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Biological
Reaction Engineering
Dynamic Modelling Fundamentals
with Simulation Examples
Second, Completely Revised Edition
WILEYVCH
WILEY-VCH GmbH & Co. KGaA
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this
publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available in the
Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>.
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
V
XI
MODELLING PRINCIPLES
1.1
FUNDAMENTALS OF MODELLING
9
7.7.7
Use of Models for Understanding, Design and Optimization of Bioreactors 9
1.1.2
General Aspects of the Modelling Approach
10
1.1.3
General Modelling Procedure.....
72
1.1.4
Simulation Tools
75
7.7.5
Teaching Applications
75
1.2
DEVELOPMENT AND MEANING OF DYNAMC DIFFEREOTTAL BALANCES
16
1.3
FORMULATION OF BALANCE EQUATIONS
..21
7.5.7
Types of Mass Balance Equations
27
1.3.2
Balancing Procedure
23
1.3.2.1 Case A. Continuous Stirred Tank Bioreactor
24
1.3.2.2 CaseB. Tubular Reactor
24
1.3.2.3 Case C. River with Eddy Current
25
1.3.3
Total Mass Balances
33
1.3.4
Component Balances for Reacting Systems
34
1.3.4.1 Case A. Constant Volume Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
35
1.3.4.2 Case B. Semi-continuous Reactor with Volume Change
37
1.3.4.3 Case C. Steady-State Oxygen Balancing in Fermentation
38
1.3.4.4 Case D. Inert Gas Balance to Calculate Flow Rates
39
7.5.5
Stoichiometry, Elemental Balancing and the Yield Coefficient Concept.. 40
1.3.5.1 Simple Stoichiometry
40
1.3.5.2 Elemental Balancing
42
L3.5.3 Mass Yield Coefficients
44
VI
Table of Contents
1.3.5.4
1.3.6
1.3.6.1
1.3.6.2
1.3.7
1.3.6.3
45
46
46
47
49
52
55
BIOLOGICAL KINETICS
.....55
.....56
57
....58
60
63
67
3.1
ENZYME KINETICS
68
3.1.1
Michaelis-Menten Equation
68
3.1.2
Other Enzyme Kinetic Models
73
3.1.3
Deactivation
76
3.1.4
Sterilization
76
3.2
SIMPLE MICROBIAL KINETICS
77
3.2.1
Basic Growth Kinetics
77
3.2.2
Substrate Inhibition of Growth
80
3.2.3
Product Inhibition
81
3.2.4
Other Expressions for Specific Growth Rate
81
3.2.5
Substrate Uptake Kinetics
83
3.2.6
Product Formation
85
3.2.7
Interacting Microorganisms
....86
3.2.7.1 Case A. Modelling of Mutualism Kinetics.....
88
3.2.7.2 Case B. Kinetics of Anaerobic Degradation
89
3.3
STRUCTURED KINETIC MODELS
..........91
3.3.1
Case Studies
93
3.3.1.1 Case C. Modelling Synthesis of Poly-B-hydroxybutyric Acid (PHB)
93
3.3.1.2 Case D. Modelling of Sustained Oscillations in Continuous Culture
94
3.3.1.3 Case E. Growth and Product Formation of an Oxygen-Sensitive Bacillussubtilis Culture
97
4
BIOREACTOR MODELLING
4.1
GENERAL BALANCES FOR TANK-TYPE BIOLOGICAL REACTORS
4.1.1
The Batch Fermenter.
4.1.2
The Chemostat
4.1.3
The Fed Batch Fermenter
4.1.4
Biomass Productivity
4.1.5
Case Studies
101
101
103
104
1 06
109
109
Table of Contents
4.1.5.1 Case A. Continuous Fermentation with Biomass Recycle
4.1.5.2 Case B. Enzymatic Tanks-in-series Bioreactor System
4.2
MODELLING TUBULAR PLUG FLOW BIOREACTORS
4.2.1
Steady-State Balancing
4.2.2
Unsteady-State Balancing for Tubular Bioreactors
5
MASS TRANSFER
VII
110
112
113
113
775
117
5.1
MASS TRANSFER IN BIOLOGICAL REACTORS
117
5.7.7
Gas Absorption with Bioreaction in the Liquid Phase
777
5.1.2
Liquid-Liquid Extraction with Bioreaction in One Phase
778
5.1.3
Surface Biocatalysis
778
5.7.4
Diffusion and Reaction in Porous Biocatalyst
779
5.2
INTERPHASEGAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER
119
5.3
GENERAL OXYGEN BALANCES FOR GAS-LIQUID TRANSFER
123
5.3.1
Application of Oxygen Balances
725
5.3.1.1 Case A. Steady-State Gas Balance for the Biological Uptake Rate
125
5.3.1.2 Case B. Determination of KLa Using the Sulfite Oxidation Reaction
126
5.3.1.3 Case C. Determination of Kj^a by a Dynamic Method
126
5.3.1.4 Case D. Determination of Oxygen Uptake Rates by a Dynamic Method
128
5.3.1.5 Case E. Steady-State Liquid Balancing to Determine Oxygen Uptake Rate.. 129
5.3.1.6 Case F. Steady-State Deoxygenated Feed Method for KJJI
130
5.3.1.7 Case G. Biological Oxidation in an Aerated Tank
131
5.3.1.8 Case H. Modelling Nitrification in a Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactor
133
5.4
MODELS FOR OXYGEN TRANSFER IN LARGE SCALE BIOREACTORS
137
5.4.1
Case Studies for Large Scale Bioreactors
7 39
5.4.1.1 Case A.Model for Oxygen Gradients in a Bubble Column Bioreactor
139
5.4.1.2 Case B.Model for a Multiple Impeller Fermenter
140
6
146
149
151
754
755
757
157
157
161
161
163
163
764
765
VIII
Table of Contents
7.2.4
Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller
7.2.5
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller
7.3
CONTROLLER TUNING
7.3.1
Trial and Error Method
7.3:2
Ziegler-Nichols Method.
7.3.3
Cohen-Coon Controller Settings
7.3.4
Ultimate Gain Method
7.4
ADVANCED CONTROL STRATEGIES
7.4.1
Cascade Control
7.4.2
Feed Forward Control
7.4.3
Adaptive Control
7.4.4
Sampled-Data Control Systems
7.5
CONCEPTS FOR BIOPROCESS CONTROL
7.5.7
Selection of a Control Strategy
7.5.2
Methods of Designing and Testing the Strategy
REFERENCES
REFERENCES CITED IN PART I
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING
PART II
166
167
169
769
769
170
777
172
772
173
774
774
175
776
7 78
181
181
184
193
8.1
INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES
193
8.7.7
Batch Fermentation (BATFERM)
793
8.7.2
ChemostatFermentation (CHEMO)
799
8.1.3
Fed Batch Fermentation (FEDBAT)
204
8.2
BATCH REACTORS
209
8.2.7
Kinetics of Enzyme Action (MMKINET)
209
8.2.2
Lineweaver-Burk Plot (LINEWEAV)
.....272
8.2.3
Oligosaccharide Production in Enzymatic Lactose Hydrolysis (OLIGO) 215
8.2.4
Structured Model for PHB Production (PHB)
....279
8.3
FED BATCH REACTORS
224
8.3.1
Variable Volume Fermentation (VARVOL and VARVOLD)
224
8.3.2
Penicillin Fermentation Using Elemental Balancing (PENFERM)
230
8.3.3
Ethanol Fed Batch Diauxic Fermentation (ETHFERM)
240
8.3.4
Repeated Fed Batch Culture (REPFED)
245
8.3.5
Repeated Medium Replacement Culture (REPLCUL)
249
8.3.6
Penicillin Production in a Fed Batch Fermenter (PENOXY)
253
8.4
CONTINUOUS REACTORS
257
8.4.7
Steady-State Chemostat (CHEMOSTA)
257
8.4.2
Continuous Culture with Inhibitory Substrate (CONINHIB)
267
8.4.3
Nitrification in Activated Sludge Process (ACTNITR)
267
Table of Contents
IX
8.4.4
Tubular Enzyme Reactor (ENZTUBE)
272
8.4.5
Dual Substrate Limitation (DUAL)
275
8.4.6
Dichloromethane in a Biofllm Fluidized Sand Bed (DCMDEG)
280
8.4.7
Two-Stage Chemostat with Additional Stream (TWOSTAGE)
286
8.4.8
Two Stage Culture with Product Inhibition (STAGED)
290
8.4.9
Fluidized Bed Recycle Reactor (FBR)
295
8.4.10
Nitrification in a Fluidized Bed Reactor (NITBED)...
299
8.4.11
Continuous Enzymatic Reactor (ENZCON)
305
8.4.12
Reactor Cascade with Deactivating Enzyme (DEACTENZ)
308
8.4.13
Production ofPHB in a Two-Tank Reactor Process (PHBTWO)
314
8.5
OXYGEN UPTAKE SYSTEMS
318
8.5.1
Aeration of a Tank Reactor for Enzymatic Oxidation (OXENZ)
318
8.5.2
Gas and Liquid Oxygen Dynamics in a Continuous Fermenter (INHIB) 321
8.5.3
Batch Nitrification with Oxygen Transfer (NITRIF)
327
8.5.4
Oxygen Uptake and Aeration Dynamics (OXDYN)
331
8.5.5
Oxygen Electrode for Kia (KLADYN, KLAFIT and ELECTFIT)
335
8.5.6
Biofiltration Column with Two Inhibitory Substrates (BIOFILTDYN). 342
8.5.7
Optical Sensing in Microtiter Plates (TITERDYN and T1TERB1O)
349
8.6
CONTROLLED REACTORS
354
8.6.1
Feedback Control of a Water Heater (TEMPCONT)
354
8.6.2
Temperature Control of Fermentation (FERMTEMP)
358
8.6.3
Turbidostat Response (TURBCON)
363
8.6.4
Control of a Continuous Bioreactor, Inhibitory Substrate (CONTCON)367
8.7
DIFFUSION SYSTEMS
....371
8.7.1
Double Substrate Biofilm Reaction (BIOFILM)
377
8.7.2
Steady-State Split Boundary Solution (ENZSPLIT)....
377
8.7.3
Dynamic Porous Diffusion and Reaction (ENZDYN)....
383
8.7.4
Oxygen Diffusion in Animal Cells (CELLDIFF)
388
8.7.5
Biofilm in a Nitrification Column System (NITBEDFILM)
393
8.8
MULTI-ORGANISM SYSTEMS
..400
8.8.1
Two Bacteria with Opposite Substrate Preferences (COMMENSA)
400
8.8.2
Competitive Assimilation and Commensalism (COMPASM)
406
8.8.3
Stability of Recombinant Microorganisms (PLASMID)
411
8.8.4
Predator-Prey Population Dynamics (MIXPOP)
417
8.8.5
Competition Between Organisms (TWOONE)
422
8.8.6
Competition between Two Microorganisms in a Biofilm (FILMPOP). 425
8.8.7
Model for Anaerobic Reactor Activity Measurement (ANAEMEAS).... 433
8.8.8
Oscillations in Continuous Yeast Culture (YEASTOSC)
441
8.8.9
Mammalian Cell Cycle Control (MAMMCELLCYCLE)
445
8.9
MEMBRANE AND CELL RETENTION REACTORS
451
8.9.1
Cell Retention Membrane Reactor (MEMINH)
451
8.9.2
Fermentation with Pervaporation (SUBTILIS)
455
8.9.3
Two Stage Fermentor With Cell Recycle (LACMEMRECYC)
464
8.9.4
Hollow Fiber Enzyme Reactor for Lactose Hydrolysis (LACREACT). 470
8.9.5
Animal Cells in a Fluidized Bed Reactor (ANIMALIMMOB)
477
Table of Contents
483
488
497
11 INDEX
499
Preface
Our goal in this textbook is to teach, through modelling and simulation, the
quantitative description of bioreaction processes to scientists and engineers. In
working through the many simulation examples, you, the reader, will learn to
apply mass and energy balances to describe a variety of dynamic bioreactor
systems. For your efforts, you will be rewarded with a greater understanding of
biological rate processes. The many example applications will help you to gain
confidence in modelling, and you will find that the simulation language used,
Berkeley Madonna, is a powerful tool for developing your own simulation
models. Your new abilities will be valuable for designing experiments, for
extracting kinetic data from experiments, in designing and optimizing
biological reaction systems, and for developing bioreactor control strategies.
This book is based on part of our successful course, "Biological Reaction
Engineering", which has been held annually in the Swiss mountain resort of
Braunwald for the past twenty five years and which is now known, throughout
European biotechnology circles as the "Braunwald Course". More details can
be found at our website www.braunwaldcourse.ch. Modelling is often
unfamiliar to biologists and chemists, who nevertheless need modelling
techniques in their work. The general field of biochemical reaction engineering
is one that requires a very close interdisciplinary interaction between applied
microbiologists, biochemists, biochemical engineers, engineers and managers; a
large degree of collaboration and mutual understanding is therefore important.
Professional microbiologists and biochemists often lack the formal training
needed to analyze laboratory kinetic data in its most meaningful sense, and
they may sometimes experience difficulty in participating in engineering
design decisions and in communicating with engineers. These are just the very
types of activity required in the multi-disciplinary field of biotechnology.
Chemical engineering's greatest strength is its well-developed modelling
concepts, based on mass and energy balances, combined with rate processes.
Biochemical engineering is a discipline closely related to conventional
chemical engineering, in that it attempts to apply physical principles to the
solution of biological problems. This approach may be applied to the
measurement and interpretation of laboratory kinetic data or as well to the
design of large-scale fermentation, enzymatic or waste treatment processes. The
necessary interdisciplinary cooperation requires the biological scientists and
chemical engineers involved to have at least a partial understanding of each
other's field. The purpose of this book is to provide the mathematical tools
necessary for the quantitative analysis of biological kinetics and other
biological process phenomena. More generally, the mathematical modelling
XII
Preface
Preface
XIII
XIV
Preface
In order to achieve this aim, the main emphasis of the text is placed on an
understanding of the physical meaning and significance of each term in the
model equations. The aim in presenting the relevant theory is thus not to be
exhaustive, but simply to provide a basic introduction to the theory required for
a proper understanding of the modelling methodology.
Chapter 1 deals with the basic concepts of modelling, the basic principles,
development and significance of differential balances and the formulation of
mass and energy balance relationships. Emphasis is given to physical
understanding. The text is accompanied by example cases to illustrate the
application of the material.
Chapter 2 serves to introduce the varied operational characteristics of the
various types of bioreactors and their differing modes of operation, with the
aim of giving a qualitative insight into the quantitative behavior of the
computer simulation examples.
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to enzyme and microbial kinetics. A
particular feature of the kinetic treatment is the emphasis on the use of more
complex structured models. Such models require much more consideration to
be given to the biology of the system during the modelling procedure, but
despite their added complexity can nevertheless also be solved with relative
ease. They serve as a reminder that biological reactions are really infinitely
complex.
Chapter 4 is used to derive general mass balance equations, covering all types
of fermentation tank reactors. These generalized equations are then simplified
to show their application to the differing modes of stirred tank bioreactor
operation, discussed previously and which are illustrated by the simulation
examples.
