthesolarseconds
pendulumatLondon,atsealevel,inavacuum,at62Fwas39.1393inches.[132]ThisalsobecametheUS
standard,sinceatthetimetheUSusedBritishmeasures.However,whentheprototypeyardwaslostinthe1834
HousesofParliamentfire,itprovedimpossibletorecreateitaccuratelyfromthependulumdefinition,andin
1855Britainrepealedthependulumstandardandreturnedtoprototypestandards.
Otheruses
Seismometers
Apenduluminwhichtherodisnotverticalbutalmosthorizontalwasusedinearlyseismometersformeasuring
earthtremors.Thebobofthependulumdoesnotmovewhenitsmountingdoes,andthedifferenceinthe
movementsisrecordedonadrumchart.
Schulertuning
AsfirstexplainedbyMaximilianSchulerina1923paper,apendulumwhoseperiodexactlyequalstheorbital
periodofahypotheticalsatelliteorbitingjustabovethesurfaceoftheearth(about84minutes)willtendto
remainpointingatthecenteroftheearthwhenitssupportissuddenlydisplaced.Thisprinciple,calledSchuler
tuning,isusedininertialguidancesystemsinshipsandaircraftthatoperateonthesurfaceoftheEarth.No
physicalpendulumisused,butthecontrolsystemthatkeepstheinertialplatformcontainingthegyroscopes
stableismodifiedsothedeviceactsasthoughitisattachedtosuchapendulum,keepingtheplatformalways
facingdownasthevehiclemovesonthecurvedsurfaceoftheEarth.
Coupledpendulums
In1665Huygensmadeacuriousobservationaboutpendulumclocks.Twoclockshadbeenplacedonhis
mantlepiece,andhenotedthattheyhadacquiredanopposingmotion.Thatis,theirpendulumswerebeatingin
unisonbutintheoppositedirection180outofphase.Regardlessofhowthetwoclockswerestarted,hefound
thattheywouldeventuallyreturntothisstate,thusmakingthefirstrecordedobservationofacoupled
oscillator.[133]
Thecauseofthisbehaviorwasthatthetwopendulumswereaffectingeachotherthroughslightmotionsofthe
supportingmantlepiece.Thisprocessiscalledentrainmentormodelockinginphysicsandisobservedinother
coupledoscillators.Synchronizedpendulumshavebeenusedinclocksandwerewidelyusedingravimetersin
theearly20thcentury.AlthoughHuygensonlyobservedoutofphasesynchronization,recentinvestigations
haveshowntheexistenceofinphasesynchronization,aswellas"death"stateswhereinoneorbothclocks
stops.[134][135]
Religiouspractice
Pendulummotionappearsinreligiousceremoniesaswell.Theswingingincenseburnercalledacenser,also
knownasathurible,isanexampleofapendulum.[136]Pendulumsarealsoseenatmanygatheringsineastern
Mexicowheretheymarktheturningofthetidesonthedaywhichthetidesareattheirhighestpoint.Seealso
pendulumsfordivinationanddowsing.
21/31
Execution
DuringtheMiddleAges,pendulumswereusedasamethodoftorturebytheSpanishInquisition.Usingthebasic
principleofthependulum,theweight(bob)isreplacedbyanaxehead.Thevictimisstrappedtoatablebelow,
thedeviceisactivated,andtheaxebeginstoswingbackandforththroughtheair.Witheachpass,orreturn,the
pendulumislowered,graduallycomingclosertothevictim'storso,until
finallycleaved.Becauseofthetimerequiredbeforethemortalactionof
theaxeiscomplete,thependulumisconsideredamethodoftorturingthe
victimbeforehisorherdemise.[137]
Seealso
Barton'sPendulums
Blackburnpendulum
Conicalpendulum
Doubochinski'spendulum
Doublependulum
Doubleinvertedpendulum
Foucaultpendulum
Furutapendulum
Gridironpendulum
Inertiawheelpendulum
PendulumintheMetropolitan
Cathedral,MexicoCity.
Invertedpendulum
Harmonograph(a.k.a."Lissajouspendulum")
Kapitza'spendulum
Kater'spendulum
Metronome
Npendulum[138]
Pendulum(mathematics)
Pendulumclock
Pendulumrocketfallacy
Secondspendulum
Simpleharmonicmotion
Sphericalpendulum
Torsionalpendulum
Notes
1. Â"small"swingisoneinwhichtheangleissmallenoughthatsin()canbeapproximatedbywhenismeasured
inradians
2. ^Thevalueof"g"(accelerationduetogravity)attheequatoris9.780m/s2andatthepolesis9.832m/s2,adifference
of0.53%.
22/31
Thevalueofgreflectedbytheperiodofapendulumvariesfromplacetoplace.Thegravitationalforcevaries
withdistancefromthecenteroftheEarth,i.e.withaltitudeorbecausetheEarth'sshapeisoblate,gvarieswith
latitude.Amoreimportantcauseofthisreductioningattheequatorisbecausetheequatorisspinningatone
revolutionperday,reducingthegravitationalforcethere.
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Furtherreading
G.L.BakerandJ.A.Blackburn(2009).ThePendulum:ACaseStudyinPhysics(OxfordUniversityPress).
M.Gitterman(2010).TheChaoticPendulum(WorldScientific).
MichaelR.Matthews,ArthurStinner,ColinF.Gauld(2005)ThePendulum:Scientific,Historical,Philosophicaland
EducationalPerspectives,Springer
MichaelR.Matthews,ColinGauldandArthurStinner(2005)ThePendulum:ItsPlaceinScience,Cultureand
Pedagogy.Science&Education,13,261277.
SchlomoSilbermann,(2014)"PendulumFundamentalThePathOfNowhere"(Book)
Matthys,RobertJ.(2004).AccuratePendulumClocks(http://books.google.com/?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C&pg=PA27).UK:
OxfordUniv.Press.ISBN0198529716.
Nelson,RobertM.G.Olsson(February1986)."ThependulumRichphysicsfromasimplesystem"
(http://fy.chalmers.se/~f7xiz/TIF080/pendulum.pdf).AmericanJournalofPhysics54(2):112121.
Bibcode:1986AmJPh..54..112N(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986AmJPh..54..112N).doi:10.1119/1.14703
L.P.Pook(2011).UnderstandingPendulums:ABriefIntroduction(Springer).
Externallinks
NAWCCNationalAssociationofWatch&ClockCollectors
Museum(http://www.nawcc.org/)
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(http://www.sque.co.uk/physics/simplependulum/)
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Webbasedcalculatorofpendulumpropertiesfromnumericalinputs
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(http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/newtonian/pendulum)
AnanimatedandinteractiverigidpendulummodelinMSExcel
(http://excelunusual.com/archive/2010/09/pendulum/)
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