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In the vertebral canal, the epidural space is real, since dura is not fused to the adjacent vertebral
periosteum. The epidural space contains loose areolar connective tissue, semiliquid fat, lymphatics,
arteries, an extensive plexus of veins, and the spinal nerve roots as they exit the dural sac and pass
through the intervertebral foramina. This is the locale where epidural injections are made.
Dural folds
In a few locations, the dura mater forms folds. There are three main dural reflections or folds:
(i) falx cerebri: between cerebral hemispheres
(ii) tentorium cerebelli: between cerebellum and cerebral cortex
(iii) falx cerebelli: between cerebellar hemispheres
Ventricular system
The brain develops from cells that initially line a hollow tube. The lumen of this tube persists into
adulthood, in a much reduced form, as the ventricular system of the brain, in which cerebrospinal fluid
is secreted and circulates.
Below are some of the major brain structures they you need to be able to identify in order to locate the
main parts of the ventricular system.
There are four main ventricles which are connected by small diameter canals:
(i) Two lateral ventricles (ventricles I and II): follow a long C-shaped course through all lobes of
cerebral hemispheres. They each have 5 parts:
anterior horn: in frontal lobe, anterior to interventricular foramen.
body: in frontal and parietal lobes, extending posteriorly to splenium of corpus callosum.
posterior horn: projecting into occipital lobe.
inferior horn: curving down and forward into temporal lobe.
collateral trigone: near splenium of corpus callosum where body, posterior & inferior horns meet.
(ii) Third ventricle: forms a narrow slit between the left and right thalamus and hypothalamus and
occupies most of the midline of the diencephalon. Interthalamic adhesion breaks the continuity,
connecting the two thalami. The posterior end of the third ventricle near the mamillary bodies narrows to
become the mesencephalic (cerebral) aqueduct, which traverses midbrain. Anteriorly, the third ventricle
communicates with the lateral ventricles via the interventricular foramina (Foramina of Munro).
(iii) Fourth ventricle: is sandwiched between cerebellum and pons and the rostral medulla. Its floor is
called the rhomboid fossa and its roof is formed by the superior and inferior medullary vela of the
cerebellum.
The lateral and third ventricles are closed cavities (and do not house the pineal gland which lies in
subarachnoid space over the midbrain), communicating only with other parts of ventricular system. In
contrast, there are 3 apertures in fourth ventricles through which the ventricular system communicates
freely with subarachnoid space. These are the foramen of Magendie (median aperture) and foramina of
Luschka (x2, lateral apertures).
Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear fluid that is a blood filtrate. It is low in cells and protein and it differs from
blood plasma in having excess Na and Mg and little K and Ca ions. Further, these concentrations remain
stable during the day, in face of plasma changes. This feature serves to provide a stable environment for
neurones to function properly.
CSF fills the ventricles and the subarachnoid space. It serves at least three vital functions:
(i) provides physical support and buoyancy - makes the brain about 1/30th of its actual weight (less than
50 grams)
(ii) regulates the chemical environment of the CNS (removes wastes)
(iii) can provide chemical communication i.e. neurochemicals can be released into the CSF and travel
around the brain and act at regions at a considerable distance
CSF is made primarily in choroid plexus in the ventricles (80%) although some may be formed by
ependyma cells of brain, those that line the ventricular walls. If an overproducing choroid plexus is
removed, CSF is still made - the bulk by ependyma. The choroid plexus is found in all areas of the
ventricular system, except for the anterior and posterior horns of the lateral ventricles. This is important
clinically because if inserting catheters for dye injection (for stereotactic surgery) or measuring pressure,
then areas of the ventricles that do not have choroid plexus would be best.
The choroid plexuses receives a large blood supply - about 10 times greater per gram that of the cerebral
cortex. They produce about 500ml of CSF is made per day and the entire volume of brain CSF is replaced
about 4 times per day. Importantly from a clinical point of view, there is no feedback system limiting its
production. Hence any disruption/blockage to the drainage system may lead to a "ballooning" of the
ventricles and a rise in intracranial pressure.
CSF Cisterns
In a number of places a wide interval exists between the pia and arachnoid mater called the
subarachnoid cisterns. There are several:
(i) cerebellomedullary (cisterna magna): space between inferior surface of cerebellum and dorsal
surface of medulla.