Chapter 5 explains the basic theory of interfacial mass transfer as applied to
fermentation systems and shows how equations for rates of mass transfer can be
combined with mass balances, for both liquid and gas phases. A particular
extension of this approach is the combination of transfer rate and material
balance equations to models of increased geometrical complexity, as
represented by large-scale air-lift and multiple-impeller fermenters.
Chapter 6 treats the cases of external diffusion to a solid surface and internal
diffusion combined with biochemical reaction, with practical application to
immobilized biocatalyst and biofilm systems. Emphasized here is the
conceptual ease of handling a complex reaction in a solid biocatalyst matrix.
The resulting sets of tractable differential-difference equations are solved by
simulation techniques in several examples.
Chapter 7 describes the importance of control and summarizes control
strategies used for bioreaction processes. Here the fundamentals of feedback
control systems and their characteristic responses are discussed. This material
forms the basis for performing the many recommended control exercises in the
simulation examples. It also will allow the reader-simulator to develop his or
her own control models and simulation programs.
Preface
XV
Part II, "Dynamic Bioprocess Simulation Examples and the Berkeley Madonna
simulation language" comprises Chapter 8, with the computer simulation
examples, and Chapter 9, which gives the instructions for using Madonna, Each
example in Chapter 8 includes a description of its physical system, the model
equations, that were developed in Part I, and a list of suggested exercises. The
programs are found on the CD-ROM. These example exercises can be carried
out in order to explore the model system in detail, and it is suggested that work
on the computer exercises be done in close reference to the model equations
and their physical meaning, as described in the text. The exercises, however, are
provided simply as an idea for what might be done and are by no means
mandatory or restrictive. Working through a particular example will often
suggest an interesting variation, such as a control loop, which can then be
programmed and inserted. The examples cover a wide range of application and
can easily be extended by reference to the literature. They are robust and are
well tested by a variety of undergraduate and graduate students and by also the
350 participants, or so, who have previously attended the Braunwald course. In
tackling the exercises, we hope you will soon come to share our conviction that,
besides being very useful, computer simulation is also fun to do.
For the second edition, the text was thoroughly revised and some of our
earlier, less relevant material was omitted. On the other hand, a number of new
examples resulting mainly from the authors' latest research and teaching work
were added. There was also an opportunity in this new edition to eliminate
most of the past errors and to avoid new ones as much as possible. Most
importantly, the examples have been rewritten in Berkeley Madonna, which all
of our reader-simulators will greatly appreciate.
Our book has a number of special characteristics. It will be obvious, in
reading it through, that we concentrate only on those topics of biological
reaction engineering that lend themselves to modelling and simulation and do
not attempt to cover the area completely. Our own research work is used to
illustrate theoretical points and from it many simulation examples are drawn. A
list of suggested books for supplementary reading is found at the end of
Chapter 6, together with the list of cited references. The diversity of the
simulation examples made it necessary to use separate nomenclature for each.
The symbols used in Chapters 1 - 6 are defined at the end of Part I. The
authors' four nationalities and three mother tongues, made it difficult to settle
on American or British spelling. Somehow we like "modelling" better than
"modeling".
We are confident that the book will be useful to all life scientists wishing to
obtain an understanding of biochemical engineering and also to those chemical
and biochemical engineers wanting to sharpen their modelling skills and
wishing to gain a better understanding of biochemical process phenomena. We
hope that teachers with an interest in modelling will find this to be a useful
textbook for undergraduate and graduate biochemical engineering and
biotechnological courses.
XVI
Preface
Acknowledgements
A major acknowledgement should be made to the excellent pioneering texts of
R. G. E. Franks (1967 and 1972) and also of W. L. Luyben (1973), for
inspiring our interest in digital simulation.
We are especially grateful to our students and to the past-participants of the
Braunwald course, for their assistance in the continuing development of the
course and of the material presented in this book. Continual stimulus and
assistance has also been given by our doctoral candidates, especially at the
Chemical Engineering Department, ETH-Zurich, as noted throughout the
references.
We are grateful to and have great respect for the developers of Berkeley
Madonna and hope that this new version of the book will be useful in drawing
attention to this wonderful simulation language.
Part I
Principles of
Bioreactor Modelling
Symbols
A
A
a
a
b
b
B
c
C
CP
CPR
D
D
d
d
DO
E
E
ES
f
f
F
G
G
hi
H
AH
I
I
j
K
K
KD
Units
Area
Magnitude of controller input signal
Specific area
Constant in Logistic Equation
Constant in Luedeking-Piret relation
Constant in Logistic Equation
Magnitude of controller output signal
Fraction carbon converted to biomass
Concentration
Heat capacity
Carbon dioxide production rate
Diffusivity
Dilution rate
Differential operator and diameter
Fraction carbon converted to product
Dissolved oxygen
Enzyme concentration
Ethanol
Enzyme-substrate concentration
Fraction carbon converted to CO2
Frequency in the ultimate gain method
Flow rate
Gas flow rate
Intracellular storage product
Partial molar enthalpy
Henry's Law constant
Enthalpy change
Inhibiting component concentration
Cell compartment masses
Mass flux
Mass transfer coefficient
Constant in Cohen-Coon method
Acid-base dissociation constant
m2
various
m2/m3
1/h
1/h
m3/kg h
various
kg/m3, kmol/m3
kJ/kg K, kJ/mol K
mol/h
m2/h
1/h
-, m
Nomenclature
k
Kca
kGa
KI
KLa
kLa
KM
Kp
KW
KS
L
M
m
N
N
n
n
OTR
OUR
P
P
P
R
R
R
r
fi
r
i/j
RQ
rx
S
S
s
T
T
T
L
t
Tr
U
V
V
v
max
Constant
Gas-liquid mass transfer coefficient
Gas film mass transfer coefficient
Inhibition constant
Gas-liquid mass transfer coefficient
Liquid film mass transfer coefficient
Michaelis-Menten constant
Proportional controller gain constant
Dissociation constant of water
Monod saturation coefficient
Length
Mass
Maintenance coefficient
Mass flux
Molar flow rate
Number of mols
Reaction order
Oxygen transfer rate
Oxygen uptake rate
Pressure
Product concentration
Output control signal
Total transfer rate
Specific rate
Ideal gas constant
Recycle flow rate
Residual active biomass
Reaction rate
Reaction rate of component i
Reaction rate of component i to j
Respiration quotient
Growth rate
Concentration of substrate
Slope of process reaction curve
Stoichiometric coefficient
Temperature
Enzyme activity
Time lag
Time
Transfer rate
Heat transfer coefficient
Volume
Flow velocity
Maximum reaction rate
Wastage stream flow rate
various
1/h
1/h
kg/m3, kmol/m3
1/h
1/h
kg/m3, kmol/m3
various
kg/m3
m
kg or mol
1/h
kg/m2 h
mol/h
_
mol/h and kg/h
mol/h and kg/h
bar
kg/m3 and g/m3
various
kg/h and mol/h
kg/kg biomass h
bar m3/ K mol
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3h, kmol/m3h
kg i/m3h
kg /m3h, kmol/m3h
mol CO2/mol 2
kg biomass/m3 h
kg/m3, kmol/m3
various
CorK
kg/m3
h, min. or s
h, min and s
mol/m3 h
kJ/m2 C h
m3
m/h
kmol/m3 h
m3/h
Nomenclature
w
X
Y
Yi
y
Z
Mass fraction
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Yield of i from j
Mol fraction in gas
Length variable
kg/m3
kg/kg
kg i/kg j,mol i/mol j
m
Greek
8
a
8
A
O
Z
T
T
T
Controller error
Partial differential operator
Concentration difference quantity
Difference operator
Thiele Modulus
Effectiveness factor
Specific growth rate
Maximum growth rate
Stoichiometric coefficient
Density
Summation operator
Residence time
Controller time constant
Electrode time constant
various
kg/m3
1/h
1/h
kg/m3
h and s
s
s
Indices
*
Nomenclature
avg
B
Bu
CO2
d
D
D
E
E
f
G
H+
i
I
I
inert
K
K+
L
m
m
max
n
NH4
NC>2
NOs
O and O2
P
PA
PB
Q
Q/O2
Q/S
R
r
r,S
s
S
SL
Sn
tot
X
X/i
X/S
Refers to average
Refers to component B, base, backmixing, and surface position
Refers to butanediol
Refers to carbon dioxide
Refers to deactivation and death
Refers to derivative control
Refers to D-value in sterilization
Refers to electrode
Refers to energy by complete oxidation
Refers to final
Refers to gas and to cellular compartment
Refers to hydrogen ions
Refers to component i and to interface
Refers to inhibitor
Refers to integral control
Refers to inert component
Refers to cellular compartment
Refers to cations
Refers to liquid
Refers to maximum
Refers to metabolite
Refers to maximum
Refers to tank number
Refers to ammonium
Refers to nitrite
Refers to nitrate
Refer to oxygen
Refers to product
Refers to product A
Refers to product B
Refers to heat
Refers to heat-oxygen ratio
Refers to heat-substrate ratio
Refers to recycle stream
Refers to reactor
Refers to reaction of substrate
Refers to settler
Refers to substrate and surface
Refers to liquid film at solid interface
Refers to substrate n
Refers to total
Refers to biomass
Refers to biomass-component i ratio
Refers to biomass-substrate ratio
Nomenclature
Modelling Principles
1.1
Fundamentals of Modelling
1.1.1
10
1 Modelling Principles
then be used to further redefine or refine the model until good agreement is
obtained. Once the model is established it can then be used, with reasonable
confidence, to predict performance under differing process conditions, and it
can also be used for such purposes as process design, optimization and control.
An input of plant or experimental data is, of course, required in order to
establish or validate the model, but the quantity of experimental data required,
as compared to that of the empirical approach is considerably reduced. Apart
from this, the major advantage obtained, however, is the increased
understanding of the process that one obtains simply by carrying out the
modelling exercise.
These ideas are summarized below.
Empirical Approach: Measure productivity for all combinations of reactor
operating conditions, and make correlations.
- Advantage:
Little thought is necessary
- Disadvantage: Many experiments are required.
Modelling Approach: Establish a model, and design experiments to determine
the model parameters. Compare the model behavior with the experimental
measurements. Use the model for rational design, control and optimization.
- Advantage:
Fewer experiments are required, and greater understanding is
obtained.
- Disadvantage: Some strenuous thinking may be necessary.
1.1.2
11
uptake rate (qo2)> specific carbon dioxide production rate (qco2)> may also be
derived and used to provide a complete kinetic description of, say, a simple
batch fermentation.
For complex fermentations, involving product formation, the specific
product production rate (qp) is often correlated as a complex function of
fermentation conditions, e.g., stirrer speed, air flow rate, pH, dissolved oxygen
content and substrate concentration. In other cases, simple kinetic models can
also be used to describe the functional dependence of productivity on cell
density and cell growth rate.
A more detailed "structured kinetic model" may be required to give an
adequate description of the process, since cell composition may change in
response to changes in the local environment within the bioreactor. The greater
the complexity of the model, however, the greater is then the difficulty in
identifying the numerical values for the increased number of model parameters,
and one of the skills of modelling is to derive the simplest possible model that
is capable of a realistic representation of the process.
A basic use of a process model is thus to analyze experimental data and to
use this to characterize the process, by assigning numerical values to the
important process variables. The model can then also be solved with
appropriate numerical data values and the model predictions compared with
actual practical results. This procedure is known as simulation and may be
used to confirm that the model and the appropriate parameter values are
"correct". Simulations, however, can also be used in a predictive manner to test
probable behavior under varying conditions; this leads on to the use of models
for process optimization and their use in advanced control strategies.
The application of a combined modelling and simulation approach leads to
the following advantages:
1. Modelling improves understanding, and it is through understanding that
progress is made. In formulating a mathematical model, the modeller is
forced to consider the complex cause-and-effect sequences of the
process in detail, together with all the complex inter-relationships that
may be involved in the process. The comparison of a model prediction
with actual behavior usually leads to an increased understanding of the
process, simply by having to consider the ways in which the model might
be in error. The results of a simulation can also often suggest reasons as
to why certain observed, and apparently inexplicable, phenomena occur
in practice.
2. Models help in experimental design. It is important that experiments be
designed in such a way that the model can be properly tested. Often the
model itself will suggest the need for data for certain parameters, which
might otherwise be neglected, and hence the need for a particular type of
experiment to provide the required data. Conversely, sensitivity tests on
the model may indicate that certain parameters may have a negligible
12
1 Modelling Principles
effect and hence that these effects therefore can be neglected both from
the model and from the experimental program.
3.
Models may be used predictively for design and control. Once the
model has been established, it should be capable of predicting
performance under differing sets of process conditions. Mathematical
models can also be used for the design of relatively sophisticated control
algorithms, and the model, itself, can often form an integral part of the
control algorithm. Both mathematical and knowledge based models can
be used in designing and optimizing new processes.
4.
1.1.3
13
Physical Model
LJt
Revise ideas
and equations
New
experiments
Mathematical Model
Solution: C = f(t)
Experimental Data
NO
Comparison
OK?
YES
and perhaps alternative physical models for the process need to be developed
and examined. At this stage, it is often helpful to start with the simplest possible
conception of the process and to introduce complexities as the development
proceeds, rather than trying to formulate the full model with all its complexities
at the beginning of the modelling procedure.
(ii) The available theory must then be formulated in mathematical terms.
Most bioreactor operations involve quite a large number of variables (cell,
substrate and product concentrations, rates of growth, consumption and
production) and many of these vary as functions of time (batch, fed-batch
operation). For these reasons the resulting mathematical relationships often
consist of quite large sets of differential equations. The thick arrow in Fig. 1.1
designates both the importance and the difficulty of this mathematical
formulation.
(iii) Having developed a model, the model equations must then be solved.
Mathematical models of biological systems are usually quite complex and
highly non-linear and are such that the mathematical complexity of the
14
1 Modelling Principles
15
1.1.5
Teaching Applications
16
1.2
1 Modelling Principles
As indicated in Section 1.1, many models for biological systems are expressed
in terms of sets of differential equations, which arise mainly as a result of the
predominantly time-dependent nature of the process phenomena concerned.
For many people and especially for many students in the life sciences, the
mention of differential equations can cause substantial difficulty. This section
is therefore intended, hopefully, to bring the question of differential equations
into perspective. The differential equations arise in the model formulation,
simply by having to express rates of change of material, due to flow effects or
chemical and biological reaction effects. The method for solution of the
differential equations will be handled automatically by the computer. It is
hoped that much of the difficulty can be overcome by considering the
following case. In this section a simple example, based on the filling of a tank
of water, is used to develop the derivation of a mass balance equation from the
basic physical model and thereby to give meaning to the terms in the equations.
Following the detailed derivation, a short-cut method based on rates is given to
derive the dynamic balance equations.
Consider a tank into which water is flowing at a constant rate F (m3/s), as
shown in Fig. 1.2. At any time t, the volume of water in the tank is V (m3) and
the density of water is p (kg/m3).
Figure 1.2. Tank of water being filled by stream with flow rate F.
During the time interval At (s), a mass of water p F At (kg) flows into the tank.
