Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Thompson,
Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Vol. 23 (1995)
Chapter 19
INTRODUCTION
419
A. Arribas, Jr.
Table 1. Principal high-sulfldation deposits or documented prospects ordered geographically
Nin
Fig. 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Deposit
References
WT
C^IU-10
Western
i f l P J5V-9 V
*lcjk /S'fy g /
Pacific
--TV?
Figure 1. Worldwide distribution of high-<sulfidatfori deposits and principal documented prospects. The main highsulfidation metallogenic provinces are indicated. See Table 1 for deposit names and selected references.
OPENING REMARKS ON GENETIC
ENVIRONMENT
421
A. Arribas, Jr.
Table 2. Main geological characteristics of 14 selected high-sulfidation epithermal deposits
Deposit/district,
location
Age
(Ma)
Motomboto,
Indonesia
1.9
Nalesbitan,
Philippines
Lepanto,
Philippines
Pliocene
Chinkuashih,
Taiwan
1.3-1.0
1.5-1.2
Zijinshan,
China
-94
Nansatsu,
Japan
5-3.5
Summitville,
Colorado
22.5
Metals,
(tonnes)1
Local volcanic
setting
Principal host
rocks
Genetically
related rocks
Time
between host
rock & deposit
Deposit form
<1.0 m.y.
None observed
N/A
Hbx, veinlets
Ands/dac vol,
Miocene + older
volx + metavol
Qtz-diorite
porphyry
<analyt. error
(0.1 m.y.)
Dome complex
Dae vole
Miocene sed
Dacite domes
and flows
Dome along
caldera margin?
Jurassic granite,
Cretaceous dac
porpyhry+pyr
Ands pyr, flows +
volx
Not reported
Vertical breccias,
veins, stratabound
replacements
Veins or "ledges",
hbx, dis and stk
surrounding veins
Veins, hbx, stk
Cu, Au, Ag
60,000 t Cu. 4 i
Au, 180tAg(c)
Au
15 t Au (c)
Central-vent
volcano
Cu, Au, Ag
900,000 i Cu,
1201 Au(c)
Au, Cu, Ag
92 t Au, 183 t Ag,
120,000 tCu(p)
Cu, Au
>10 t Au (c)
Diatreme
complex
Small volcanos
Au
18 t Au (p) + 18 t in a caldera?
Au reserves
Au, Cu, Ag
Dome along
17lAu
preexisting
caldera margin
7.0 m.y.(?)
(poorly-dated)
Qu-lalite porphyry
Qtz-monzonite
porphyry
<analyt. error
(0.5 m.y.)
Dis in stratabound
VS/MS bodies,
veins, hbx
"Ledges" with
veins, hbx + dis
inVS
21
Au (Ag, Cu)
Domes along
130 t Au, t 43 Ag, preexisting ring
37,000 Cu (p)
fracture
Miocene andesite
Andesite
<analyt. error
(0.4 m.y.)
"Ledges" with
veins, hbx + dis
in MS
Paradise Peak,
Nevada
19-18
And/dacvd
<analyt. error
(1.0 m.y.)
Pueblo Viejo,
Dominican Rep.
-130
Au, Ag, Hg
Within or close
47 t Au, 1255 Ag to a central-vent
457 l Hg (p)
volcano
Au, Ag
Maar-diatreme
>600 t Au (p;
complex
Sillitoe. 1993)
Ag, Cu, Pb, Au,
Dome complex
W, Bi, Zn
around a central
diatreme
Au, Ag, Cu
Stratovo!cano(?)
-140 t Au,
in earlier caldera
-1,100 t A g ( c )
Dome complex(?)
Cu, Au, Ag
>10-15tAu(c)
CAbimodal
N/A
(Rhy + basalt)
volcanic suite
Dac/rhyodacitic <analyt. error
porphyry
(0.1 m.y.)
Stratabound bodies
commonly with
hbx
Mushroom-shaped
bodies with stk +
dis
Goldfield,
Nevada
Julcani,
Peru
9.8
El Indio,
Chile
13-8
4.0-3.6
11-10
Au
10 l Au (p)
Caldera margin
Dactorhyodacitic
domes and tuffs
Veins
CA vol
N/A
Veins + stk
Paleozoic seds +
granites. Pliocene
intrusive dacite
Ands to rhy pyr flows,
collapse bxs + domes
Dac/rhyodaoic
porphyry
stocks
Ands flows
+ dykes
<1.2 m.y.
<analyt. error
(0.7 m.y.)
Abbreviations used:
CA calc-alkaline, MS = massive silica, VS - vuggy silica, ands - andesitic, bre - b r e c c t a ^ 5 n L 2 r f c k 'stk
Abbrev.at.ons
usea: w
disseminations, hbx - hydrothermal vein breccia or breccia pipes, pyr = pyroclastics, qtz - quartz, rhy - rhyol.t,c, sed - segmentary rock, stk
= stockwork, vol volcanic rock (unspecified), volx, volcaniclastics
IVIVUillVIWUVd
' (p) produced, (c) estimated total contained 1 Approximate number, quoted from paper or estimated from figures: 150 m for Paradise
Peak is for individual orebodies
Control on mineralization
Relation to
porphyry system
References
Motomboto,
Indonesia
250
Porphyry Cu-Au
prospects nearby, age
within 1.0 m.y.
