NETWORK INTERFACE CONTROLLER (NIC)

A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network

interface card, network adapter,LAN adapter, and by similar terms)
is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to
a computer network.[1]
Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented
on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost and
ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have
a network interface built into the motherboard.
Purpose
The network controller implements
the electronic circuitry required to
communicate
using
a
specific physical layer and data link
layer standard
such
as Ethernet, Fibre
Channel, WiFi or Token Ring. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack,
allowing communication among small groups of computers on the
same local area network (LAN) and large-scale network communications
through routable protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP).
Although other network technologies exist, IEEE 802 networks including
the Ethernet variants have achieved near-ubiquity since the mid-1990s.
The NIC allows computers to communicate over a computer network,
either by using cables or wirelessly. The NIC is both a physical layer and
data link layer device, as it provides physical access to a networking
medium and, for IEEE 802 and similar networks, provides a low-level
addressing system through the use of MAC addresses that are uniquely
assigned to network interfaces.
Implementation
Whereas network controllers used to operate on
expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus,
the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard
means that most new computers have a network
interface
built
into
the
motherboard.
Newer server motherboards may even have dual
network
interfaces
built-in.
The
Ethernet
capabilities are either integrated into the motherboard chipset or
implemented via a low-cost dedicated Ethernet chip, connected through
the PCI (or the newer PCI Express) bus. A separate network card is not
required unless additional interfaces are needed or some other type of
network is used.
The NIC may use one or more of two techniques to indicate the availability
of packets to transfer:

Polling is where the CPU examines the status of the peripheral under
program control;

Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the CPU that it is

ready to transfer data;

and may use one or more of two techniques to transfer packet data:

Programmed input/output is where the CPU moves the data to or

from the designated peripheral to memory;
All about Hubs
In data communications, a hub is the pivot of convergence where data
arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded out in one or more
directions. A hub usually includes a switch (in telecommunications, a
switch is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a unit
of data to its next destination) of some kind. The distinction seems to be
that the hub is the point where data comes together and the switch is
what determines how and where data is forwarded from the place where
data comes together. A hub is a hardware device that acts as a central
connecting point and joins lines in a star network configuration.
Who Needs Hubs?
There is a simple way to determine whether you need a hub on your LAN.
If you are building a network with a star topology and you have two or
more machines, you need a hub. There is, however, an exception to this
rule. If you are building a 10base-T network and you have only two
machines, you can connect them to each other without using a hub.
Types of Hubs
As you may have already guessed, hubs perform a crucial function on
networks with a star topology. There are many different types of hubs,
each offering specific features that allow you to provide varying levels of
service.
Now lets talk about some of the standard features of hubs, the differences
between passive, active, and intelligent hubs, as well as some of the
additional features found in today's more high-performance hubs.
Passive Hubs
Passive hubs, as the name suggests, are rather quiescent creatures. They
do not do very much to enhance the performance of your LAN, nor do
they do anything to assist you in troubleshooting faulty hardware or
finding performance bottlenecks. They simply take all of the packets they
receive on a single port and rebroadcast them across all ports--the
simplest thing that a hub can do.
Passive hubs commonly have one 10base-2 port in addition to the RJ-45
connectors that connect each LAN device. As you have already read,

10base-5 is 10Mbps Ethernet that is run over thick-coax. This 10base-2

connector can be used as your network backbone.
Other, more advanced passive hubs have AUI ports that can be connected
to the transceiver of your choice to form a backbone that you may find
more advantageous.
Active Hubs
Active hubs actually do something other than simply rebroadcast data.
Generally, they have all of the features of passive hubs, with the added
bonus of actually watching the data being sent out. Active hubs take a
larger role in Ethernet communications by implementing a technology
called store and forward where the hubs actually look at the data they are
transmitting before sending it. This is not to say that the hub prioritizes
certain packets of data; it does, however, repair certain "damaged"
packets and will retime the distribution of other packets.
If a signal received by an active hub is weak but still readable, the active
hub restores the signal to a stronger state before rebroadcasting it. This
feature allows certain devices that are not operating within optimal
parameters to still be used on your network. If a device is not
broadcasting a signal strong enough to be seen by other devices on a
network that uses passive hubs, the signal amplification provided by an
active hub may allow that device to continue to function on your LAN.
Additionally, some active hubs will report devices on your network that are
not fully functional. In this way, active hubs also provide certain diagnostic
capabilities for your network.
Active hubs will also retime and resynchronize certain packets when they
are being transmitted. Certain cable runs may experience electromagnetic
(EM) disturbances that prevent packets from reaching the hub or the
device at the end of the cable run in timely fashion. In other situations,
the packets may not reach the destination at all.
Active hubs can compensate for packet loss by retransmitting packets on
individual ports as they are called for and retiming packet delivery for
slower, more error-prone connections.
Active hubs provide certain performance benefits and, sometimes,
additional diagnostic capabilities. Active hubs are more expensive than
simple, passive hubs and can be purchased in many configurations with
various numbers and types of ports.
Intelligent Hubs
Intelligent hubs offer many advantages over passive and active hubs.
Organizations looking to expand their networking capabilities so users can
share resources more efficiently and function more quickly can benefit
greatly from intelligent hubs. The technology behind intelligent hubs has
only become available in recent years and many organizations may not
have had the chance to benefit from them; nevertheless intelligent hubs