As long as no water leaves the tank, the mass of water in the tank will increase
by a quantity p F At, causing a corresponding increase in volume, AV.
Equating the accumulation of mass in the tank to the mass that entered the tank
during the time interval A t gives,
pAV = p F A t
Since p is constant,
At
-F
h
-
17
Applying this to very small differential time intervals (At > dt) and replacing
the A signs by the differential operator "d", gives the following simple first
order differential equation, to describe the tank filling operation,
dV
dT = F
What do we know about the solution of this equation? That is, how does the
volume change with time or in model terms, how does the dependent variable,
V, change with respect to the independent variable, t? To answer this, we can
rearrange the equation and integrate it between appropriate limits to give,
or for constant F,
Integration is equivalent to summing all the contributions, such that the total
change of volume is equal to the total volume of water added to the tank,
IV = IF At
For the case of constant F, it is clear that the analytical solution to the
differential equation is,
V = F t + constant
In this case, as shown in Fig. 1.3, the constant of integration is the initial volume
of water in the tank, VQ, at time t = 0.
dt
Vo
Figure 1.3. Volume change with time for constant flow rate.
18
1 Modelling Principles
Note that the slope in the variation of V with respect to t, dV/dt, is constant, and
that from the differential equation it can be seen that the slope is equal to F.
Suppose F is not constant but varies linearly with time.
F = Fo-kt
The above model equation applies also to this situation.
Solving the model equation to obtain the functional dependence of V with
respect to t,
JdV = |F dt = J(F0 - k t)dt = FO Jdt - k Jt dt
Integrating analytically,
V = FO t -
kt"
+ constant
v = FO t - kt'
+ V0
."t
Figure 1.4. Variation of F and V for the tank-filling problem.
Note that the dependent variable starts at the initial condition, (Vo), and that the
slope is always F. When F becomes zero, the slope of the curve relating V and t
also becomes zero. In other words, the volume in the tank remains constant
and does not change any further as long as the value of F remains zero.
Derivation of a Balance Equation Using Rates
A differential balance can best be derived directly in terms of rates of change.
For the above example, the balance can then be expressed as:
/The rate of accumulation^
V of mass within the tank )
19
Thus, the rate of accumulation of mass within the tank can be written directly as
dM/dt where the mass M is equal to p V. The rate of mass entering the tank is
given by p F, where both sides of the equation have units of kg/h.
=
PF
and
d(oV)
= pF
Thus this approach leads directly to a differential equation model, which is the
desired form for dynamic simulation. Note that both terms in the above
relationship are expressed in mass quantities per unit time or kg/h.
At constant density, the equation again reduces to,
dV
dT = F
which is to be solved for the initial condition, that at time t = 0, V=Vo and for a
variation in flow rate, given by,
F = F0-kt
which is valid until F = 0.
These two equations, plus the initial condition, form the mathematical
representation or the mathematical model of the physical model, represented
by the tank filling with an entering flow of water. Thus this approach leads
directly to a differential equation model, which is the desired form for
simulation. This approach can be applied not only to the total mass but also to
the mass of any component.
We have seen an analytical solution to this model, but it is also interesting to
consider how a computer solution can be obtained by a numerical integration
of the model equations. This is important since analytical integration is seldom
possible in the case of real complex problems.
Computer Solution
The numerical integration can in principle be performed using the relations:
dV
20
1 Modelling Principles
Figure 1.5. Graphical portrayal of numerical integration, showing slopes and approximated
values of V at each time interval.
21
Using such a numerical integration procedure, the computer can thus be used
to generate data concerning the time variations of both F and V. In practice,
more complex numerical procedures are employed in digital simulation
languages to give improved accuracy and speed of solution than illustrated by
the above simplified integration technique.
1.3
1.3.1
Steady-State Balances
One of the basic principles of modelling is that of the conservation of mass,
which for a steady-state flow process can be expressed by the statement,
Rate of accumulation of ^
mass in the system J
( Rate of ^
^mass flow inj
( Rate of ^
^mass flow out J
Here the rate of accumulation term represents the rate of change in the total
mass of the system, with respect to time, and at steady-state this is equal to zero.
Thus the steady-state mass balance represented earlier is seen to be a
simplification of the more general dynamic balance, involving the rate of
accumulation.
At steady-state:
22
1 Modelling Principles
(
Rate of
^
= 0 = (Mass flow in) - (Mass flow out)
I accumulation of mass .
hence, when a steady-state is reached:
(Mass flow in) = (Mass flow out)
Component Balances
The previous discussion has been in terms of the total mass of the system, but
most fluid streams, encountered in practice, contain more than one chemical or
biological species. Provided no chemical change occurs, the generalized
dynamic equation for the conservation of mass can also be applied to each
component. Thus for any particular component:
Rate of
accumulation of mass
of component
in the system
Mass flow of A
the component _
into the system J
Rate of
production
of the
component
by the reaction>
Mass flow
' Mass flow
of the
of the
component - component into
out of
^the system^
v the system,
Rate of
consumption
of the
component
by the reaction
23
Elemental Balances
The principle of the mass balance can also be extended to the atomic level and
applied to particular elements. Thus in the case of bioreactor operation, the
general mass balance equation can also be applied to the four main elements,
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and also to other elements if relevant
to the particular problem. Thus for the case of carbon:
' Rate of accumulation^! (Mass flowrate of "\ ( Mass flow rate of \
of carbon in
=
carbon into
the carbon out
the system
J ^ the system J V of the system )
Note the elemental balances do not involve reaction terms since the elements do
not change by reaction.
The computer example PENFERM, is based on the use of elemental mass
balance equations for C, H, O and N which, when combined with other
empirical rate data, provide a working model for a penicillin production
process.
While the principle of the mass balance is very simple, its application can
often be quite difficult. It is important therefore to have a clear understanding
of both the nature of the system (physical model), which is to be modelled by
means of the mass balance equations, and also of the methodology of
modelling.
1.3.2
Balancing Procedure
The methodology described below outlines six steps, I through VI, to establish
the model balances. The first task is to define the system by choosing the
balance or control region. This is done using the following procedure:
I.
The balance region may be a reactor, a reactor region, a single phase within a
reactor, a single cell, or a region within a cell, but will always be based on a
region of assumed constant composition. Generally the modelling exercises will
involve some prior simplification. Often the system being modelled is usually
considered to be composed of either systems of tanks (stagewise or lumped
24
1 Modelling Principles
1.3.2.1
AO
Total mass = pV
Mass of A = C VA
Balance region
If the tank is well-mixed, the concentrations and density of the tank contents
are uniform throughout. This means that the outlet stream properties are
identical with the tank properties, in this case CA and p. The balance region can
therefore be taken around the whole tank.
The total mass in the system is given by the product of the volume of the
tank contents V (m3) multiplied by the density p (kg/m3), thus Vp (kg). The
mass of any component A in the tank is given as the product of V times the
concentration of A, CA (kg of A/m3 or kmol of A /m3), thus V CA (kg or kmol).
1.3.2.2
'AO
A1
In the case of tubular reactors, the concentrations of the products and reactants
will vary continuously along the length of the reactor, even when the reactor is
operating at steady-state. This variation can be regarded as being equivalent to
25
that of the time of passage of material as it flows along the reactor and is
equivalent to the time available for reaction to occur. Under steady-state
conditions the concentration at any position along the reactor will be constant
with respect to time, though not with position. This type of behavior can be
approximated by choosing the balance regions sufficiently small so that the
concentration of any component within a region can be assumed to be
approximately uniform. Thus in this case, many uniform property subsystems
(well-stirred tanks or increments of different volume but of uniform
concentration) comprise the total reactor volume.
13.2.3
For this example, the combined principles of both the stirred tank and
differential tubular modelling approaches need to be applied. As shown in Fig.
1.8 the main flow along the river is very analogous to that of a column or
tubular process, whereas the eddy region can be approximated by the behavior
of a well-mixed tank. The interaction between the main flow of the river and
the eddy, with flow into the eddy from the river and flow out from the eddy
back into the river's main flow, must be included in any realistic model.
The real-life and rather complex behavior of the eddying flow of the river,
might thus be represented, by a series of many well-mixed subsystems (or
tanks) representing the main flow of the river. This interacts at some particular
stage of the river with a single well-mixed tank, representing the turbulent eddy.
In modelling this system by means of mass balance equations, it would be
necessary to draw boundary regions around each of the individual subsystems
representing the main river flow, sections 1 to 8 in Fig. 1.9, and also around the
tank system representing the eddy. This would lead to a very minimum of nine
River
Eddy
26
1 Modelling Principles
>
',
i
2
2
',
i
3
3
4
4
,
i
>k
V
5
5
,
i
66
,
i
7
7
,
i
>
8
8
fc
Flow interaction
fitSliM^B
:i
iK&^'ffK<&y^
Figure 1.9. A multi-tank model for the complex river flow system.
//.
Identify
system
Having defined the balance regions, the next task is to identify all the relevant
inputs and outputs to the system. These may be well-defined physical flow
rates (convective streams), diffusive fluxes, and also interphase transfer rates.
It is important to assume a direction of transfer and to specify this by means of
an arrow. This direction might reverse itself, but will be accomodated by a
reversal in sign.
Out by diffusion
Convective
flow out
Convective flow
in
In by diffusion
Figure 1.10. Balance region showing convective and diffusive flows in and out.
///.
27
f Mass flow ^\
of the
component
into
\the system^
f Mass flow ^
of the
component
out of
^the system^
Rate of
production
of the
component by
\ the reaction /
(In) -
(Out) + (Production)
dMi
_ d(CjV)
dt
28
1 Modelling Principles
_ = ni
c
i T
Pi
yiP
RT = "RT
where yi is the mol fraction of the component in the gas phase and p is the total
pressure.
The accumulation term for the gas phase can be written as,
/piV
dMj _ d(CjV) _ d(QV) _ . d
_
For the total mass of the system:
dM _ d(p V)
dt = dt
with units
m3
m 3 kg
- s m3
29
lilf
C. Diffusion of Components
As shown in Fig. 1.12, diffusional flow contributions can be expressed by
analogy to Pick's Law for molecular diffusion
Ji = -i dZ
Figure 1.12. Diffusion flux j j driven by concentration gradient (Qo - Cji) / AZ through
surface area A.
In accordance with Pick's Law, diffusive flow always occurs in the direction of
decreasing concentration and at a rate proportional to the concentration
gradient. Under true conditions of molecular diffusion, the constant of
proportionality is equal to the molecular diffusivity for the system, Dj (m2/h).
For other cases, such as diffusion in porous matrices and turbulent diffusion, an
30
1 Modelling Principles
( Diffusivity YConcentrationY
Area
^
(
of
gradient
perpendicular =-DJ
(^component ij\^
ofi
J^ to transport J
kg
sm 2
2
m
_ m 2 kg
2 _ kg
" s m4 m " T
D. Interphase Transport
Interphase mass transport also represents a possible flow into or out of the
system.
In bioreactor modelling applications, this is most frequently
represented by the case of oxygen transfer from air to the liquid medium,
followed by oxygen taken up by the cells during respiration. In this case, the
transfer of oxygen occurs across the gas liquid interface, which exists between
the surface of the air bubbles and the surrounding liquid medium, as shown in
Fig. 1.13.
Figure 1.13. Transfer of oxygen across a gas-liquid interface of specific area "a" into a liquid
phase of volume V.
31
Rate of
\
Rate
\
/Mass flow\ /Massflow\ / of interfacial
accumulation
of the
of the
of the
mass transfer
oxygen
oxygen
=
- from the gas
mass of oxygen
into the
from the
in the gas
phase into
Vgas
phase
)
^
gas phase> V the liquid s
V phase system J
This form of transfer rate equation will be examined in much more detail in
Chapter 5. Suffice it to say here that the rate of transfer can be expressed in the
form shown below:
Rate Of \ ( Mass ^ ^Area peA /Concentration^ /SystemA
Uass transferJ= tra"sPrtf ^ volume ) ^driving force ) VvolumeJ
V coefficient.
f
= KaACV
where, a is a specific area for mass transfer, A/V (m2/m3), A is the total
interfacial area for mass transfer (m2), V is the liquid phase volume (m3), AC is
the concentration driving force (kmol/m3 or kg/m3) and, K is the overall mass
transfer coefficient (1/s). Mass transfer rate expressions are usually expressed
in terms of kmol/s, and can be converted to mass flows (kg/s), if desired.
The units of the terms in the equation (with appropriate mass quantity units)
are:
kg
1 kg
mj
Production Rate
This term in the component balance equation allows for the production or
consumption of material bv
by reaction and is incorporated into the component
balance equation. Thus,
Rate of >\
accumulation
of mass
of component
the system )
/ Massflow\
of the
component
into
\the system /
/ Massflow\
of the
component
out of
the system /
Rate of
production
of the
component by
v the reaction /
Chemical production rates are often expressed on a molar basis and, as in the
case of the interfacial mass transfer rate expressions, can be easily converted to
mass flow quantities (kg/s). The production rate can then be expressed as
32
1 Modelling Principles
f Mass rate \
production of
^component Ay
/^Reaction rate\
= rA V = ^ per volume ) (Volume of system)
kg
__
kg
m3
s m3
Equivalent molar quantities may also be used. The quantity r^ is positive when
A is formed as product, and TA is negative when a reactant A is consumed.
The growth rate for cells can be expressed in the same manner, using the
symbol rx- Thus,
/ Mass rate of
^
Vbiomass production^
/^Growth rate^
= rx V = ^per vo lume) (Volume of system)
kg
kg
mj
s m3
The consumption rate of substrate, r$, is often directly related to the cell growth
rate by means of a constant yield coefficient YX/S, which has the units of kg
biomass produced per kg substrate consumed. Thus,
( Ma< rate \
U>nsumptionJ
kg
s m3
V.
growth rate V
1
\
er
M> volume ABiomass-substrate yield) (Volume)
kg biomass kg substrate
kg biomass
s m3
The system mass balance equations are often the most important elements of
any modelling exercise, but are themselves rarely sufficient to completely
formulate the model. Other relationships are therefore needed to supplement
the material balance relations, both to complete the model in terms of other
important aspects of behavior and to satisfy the mathematical rigor of the
modelling, such that the number of unknown variables must be equal to the
number of defining equations.
33
Examples of this type of relationships which are not based on balances, but
which nevertheless form an important part of any model are:
How these and other relationships are incorporated within the development of
particular modelling instances are shown later in the cases given throughout the
text and in the simulation examples.
1.3.3
In this section the application of the total mass balance principles will be
presented. Consider some arbitrary balance region, as shown in Fig. 1.14 by
the shaded area. Mass accumulates within the system at a rate dM/dt, owing to
the competing effects of a convective flow input (mass flow rate in) and an
output stream (mass flow rate out).
34
1 Modelling Principles
Mass flow rate out
Mass flow rate In
dM
( Mass flow \
fMass flow out\
U .he system) - Uhe system J
3t
= F
oPo-FiPi
When densities are equal, as in the case of water flowing in and out of a tank,
dV
dT = F O-FI
1.3.4
35
Species i
inflow
Thus for any species i, involved in the system, the component mass balance is
given by:
/
Rate of
\
accumulation
of mass
of component i
i in tnp cvct<=m
/^MassflowoA f
Rate of N
component i
production of
out of
component!