Perell6(l94)
Nalesbitan,
Philippines
Lepanio,
Philippines
ISO
Proposed,
none known
Sillitoerta/. (1990)
500
Above + adjacent
same age porphyry
Cu-Au deposit
Garcia (1991),
Arribasrta/. (1995b)
Chinkuashih,
Taiwan
800
None known
Huang (1955),
Tan etal. (1993)
Zijinshan,
China
600(7)
None known
Nansatsu,
Japan
<150
None known
Summitville,
Colorado
250
Intrusion-centered
sericitic, low grade
stk mineralization
Goldfield,
Nevada
Moderately + shallow
dipping faults & fissures
400
None known
Paradise Peak,
Nevada
<150
Pueblo Viejo,
Dominican Rep.
400(7)
Julcani,
Steep fractures
600
Sericitic, stk Au
mineralization (East
Zone)
None known
None known
Pem
El Indio,
Chile
Local faults
>300
<150
Porphyry Cu-Mo
mineralization
nearby
zunyite, which are typical of hypogene (T = 200350 C) acidic conditions (advanced argillic
assemblage; Meyer & Hemley 1967). This type of
alunite is characteristic of HS deposits, but it may
also appear in areas of advanced argillic alteration
void of ore mineralization (e.g., Iwao 1962; Hall
1978). Alunite in steam-heated environments
forms with kaolinite and interlayered illitesmectite at about 100 to 160 C where fumarolic
vapor condenses above the boiling zone of
neutral-pH, H2S-rich fluid, typical of geothermal
systems that form low-sulfidation deposits.
423
A. Arribas, Jr.
Vuggy silica
Quartz alunite
PropylWc
Chlorite-rich
rock
100 m
Montmorillonite-rich
rock
In
common
with
other
magmatichydrothermal deposits (e.g., porphyry copper
deposits), HS deposits coincide worldwide with
plutonic-volcanic arcs. This association is best
observed in the Cenozoic deposits of the CircumPacific and-the Balkan belt of southeastern Europe
(Fig. 1). These deposits occur in two main
settings: in island arcs and at continental margins.
The tectonic regime during formation of the
deposits seems to be dominantly extensional
(Sillitoe 1993). Some deposits (e.g., Goldfield,
Rodalquilar, Summitville) formed in intracontinental regions during periods of extension
that followed regional compression and subduction by several m.y.
Tertiary HS deposits predominate, and only a
few deposits are Mesozoic (e.g., Pueblo Viejo,
Zijinshan), Paleozoic (e.g., Temora and others in
southeastern Australia), or PreCambrian (the early
A. Arribas, Jr.
Table 3. Main alteration and mineralization characteristics of 14 selected high-sulfidation
epithermal deposits
Deposit
Venical alteration
zoning
(shallow to deep)
Ore
mincratizaUon
Princial ore minerals
in:
Ag/Au
Motomboto
VS-qtz-alu-*qtz-kao-
kao-sme-Mll-chl
VS/MS-qtz-alu-*qtzkao-*ill-kao-*cbl
Py, ena-luz, mar, sph, gal, lentet, are, cpy, arg, nat.Au, tell
Silica core
Nalesbitan
Silicified Hbx-*qtz-kaoalu-ill-sme-chl-cal
Silica core
Very
low Ag
Lepanto
VS/MS-* tz-alu-kao-*
kao-qtz-ill-*chl-ill
MSA'S-* AA-SER-
(K-silicate in subjacent
FSE porphyry copper)
Silica core
Chinkuashih
VS/MS-*qtz-alu-kao-
ill-chl-kao
Silica core
Zijinshan
VS/MS-*qtz-dic-alu-qtzdic-ser-qtz-scr
Silica core
N/A
Nansatsu
VS/MS-* alu-dic-pyo-*
ill-kao-sme-*
PRO
VS/MS-*alu-*dic-serpy-ser-chl-PRO
Silica core
<2
Summitville
VS(MSh*qtz-alu--
qtz-kao-*kao-iU-*
sme-chl
VS(MS)-qtz-kaoalu-*qtz-kao-*SER
Silica core
2-20
Goldfield
MS{VS)-*qtz-alu-kao-*
iII-sme-
PRO
MS>VS-*qtz-alukao-*qtz-kaopyo
Silica core
<1
Paradise Peak
MS(VSHqtz-alu-kao
(SER in faulted, deeperC?)
East Zone deposit)
Silica core
10-30
Pueblo Viejo
Complex + overprinted
Early: Kao-py-qtz-*
alu-py-qtz
Late: MS-pyo-dia
Julcani
Pre-ore:VS/MS-qrz-alu-
Ellndio
La Mejicana,
Nevadosdel
Famatina
Rodalquilar
InAA +
MS zones
Veins
470
kao~*qtz-kao; Syn-ore:
qtz-pyo-py-qtz- kao-py-<
qtz-scr-py qtz-kao-sme
Cu stage veins-* kao-aluser-qlz; Au stage
veins-* ser-kao-pyo-qtz
VS/MS-*qtz-alu-lcao-
qtz-kao-ill-* ill-sme-chl
35-45
Veins
Silica core
10-20
Silica core
<1
Abbreviations used: AA - advanced argillic, Hbx - hydrotherma! breccia, MS = massive silica, PRO Propylitic, SER =
sericitic, VS - vuggy silica, VS (MS) vuggy silica dominant, alu - alunite, ars = arsenoyrite, bar = barite, bis =
bismuthinite, bor = bomite, bou = boumonite, cal - calcite, ceo = chalcocite, chal.qtz = chalcedony or chalccdonic quartz,
chl chlorite, cin cinnabar, can = canfieldite, cas cassiterite, col colusite, cov = covellite, cpy = chalcopyrite, die =
dickite, dig = digenite, ele electrum, emp emplectite, fam - famatinite (stibioluzonite), gal - galena, geo geocronite,
gol = goldfieldite, hue = hubnerite, ill - illite, kao e kaolinite, luz - luzonite, mar = marcasite, mol = molybdenite, nat.Au =
native gold, natS - native sulfur, nat.Te - native tellurium, oro orpimcnt, py = pyrite, pyo = pyrophyllite, qtz quartz,
rea = realgar, sele - selenides, ser sericite, sid = siderite, sme - smectite, sph = sphalerite, sta stannite, stb stibnite,
sulf- sulfides or sulfosalts, tell * tellurides, ten ~ tennantite, tet - tetrahedrite, tou tourmaline, wol - wolframite
' Based on fluid-inclusion (flinc) or geological (geol) evidence; blank where not specified.