(ii) pontine: space around anterior surface of pons: continuous caudally with cerebellomedullary
(iii) interpeduncular: between cerebral peduncles, which contains Circle of Willis
(iv) superior cistern (cistern of great cerebral vein of Galen): a radiological landmark above midbrain.
Occupies interval between splenium of corpus callosum and superior surface of cerebellum. Contains
great cerebral vein of Galen and pineal gland and continues rostrally into transverse fissure.
The term cisterna ambiens is sometimes applied to group of cisterns which completely encircle midbrain.
As this part of subarachnoid space it is clearly visible on a normal CT scan.
CSF Circulation
Within the system of ventricles, CSF tends to circulate from the lateral ventricles through the Foramen of
Munro into the 3rd ventricle, from where it circulates downwards through the cerebral aqueduct into the
fourth ventricle. From the 4th ventricle most CSF passes into the subarachnoid space, via the Foramen
of Magendie and Luschka, into the cisterns surrounding the cerebellum (cerebellomedullary cistern).
From here CSF circulates
- downwards and around the spinal cord
- anteriorly and upwards into the pontine and interpeduncular cisterns
- upwards and posteriorly, around the cerebellum and into the cistern posterior to the midbrain
CSF Reabsorption
CSF is resorbed into the circulation by passing into the arachnoid villi (which pierce the dura mater) and
diffusing, under hydrostatic pressure, into the dural venous sinuses. These arachnoid villi clump together
to form the arachnoid granulations which are located extensively within the superior sagittal sinus.
The flow of CSF through the arachnoid granulations is from the subarachnoid space into the dorsal
venous sinuses, never the other way. If so, there is a disruption in the function of the arachnoid
granulations.
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Spina Bifida
Spina Bifida is a disorder that involves an open vertebral column (bifida from Latin, meaning "split in
two"). It is commonly classified into 3 main types:
(i) Spina bifida cystica - myelomeningocele: the spinal cord, spinal roots and meninges protrude
forming a sac or cyst. This defect usually occurs in the lumbosacral region. It is due to failure of the
neural tube to close in the posterior neuropore region. This normally occurs during week 4 of gestation.
Since the neural tube is open in the affected region it will leak cerebrospinal fluid.
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The cause of myelomeningocele is largely unknown but appears to be related to folate in some way.
Maternal folate supplementation prior to closure of the neural tube (weeks 3-4 of gestation) appears to
reduce the risk of the malformation by about 80%.
Many children born with a myelomeningocele will subsequently develop hydrocephalus. The abnormal
part of the spinal cord appears to be tethered to the vertebral column in the lumbosacral region. In late
gestation the vertebral column increases in length at a faster rate than the spinal cord so if there is
tethering the spinal cord is pulled down. This has the effect of pulling the medulla down into the foramen
magnum which compresses the medulla and cerebellum and can close the median and lateral apertures.
The trapped CSF then increases in pressure and can hydrocephalus.
(ii) Spina bifida occulta: this is the mildest form of spina bifida and occurs in ~10% of individuals. Only
the arch of a single vertebra is open usually L5 or S1. The site is often marked externally by a tuft of hair,
a pigmented nevus or a dimple. It is not associated with any clinical features. Embryologically it is
thought to occur some time during weeks 5-12 of gestation and is probably due to failure of the vertebral
precursor cells to migrate around the spinal cord. The spinal cord is normal.
(iii) Spina bifida cystica meningocele: the vertebral defect is similar to that seen in spina bifida occulta
only several vertebrae are usually involved. As a result the dura and arachnoid protrude forming a fluidfilled sac. It is a rare malformation and is thought to occur during weeks 5-12 of gestation and is probably
due to failure of the vertebral precursor cells to migrate around the spinal cord. The spinal cord is normal.
References
Cross section of the spine: http://hcd2.bupa.co.uk/fact_sheets/html/epidural.html
Meninges: www.rci.rutgers.edu/~uzwiak/AnatPhys/Neuroanatomy.html
The meninges: www.csuchico.edu/~pmccaff/syllabi/CMSD%20320/362unit3.html
Nieuwenhuys R, J Voggd, C van Huijzen (1985). The Human Nervous System, Springer 3rd Ed, Berlin.
Ventricles of the brain: http://universe-review.ca/I10-80-ventricles.jpg