are a proven technology that can deliver unparalleled performance for

your LAN.
In addition to all the features found in active hubs, incorporating
intelligent hubs into your network infrastructure gives you the ability to
manage your network from one central location. If a problem develops
with any device on a network that is connected to an intelligent hub, you
can easily identify, diagnose, and remedy the problem using the
management information provided by each intelligent hub--that is, in the
event it is a problem that cannot be remedied by the hub itself.
This is a significant improvement over standard active hubs.
Troubleshooting a large enterprise-scale network without a centralized
management tool that can help you visualize your network infrastructure
usually leaves you running from wiring closet to wiring closet trying to find
poorly functioning devices.
Another significant and often overlooked feature of intelligent hubs is their
ability to offer flexible transmission rates to various devices. Intelligent
hubs support standard transmission rates of 10, 16 and 100Mbps to
desktop systems using standard topologies such as Ethernet, Token Ring
or FDDI.
Advantages of hubs

Hubs need almost no configuration.

Active hubs can extend maximum network media distance.

No processing is done at the hub to slow down performance.

NETWORK SWITCH
A network
switch (also
called switching
hub, bridging
hub,
[1]
officially MAC bridge ) is acomputer networking device that connects
devices together on a computer network, by using a form of packet
switching to forward data to the destination device. A network switch is
considered more advanced than a (repeater) hub because a switch will
only forward a message to one or multiple devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same message out of each of its ports.
[2]
Switches exist for various types of networks including Fibre
Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, InfiniBand, Ethernet and others.
The first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.[3]
Overview

A switch is a device used on a computer network to physically connect

devices together. Multiple cables can be connected to a switch to enable
networked devices to communicate with each other. Switches manage the
flow of data across a network by only transmitting a received message to
the device for which the message was intended. Each networked device
connected to a switch can be identified using a MAC address, allowing the
switch to regulate the flow of traffic. This maximises security and
efficiency of the network.
Because of these features, a switch is often considered more "intelligent"
than a network hub. Hubs neither provide security, or identification of
connected devices. This means that messages have to be transmitted out
of every port of the hub, greatly degrading the efficiency of the network.
Technical Details[edit]
A network switch is a multi-port network bridge that processes and
forwards data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches
can also incorporate routing in addition to bridging; these switches are
commonly known as layer-3 or multilayer switches.[4]

Network design[edit]
An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer of the OSI model to
create a separate collision domain for each switch port. Each computer
connected to a switch port can transfer data to any of the other ones at a
time, and the transmissions will not interfere with the limitation that,
in half duplex mode, each line can only either receive from or transmit to
its connected computer at a certain time. In full duplex mode, each line
can simultaneously transmit and receive, regardless of the partner.
In the case of using a repeater hub, only a single transmission could take
place at a time for all ports combined, so they would all share the
bandwidth and run in half duplex. Necessary arbitration would also result
in collisions requiring retransmissions.
Applications[edit]
The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local
area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of
linkedmanaged switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications
typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as
aresidential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such
as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device
contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical
broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone
interface for Voice over IP (VoIP) protocol.
Microsegmentation[edit]
Segmentation is the use of a bridge or a switch (or a router) to split a
larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision
probability and improve overall throughput. In the extreme, i. e.
microsegmentation, each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In
contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each
of the switch ports. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth
on point-to-point connections to the network and also to run in full-duplex
without collisions. Full-duplex mode has only one transmitter and one
receiver per 'collision domain', making collisions impossible.
Role of switches in a network[edit]
Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including
the data link and network layers. A device that operates simultaneously at
more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.