2
Boiling (Hbx) -= boiling due to abrupt pressure reduction associated with hydrotherma! brecciation
426
Table 3 (continued)
Deposit
N and order of
main mineral
events
Inferred
mineralization
depth (m)1
Supergene oxidation/
secondary Au
enrichment?
Inferred oreforming
mechanism
References
Motomboto
2
AA-> sulfide-Au
Unknown
Unknown
Irregular to 100 m
Perello(1994)
Nalesbitan
2
Py-qtz-Cu-Au
300-500
flinc
Boiling (Hbx)2
Complete to 130
m; yes
Lepanto
3
AA-CuAu
-Au
2
AA-Cu-Au +
late bar-Au
SeveraK?),
Qtz-ser-dic-*qtzalu-dic- sulfide
Unknown
Mixing/cooling
Not important
Chinkuashih
Zijinshan
500
Unknown
Mixing/boiling
150-300
flinc
Mixing/cooling
Nansatsu
2
AA-*Cu-Au
Summitville
3
400-500
AA-CuAu-+
flinc + geol
bar-base-metal-Au
5+
100-300+
AA-ena-Augeol
ten-py-Bi-Tc-
3
Unknown
AA-Au-Ag-+
Hg
2
Shallow; lacusAlu-kao-py-Au- trine sediments
MS-pyo-dia-Au
preserved
Several
200-300
AA+VS-tou
breccias-* sulfide
veins (main, late)
2
AA+Cu- Au
Goldfield
Paradise Peak
Pueblo Viejo
Julcani
El Indio
La Mejicana,
Nevadosdel
Famatina
Rodalquilar
2
AA-silica-py-Au
Unknown
200-300
flinc + geol
Huang (1955),
Tan el al. (1993)
Important in upper Ren el al. (1992),
Zhang et al. (1994)
250 nv, yes
Widespread to 100
nv, yes but may
be steam-heated
Cu-Au by
Irregular to 100 m;
mixing, bar-Au
may be partly
by oxidation
steam-heated
Mixing/cooling; Widespread to 80
oxidation
nv, supergene
alunite(-lOMa)
Boiling, with
Widespread to 250
Hbx in early Au- m; supergene aluAg stage
nite (100.5 Ma)
Sulfidation +
Widespread to
boiling
-100 m
Mixing + boiling
Mixing/cooling
427
A. Arribas, Jr.
is difficult, but useful for discussion of the
differences among deposits and design of
exploration strategies. In this context, White
(1991) distinguished three end-member styles of
HS deposits, named after deposits of the CircumPacific: Temora, El Indio, and Nansatsu. Irregular
bodies of disseminated, silicified ores dominate in
the Temora-style. Cavity-filling veins with
sericitic and clay-rich haloes are characteristic of
El Indio-style Au deposits. A large group of
deposits falls into White's (1991) Nansatsu-style,
which is characterized by wallrock-alteration
zoning similar to that shown in Figure 2, and by
the occurrence of enargite-bearing ores within a
silica core consisting of vuggy or massive silica
rock (Table 3). Mineralization in this style of
deposit forms irregular stratabound bodies (e.g.,
Nansatsu, Lepanto) or subvertical vein-like
masses or "ledges" {e.g., Chinkuashih, Goldfield,
Lepanto, Rodalquilar, Summitville). These
deposits contain breccia bodies, veins, stockworks
of small veins, and disseminated ores that replace
or impregnate intensely altered country rock.
Ericksen & Cunningham (1993) distinguished two
styles of HS deposits in the Andean province: Agand Au-rich polymetallic base-metal veins, and
low-grade vuggy silica and breccias; the two types
are broadly comparable with El Indio- and
Nansatsu-styles, respectively.
Local subvertical faults and fractures are the
dominant control on HS mineralization and they
are present in most deposits (Table 2). Other
examples of structural controls observed in some
districts among the fourteen selected include:
moderately to shallow-dipping faults (Goldfield),
caldera ring and radial faults (Rodalquilar), the
dilational jog of a strike-slip fault (Nalesbitan),
diatreme ring-faults (Lepanto, Pueblo Viejo), the
contact between a dome or volcanic conduit and
country rock (Motomboto, the Missionary
orebody at Summitville), and a lithologic
unconformity (Pueblo Viejo, Lepanto). In three of
the fourteen deposits, the principal control is
lithological (maar sediments at Pueblo Viejo, and
interbedded pyroclastic layers at Paradise Peak
and Nansatsu; Table 2).
A unique combination of the structural and
lithological controls characteristic of HS deposits
is exhibited by the Lepanto Cu-Au-Ag deposit.
/1">0
h>B
Lepanto fault
1.56-1.17 I [
1.45-1.22 E%3
1.2-0.9
(ill
22-1.8
Cre.-Mto.