^ the system ) \ by reaction
,3*6.
m~
m^
m3
m-
1.3.4.1
Case A.
ill 3
36
1 Modelling Principles
FQ
C AO
1 C A 1 C B1
C BO
>f
'.; '.??: 5: ' ' :; f'.<$ 'XI ' ;:?-'?:;':- ''M
I!
i
l
l
ilili
;|i
Figure 1.16. Continuous stirred tank reactor with reaction A > 2B.
= F0 CAO -
d(VC B i)
dt
F0CBo -
Here it is convenient to use molar masses, such that each term has the units of
kmol/h.
Under constant volume conditions:
d(VCA) = VdC A
d(VCB) = VdC B
and in addition FQ = FI. Thus the two model equations, then simplify to give:
dCAi
- CAI) +
and
dCBi
~dT~
F
V ( c BO~C B i)
In these two balances there are four unknowns CAI, Q*i, rAl an(^ rB l 8
kinetics are assumed to be first order, as often found in biological systems at
low concentration. Then:
r
Al = According to the molar stoichiometry,
37
rfil = -2r M = + 2 k C A !
Together with the kinetic relations there are 4 equations and 4 unknowns, thus
satisfying the conditions necessary for the model solution. With the initial
conditions, CAI and CBI at time t = 0, specified, the solution to these two
simultaneous equations, combined with the two kinetic relations, will give the
resulting changes of concentrations CAI and CBI as functions of time. The
simulation example ENZCON, is similar to the situation of Case A.
1.3.4.2
Case B.
The chemical reaction and reaction rate data are the same as in the preceding
example, but now the reactor has no effluent stream. The operation of the
reactor is therefore semi-continuous.
AO
2B
moles
T
m s
The component balances with no flow of material leaving the reactor are now:
= FC AO + r A V
d(V C )
at
= IB v
B
38
1 Modelling Principles
The number of unknowns is now five and the number of equations is four, so
that an additional defining relationship is required for solution. Note that V
must remain within the differential, because the volume of the reactor contents
is now also a variable and must be determined by a total mass balance.
Assuming constant density p, this gives the defining equation as:
dt
= FF
With initial conditions for the initial molar quantities of A and B, (VGA,
and the initial volume of the contents, V, at time t = 0 specified, the resulting
system of equations can be solved to obtain the time varying quantities VCA(t),
VCs(t), V(t) and hence also concentrations CA and CB as functions of time.
Similar variable volume situations are found in examples FEDBAT, and
VARVOL.
1.3.4.3 Case C.
>
i>yi> T i> PI
Air
F
0'yO'T0'P0
Figure 1.18. Entering air and exit gas during the continuous aeration of a bioreactor.
Writing a balance around the combined gas and liquid phases in the reactor
gives,
f Rate of accum-^j_ f Flowrate^i ( Flowrate"\ /^Rate of O2 uptake A
( ulationofO 2 J~ [ofO 2 in J~(ofO 2 out J~ I by the cells
J
39
At steady-state, the accumulation terms for both phases are zero and
Flow of O2 in - Flow of C>2 out = Rate of C>2 uptake.
For gaseous systems, the quantities are often expressed in terms of molar
quantities.
Often only the inlet air flow rate FQ and the mol fraction of 62 in the outlet
gas, yi9 are measured. It is often assumed that the total molar flow rate of gas is
constant. This is a valid assumption as long as the number of carbon dioxide
mols produced is nearly equal to the number of oxygen mols consumed or if
the amounts of oxygen consumed are very small, relative to the total flow of
gas.
Converting to molar quantities, using the Ideal Gas Law,
pV = nRT
or in flow terms:
pF = N R T
where N is the molar flow rate, R is the gas constant and F is the volumetric flow
rate. Thus, for the inlet gas flow:
P
where NO is molar flow rate of the oxygen entering. Note that the pressure, po,
and temperature, TO, are measured at the point of flow measurement.
Assuming NO = NI, then measurement of NO gives enough information to
calculate oxygen uptake rate, OUR, from the steady-state balance. Thus,
0 = yo NO - yi NI - ro2 VL
OUR = ro2 VL = yo NO - yi NI
If NO is not equal to NI, then this equation will give large errors in oxygen
uptake rate, and NI must be measured, or determined indirectly by an inert
balance. This is explained in the Sec. 1.3.4.4 below.
1.3.4.4
Case D.
Differences in the inlet and outlet gas flow rates of a tank fermenter can be
calculated by measuring one gas flow rate and the mol fraction of an inert gas
in the gas stream. Since inert gases, such as nitrogen or argon, are not
consumed or produced within the system (rinert = 0), their mass rates must
40
1 Modelling Principles
therefore be equal at the inlet and outlet streams of the reactor, assuming
steady-state conditions apply. Then for nitrogen
/Molar flow of\
V nitrogen in )
NI yi
inert
y i inert
Since the inlet mol fraction for nitrogen in air is known, the outlet mol fraction,
yi inert' must be measured. This is often done by difference, having measured
the mol fraction of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in the exit gas.
1.3.5
1.3.5.1
Simple Stoichiometry
41
This relation indicates that 1 mol of pyruvic acid reacts with 1 mol of NADH to
produce 1 mol of lactic acid.
Another example of stoichiometry is that of the oxidative decarboxylation of
pyruvic acid to yield acetyl-CoA
C3H4O3 + CoA-SH + NAD+ -> CH3CO-S-CoA + CO2 + NADH + H+
Pyruvic Acid
Acetyl-CoA
Stoichiometry relations also describe more complex pathways and can be
written with exact molar relationships, like the pentose-phosphate pathway
below.
Glucose + 12 NADP+ + ATP + 7 H2O -> 6 CO2 + 12 (NADPH + H+) +
+ ADP + Pi
where 1 mol of glucose reacted, consumes 7 mol of water and produces 6 mol
of carbon dioxide. Here the molar quantities of NADPH and ATP produced
and consumed, respectively, are shown.
For many complex biological reactions, however, not all the elementary
reactions and their contributions to the overall observed reaction stoichiometry
are known (Roels, 1983; Bailey and Ollis, 1986; Moser, 1988).
Thus the case of a general fermentation is usually approximated by an
overall reaction equation, where
Substrate + Nitrogen source + O2 -> Product + CO2 + H2O
v N H3(t)NH 3 + v02(t)O2
>
42
1 Modelling Principles
1.3.5.2
Elemental Balancing
where c, d and f are the fractions of carbon converted to biomass, product and
CO2, respectively.
Elemental balances for C, H, O and N give
C
H
O
N
1
m+3 a
l+2b
a
= c +d +f
= c p + dr + 2e
=cn + ds + e + 2f
=cq+dt
In this general problem there are too many unknowns for the solution method
to be taken further, since the elemental balances provide only four equations
and hence can be solved for only four unknowns. Assuming that the elemental
formulae for substrate, biomass and product and hence 1, m, n, p, q, r, s and t are
defined, there still remain six unknown stoichiometric coefficients a, b, c, d, e
and f and only four elemental balance equations. Thus the elemental balances
need supplementation by other measurable quantities such as substrate, oxygen
and ammonia consumption rates (assuming controlled pH conditions), and
carbon dioxide or biomass production rates, such that the condition is satisfied
that the number of unknowns is equal to the number of defining equations. In
principle the problem then becomes solvable. In practice, there can be
considerable difficulties and inaccuracies involved, although the technique of
elemental balancing can still provide useful data. The application of so-called
macroscopic principles (Roels, 1980, 1982 and 1983; Heijnen and Roels, 1981)
introduces a more strict systematic system of analysis. This is depicted in Fig.
1.19.
43
<P2
C32
04
Substrate
H
b2 Oc2 Nd2
N Source
The system is represented here in terms of the various flow inputs, where f is the
corresponding flow vector
() = <]>
<1>
<E>
<5
The steady state balance for the system is then represented by: <|) E = 0
where E is the elemental composition matrix
E = a 4 b4 c 4 d 4 O4
0 0 2 0 O5
1 0 2 0 O6
0 2 1 0 <D7
(C) (H) (O) (N)
44
1 Modelling Principles
ys = 4 + m - 2 1
yx = 4 + p - 2 n - 3 q
yp = 4 + r - 2 s - 3 t
The reductances for NHs, f^O and CC>2 are of course zero.
Often the elemental composition of the substrate is not known and then the
reductance method may be supplemented by the following regularities, which
apply to a wide variety of organic molecules.
Qo2 = 27 J per g equivalent of available electrons transferred to oxygen
Yx = 4.29 g equivalent of available electrons per equivalent 1 g atom C in
biomass
GX = 0.462 g carbon / g dry biomass
1.3.5.3
Yield coefficients are biological variables, which are used to relate the ratio
between various consumption and production rates of mass and energy. They
are typically assumed to be time-independent and are calculated on an overall
basis. This concept should not be confused with the overall yield of a reaction
or a process. The biomass yield coefficient on substrate (Yx/s) is defined as:
Y
v
x/S = rs
In batch systems, reaction rates are equal to accumulation rates, and therefore
/dX\
Y
IdTj
dX
..
* x/s
45
SQ-S!
1.3.5.4
7
TQ2
amount or oxygen consumed
In terms of carbon substrate consumed,
v
- rQ rs
46
1 Modelling Principles
Table 1.1. Typical mass and energy yield values (Roels, 1983; Atkinson and
Mavituna, 1991).
Type of yield coefficient
Dimension
Value
c-mol / c-mol
c-mol / c-mol
c-mol / mol
c-mol / mol
kJ / mol
kJ / mol
kJ / c-mol
kJ / c-mol
0.4-0.7
0.1-0.2
1-2
0.35
380-490
460
325-500
120-190
X/S,aer
Yx/S,anaer
Yx/02 (Glucose)
YX/ATP
Y
Q/O2
YQ/C02
YQ/x,aer (Glucose)
Yq/x,anaer
1.3.6
1.3.6.1
Equilibrium Relationships
General Considerations
In many biological systems, processes with large ranges of time constants have
to be described. Usually it is important to start with a simplification of a system,
focusing on the most important time constant or rate. For example, if the
growth of an organism is to be modelled with a time constant of the order of
hours, it is very useful to ignore all aspects of biological evolution with time
constants of years. Also fast equilibrium reactions or conformational changes
of proteins having time constants below milliseconds should be ignored. Fast
reactions can, however, be very important when considering allosteric activation
or deactivation of proteins or simply pH-changes during biochemical reactions.
47
pH changes can have dramatic effects on the enzyme and microbial activity but
can also strongly influence absorption and desorption of carbon dioxide.
A typical equilibrium reactions is the dissociation of a receptor-protein ligand
complex, RL, into the free protein, L, and the receptor protein, P
CLP
k_j
In most cases such relationships can be used to express the concentration of all
concentrations in explicit form using, e.g. a protein balance.
r1 _i_ c*
C Ptot
~ ^P ~r ^LP
^
KD
- ^ptot Cr + K
1.3.6.2
Case A.
48
1 Modelling Principles
Acid
with dissociation constant
CBase- H+
CAcid
where CAcid is the concentration of the undissociated acid and CBase" is the
concentration of the corresponding base (salt).
An ion charge balance can be written
(cations * charge)
= (anions * charge)
In the pH range of interest (usually around pH = 7) all strong acids and strong
bases are completely dissociated. Moderately strong acids and bases exist in
both the dissociated and non-dissociated forms,
In the usual pH range the sum of the cations are much larger than the H+
ions.
ICK+CH+
where ]CK+ is the total cation concentration.
Negative ions originate mainly from strong acids (e.g. Cl% SO42') but also
arise from weak acids (Ac", Pr, Bu~, HCO3'). The concentration of CO32' is
always much smaller than that of
The ion balance reduces to
KBj
KW
Btot,i+ K+ =
V1
KAi
where KAI are the acid dissociation constants (e.g. KAC); KBI are the base
dissociation constants (e.g. KNHS); KW is the dissociation constant of water;
Cfitot,i are the total concentrations of base i; CAtot,i are the total concentrations
of acid i and EC An" is the sum of the anions.
The pH can be estimated from the above equation for any situation by
solving the resulting non-linear implicit algebraic equation, provided the total
concentrations of the weak acids, CAtot,i> weak bases, CBtot,i cations of strong
bases, CK+, and anions of strong acids, CAIT> are known.
49
The example ANAMEAS, Sec. 8.8.6 includes this ion balance for pH
calculation. This equation represents an algebraic loop in a dynamic simulation
which is solved by iteration at each time interval until 8 approaches zero. This is
accomplished with the root-finding feature of Berkeley Madonna.
If there is pH control, then strong base or acid would be usually added. The
addition of strong alkali for pH control would cause an increase in CK+
which in accordance with the above equation would result in a decrease of CH+.
An alternative approach, which avoids an algebraic loop, is to treat the
instantaneous equilibrium reactions as reactions with finite forward and
backward rates. These rates must be adjusted with their kinetic constants to
maintain the equilibrium for the particular system; that is, these rates must be
very fast compared with the other rates of the model. This approach replaces
the algebraic loop iteration with a stiff er and larger set of differential equations.
This could be an advantage in some cases.
1.3.7
'Rate of >
energy
generated
^by reactiony
'Rate of >
energy
added by
^agitation ^
50
1 Modelling Principles
The above balance in word form is now applied to the measurable energy
quantities of the continuous reactor shown in Fig. 1.20.
AL H
agit
\
M)'
PO
P1
' '
U,A,T S
l!
Figure 1.20. A continuous tank fermenter showing only the energy-related variables.
An exact derivation of the energy balance was given by Aris (1989) as,
"dT =
where ni is the number of moles of component i, cpi are the partial molar heat
capacities and hi are the partial molar enthalpies. In this equation the rate of
heat production, TQ, takes place at temperature TI. If the heat capacities, cpi, are
independent of temperature, the enthalpies at TI can be expressed in terms of
heat capacities as
and with
S
2>i0
1=1
- 2X
1=1
= vp
The units of each term of the equation are energy per time (kJ/h or kcal/h).
51
Accumulation Term
Densities and heat capacities of liquids can be taken as essentially constant.
dT
VpcPdF
has units:
m3 (kg/m3) (J/kg K) K
s
_
~
kJ
s
energy
area time degree (area) (degree)
The sign of the temperature difference determines the direction of heat flow.
Here if T a > TI heat flows into the reactor.
Reaction Heat Term
The term rq V gives the rate of heat released by the bioreaction and has the
units of
52
1 Modelling Principles
energy
_ energy
volume time ( volume ) - time
The rate term TQ can alternatively be written in various ways as follows:
In terms of substrate uptake and a substrate-related heat yield,
rq = rs YQ/S
1.3.6.3
Case B.
For aerobic fermentation, the heats of reaction per unit volume of reactor are
usually directly related to the oxygen uptake rate, ro2Thus for a constant-volume batch reaction with no agitation heat effects, the
general energy balance is
/Accumulation rate^
V
of energy
)
/Energy out^
~ ~ \ by transfer J
/Energy generated\
V by reaction
)
where YQ/Q2 often has a value near 460 kJ/mol 2, as given in Table 1.1.