In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces

make
it
possible
to
connect
different
types
of
networks,
including Ethernet,Fibre
Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11.
This
connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While layer-2
functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology,
interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is easier at
layer 3.
Devices that interconnect at layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so
layer-3 switches can also be regarded as (relatively primitive) routers.
Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance
and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places
for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall,[5][6] network intrusion
detection,[7] and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch
ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.[8]

WIRELESS REPEATER
A wireless repeater (also called wireless range extender) takes an existing
signal from a wireless router or wireless access point and rebroadcasts it to create a
second network. When two or more hosts have to be connected with one another
over the IEEE 802.11 protocol and the distance is too long for a direct connection to
be established, a wireless repeater is used to bridge the gap. It can be a specialized
stand alonecomputer networking device. Also, some Wireless network interface
controllers (WNIC)s optionally support operating in such a mode. Those outside of
the primary network will be able to connect through the new "repeated" network.
However, as far as the original router or access point is concerned, only the repeater
MAC is connected, making it necessary to enable safety features on the wireless
repeater. Wireless repeaters are commonly used to improve signal range and
strength within homes and small offices.

Uses[edit]

When in an area with no wireless hotspots.

In an area with much interference.

Interference can be caused by many environmental factors such

as microwaves (such as from a microwave oven), metal appliances or metallic
coating or an impeded line of sight.
When the distance between the computer and the wireless access point or

wireless router is too great for the internal wireless network interface card to
receive the wireless signal.

When networking in an environment with interference and multiple computers

or Hubs.

Drawbacks[edit]
Since only one wireless device can transmit at once, wireless transmissions are
doubled (router to repeater and then repeater to client versus just router to client),
and so:

Wireless throughput is reduced by at least 50%.

Wireless interference (e.g., with other networks on the same channel) is at

least doubled.

Connectivity[edit]
Some wireless range extending devices connect via a USB port. These USB adapters
add Wi-Fi capability to desktop PCs and other devices that have standard USB ports.

USB supports not only the data transfers required for networking, but it also supplies
a power source so that these adapters do not require electrical plugs.

Compatibility[edit]
There are wireless range extending devices that conform to all 802.11 protocols.
Most 802.11 compliant devices are backwards compatible. However, 802.11ac runs
at 5 GHZ and requires an access point capable of 5 GHz operation. 802.11ac is the
most recent and third-generation Wi-Fi standard for wireless home networking.
802.11ac equipment is backward compatible with 802.11n, 802.11g or 802.11b
equipment.

BRIDGE
A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges reduce
the amount of traffic on a local area network (LAN) by dividing it into two
segments.
Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges
inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward or discard it.
An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming Ethernet frame including the source and destinationMAC addresses, and sometimes the
frame size - in making individual forwarding decisions.
Bridges serve a similar function as network switches that also operate at Layer 2.
Traditional bridges, though, support one network boundary (accessible through
ahardware port), whereas switches usually offer four or more hardware ports.
Switches are sometimes called "multi-port bridges" for this reason.
Network bridging is the action taken by network equipment to create an aggregate
network from either two or more communication networks, or two or more network
segments.[1] Bridging is distinct from routing which allows the networks to
communicate independently as separate networks. [2] Also, if one or more segments
of the network are wireless, it is known as wireless bridging.
A network bridge is a network device that connects multiple network segments. In
theOSI model bridging acts in the first two layers, below the network layer.[3]
There are four types of network-bridging technologies: simple bridging; multiport
bridging; learning, or transparent bridging; and source route bridging.[4][5]

Network bridging view using ISO/OSI layers and terminology

MODEM
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates signals to
encode digital information anddemodulates signals to decode the
transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be
transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data.
Modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals,
from light emitting diodes to radio. A common type of modem is one that
turns the digital data of a computer into modulated electrical signal for
transmission over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at
the receiver side to recover the digital data.
Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a
given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second (symbol bit/s,
sometimes abbreviated "bps"), or bytes per second (symbolB/s). Modems
can also be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud
unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the
modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard
used audio frequency shift keying with two possible frequencies,
corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit per symbol), to carry
300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22
standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols (two bits
per symbol), transmitted 1,200 bits by sending 600 symbols per second
(600 baud) using phase shift keying.
Popularity[
A CEA study in 2006 found that dial-up Internet access is declining in the
U.S. In 2000, dial-up Internet connections accounted for 74% of all U.S.
residential Internet connections.[citation needed] The US demographic pattern
for dial-up modem users per capita has been more or less mirrored in
Canada and Australia for the past 20 years.
Dial-up modem use in the US had dropped to 60% by 2003, and in 2006
stood at 36%.[citation needed] Voiceband modems were once the most popular
means of Internet access in the U.S., but with the advent of new ways of
accessing the Internet, the traditional 56K modem is losing popularity. The
dial up modem is still widely used by customers in rural areas, where DSL,
Cable or Fiber Optic Service is not available, or they are unwilling to pay
what these companies charge.[13] AOL in its 2012 annual report showed it
still collects around $700 million in fees from dial-up users; about 3 million
people.
Radio Routers[
Direct broadcast satellite, WiFi, and mobile phones all use modems to
communicate, as do most other wireless services today. Modern