)n/mineralizatJon
Age (Ma)
t3
rIM
Ouartz-oloiUe porphyry
Dacte porphyry & pyroclastics
m
Stratabound f ^ ,
m
raaftHi
Jea level
-700m
JSWfl
pgg
BSa
RS|9
^ ^
f=g
Vuggy silica/
massive silica
Advanced
argiHic
ArgiHic
1 Propyiitic
Figure 4. Longitudinal (A) and transverse (B) cross-sections of the Lepanto-FSE Cu-Au-Ag deposits (Philippines),
showing structural and Uthologic controls on formation of the high-sulfidation and porphyry-type ores (simplified
from Garcia 1991). Potassium-argon dating of country rocks and alteration minerals associated with the porphyry and
high-sulfidation deposits indicates that hydrothermal Cu-Au mineralization took place in the middle of a Pliocene to
Pleistocene event of dacitic-andesitic magmatism (Arribas et al. 1995b). Note the overall spatial overlap of the
magmatic and hydrothermal "plumbing" systems (i,e., volcanic vents of Pliocene dacite, quartz diorite intrusions,
porphyry deposit, and deeper parts of epithermal mineralization).
The zones of alteration with increasing depth
typically grade from a shallow silicic zone
through advanced argillic, argillic, argiHic/
sericitic, into a sericitic or phyllic zone with
quartz, sericite, and pyrite. This alteration
sequence occurs over a vertical interval that
ranges from a few hundred meters to more than
1000 m, and has been best documented by deep
drillholes in the deposits of smaller size, in which
the vertical span of mineralization is less than
about 300 m (e.g., Rodalquilar, Summitville; Fig.
5B). At Lepanto, sericitic alteration at depths of
400 to 500 m below the epithermal deposit gives
way, laterally towards the south, to K-silicate
alteration of the FSE porphyry Cu-Au deposit.
Porphyry-type stockwork mineralization at
Paradise Peak is contained within the sericitic ores
of the East Zone deposit which, according to
Sillitoe & Lorson (1994), formed underneath the
main HS orebodies in the area. A quartz-sericitepyrite zone with trace amounts of chalcopyrite and
molybdenite surrounds an intrusion of monzonite
porphyry 300 m below the HS deposit at
Summitville (Gray & Coolbaugh 1994).
429
A. Arribas, Jr.
Rodalqultar caldg--r?
margin
^<^^"''
^KmSmm
iominacakieraV
ftt^ls)/
^Un
s, margin
N
Mm^7
rffflsRSm
^^V^
\
jHodafottf/ar
i Vuggy silica
"^ (||l
,
r = j Advanced argilltc
**V.
_
ip^lttjr
TO3 Argillic
^^^5i2Sii5S>liS*i^^^^^\.._
f;||flp-::f
LA*I Serkatic
p l l Propylitic
GOOD Intense supergene actd-sulfate overprint
400 .
lilHi
0 ,
-400
Lower limit of
sulfide oxidation
:ij|HrA I
X
vf* %AA A A
A /
JCSJSSw
A A
ft. A A X.
A A A * A A A J
, A A A * A 4* * ,
A A A /
[A
A A *
Pb-Zn-{Cu-/
quartz veins
Elevation
Figure 5. Generalized surface alteration map (A) and cross-section (B) of the Rodalquilar
HS deposit in the Rodalquilar and Lomilla calderas, southeastern Spain (from Arribas et
al. 1995a). The boundaries shown between alteration zones are irregular and gradational.
identification of two stages of mineralization,
interpreted to correspond to two distinct magmatic
pulses (Muntean et al. 1990). During the first
stage (responsible for ~60% of the Au in the
deposit), shallow kaolinite-quartz-pyrite and deep
alunite-quartz-pyrite-quartz zones were developed, with gold mineralization in association
with disseminated pyrite in the wallrock; during
the second stage (responsible for about 40% of the
Au), an extensive zone of siliciflcation with pyrite
sphalerite enargite veins formed at shallow
levels, above a zone of pyrophyllite-diaspore
alteration (Muntean et al. 1990).
O R E AND GANGUE MINERALOGY, AND
TIMING O F MINERALIZATION
430
A. Arribas, Jr.
Deposit
Host-mineral
studied
Temperature
(C)'
Associated
Salinity
(equiv wt.9E- NaCI) alteration
Motomboto, Indonesia
Nalesbitan, Philippines
Lepanto, Philippines
Barite
Quartz
Enargite
150-180
220-260
170-290
0.2^.5
Chinkuashih, Taiwan
Quartz, barite,
al unite
Quartz (no details
reported)
180-330
0.2-12
160-300
220-380
100-160
(300-420)
130-250
-270
250-310
190-240
210-330
2-22
3-19
0-5
(3-20)
<1
up to 30
180-280
2-18
(300-390)
-100
230-480+
210-280
(370-410)
180-210
300-380
(up to 450)
160-280
360-450
230-330
220-250
330-380
230-260
170-350
(up to 9)
190-280
140-180
(>300)
200-460
160-340
230-480
0.1-4
0.1-2.7
(up to 27)
1-37
0.3-12
^47
AA
Ser
Quartz, quartz
phenoe
170-300
220-450
2-30
2-45
Ser
Quartz, barite,
quartz phenoe
190-320
90-140
(390-500)
0.4-23
0.4-1.6
(32-45)
Zijinshan, China
Nansatsu. Japan
.^
Akaiwa, Japan
Mitsumori-Nukcishi, Japan
Summitville, Colorado
Goldfield, Nevada
Julcani, Peru
Ccarhuaraso, Peru
Colquijirca, Peru
Can-Can (La Coipa),
Chile
El Indio, Chile
. .