53
56
may enable such factors as cell and product production rates, product
selectivities, optimum process control and process optimization to be
determined with some considerable degree of confidence.
Physical Aspects
(flow patterns, residence
time, mass transfer)
Biokinetics
(order, inhibition,pH,
temperature)
Production rate
Selectivity
Control
Figure 2.1. Information for bioreactor modelling.
2.2
Bioreactor Operation
The rates of cell growth and product formation are, in the main, dependent on
the concentration levels of nutrients and products within the bioreactor. The
concentration dependencies of the reaction or production rate are often quite
simple, but may also be very complex. The magnitude of the rates, however,
depend upon the level of concentrations, and it will be seen that concentration
levels within the bioreactor depend very much on its type and mode of
operation. Differing modes of operation for the bioreactor can therefore lead
to differing rates of cell growth, to differing rates of product formation and
hence to substantially differing productivities.
Generally, the various types of bioreactor can be classified as either stirred
tank or tubular and column devices and according to the mode of operation as
batch, semi-continuous or continuous operation.
57
Filling
Reacting
Emptying
Cleaning
concentration
ubstrate
biomass
product
time
Figure 2.3. Concentration-time profiles during batchwise operation.
58
During the reaction period, there are changes in substrate and product
concentration with time, and the other time periods are effectively lost as
regards production.
Since there is no flow in or out of the bioreactor, during normal operation,
the biomass and substrate balances both take the form,
(Rate of accumulation within the reactor) = (Rate of production)
This will be expressed in more quantitative terms in Ch. 4.
Batch reactors thus have the following characteristics:
1)
2)
3)
59
2.
3.
2.
3.
4.
For fed-batch operation, the cell balance follows the same form as for batch
operation, but since additional substrate feeding to the reactor now occurs, the
substrate balance takes the form:
Rate
<* "|
accumulation
V of substrate J
60
One other balance equation, however, is also necessary, i.e. the total mass
balance,
f Rate of accumulation of ^
V mass in the reactor
/
61
As shown later, these two differing forms of continuous reactor operation have
quite different operational characteristics. Both however are characterized by
the fact that after a short transient period, during which conditions within the
bioreactor change with time, the bioreactor will then achieve a steady state. This
means that operating conditions, both within the bioreactor and at the
bioreactor outlet, then remain constant, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Concentration
Startup
period
Steady state
time
Figure 2.6. Startup of a continuous reactor.
Tank
So
Tube
Cone.
Cone.
distance
distance
Figure 2.7. Profiles of substrate and product in steady state continuous tank and tubular
reactors.
62
lowest concentration at the reactor outlet. The product concentration rises from
inlet to outlet. These differences arise because in the tank reactor the entering
feed is continuously being mixed with the reactor bulk contents and therefore
being diluted by the tank contents. The feed to the tubular reactor, however, is
not subject to mixing and is transformed only by reaction, as material moves
down the reactor.
No real situation will exactly correspond to the above idealized cases of
perfect mixing or zero mixing (plug flow), although the actual behavior of
tanks and tubes tends in the limit towards the corresponding idealized model.
The characteristics of continuous operation are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The balance equations at steady state for a well-mixed tank reactor have the
form
0 = (Input) - (Output) + (Production)
since at steady-state the rate of accumulation and therefore the rate of change is
zero.
This equation predicts that the reaction rate causes a depletion of substrate
from the feed condition to the outlet, (the product will increase) and that the
rate of production can be obtained from this simple balance:
(Rate of production) = (Rate of output) - (Rate of input)
For a non well-mixed reactor such as a tubular or column reactor, steady-state
implies the same non-transient conditions, but now concentrations also vary
with position. The same situation also applies to the case of a series of wellmixed tanks.
The balance form is then:
0 = (Rate of input) - (Rate of output) + (Overall Rate of Production)
Here the overall rate of reaction is obtained by summing or integrating over
every part of the reactor volume.
The concentration characteristics of a tubular reactor, as shown in Fig. 2.7,
are well approximated by a series of tank reactors. Referring to Fig. 2.8, and
moving downstream along the reactor cascade, the substrate concentration
decreases stepwise from tank to tank, while the product concentration increases
in a similar stepwise manner. As the number of tanks in the cascade increases,
so the performance becomes more and more similar to that of a tubular reactor.
In the case of a reaction, whose rate of reaction increases with increasing
63
distance
Figure 2.8. Stirred tanks in series and their concentration profiles.
64
Disadvantages
Batch
Continuous
Fed batch
Control of environmental
conditions, e.g. substrate
concentration.
Table 2.2 lists the main operating parameters for the three differing modes of
bioreactor operation.
Table 2.2. Operating variables for batch and continuous bioreactors.
Batch
Continuous
Semicontinuous
Initial medium composition Inlet medium
and inoculum
composition
Temperature, pressure
pH if controlled
pH if controlled
pH if controlled
Reaction time
Aeration rate
Aeration rate
Stirring rate
Stirring rate
Aeration rate
Stirring rate
65
Best
Best
Substrate
inhibition
Low initial
concentration
Low tank
concentrations
Product
inhibition
Best
Best
Production
triggered by
shift in
environment
Fed Batch
Low conversion
OK
Best
Not suitable
66
Biological Kinetics
As explained in Sec. 2.1, a realistic bioprocess model will usually require the
input of kinetic rate data. In the case of even simple chemical reactions, this
data has to be obtained by laboratory experiment. Since biochemical reactions
are controlled by enzymes, it is appropriate to start with a consideration of
simple enzyme kinetics (Sec. 3.1), In the case of modeling the behavior of
enzyme reactors, knowledge of the enzyme reaction kinetics is most important.
The sheer complexity of the biological reactions, occurring in a living cell,
seem to imply an almost impossible task in obtaining meaningful rate data for
biological modelling applications. Fortunately this is not the case and, as
shown in Section 3.2, a quite reasonable overall description of cell growth rate
data is possible, based on an overall empirical relationship, the Monod
Equation, which has been found to give a good fit to many general
observations of cell growth. This overall view, based on the net result of many
simultaneously occurring and highly interacting biochemical reactions, of
course represents an incredible oversimplification of the actual situation.
Fortunately it seems to work in many instances and can also be easily modified
to allow for the uptake of substrate by the cells and to include such additional
effects, as substrate limitation, multiple substrate limitation and product
inhibition. It is interesting, that the basic enzyme rate equation, or MichaelisMenten equation, based on the theory indicated in Sec. 3.1, is of the same basic
form as the empirically-based Monod equation for the growth of microorganisms.
When used in this manner, the cell kinetics are completely devoid of any
mechanistic interpretation and constitute what is known as an unstructured
kinetic model (Fig.3.1 A). In other cases, it may be necessary to look in some
detail at individual cell processes and reactions, in order to obtain a more
realistic description, thus leading on to the use of structured kinetic models
(Fig. 3.IB) as described in Sec. 3.3. In a most simple case, the cells are
composed of a catalytic part comprising proteins, RNA, DNA and other cellular
compounds and of a storage part, e.g. poly-hydroxy-alkanoic acids (PHAs) or
inclusion bodies of recombinant proteins. A most simple segregated model
considers different stages of cells and therefore a distribution of cell stages in a
culture without structuring the cell composition (Fig. 3.1C). In the most
realistic, but most complex situation the model is structured and segregated
Biological Reaction Engineering, Second Edition. I. J. Dunn, E. Heinzle, J. Ingham, J. E. Pfenosil
Copyright 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30759-1
68
3 Biological Kinetics
(Fig. 3.ID). For the purpose of this book, the differences of these models can
be best described by their different balance regions.
Non-structured
Structured
3
CO
t
o
Figure 3.1. Types of kinetic models for cells. Balance regions: A Total cell biomass, B Cell
parts, C biomass parts, D Biomass and cell parts.
3.1
3.1.1
Enzyme Kinetics
Michaelis-Menten Equation
69
>
S 4- E
<
ES
ES
- P + E
= - ki S E + k_i (ES)
dt
dt
(ES) = 0
S = S0
The concentration changes for a batch reactor are shown qualitatively in Fig.
3.2. While the enzyme concentration is usually much lower than that of the
substrate, most of the enzyme is present during the reaction in the form of the
enzyme-substrate complex, ES.
Analytical solution is then possible by assuming a quasi-steady state for the
enzyme-substrate complex, ES,
d(ES)
-= 0
dt
This assumption is valid for E SQ.
Using the total enzyme mass balance,
EO = E + (ES)
the above equations can be solved for the unknown concentrations E and ES to
give,
and
ki S E
0 ~ k_i .+ k2
E = E
k.i + k2
k_i + k2
= E
70
3 Biological Kinetics
1
Q)
O
-^
time
Figure 3.2. Concentration changes of the reaction species for a simple enzymatic reaction
taking place in a batch reactor.
dS _
dt ~
k2SEo
where the parameters in terms of the mechanistic model are for the maximum
reaction rate (kmol/m3min):
v max = k 2 E 0
k-i + k2
ki
The Michaelis-Menten equation exhibits three distinct regions for the reaction
rate. At very low and very high substrate concentrations the rs versus S curve is
essentially linear, as seen in Fig. 3.3.
71
vm
rS
Michaehs-Menten region
vm/2""
KM
10 KM
5 KM
15 KM
Figure 3.3. Reaction rate versus substrate concentration for the Michaelis-Menten equation.
S = v max
72
3 Biological Kinetics
1
rs
KM I
v
max S
max
Typical values of the enzyme kinetic constants are given in Table 3.1. It is
interesting to note that the rate of formation of the enzyme-substrate complex
can be extremely fast, with the constant ki approaching 1 x 1010 L/mol s. This
is the maximum value for a rate constant of a reaction that is limited by
diffusion of a small substrate molecule in aqueous solution.
Table 3.1. Typical values of the constants of the Michaelis-Menten equation.
Constant
Value range
KM
73
3.1.2
max Si 82
Inhibition
Inhibition occurs when a substance, inhibitor (I), reduces the rate of an
enzyme-catalyzed reaction, usually by the inhibitor binding to the enzyme
active site. Three simple types of reversible inhibition kinetics are given in Tab.
3.2.
Table 3.2. Enzymatic inhibition kinetics.
Mechanism
Inhibition
Rate equation, rs
v
maxS
competitive
KM (1 + I/KI) + S
E+SES-P
c
c
El ESI
non-competitive
(i + I/KI) (KM + S)
ES +1 => ESI
uncompetitive
vmax
74
3 Biological Kinetics
Usually, the substance I is the substrate or the product, and the reaction kinetics
are known as substrate or product inhibition, respectively.
Allosteric Kinetics
A simple model to describe allosteric inhibition is given, in which the enzyme
can bind to more than one substrate molecule. Thus:
nS + E
ESn
nP + E
" K M n + Sn
75
r =
S,H+CH+CH/ K I,H
76
3.1.3
3 Biological Kinetics
Deactivation
MOJL
kdt
KM+S
This equation suggests an exponential decrease of reaction rate regardless of
substrate concentration. The simulation example DEACTENZ, Sec. 8.4.12
illustrates this.
Engineering models for the kinetics of deactivation are given by Prenosil et
al. (1987).
3.1.4
Sterilization
= - k d X =-k d =k 0 e- E a / R T X
77
_ ,,-kdt
where XQ is the initial live biomass concentration, X is the viable biomass after
the treatment time t, and kd is the specific deactivation constant (1/s).
The sterilization time will depend on the initial level of contamination. For
this purpose the D-value is defined as the treatment time required to reduce the
population by a factor of ten. This time is related to the rate constant by
2.3
3.2
3.2.1
Under ideal conditions for growth, when a batch fermentation is carried out, it
can be observed experimentally that the quantity of biomass, and therefore also
the concentration, increases exponentially with respect to time. This phenomena
can be explained by the fact that all cells have the same probability to multiply.
Thus the overall rate of biomass formation is proportional to the biomass itself
This leads to an autocatalytic reaction, which is described by a first order rate
expression as
where rx is the rate of cell growth (kg cell/m3 s), X is the cell concentration
(kg cell/m3) and k is a kinetic growth constant (1/s). For a batch system, this is
equivalent to,
where dX/dt is the rate of change of cell concentration with respect to time
(kg cell/m3 s). The analytical solution of this simple, first-order differential
equation is of the form
In X = k t + In X0
or,
= ekt
78
3 Biological Kinetics
Plotting experimental growth data in the form of the natural logarithm of cell
concentration versus time will often yield a straight line over a large portion of
the curve, as shown below in Fig. 3.6.
InS
Limitation \Stationary
InX
Death
Exponential
Lag
time
Figure 3.6. Biomass and substrate concentrations during batch growth.
In the range from ti to t2 the logarithmic curve is linear, and this is the region
of exponential growth. Three other regions can be identified: between t = 0
and ti, there exists a period of cell adaptation or lag phase, and before t2 there
is a region where the growth is limited by the lack of a particular substance,
which is known as the limiting substrate.
The slope of the linear part of the curve between ti and t2 is the growth rate
per unit mass of cells or specific growth rate and is given the symbol \i.
=
1 dX
X" "dT
In many processes cells begin to die (after ts), because of lack of nutrients,
toxic effects or cell aging. This process can typically be described by a first
order decay,
rd = - kd X
where rd is the death rate and k^ is the specific death rate, with the same
dimensions as the specific growth rate. This expression is identical with
sterilization kinetics, Sec. 3.1.4.
The exponential and limiting regions can be described by a single relation,
that sets JLI equal to a function of substrate concentration. It is observed
experimentally that |a is at a maximum when the particular limiting substrate
concentration S is large, and for low concentration ja is proportional to S. Over
the whole range from low to high S, |i is described by the following Monod
equation.
79
Thus |i varies with S in the same fashion as does the enzymatic rate of
Michaelis-Menten kinetics.
Again, this is a two-parameter equation involving two constants, the
maximum specific growth rate |im and the saturation constant KS. It is best
considered to be an empirical relation, but since it has the same form as the
Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics equation, it is sometimes taken to be related
to a limiting enzymatic step. Although very simple, it often describes
experimental data for growth rates very well. The form of this relation is shown
in Fig. 3.7.
M
Monod Relation
Figure 3.7. Specific growth rate versus limiting substrate concentration according to the
Monod relation.
S - 0,
S = KS,
Urn
Jl = ~
The first introductory simulations in Sec. 8.1 are based on Monod kinetics.
When two substrates can be limiting, it is often the case that a double Monod
type relationship can be used, as given in Sec. 3.2.4 and as shown by the
simulation examples NITRIF, Sec. 8.5.3, and BIOFILM, Sec. 8.7.1.
80
3.2.2
3 Biological Kinetics
0.6 -
0.0
Figure 3.7. Substrate inhibition kinetics for various values of KS and Kj. The parameters used
are as follows: For all curves |im = 1.0 1/h. Curve A: KS = 1 and KI = 10, Curve B: KS = 0.1 and
KI = 10; Curve C: KS = 1 and KI = 20; Curve D: KS = 0.1 and KI = 20. The units of KS, KI and S
are g/m^.