telecommunications and data networks also make extensive use of radio

modems where long distance data links are required. Such systems are an
important part of the PSTN, and are also in common use for highspeed computer network links to outlying areas where fibre is not
economical.
Even where a cable is installed, it is often possible to get better
performance or make other parts of the system simpler by using radio
frequencies and modulation techniques through a cable. Coaxial cable has
a very large bandwidth, however signal attenuation becomes a major
problem at high data rates if a baseband digital signal is used. By using a
modem, a much larger amount of digital data can be transmitted through
a single wire. Digital cable television and cable Internet services use radio
frequency modems to provide the increasing bandwidth needs of modern
households. Using a modem also allows for frequency-division multiple
access to be used, making full-duplex digital communication with many
users possible using a single wire.
WiFi and WiMax[
The WiFi and WiMax standards
use
wireless mobile
modems operating at microwave frequencies.

broadband

Mobile broadband modems

Modems
which
use
a
mobile
telephone
system
(GPRS, UMTS, HSPA, EVDO, WiMax, etc.), are known asmobile broadband
modems (sometimes also called wireless modems). Wireless modems can
be embedded inside a laptop or appliance, or be external to it. External
wireless modems are connect cards, USB modems for mobile
broadband and cellular
routers.
A connect
card is
a PC
Card or ExpressCardwhich slides into a PCMCIA/PC card/ExpressCard slot
on a computer. USB wireless modems use a USB port on the laptop
instead of a PC card or ExpressCard slot. A USB modem used for mobile
broadband Internet is also sometimes referred to as a dongle. [14] A cellular
router may have an external datacard (AirCard) that slides into it. Most
cellular routers do allow such datacards or USB modems. Cellular routers
may not be modems by definition, but they contain modems or allow
modems to be slid into them. The difference between a cellular router and
a wireless modem is that a cellular router normally allows multiple people
to connect to it (since it can route data or support multipoint to multipoint
connections), while a modem is designed for one connection.
Most
of GSM wireless
modems
come
with
an
integrated SIM
cardholder (i.e., Huawei E220, Sierra 881, etc.) and some models are also
provided with a microSD memory slot and/or jack for additional external

antenna such as Huawei E1762 and Sierra Wireless Compass 885. [15]
[16]
The CDMA (EVDO) versions do not use R-UIM cards, but use Electronic
Serial Number (ESN) instead.
The cost of using a wireless modem varies from country to country. Some
carriers implement flat rate plans for unlimited data transfers. Some have
caps (or maximum limits) on the amount of data that can be transferred
per month. Other countries have plans that charge a fixed rate per data
transferredper megabyte or even kilobyte of data downloaded; this
tends to add up quickly in today's content-filled world, which is why many
people[who?] are pushing for flat data rates.
The faster data rates of the newest wireless modem technologies (UMTS,
HSPA, EVDO, WiMax) are also considered to be broadband wireless
modems and compete with other broadband modems below.
Until the end of April 2011, worldwide shipments of USB modems
surpassed embedded 3G and 4G modules by 3:1 because USB modems
can be easily discarded, but embedded modems could start to gain
popularity as tablet sales grow and as the incremental cost of the modems
shrinks, so by 2016 the ratio may change to 1:1.[17]
Like mobile phones, mobile broadband modems can be SIM locked to a
particular network provider. Unlocking a modem is achieved the same way
as unlocking a phone, by using an 'unlock code'.

Internal modems
An internal modem is basically an external modem and serial port
mounted upon a PC bus card. These are cheaper than external
modems as they do not require a power supply or a chassis.
Internal modems work fine for remote serial console applications.
They are especially attractive for computers at co-location sites,
as those sites charge according to space and power consumption.
Check that your internal modem preserves its setting across a
power cycle.
Ensure that the interrupt line and port address space used by the
internal modem's serial port do not conflict with that used by any
other pre-existing serial ports. Alternatively, ensure that the

internal serial port can be disabled, freeing its interrupt line and
port address space for use by the internal modem.
Be careful not to confuse an internal modem with a WinModem.
An internal modem does not need a special device driver, but
appears to Linux as a stardard serial port.

External modem
A modem that resides in a self-contained box outside
the computer system. Contrast with an internal modem, which
resides on a printed circuit board inserted into the computer.
External modems tend to be slightly more expensive than internal
modems. Many experts consider them superior because they
contain lights that indicate how the modem is functioning. In
addition, they can easily be moved from one computer to another.
However, they do use up one COM port.