Funei-Serrenti, Italy
Quartz
Diaspore
Quartz, barite,
quartz phenoe
Quartz phenoe
Barite
Quartz phenoe
Quartz, barite
Quartz, barite
Quartz
Quartz phenoe
Quartz phenoe
Wol, ena, quartz
Siderite
Quartz phenoe
Quartz phenoe
Sphalerite, quartz
hubnerite
Quartz phenoe
N/A
<1
A A/si 1
AA/sil
AA/sil
AA
Ser
Sil
AA/sil
AA/sil
Ser
AA/sil
0.5-14
AA
AA/sil
5-18
0.2-8
AA/sil
AA/sil
<3
30-35
AA/sil
5-24
38-46
9-20
6-9
7-18
4-11
<l-40
AA/sil
Ser
AA/sil
AA/sil
AA/sil
dominant
AA/Ser
AA + ser
AA/sil
AA/sil
Comments
References
Perell6(1994)
Sillitoe et al. (1990)
Mancano & Campbell (1995),
Garcia (1991)
Julcani, Peru
Quartz-alunitepyrite
Pre-ore tourmaline breccia dykes, lithostatic pressures likely.
Main-stage ore fluids, also inner veins, liquid-rich inclusions
Late-stage ore fluids, also in outer veins; P correction applied
Quartz-alunitepyrite
Quartz-alunitepyrite
Two generations identified; both may be very saline. Evidence
for P above hydrostatic and higher salinities at depth
Copper and gold stages
Late stage
Interpreted as early, with vapor-rich inclusions, CO2 observed
LM & NF: includes liquid-, vapor-rich and polyphase inclusions
NF: complete transition from porphyry-type fluids in Ksilicate stage (SOO-oW^C, up to 67 eq wt% NaCl)
through sercitic to epithermal fluids in HS (AA) stage;
vapor-rich inclusions typically less saline
Vertical temperature and salinity gradient: high-temperature
brines coexist with low -aiinity vapor inclusions;
hydrostatic and near-lithostatic pressures suggested
Includes high + low-salinity fluids (22-23, <6 eq wt% NaCl)
Late stage
Chinkuashih, Taiwan
Zijinshan, China
Nansatsu, Japan
Akaiwa, Japan
Mitsumori-Nukcishi, Japan
Summitville. Colorado -
Goldfield, Nevada
Ccarhuaraso, Peru
Colquijirca, Peru
Can-Can (La Coipa),
Chile
El Indio, Chile
La Mejicana (LM) and
Nevados Famatina (NF).
Argentina
Rodalquilar, Spain
Furtci-Serrenti, Italy
Jannase/tz/. (1990)
Losada-Caldcr6n & McPhail
(1994)
433
A. Arribas, Jr.
and Julcani (Deen 1990) are broadly similar, but
their salinities are distinctly different (0.2-4.5
equiv. wt.% NaCl versus 8-18 equiv. wt.% NaCl,
respectively), providing constraints on the role of
a saline magmatic liquid (versus low-salinity
vapor) in the generation of HS deposits.
Group 3. Lower temperature (e.g., 90-180
C), dilute (typically <5 equiv. wt.% NaCl)
liquids; these have been documented in a few
deposits associated with late-stage (e.g., Aubarite) mineralization. The late-stage ore fluids at
Julcani are hotter (220-250 C; Deen 1990) and
slightly more saline (6-9 equiv. wt.% NaCl), than
these averages, but no correlation among the late
stages in different deposits is attempted here.
Group 4. "Sericitic" fluids. As mentioned
above, sericitic (quartz-sericite-pyrite) is the most
common alteration assemblage observed below
the ore zone in some HS deposits. Although
detailed documentation is lacking for many
deposits, higher temperatures and higher salinity
fluid-inclusions seem to characterize the sericitic
zone with respect to the shallower zones of
alteration (Table 4). For example, at Rodalquilar
(Arribas et al. 1995a), documentation of temperature and salinity along a >600-m vertical
interval (extending 500 m below the ore zone; Fig.
6) shows a gradient which correlates with the
change in dominant alteration, from silicic and
advanced argillic (T = 170-300 C, salinity = 2-15
equiv. wt.% NaCl at the elevation of the orebody)
to sericitic (7"= 220-450 C, salinity = 2-45 equiv.
wt.% NaCl) assemblages.
The transition from advanced argillic alteration,
through quartz-sericite-pyrite, to K-silicate
alteration and typical porphyry-type hightemperature (600+ C) and high-salinity (up to 67
equiv. wt.% NaCl) fluids of magmatic origin is
displayed, among the examples reviewed, at the
Lepanto-FSE and La Mejicana-Nevados del
Famatina epithermal-porphyry copper systems.
The cooler and less saline inclusion fluids
documented in the ore zone of the HS deposits are
interpreted to reflect mixing of magmatic and
meteoric fluids in an environment shallower than
that of porphyry mineralization. Furthermore, in
common with porphyry-type deposits, hightemperature, vapor-rich, low-salinity fluid
inclusions coexist with high-temperature, liquid434
Temperature (C)
200
400 -
300
400
500
Elevation of
Onto deposits
200
(hydrostatic)
200
(lithostatic)
B1
s -|400
>
1I
3
- 600
1
I
Q.