81
The substrate inhibition kinetic curve has the following characteristics, which
result from the kinetic equation:
1) When S = Ks
_
- - 2 + Ks/Kj
2) When S = KI
- 2 + Ks/Ki
3) The maximum occurs at S = (Ks Ki)-5 and
M- =
3.2.3
Mm
2 (Ks/Ki)-5 + 1
Product Inhibition
When the formation of product inhibits the rate of cell growth, the basic Monod
equation can be modified, by the addition of a product inhibition term P/Kj.
Thus,
3.2.4
M- - KS S0 + S
shows the influence of initial concentration, which is sometimes observed if
other components are limiting.
The Teisser Equation
ILL = |Li m (l-e-S/k)
relates |Li to S exponentially.
82
3 Biological Kinetics
- KX + S
expresses the effective saturation constant as being proportional to the biomass
concentration X. At high X, |i is inversely proportional to X. This is
sometimes used to represent a diffusion limitation in flocculating or
immobilized biomass.
The Logistic Equation
M, = ( a - b X )
encompasses exponential growth and the levelling off to zero growth rate at
high X. For a batch fermentation the biomass balance is,
= aX-bX2
Thus when X is small, growth is exponential and given by
dX
When X is large,
0 = a X - b X2
and thus
X = a/b
Multiple-Substrate Monod kinetics
can be used to describe the influence of many substrates, which for two
substrates takes the form,
Si ^ f S2 A
l + SiJ ^2 + 827
In this way either substrate may be limiting under conditions when the other
substrate is in excess. Note that the multiplicative effect gives for S\ = K\ and
83
k2S2 V
This form gives an additive, fractional contribution for each substrate. Thus for
Si = KI and 82 = K2, the result is |Li = |Lim/2. For the case Si = 0 and 82 large,
then ji = |iim k2/(ki+k2). Each substrate thus allows a different maximal growth
rate. If both Si and 82 are large then |ii = |iim. Note that the flexibility of this
kinetic form requires twice as many kinetic parameters as the simpler double
Monod kinetics. An example of this kinetics is the parallel use of alternative
substrates, such as various types of sugars.
Diauxic Monod Growth can be modelled for two substrates by the relation
K 2 + S2 + S / K !
in this way the consumption of substrate 82 will be inhibited until Si is
exhausted, for suitably low values of Kj. Diauxic growth can be observed in
many organisms. An example is E. Coli, where the uptake of lactose is
repressed in the presence of glucose. The simulation example SUBTILIS, Sec.
8.9.2 uses this kinetic form.
3.2.5
84
3 Biological Kinetics
For the specific substrate uptake rate (kg S/kg biomass h),
rs
qs = x
For the specific oxygen uptake rate (kg C>2/kg biomass h),
r
O2
qo2 =
For the specific carbon dioxide uptake rate (kg CCVkg biomass h),
qco2 = "IT"
For the specific product production rate (kg P/kg biomass h),
qp =
then,
qs =
where |i is also a function of S.
85
3.2.6
Product Formation
where rp is the rate of product formation (kg product/m3 s). YX/P is a yield
factor (kg cell produced/kg product produced), relating the growth and product
stoichiometry in the "growth associated" term of the Luedeking-Piret equation,
and b is a non-growth related term and is important for cultures which produce
product independent of growth. Often both coefficients of the above equation
(YX/P and b) are not constant but are functions of substrate or product
concentration.
When little is known about the detailed kinetics of product formation, a more
general expression rp = qp X is used, where qp will usually vary with culture
conditions and concentrations.
86
3.2.7
3 Biological Kinetics
Interacting Microorganisms
A
0
0
Organisms
B
0
+
0
0
Predator-Prey Kinetics
Organism A consumes substrate S, and organism B consumes organism A.
87
Commensalism
Organism A uses substrate 82 to produce product P; organism B uses substrate
Si to produce product 82, which benefits organism A since product 82 acts as
its substrate.
A
81
The following processes with the compound 82, shown in brackets, involve this
form of commensalism:
nitrification (NC>2~ )
anaerobic digestion (organic acids)
methanogenation (H2, 62) as found in simulation example ANAMEAS,
Sec. 8.8.7.
Commensalism with Product Removed
Organism A utilizes a substrate 82, which inhibits the growth of B on substrate
Si.
s 2 - - -> p 2
This effect may be found in the removal of toxic wastes in mixed cultures with
multiple carbon sources. An example is found in ANAMEAS in which the
hydrogen substrate of the methanogens (A) inhibits the acetogenic organisms
(B).
Mutualism with Product Removed
Organism A utilizes substrates 82 to produce product P. Organism B utilizes
substrate S\ to produce 82, which inhibits organism B.
88
3 Biological Kinetics
3.2.7.1
Organism A utilizes the product from organism B, which also helps B because
PB inhibits its growth.
An example of kinetic modelling is presented for this case, in which the growth
of the two organisms, A and B, takes place in a batch reactor with initial
substrate concentrations SIQ and 820- The growth rate is expressed by Monodtype kinetics and constant yield factors are used to express the substrate uptake
and product formation rates.
Substrate Si balance,
dt
_
-
dt
_
-
Substrate 82 balance.
Product PB balance,
dPB
IT
A PB
Species A balance,
dXA
"3f" =
Species B balance,
BS2
89
dXB =
~3T
^B XB
The kinetics are given by Monod-type relations, with a double form of Monod
equation employed for species A and a product inhibition term employed for
B,
Si
PB
HA - MmA KI + Si
B = K2 + S2 + (PB/KI)
Other examples of interacting microorganism effects are given in the
simulation examples ACTNITR (neutralism), Sec. 8.4.3, COMPASM
(competitive assimilation and commensalism), Sec. 8.8.2, MIXPOP (predatorprey population dynamics), Sec. 8.8.4 and TWOONE (competition between
organisms), Sec. 8.8.5.
3.2.7.2
90
3 Biological Kinetics
(0
'55
CO
g0)
TJ
o>
"5
W
'(0
0)
0)
D)
O
I
O
Figure 3.9. Reaction scheme of anaerobic degradation. The symbols are: Poly - polymer
material (proteins, fats, hydrocarbons, etc.); XJJY - Biomass hydrolyzing Poly; Mono monomeric materials from hydrolysis of Poly; XAG ~acid generating biomass; HPr - propionic
acid; Pr" - propionate; Xpr - biomass growing on propionate; HBu - butyric acid; Bu" - butyrate;
XBU - biomass growing on butyrate; HAc - acetic acid; Ac" - acetate; XAC - biomass growing on
acetate; XH - biomass growing on hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Dashed arrows indicate gaseous
compounds transfer to the liquid phase. T - gaseous compounds transferred to liquid gas phase.
The respective reaction rates rj for the production of biomass Xi, for the
consumption of substrate Si and for the formation of product Pi in each step
are:
rxi = Hi Xi - kdi Xi
91
Hi Xj
rpi =
where k^ is the specific death rate, including maintenance metabolism, and the
specific growth rates take the Monod form,
Mimax Si
W - KSi + Si
These kinetics can then be combined with the mass balances as discussed in Ch.
4 for each component, Si and Pi, and for the biomass balances for each
organism type, Xi
Following this approach a model was established (Denac et al., 1988) and
combined with particular control algorithms to simulate a continuous anaerobic
digestor with feed rate control. This included a gas phase balance,
thermodynamic equilibrium constraints and acid-base equilibria using an ion
charge balance (Sec. 1.3.6.2). The simulations were used to adjust the control
parameters, which were employed on laboratory reactors (Heinzle et al., 1992).
The simulation example ANAEMEAS, Sec. 8.8.7, gives details concerning this
model.
33
Signaling networks.
92
3 Biological Kinetics
Membrane transport.
Accumulation of storage materials (Heinzle and Lafferty, 1980; Heinzle
et al., 1983). See example PHB, Sec. 8.2.4.
Morphological changes, e.g., branching of filamentous organisms,
volume to surface ratio of yeast cells (Fig. 3.10), Furukawa et al., 1983.
L/d; S/V x 10
2.0
[1/m]
L/d
1.5
S/V
1.0
0.01
0.1
1.0
D0[g/m3]
Figure 3.10. Dissolved oxygen concentration, DO, influenced the shape of yeast in
continuous culture as given by the ratios of length/diameter (L/d) and surface/volume (S/V).
93
3.3.1
3.3.1.1
Case Studies
Fig. 3.11 represents the process of cell growth and the synthesis of intracellular
product PHB. Residual biomass (R) is the difference between total cell dry
mass (X) and product PHB (P). Synthesis of PHB occurs with a single limiting
substrate NH4+ (S) and constant dissolved gas concentrations of H2, C>2 and
CO2 (So). Mass flows are indicated by solid lines, and regulatory mechanisms
are symbolized by dashed lines.
inhibiting
inhibiting
Figure 3.11. Schematic diagram of growth and synthesis of the intracellular product PHB (P)
with constant concentrations of dissolved gases H2, O2, and CO2 (SG) X is the total biomass
(X=R+P).
94
3 Biological Kinetics
It can be seen that the catalytically active biomass, R, is produced from both S
and SQ. During exponential growth the PHB content is constant, and thus the
rate of intracellular product formation is proportional to the rate of formation
of the residual biomass. On this basis, the basic mass balance equations for a
batch process can be formulated as shown in the simulation example PHB, Sec.
8.2.4. This model was used successfully in describing experimental batch
growth and the PHB product formation (Heinzle and Lafferty, 1980), as shown
in Fig. 3.12.
S [g/L]
X,P,R [g/L]
P/X [-]
3 -
2 -
1 -
Figure 3.12. Comparison of simulation results from the structured PHB model with
experimental data (Heinzle and Lafferty, 1980).
3.3.1.2
Case D.
95
15
10
10
0.5
X [g/L]
'1 DO [mg/L]
0.05
0.0
0.5
E [g/L]
S [mg/L]
0
100
2.0
50
1.5
RQ
q X [mmol/h L]
1.0
0
10
20
t[h]
Figure 3.13. Oscillating profiles from a continuous culture of S. cerevisiae. (Heinzle et al.,
1983). Symbols used are X (total biomass), DO (dissolved oxygen), E (ethanol), S (glucose),
QCO2 and QO2 (specific gas reaction rates), and RQ (respiratory quotient).
96
3 Biological Kinetics
(g/L)
10
Time (h)
15
Time (h)
D=0.05 h'1
Figure 3.15. Simulation of the Baker's yeast model (simulation example YEASTOSC, Sec.
8.8.8, showing oscillations of all the components, Q.
97
3.3.1.3 Case E. Growth and Product Formation of an OxygenSensitive Bacillus subtilis Culture
This example shows how knowledge of the biochemical pathways, when
combined with experimental data, can lead to model development. In this
research an oxygen-sensitive culture was to be used for mixing studies, and it
was important to establish the kinetic model (Moes et al, 1985, 1986) in order
to describe the batch profiles as shown in Fig. 3.17.
Since it was not possible to describe the growth behavior by simple Monodtype models, an ATP balance was used to establish the available energy for
biomass synthesis. This was possible because the biochemical pathways (Fig.
3.18) for the fermentation and their associated chemical energy production and
consumption steps were known.
Gl
Ac, Bu (g/L)
X (9/L)
- 3
10
- 2
- 1
Figure 3.17. Growth and product formation of Bacillus subtilis at constant DO. Gl - glucose,
X - biomass, Ac - acetoin, Bu - butanediol.
The formulation starts with a steady state ATP balance, which assumes that all
energy-producing steps are balanced by those that consume energy. The form
of this balance is as fpllows:
i A ' I' U
dt
98
3 Biological Kinetics
>*
6CO 2
2Pyruvate
NADH
ATP
Acetoin ^
^ NAD+
NADH
ADP
>
Butanediol
NAD"1"
^ ATP
Figure 3.18. Biochemical pathways for the production of acetoin and butanediol.
Using the steady-state approximation that the ATP level does not vary
significantly, allows setting the condition that dATP/dt = 0. The steady state
ATP balance is then solved for qATP/X, which is the rate of ATP available for
growth. The required yields can be calculated from the reactions given in Fig.
3.17. In these calculations it was assumed that at high oxygen concentration 1
mol NADH was converted to 3 mol ATP in the respiratory chain. At low
oxygen concentrations, the conversion equivalent was assumed to be a function
of oxygen as determined by parameter estimation, based on the experimental
data.
The glucose substrate balance can be written in terms of the rates at which
substrate was consumed for complete oxidation (qs/GO2) fr biomass
(qATP/X YX/ATP / YX/S) and for product formation (qs/Ac)'
dS
,.
qATP/x YX/ATP
99
qATP/x YX/ATP X
and,
dBu
~dt~
( ^Ac/flu ~ qBu/Ac ) X
In the above balances, all specific rate terms, q, are in the units
(mol/g biomass h). All concentrations (ATP, S, Ac, Bu) are in mol/L units
except X (g/L). All yield coefficients Y are in mol/mol units except when
involving biomass, e.g. YX/S is in units of g/mol.
Empirical Monod-type kinetic relationships, not given here, were established
to calculate the rate of glucose to acetoin, qs/Ac an(i the reversible acetoin to
butanediol rates, qAc/Bu and qBu/Ac as a function of reactant concentrations for
glucose, S, for acetoin, Ac, for butanediol, Bu, and for dissolved oxygen, DO.
Additional empirical kinetic terms were needed to fit the following
experimental observations:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The many kinetic parameters were determined partly by direct experiments and
partly by fitting the data using a parameter estimation computer program. The
influence of oxygen was determined using data from experiments at controlled
oxygen conditions and determining the best values of the oxygen sensitive rates
by parameter estimation procedures. A simple graphical procedure then
allowed determination of the appropriate constants.
100
3 Biological Kinetics
The quantities YATP/NADH and YX/ATP are linearly dependent on each other and
could therefore not be determined from experimental data. The maximum
value of YATP/NADH was arbitrarily fixed at the maximum theoretical value of
3.0, which has a direct influence on the estimation of YX/ATP (here 5.7 g/mol).
Good agreement of the batch curves with the model at constant DO was
achieved as shown in Fig. 3.18. From these results it is seen that the model
predicts the metabolite and biomass profiles. The model was quite versatile and
reasonably accurate, considering the large differences in biomass formation at
high DO (X = 3.4 g/L) and low DO (X = 2.5 g/L), as well as the variation of the
butanediol formation at high DO (Bu = 0.2 g/L) and low DO (Bu = 2 g/L),
X(g/L)
GI(g/L)
t(h)
Figure 3.19. Comparison of simulation results with the Bacillus subtilis fermentation (Moes
et al., 1986). X=biomass, Ac=acetoin, Bu=butanediol, Gl=glucose.
Bioreactor Modelling
4.1
Fermentation systems obey the same fundamental mass and energy balance
relationships as do chemical reaction systems, but special difficulties arise in
biological reactor modelling, owing to uncertainties in the kinetic rate
expression and the reaction stoichiometry. In what follows, material balance
equations are derived for the total mass, the mass of substrate and the cell mass
for the case of the stirred tank bioreactor system as shown in Fig. 4.1.
' X0! F0
1f
F1
In this generalized case, feed enters the reactor at a volumetric flow rate FQ, with
cell concentration, XQ, and substrate concentration, SQ. The vessel contents,
which are well-mixed are defined by volume V, substrate concentration Si and
cell concentration X\. These concentrations are identical to those of the outlet
stream, which has a volumetric flow rate FI.