-200
o
800
-400
Sulfates
T &V - 534SJS
Lepanto
Chinkuashlh
i
Nansatsu
Summltville
Goldfield
Pueblo Viejo
I
I
Julcani
A 3 4 SH 2 S-SO4
2-6
220 - 270
200 - 240
200-390
200 - 350
180-260
210-270
220-330
El Indto
Rodalqullar
-H
-10
1
0
1
1
10
&*S (%., CDT)
h20
'(mineral pairs)
30
Figure 7. Range of 834S (per mil) values for sulfides and sulfates from nine highsulfidation deposits. Also shown are the values calculated for 834S for total sulfur in the
hydrothermal system (triangles), H2S/S04, and the range of temperatures determined
from sulfide-sulfate mineral pairs. Solid triangles indicate deposits in which 834SS was
calculated on the basis of isotopic analyses of samples of unaltered whole rock
genetically related to mineralization. See Appendix for references and information on
data plotted.
of measuring 34 S/ S in host rock and genetically
related igneous rock (Sasaki et al. 1979), allows
sulfur-isotope studies to provide information on
the composition, temperature, and sulfur sources
of the hydrothermal fluids. The results of detailed
studies in nine HS districts show a remarkable
consistency (Fig. 7). In agreement with the
observations in active volcanic-hydrothermal
systems (e.g., Kiyosu & Kurahashi 1983), sulfide
and sulfate minerals are mainly in isotopic
equilibrium, and, therefore, their overall S/ S
depends on the temperature of mineralization and
the 34S/32S of total sulfur in the hydrothermal
system. Only the data for alunite from the
Campana vein in El Indio (Fig. 7) are different. If
the measured El Indio alunites are not steamheated or supergene (unlikely as they contain finegrained pyrite; Jannas et al. 1990), the most likely
explanation is a "magmatic-steam" (Rye et al.
1992) origin, in which the 834S of alunite is close
to the composition of total sulfur in the system
(e.g., Alunite Ridge in Marysvale; Cunningham et
al. 1984; Rye et al. 1992) . Combined with the
0/
435
A. Arribas, Jr.
4 -> r
0-20-
O
Q
Subduction-related
volcanic vapor
Arc + crustal
felsic magmas
-40-
W W
Active systems
(Giggenbach, 1992b)
so
6D(%.)
Volcanic
Geothermal
-100
-20
i
-15
1
-10
1
-5
1
0
6
18
'r
5
10
15
20
0 (%o, SMOW)
Figure 8. Summary diagram showing variation in oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope composition of hydrothermal
fluids in high-sulfidation deposits. The average isotopic composition for the main stages of acidic alteration
(squares) and ore-mineralization (circles) fluids are shown. Where possible, only alunite data were used for the
alteration stage (SD and 8l8OSOi,); &I800H is not used because hydroxyl oxygen requilibrates with the hydrothermal
fluid during cooling (Rye et al. 1992). Tie-lines between data points connect samples from the same deposit. Inset
shows the isotopic composition of fields defined by waters from active geothermal systems and high-temperature
fumarole condensates in subduction-related andesitic volcanoes (from Giggenbach 1992b). Go = Goldfield, Ju =
Julcani, Le= Lepanto, Nansatsu district: Ka = Kasuga, Iw = Iwato, NF = Nevados del Famatina, PV = Pueblo
Veijo, Ro = Rodalquilar, RM = Red Mountain, Lake City, Colorado, Su = Summitville. The approximate
compositions of groundwaters suggested for several deposits are indicated by the intials parallel to the meteoric
water line. See Appendix for references and information on data plotted.
the very light isotopic composition of local
meteoric water, this meteoric-magmatic watermixing trend is displayed particularly well by the
three stages of alteration/mineralization at Julcani
(Deen 1990; Rye 1993): from a magmatic-waterdominated early stage of (alunite) acid-sulfate
alteration (Ju; Fig. 8), through main ore-stage
fluid-inclusion waters (Jut and JU2), to meteoricwater-dominated late ore-stage fluid-inclusion
waters (Ju3). In addition to Julcani, the ore fluids
at Summitville (Rye et al 1990; Rye 1993) and
Rodalquilar (Arribas et al. 1995a) also have lower
5 1 8 0 values than those of acidic alteration fluids,
indicating greater dilution by groundwater (Fig.
8). The extent of an O-shift in the groundwater
component due to water-rock interaction, as
typically seen in some neutral-pH geothermal
systems, is not known, but such a shift is not
indicated by the Julcani data.
The overall oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope
437
A. Arribas, Jr.
A1<2
(Jannase/a/. 1990).
A feature of HS deposits which has been
noted commonly is a change in the hydrothermal
system with time towards a fluid that is less
reactive and less oxidized. To explain this
observation, Berger & Henley (1989) suggested
that precious-metal mineralization in HS deposits
is introduced by later incursion of low-sulfidation
geothermal-type fluids into previously formed HS
alteration zones of magmatic origin. This model
GENETIC MODELS
requires coincidence of two distinctively different
hydrothermal fluids along the same plumbing
Genetic models for HS deposits have been
system. These unusual conditions seem to have
presented recently by various workers. A selection
occurred at the Kelly mine, Philippines (Comsti et
that emphasizes the variations in conceptual
al. 1990; Aoki et al. 1993) and Masupa Ria,
models includes Sillitoe (1989), Berger & Henley
Indonesia (Thompson et al. 1994), where two
(1989), Giggenbach (1992a), Rye (1993),
distinct, overlapping hydrothermal assemblages
Hedenquist et al. (1994a, which incorporates
were identified. In these two deposits the known
White 1991), and Sillitoe (this volume). In
precious-metal mineralization occurred during the
common among these models is an evolution from
low-sulfidation stage. However, mineralization in
a main stage of acidic wallrock alteration (early) HS deposits does not occur under the reduced
to a main ore-forming stage (late). The differences
conditions of low-sulfidation-type geothermal
among the models mentioned above are relatively
fluids (see Fig. 3 in Hedenquist this volume).