102
4 Bioreactor Modelling
d(Vp)
= P(FO-FI)
Substrate balance:
d(VSi)
gj = F o S o - F i S i + r s V
Organism balance:
d(V Xi)
J J t = FO XQ - FI X j + rx V
where the units are: V (m3), p (kg/m3), F (m3/s), S (kg/m3), X (kg/m3) with rs
and rx (kg/m3 s).
The rate expressions can be simply:
= KS + S!
and using a constant yield coefficient,
-*x
fs =
Yxl
4.1.1
103
Jiiilii
Substrate balance:
dSi
V^r = r s V
Organism balance:
V
T = rxV
Suitable rate expressions for r$ and rx and the specification of the initial
conditions would complete the batch fermenter model, which describes the
exponential and limiting growth phases but not the lag phase. The simulation
example BATFERM, Sec. 8.1.1, demonstrates use of this model.
104
4 Bioreactor Modelling
UN
= F(S 0 -Si)
Cell balance
VdXi
= F(X0-Xi)
105
Chemostats normally operate with sterile feed, XQ = 0, and hence for the cell
balance,
0 = - F X! + rx V
Inserting the Monod-type rate expressions gives:
For the cell balance,
FXi
= rx = Ji X!
hence
F
H = v =
Here D is the dilution rate and is equal to 1/T, where i = V/F and is equal to the
tank mean residence time.
For the substrate balance,
]
from which:
Xi = YX/S (So-Si)
Thus the specific growth rate in a chemostat is controlled by the feed flowrate,
since [I is equal to D at steady state conditions.
Since |Li, the specific growth rate, is a function of the substrate concentration,
and |Li is also determined by dilution rate, the flow rate F then also determines
the outlet substrate concentration Si. The last equation is, of course, also
simply a statement that the quantity of cells produced is proportional to the
quantity of substrate consumed, as related by the yield factor YX/SThe curves in Fig. 4.4 represent solutions to the steady-state chemostat
model as obtained from the simulation example CHEMOSTA, Sec. 8.4.1, with
KS = 1.0.
The variables Xi, Si, as well as the productivity DXi are plotted versus D.
Thus as flow rate is increased, D also increases and causes the steady state value
of Si to increase and the corresponding value of Xi to decrease. It is seen
when D nears |im, Xi becomes zero and Si rises to the inlet value SQ. This
corresponds to a complete removal of the cells by flow out of the tank; a
phenomenon known as "washout". Fig. 4.4 shows washout occurring for D well
below |jm, which is caused by the large value of KS. . When D is nearly zero
(low flow rates) then Si approaches zero, and Xi approaches YSo The
productivity of biomass, DXi, (kg X/m3 h) passes through a maximum rather
close to the washout region.
106
4 Bioreactor Modelling
X1,S1,DX1
10.0 T
5.0 -
0.25
1.0
D (1/h)
Figure 4.4. Variation of the steady state variables in a chemostat with Monod kinetics as a
function of dilution rate.
4.1.3
As shown in Fig 4.5 the outlet is zero for a fed batch fermenter, and the inlet
flow, FO, may be variable. As a result the reactor volume will change with time.
107
S.F,
o1 ' o
T7
0
d(VSi)
= F0 S0 + rs V
dt
d(V XQ
= rxV
dt
Expanding the differential terms, which are products of the two variables V
and Si and V and Xi, respectively, and substituting for dV/dt = FQ gives:
VdSi
= F 0 (S 0 -Si)
The above equations are identical to those for a constant volume chemostat
reactor. It can be shown by simulation that a quasi-steady state can be reached
where dXi/dt = 0 and fi = F/V (Dunn and Mor, 1975) as seen in the Fig. 4.7.
Since V increases, therefore n must decrease, and thus the reactor moves
through a series of changing steady states for which |a = D, during which Si
and p decrease, and Xi remains constant. This is analogous to a constant
volume reactor with slowly decreasing F. These phenomena are demonstrated
by the simulation examples FEDBAT, Sec. 8.1.3, and VARVOL, Sec. 8.3.1.
108
4 Bioreactor Modelling
A fed batch fermenter, in which the inlet feed rate is very low, will not exhibit
a large increase in volume and will not reach a quasi-steady state, unless X is
very high. Assuming V to be approximately constant, the general equations
can be integrated analytically for the case of |j = constant, giving an
exponential increase in X. The constant |u condition is maintained by constant
Si, which can be obtained via exponential feeding. Another phenomenon can
be proven from these equations for the case of constant feed rate and
essentially constant V; this is the linear growth situation, where X increases
linearly with time. As shown in Fig. 4.6, the slope of the curve is related to the
feed rate and the yield coefficient. If V changes as a consequence of dilute
feed, then the total quantity of biomass (VX) will increase linearly.
FS
0 Y X/S
Figure 4.6. Linear growth under conditions of feed limitation with constant volume.
Figure 4.7. Repeated fed batch operation in terms of dimensionless variables for substrate
inhibition kinetics. Two cycles of operation are shown. The dimensionless variables are
defined in the simulation example VARVOL, Sec. 8.3.1.
109
4.1.4
Biomass Productivity
The specific biomass production rate for a chemostat, DXi, (kg biomass/m3 h)
can be calculated by applying the above model equations. Thus,
D X i = DY x /s(So-Si) = DYx/s
The conditions for the maximum value of DXi as shown in Fig. 4.4, can be
obtained by setting
d(DXi)
dD
110
4.1.5
4 Bioreactor Modelling
Case Studies
4.1.5.1 Case A.
Cell recycle
Figure 4.8. A bioreactor with cell separation and recycle.
The mass balances around the entire system are as follows: Biomass
accumulates both within the reactor of volume Vr and also within the separation
unit with volume Vs. Assuming that biomass leaves only in the wastage stream
and that growth occurs only in the reactor, the balance is then
dXi
=0-WXR
111
Thus, the wastage rate of biomass must equal its production rate, otherwise Xi
will change. Wastage rate is an important control parameter in wastewater
treatment, where the separator is usually a sedimentation tank.
For the substrate, which is consumed only in the reactor section,
dSi
dSR
At steady state,
0 = F So FI Si W Sj + r$ Vr
Here it is seen that the uptake rate is equal to the difference between the inlet
and outlet mass flows. The efficiency of the continuous biomass separation
determines XI/XR, which controls the recycle ratio, R/(F+R).
Considering the fermentation tank only, the balances are as follows:
For the biomass,
At steady state,
0 =RXR-(F + R)X!+rxVr
Cell separation and recycle lead to high cell concentrations in the reactor,
which, when neglecting the contribution by growth, would be XR/(F+R). Since
the rates are proportional to Xi, an increase in reactor efficiency is obtained.
Assuming, rx = |n Xi gives,
MX,
where, XR > Xi , and D = F/V is the nominal dilution rate. This equation means
that the specific growth rate is decreased from the chemostat value, D. This is
due to the reduction in substrate concentration, Si, which is caused by the
higher biomass concentration, resulting from the cell recycle. Washout is
impossible due to the complete biomass retention, and for this reason flow rates
greater than in a chemostat are possible.
The substrate balance gives
JQ
Vr == F S0 + R Si - (F + R) Si + rs V
dt
112
4 Bioreactor Modelling
This would also be the case without cell recycle, since the substrate is assumed
to pass unchanged in concentration through the separator.
The above equation can be written as
=
where the right hand side of this equation is the F/M (food/biomass) ratio. This
gives a theoretical basis to the F/M concept, which is well known for the control
of waste treatment plants. The simulation example ACTNITR, Sec. 8.4.3,
enables the main operating characteristics of cell recycle systems to be studied.
A related simulation example MEMINH, Sec. 8.9.1, considers the retention of
enzyme using a membrane, and SUBTILIS, Sec. 8.9.2, involves the retention of
biomass.
4.1.5.2
Case B.
illi
11
: :';: y~: :
81
w>
Vv
S2
>
1
1
1
1
S;^;:-);'::;HaKS
>
illi
dSi
jp = F(S 0 -Si)
dividing by
SQ-SI
where i\ = Vi/F and is the mean residence time of the liquid in tank 1.
The balances for tanks 2 and 3 have the same form except for the subscripts:
113
For known flow rate, F, and known tank volumes, there are six unknowns in
these three equations. Note that different tank sizes may be accounted for by
differing values for the tank residence times TI, 12 and 13.
If the kinetic terms r$ are only dependent on S, then the above equations can
be solved without any further balances. It is often the case that enzymatic rate
equations of the form given below can be used for each tank n = 1, 2 and 3:
This gives now six equations and six unknowns, and the problem is solvable by
simulation methods.
If the situation is more complex, such that r$ depends on other components,
for example P, in the case of product inhibition or biomass X, then additional
balance equations for these components must be included in the model. When
combined with equations for the complete kinetics description (rates as a
function of all the influential concentrations), the model can be solved to obtain
the dynamics of the system and also the final steady state values. It can be
shown that a three tanks-in-series reactor system will provide a good
approximation to the performance of a corresponding tubular reactor, except
for very high conversions.
4.2
4.2.1
The tubular reactor can be modelled for steady state conditions by considering
the flow as a series of fluid elements or disks of liquid, which behave as a batch
reactor during their time of passage through the reactor. This can be
understood by considering a pulse of unreacting tracer in Fig. 4.10 that passes
from entrance to exit unchanged without mixing.
114
4 Bioreactor Modelling
tracer pulse
response
Figure 4.10. Plug flow idealization of the tubular reactor with no axial mixing.
A reaction will cause a steady state axial concentration profile as shown in Fig.
4.11. Thus at steady state, the concentrations vary with distance in a manner
which is analogous to the time-varying concentrations that occur in a batch
reactor.
Concentration
This means that steady-state tubular reactor behavior can be modelled by direct
analogy to that of a simple batch reactor. Thus using the batch reactor
substrate balance (p = constant),
dS
dF = fS
The flow velocity, v, for the liquid is defined as,
v
dZ
= dF
or,
dt =
dZ
where v = F/A and F is the volumetric flow rate through the tube with crosssectional area A. Thus substituting for dt,
dS_
dZ
rs_
v
115
4.2.2
)))))>
Figure 4.12. Finite-differencing the tubular reactor.
Figure 4.13. Balancing the difference segment n for the tubular reactor.
dSn
"dT = S n-l F n-l - Sn Fn + rSn AV
116
4 Bioreactor Modelling
dSn
dt
A(SF)
+ rsn
AV
Setting AV AdZ and AS > dS gives the partial differential equation, which
describes changes in time and distance, as,
38
at
1 d(SF)
-- x
A az
J_
At steady state,
as
_F as + rs
at ~ ~ A az
and
V
+ fS
dZ
dt
AV/F
Mass Transfer
5.1
Figure 5.1. Absorption of oxygen from an air bubble to the liquid medium.
118
5.1.2
5 Mass Transfer
5.1.3
Surface Biocatalysis
In this case, a liquid phase is in contact with solid biocatalyst. Substrates A and
B diffuse from the liquid to the reaction sites on the surface of the solid, where
reaction occurs. The product C must similarly be transferred away from the
solid reaction surface, as shown in Fig. 5.3. Examples are found with
immobilized enzyme and cell systems. In Sec. 6.1 the modelling aspects of this
type of system are considered in detail.
119
5.1.4
5.2
Concentration gradients are the driving forces for mass transfer. Actual
concentration gradients (Fig. 5.5) in the very near vicinity of the gas-liquid
120
5 Mass Transfer
interface, under mass transfer conditions, are very complex. They result from
an interaction between the mass transfer process and the local fluid
hydrodynamics, which change gradually from stagnant flow, close to the
interface, to perhaps fully-developed turbulence within each of the bulk phases.
According to the Two-Film Theory, the actual concentration profiles, as
represented in Fig. 5.5 can be approximated by linear gradients, as shown in
Fig. 5.6.
A thin film of fluid is assumed to exist at either side of the interface. Away
from these films, each fluid is assumed to be in fully developed turbulent flow.
There is therefore no resistance to mass transfer within the bulk phases, and the
concentrations, CG and CL, are uniform throughout each relevant phase. At the
phase interface itself, it is assumed there is no resistance to mass transfer, and
the interfacial concentrations, CGI and CLI, are therefore in local equilibrium
with each other. All the resistance to mass transfer must, therefore, occur within
the films. In each film, the flow of fluid is assumed to be stagnant, and mass
transfer is assumed to occur only by molecular diffusion and therefore to be
Interface
Gas
described by Pick's law, which says that the flux JA (mol/s m2) for the molecular
diffusion of some component A is given by,
dZ
121
Gas
Interface
Liquid
where D is the molecular diffusion coefficient (m2/s) and dC/dZ is the steady
state concentration gradient (mol/m3). Thus applying the same concept to mass
transfer across the two films,
JA = DG
where DG and DL are the effective diffusivities of each film, and ZG and ZL are
the respective thicknesses of the two films.
The above equations can be expressed in terms of mass transfer coefficients
kc and kL (m2/s) for the gas and liquid films,
JA = k G (C G -C G i) = k L (C Li -C L )
The total rate of mass transfer, Q (mol/s), is given by,
Q = JAA = jA(aV)
where "A" is the total interfacial area available for mass transfer, and "a" is
defined as the specific area for mass transfer or interfacial area per unit liquid
volume (m2/m3). Thus for the total rate of mass transfer:
In terms of the total interfacial area A,
Q = k G A(C G -C G i ) = k L A(C L i -C L )
In terms of a and VL,
Q = ko a (Co - CGi) VL = k L a(C L i -C L )V L
122
5 Mass Transfer
Since the mass transfer coefficient, k, and the specific interfacial area, a, depend
on the same hydrodynamic conditions and system physical properties, they are
frequently combined and referred to as a "ka value" or more properly a mass
transfer capacity coefficient.
In the above theory, the interfacial concentrations CGI and CLI cannot be
measured, and are therefore of relatively little use, even if the values of the film
coefficients are known. For this reason, by analogy to the film equations,
overall mass transfer rate equations are defined, based on overall coefficients of
mass transfer, KG and KL, and overall concentration driving force terms, where:
Q = K G A(C G -C G *) = K L A(C L *-C L )
Here, CG* and CL* are the respective equilibrium concentrations, corresponding
to the bulk phase concentrations, CL and CG, respectively, as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Equilibrium relationships for gas-liquid systems, at low concentrations of
component A usually obey Henry's law, which is a linear relation between gas
partial pressure, PA, and equilibrium liquid phase concentration, CLA*:
PA=
where HA (bar m3/kg) is the Henry's law constant for component A in the
medium. Henry's law is generally accurate for gases with low solubility, such as
the solubility of oxygen in water or in fermentation media. Thus from this
relation, as shown in Fig. 5.7, the corresponding equilibrium concentrations can
be easily established.
CLC*
Figure 5.7. Equilibrium concentrations based on Henry's law.
For gases of low solubility, e.g., oxygen and carbon dioxide in water, the
concentration gradient through the gas film is very small, as compared to that
within the liquid film, as illustrated in Fig. 5.6. This results from the relatively
123
low resistance to mass transfer in the gas film, as compared to the much greater
resistance to mass transfer in the liquid film. The main resistance to mass
transfer is predominantly within the liquid film. This causes a large change in
concentration (Cy - CL), since the resistance is almost entirely on the liquid
side of the interface.