minor and lie primarily in the details of the oreThe initial requirement for formation of a HS
forming stage. Most of these models consider the deposit is emplacement of an oxidized, typically
origin of HS deposits in the broad context of
intermediate calc-alkaline magma to within a few
metallic deposits formed within magmatickilometers of the paleosurface. Rather than a
hydrothermal systems {i.e., including lowspatially and temporally isolated magmatic event,
sulfidation deposits, porphyry-type deposits, the subvolcanic intrusions seems to represent an
replacement skarn deposits, and even submarine
"aborted" late-stage feeder of a comagmatic
volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits). This
central-vent volcano or a maar - diatreme or flowaspect is important from a genetic perspective, as
dome complex. Within the ascending, crysit is unwise to place strict limits between these tallizing, and cooling magma, a hydrothermal
ore-forming environments (Hedenquist &
fluid phase exsolves and concentrates ore-forming
Lowenstern 1994). Similarly, the two stages
metals and volatiles. Because of magma
described here should be considered as successive convection and concentration of the magmatic
phases of an evolving hydrothermal system, in
fluid phase in the roof of the intrusion, the total
most cases, without sharp boundaries between
amount of water and metals available for a
them. For example, much of the precious-metal
potential suprajacent hydrothermal system far
mineralization at Pueblo Viejo was directly
exceeds that of the comparatively small stock that
associated with acidic alteration (Muntean et al.
reaches the shallow depth (Lowenstern 1994;
1990). In contrast, crosscutting relations at Julcani = Shinohara & Kazahaya this volume). At the
are unambiguous; the early stage of acid-sulfate
confining pressure of a few kilometers depth (500alteration is separated from the base- and
1000 bars), and given the amount of water in the
precious-metal veins by emplacement of
type of magmas associated with HS deposits, the
tourmaline-pyrite-quartz-altered breccia dykes
magmatic fluid will separate into two aqueous
(Shelnutt & Noble 1985; Deen 1990). El Indio
phases, a low-salinity vapor and a hypersaline
also shows clear crosscutting relations between
liquid (Fournier 1987; Hedenquist & Lowenstern
early enargite veins and later gold-quartz veins
1994; Shinohara 1994), with chloride-complexed
(commonly <50 \ixn) pseudocubic alunite with
subordinate jarosite, kaolinite, and hydrated
amorphous silica (Arribas et al. 1995a). In the
western United States, formation of supergene
alunite at ~10 Ma at Goldfield and Paradise Peak
(Table 3) seems to be related to regional tectonic
episodes (e.g., Arehart et al. 1992). For an account
of supergene effects in deposits of the Chilean
Andes, see Sillitoe (1991a).
439
A. Arribas, Jr.
ORE DEPOSITION
ALTERATION
B2
Heated ground- ..
waters
Magmatic vapors
(incl., S 0 2 . H a )
Magmatic
brine
Absorption of
high-P vapor
f
Vuggy silica
Alunite
Kaolinite
Sericite
K-silicate
Magmatic
brine
7*
j Heated
groundwater
Possible
Cu{Au)
Figure 9. Model showing the two main stages of evolution of HS deposits. A: Early stage of advanced argillic
alteration dominated by magmatic vapor. B, and B2: Two genetic hypotheses proposed for the stage of ore
formation. B, = absorption of high-pressure vapor by entrainment in meteoric water cell at depth to explain lowsalinity, mixed magmatic-meteoric ore fluid (Hedenquist this volume). B2 = ascending metal-bearing magmatic
brine with shallow cooler meteoric waters to explain high-salinity, mixed magmatic-meteoric ore fluid (White
1991; Rye 1993; Hedenquist et al. 1994a).
metals strongly partitioned into the high-density
liquid (Hemley et al 1992; Hedenquist this
volume).
At this early intrusive stage, several modes of
magma degassing may occur which will lead to
different
styles of magmatic-hydrothermal
systems with or without associated mineralization
(Giggenbach 1992a). To form the styles of
alteration and the spatial distribution of alteration
zones characteristic of HS deposits, degassing
must be very efficient, with oxidized hightemperature magmatic vapor reaching shallow
depths with little reaction with rock or dilution by
groundwaters at greater depths (Fig. 9A). Dilution
with groundwaters is unlikely because the high
temperatures surrounding the cooling magma
cause meteoric water cells to be displaced from
the magma core (Fig. 9A). In addition to the
relatively low pressure at the depth of intrusion,
effective degassing will be favored by the
structural factors characteristic of HS deposits,
such as fractured volcanic domes or roots of
domes, caldera or diatreme faults, volcanic vent
contacts, and active faults with a dilational
component.
As the high-temperature magmatic vapor
440
A. Arribas, Jr.
vapor is required for transport of sufficient
amounts of metals (Hedenquist this volume;
Sillitoe this volume). These conditions are
consistent with the low salinity of the Lepanto and
El Indio fluid-inclusion data. Mineral deposition
in this case may be caused by mixing with cooler
groundwater or by boiling, possibly resulting from
the abrupt pressure reduction associated with
hydrothermal brecciation.
In the "hypersaline liquid transport"
hypothesis (Fig. 9B2), following waning of the
magmatic vapor plume responsible for early
alteration, the lithostatic-pressured system fractures and the metal-bearing hypersaline liquid
ascends into the porous leached zone (Deen 1990;
White 1991; Rye 1993; Hedenquist et al. 1994a).
The dominant ore-forming mechanism in this case
is mixing of the metal-bearing hypersaline liquid
with cooler groundwaters at the site of deposition,
not at depth in the meteoric water convection cell.
This hypothesis has been proposed to explain the
high salinities recorded by inclusion fluids in
several deposits (e.g., Julcani).
A part of the ore-forming components may
originate from leaching of wallrock, but both
hypotheses agree on a dominantly magmatic
source for metals, with an increase in the meteoric
water component with time. The principal
difference between the two hypotheses is in the
nature of the magmatic phase responsible for
transporting the metals into the epithermal
environment, and in the site of meteoric water
dilution. A potential contributor to ore formation
in HS deposits involves remobilization of the
metals by a meteoric-water-dominated hydrothermal system from a subjacent K-silicate
assemblage and porphyry-type protore, such as
that which may have formed close to the intrusion
(e.g., Brimhall 1980). This mechanism, however,
has not been suggested as the main ore-forming
process in any of the deposits reviewed in this
study.
The three models for formation of HS ores,
assimilated here from the literature, are not
mutually exclusive; on the contrary, they may
occur in the same HS deposit as the magmatichydrothermal system evolves, with complexities
arising from multiple intrusions, variations in
depth of emplacement, and changes in the local
447
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Valuable insight on various aspects related to
this exciting ore-forming environment was gained
through discussions and field work with M. Aoki,
A. Arribas Sr., C. G. Cunningham, J. Hedenquist,
W.C. Kelly, R. O. Rye, J. J. Rytuba,and T. A.
Steven. Earlier versions of this manuscript
benefited from constructive reviews by Phil
Bethke, Andrew Campbell, Anne Thompson, John
Thompson, Peter Vikre, Noel White, and Jeff
Hedenquist, who also provided abundant
documentation on HS deposits worldwide.
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451
A. Arribas, Jr.
I8
452
APPENDIX 1
Summary of data and references used to compile
Figures 3, 7, and 8.
Figure 3
K 2 0 versus Si0 2 variation diagram. The name
of lithologic units analyzed, number of samples
(w), and data sources are given: Chinkuashih,
dacite n - 18 (Chen & Huh 1982); Choquelimpie,
Choquelimpie volcanic complex (5 units), n = 20
(Gropper et al. 1991; chemical data for the
feldspar porphyries genetically related to
mineralization are not available); Goldfield,
rhyodacite n = 6 (Ransome 1909; Ashley, unpub.
analyses in Sillitoe 1993); El Indio, Cerro de las
Tortolas Formation, n = 15 (Maksaev et al. 1984;
in Sillitoe 1993); Julcani, dacite and rhyodacite, n
= 10 (Petersen et al. 1977); Laurani, Laurani
volcanic and intrusive rocks, n = 10 (Jimenez et
al. 1993); Lepanto, Imbanguila dacite and least
altered quartz diorite porphyry, n = 4 (A. Arribas,
unpub. data); Motomboto, porphyritic intrusions,
n = 10 (Perello 1994, and written comm. 1995);
Nansatsu, Upper Formation and hornblende
andesite in Middle Volcanic rock, n = 2 (E. Izawa,
written comm. 1995); Paradise Peak, average of
Younger andesites, n = 31 (John et al. 1991);
Rodalquilar, hornblende andesite, dacite tuff, and
rhyolite domes, n - 1 (Arribas et al. 1995a);
Summitville, Fisher quartz latite, n = 7 (Steven &
Ratte 1960).
Figure 7
Range of 534S (/oo) values. Given below are
the number of measurements for sulfides ("H2S),
sulfates (so4) sulfide-sulfate mineral pairs
(A34S)> and references: Lepanto, H2S = 52, s 0 4
= 38 (Hedenquist & Garcia 1990; J. Hedenquist &
M. Aoki, unpub. data); Chinkuashih, wH2S = 4>
n S04 = 2, A34S = 2 (Folinsbee et al. 1972);
Nansatsu, H 2 S = 6, n S o 4 = 9 (Hedenquist et al.
1994a); Summitville, H2S = >11, n S 0 4 = 17,
"A34S = 7 (Rye et al. 1990); Goldfield, H2s = 16,
n S04 = 16, A34S = 7 (Jensen et al. 1971; Vikre
1989); Pueblo Viejo, H2s = 19, n S04 = 7, n^s =
4 (Vennemann et al. 1993); Julcani, H2S = l g3
453
A. Arribas, Jr.
"so 4 = 55, A34S = 7 (Deen 1990); El Indio, nH?s =
U> "SO4 = 3 (Jannas et al. 1990), Rodalquilar,
H2S = 44, nS04 = 1 1 , A 3 4 S - 4 (Arribas et al.
1995a). Temperatures for Chinkuashih were
calculated using the 4 S/ S data from Folinsbee et
al. (1972) and more recent fractionation equations.
Sulfide-sulfate mineral temperatures higher than
350 C were documented only at depth at
Summitville (T = 390 C, -900 m below the
present surface; Rye et al. 1990) and Lepanto (7" =
420 C at the 700-m level, immediately above the
FSE porphyry copper deposit; Hedenquist &
Garcia 1990). On the basis of phase equilibria, the
sulfide/sulfate values for the Pueblo Viejo stage 1
and stage 2 mineralization were estimated by
Muntean et al. (1990) to be about 3 and 35,
respectively.
Figure 8
8D
versus
8 O
variation
diagram.
Explanation: Go = Goldfield, hypogene alunite, n
= 1 (Rye et al. 1992); Ju = Julcani, alunite (/? = 6),
Jut = average of main-stage ore fluids in
wolframite, enargite, tetrahedrite, and galena fluid
inclusions, Ju2 = average of main-stage ore fluids
in sphalerite and chalcopyrite, Ju3 = late-stage ore
fluids in barite, siderite, and botroidal pyrite (Deen
1990); Le = Lepanto, alunite, n = 2 (Y. Matsuhisa
& J. Hedenquist, unpub. data); Nansatsu district:
Ka = Kasuga, alunite n = 1, Iw = Iwato, alunite n
1 ft
454