At the interface, the liquid concentration, Cy, is in equilibrium with that of
the gas, CGI, and since CGI is very close in magnitude to the bulk gas
concentration, CLI must then be very nearly in equilibrium with the bulk gas
phase concentration, CG- This is known as liquid film control and corresponds
to the situation where the overall resistance to mass transfer resides almost
entirely within the liquid phase. The overall mass transfer capacity coefficient
is KLa. Hence the overall mass transfer rate equation used for slightly soluble
gases in terms of the specific area is
Q = KLa (C L *-C L )V L
where CL* is in equilibrium with CG, as given by Henry's law,
C G = HCL*,
Mass transfer coefficients in fermentation are therefore generally spoken of as
KL values or K^a values for the case of mass transfer capacity coefficients.
5.3
VG.
124
5 Mass Transfer
Gas
CQO GO
Figure 5.8. The balance regions for well-mixed gas and liquid phases in a continuous reactor.
For the gas phase the oxygen balance can be developed as follows:
Rate of
accumulation
of oxygen
in gas
( Rate of ^
>
Flow of
f Flow of \
transfer
oxygen in
_ oxygen out
_ of oxygen
Vin exit stream/
; inlet gas streamy
v from gas ,
where VQ represents the volume of gas in the dispersed phase, or the gas
holdup.
For the liquid phase,
Rate of
^
accumulation
of oxygen
^ in liquid
/Flow of
( Flow of
oxygen
oxygen
in inlet
out in
liquid
exit
V stream J
' Rate of
consumption
of oxygen
in liquid
Rate of
transfer
of oxygen
^ from gas
125
Typical units are as follows: CG and CL (kg/m3); G and L (m3/s); K^a (1/s);
VG and VL (m3); qO2 (kg/kg s); X (kg/m3).
In the next sections, the general equations, given above, will be applied to
important special situations.
5.3.1
5.3.1.1
The convective terms in the generalized liquid balance equation can usually be
neglected, owing to the low solubilities of oxygen in water (about 8 g/m3). This
gives the steady state liquid balance, dCL/dt=0, relation as:
K L a(C L i*- CLI) = qo2Xi
Thus at steady-state, the oxygen transfer rate is effectively equal to the oxygen
uptake rate. Even during batch fermentations this is approximately true.
Substituting this relationship into the steady state gas balance gives,
126
5 Mass Transfer
5.3.1.2
5.3.1.3
K L a(CLi*-C L i)V L
127
The classical dynamic KLa method assumes that K^a and CLI* are constant.
Under these conditions, the differential equation can be integrated analytically
to give the relationship:
CL* ^
= K L at
r *
CL - rCL\}
Plotting the natural logarithmic concentration function on the left side of the
equation versus time, should, in principle, give a straight-line relationship, with
^a as the slope.
Usually deoxygenation is accomplished with nitrogen, so that initially the gas
phase consists of nitrogen, which is gradually displaced and mixed with air.
Under these conditions, CLI* is nt constant, and a gas balance must be
employed to calculate the variation in CGI versus t. Since the liquid phase
concentration, CLI, is measured by means of a membrane covered oxygen
electrode, the dynamics of measurement method usually cannot be neglected.
The dynamics of the measurement electrode can be described, approximately,
by a first-order lag equation,
dCE
time
Figure 5.9. Response of electrode for a step change in CE from zero to 100 % saturation
according to a first-order lag model.
Note that TE corresponds to the time for the electrode to reach 63 % of the final
response. The overall process dynamics involves thus the gas phase, the liquid
128
5 Mass Transfer
phase and the electrode response. The three responses might appear as shown
below:
time
Figure 5.10. Response of the gas, the liquid and the electrode measurement during a dynamic
KLa experiment.
The values of three individual time constants determine the process response.
These are TG = VG/G, (representing the dynamics of the gas phase), 1/KLa
(representing the dynamics of the liquid phase mass transfer process), and IE
(representing the measurement dynamics). This is illustrated in the simulation
example KLADYN, Sec. 8.5.5.
5.3.1.4
Low oxygen uptake rates, as exist in slow growing systems (plant and animal
cell cultures, aerobic sewage treatment processes, etc.), cannot easily be
measured by a gas balance method, since the measured difference between inlet
and outlet oxygen gas phase concentrations is usually very small. Due to the
low solubility of oxygen in the liquid media, quite small oxygen uptake rates
will cause measurably large changes in the dissolved oxygen concentration.
Thus it is possible to measure qo2 X either by taking a sample and placing it in
a small chamber or by turning off the reactor air supply, according to the
liquid balance equation
dCLi
129
5.3.1.5
130
5 Mass Transfer
CL1
CLO
Figure 5.12 Oxygen uptake rate determined by a steady-state liquid balance.
5.3.1.6
Case F.
KLa
131
/"VX
"N^
-^^^
r-^^-~\_/~\^^x
nM&^/m^M:WM.
Xiiiiiiiiiiji ^^^SRSSSS
^^^iO^wiBii
O
Wiiiiilmiiiiiii
Air
5.3.1.7
air
Figure 5.13. A batch bioreactor with continuous aeration.
132
5 Mass Transfer
Rate of
\
accumulation of
V 02 in liquid )
dCL
,^
f
(Transfer
rate of f N\
l02 mto the hqmdj
/ Uptake rate of
^
by the cells
= K L a(CL*-C L )VL - k C L V L
A steady-state can be reached for which the mass transfer rate is equal to the
oxygen uptake rate by reaction:
0 = KLa (CL* - CL) - k CL
giving for CL
KLaCL*
CL = K L a
Figure 5.14. Inlet and outlet oxygen mole fractions and total gas molar flow rates.
133
From the ideal gas law as shown before, assuming a well-mixed gas phase in
steady state, N = (p / RT) F, where NO is the molar flow rate of air and F is the
air volumetric flow rate.
0
/ Rate of O2 \
/ Rate of O2 \
/ Transfer rate of \
V in by flow ) ~ Vout byflow) ~ \ C>2 to the liquid )
0 = yoN0-yiNi-KLa(CL*-CL)VL
where
Assuming NO = NI, these equations can be solved to obtain yi and CLSolving for CL gives,
k~" CL*
CL =
or for the apparent reaction rate,
k
re = -
k~ CL
Thus it is possible to distinguish between two different regimes for this system,
transfer control and reaction control:
1)
2)
3)
Reaction rate control applies for low values of k/KLa, when re approaches
k CL*, and CL approaches CL*
Diffusion control applies for high values of k/KLa, when re approaches
KL& CL* and CL approaches 0.
If KLa = k, then rc = - (k/2) CL*, and CL approaches (1/2) CL*.
5.3.1.8
134
5 Mass Transfer
135
Figure 5.15. Mass balancing regions for the fluidized bed reactor nitrification system.
The mass balances to be considered are those for oxygen and the nitrogencontaining reactants and products. The oxygen balance taken over the total
system can be simplified by neglecting the accumulation terms and the liquid
flow terms, that will be small compared to the gas rates and the consumption by
reaction, owing to the relatively low solubility of oxygen in the liquid medium.
Thus the oxygen balance becomes,
0 =
136
5 Mass Transfer
and liquid phases as separate balance regions. The absorption tank can be
described by the oxygen balances for the liquid phase:
0 = F R (C L4 -C L3 ) + K L a(C L *-C L3 )V T
and for the gas phase:
0 = G(CGi - CG2) - KLa (CL* - CL3) VT
The liquid phase oxygen balance for the total system is
0 = KL
where ro2 is the oxygen uptake rate by the reaction. These equations, which
assume ideally mixed phases, are useful in designing the gas absorber
according to the required oxygen transfer coefficient.
Balancing the oxygen around the reactor gives
0 =
which says that the oxygen uptake rate by reaction must be equal to the supply
rate from the oxygenation tank. This is the condition of reaction-rate
limitation by the oxygen transfer in the absorber.
From the stoichiometry, the relationships between the molar reaction rates
(rNH4> rO2 rH* r2,NO2 an^ fNO3) can be found. Thus, for example, the first
nitrification step gives
TNH4 =
2
T r l , O 2 = ~ri,NO2
and the total rate for 02 is given by the sum of the rates for steps (1) and (2).
r
O2 = r l,O2 + r2,O2
5.4
137
138
5 Mass Transfer
d* = yH2p
where yo2 is the mole fraction of oxygen in the air and p is the total pressure at
some point in the tank.
The possibility that oxygen gas compositions, dissolved oxygen
concentrations, oxygen solubilities, gas holdup volumes, bubble sizes and other
transfer parameters can vary with depth in a tall fermenter introduces a much
greater degree of complexity to the problem of modelling the reactor. This
makes it difficult to obtain data on oxygen mass transfer coefficients.
Although it is impossible to give specific recommendations that apply to any
particular situation, a further discussion of possible models and their
underlying assumptions may help to define the problem. Incorporated into the
more complex models, discussed below, are such factors as gas and liquid phase
flow pattern, gas composition gradients and the effects of hydrostatic pressure.
Great caution and wisdom must be exercised to avoid creating a model that is
too complex to verify by experimentation. Experienced engineers will say
"Keep it simple!" and "Avoid too much model!".
All large scale reactors, whether multi-impeller tanks or column fermenters,
will display some axial dissolved oxygen concentration gradients. The most
general method for modelling is to represent the reactor using balances in a
series of sections or stages. Mass balances in multi-stage process are easy to
formulate, since both the liquid and gas phases may be assumed to be wellmixed, for any given stage of the cascade.
Figure 5.16. A single gas-liquid stage with backmixing of the liquid phase.
The formulation of the mass balances for a single stage, as shown in Fig.
5.16, follows closely that described previously, except that now the reactor is
made up of many stages which are interconnected by the flows of gas and
liquid between stages and by diffusive mass transfer mechanisms.
139
5.4.1.
Case Studies
5.4.1.1
Exit Liquid
A CQB A CLS
Gas
Gas Feed
ill
Liquid Feed
GO
L'
LO
140
5 Mass Transfer
The oxygen balance equations for the gas and liquid phases of each stage are
as follows:
if
f\(~^
r<~Ln * - 1
r c * C
H r
Gn or CLn
02
-77rl
and
rn = Qo2m |
5.4.1.2
141
Exit Liquid
FG3 A
A C L3
\_^
Gas
L2
L3
G2
Gas
'LI
G1
FL+FB
Gas
G- C GO
\\>cu>
Liquid Feed
Inlet Gas
To model this system, the liquid-phase impeller zones are assumed to be wellmixed, and the plug-flow gas is described by a series of well-mixed phases,
together with an arithmetic-mean, concentration-driving-force approximation.
Here the flow rates and mass transfer coefficients are assumed constant.
Stage 1:
dCLi
VL -ar
= FLCLO + FBCL2 - (FL + FB) CLI +
+ K L a(CLi*-C L i)VL + riV L
V
dCGl
"""'
xx-<
-rr-
//~1
/"I
\A 7
where the plug flow nature of the gas is partially accounted for by
142
5 Mass Transfer
and
CLI
= - Qo2r
Stage 2:
dCL2
VL -gf = (FL+ FB) CLI + FBCL3 - (FL+ FB) CL2 - FB CL2
K L a(C L 2*-C L 2)V L
CL2. .
CL2
n
r2 = -Qo2mK 0 + CL2
and
Stage 3:
dCL3
K L a(C L 3*-CL3)V L + r 3 V L
V
where
and
CL3. .
CL3
= -QO2n K0 + CL3
The above equations describe the dynamic oxygen concentrations in the multiimpeller continuous bioreactor. Note that the liquid phase balances for the two
end stages 1 and 3 differ from that of the intermediate stage 2, owing to the
143
The retention and immobilization of enzymes and cells usually requires the
presence of an additional solid carrier phase or flocculant cell mass. As
illustrated in Fig 6.1, in order to reach a reaction site, substrate S must first be
transported by convection from the bulk liquid to the exterior stagnant film
(point A). Then transport by diffusion must occur through the film (from A to
B) to the surface of the carrier (point B), where surface reaction can take place.
If further reaction sites are available within the carrier matrix, an additional
internal diffusion path (from B to C) is then also required. Similarly product P,
formed within the carrier matrix, must diffuse out of the matrix towards the
surface, and then away from the surface via the external mass transfer laminar
film to the bulk liquid.
Concentration
Diffusion film
Bulk
liquid
Solid
carrier
The stagnant film and the immobilization matrix constitute mass transfer
resistances which may slow the overall reaction rate, since reaction cannot
proceed at a rate greater than the rate at which substrate is supplied by the
mechanism of diffusion. The diffusional mass transfer process via the external
film is referred to as external mass transfer. Since the reaction site may often
be located within a gel, a porous solid, biofilm or biofloc, the transfer of
substrate or substrates from the exterior surface of the biocatalyst to reaction
sites, located within the internal structure of the carrier, is also usually
necessary. This process is therefore referred to as internal mass transfer or
intraparticle transfer. In what follows, external transport and internal transport
Biological Reaction Engineering, Second Edition. I. J. Dunn, E. Heinzle, J. Ingham, J. E. Pfenosil
Copyright 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30759-1
146
are considered separately, although, of course, the two effects can exert a
combined effect in reducing the effective reaction rate, compared to that which
would be obtained if there were no diffusional limitations.
6.1
Fig. 6.2 illustrates the substrate concentration profile, existing in the very near
region of an immobilized biocatalyst surface, supported on a non-porous
carrier. Also shown is the idealized concentration profile, as represented by the
film theory. As previously discussed in Sec. 5.2, the "film theory" assumes the
presence of a stagnant layer of liquid to exist at the solid-liquid interface. This
stagnant region is termed the diffusion film or Nernst-diffusion film and
constitutes the external resistance to mass transfer. It thus determines the rate of
supply of substrate to the surface, for subsequent reaction.
Substrate cone.
SA A
Figure 6.2. External diffusion model of substrate transport to a reactive enzyme immobilized
on a solid surface.
147
where, js is the mass flux (mol/m2 s), ksL is the mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
and SA, SB are the substrate concentrations for the bulk and surface conditions
[mol/m3], respectively.
The steady-state balance can be written for the transport-reaction process,
(Rate of supply by diffusion)
SB =
-SA
and hence
= ksSB=U^
l k S+ k SL
SB = S A -ks/k S L
148
which indicates that the ratio of the magnitudes of the kinetic rate constant to
that of the mass transfer coefficient determines SB- If the reaction is zeroorder, the overall order of reaction rate is not influenced by diffusional
considerations, but the effective rate will still be reduced, owing to the lowered
concentration SBFor Michaelis-Menten kinetics, which encompass the range between effective
zero and first order reaction kinetics, the relation between rate of supply and
the rate of reaction becomes,
kSL (SA - SB) = : > - = r app
After rearrangement, the resulting quadratic equation can be solved for SB, with
the solution indicating that, in general, the magnitudes of all the coefficients
can influence the overall reaction rate and also that the external transfer can
change the overall observed reaction kinetics. Thus they no longer follow the
Michaelis-Menten form with respect to bulk concentration, and the apparent
kinetics can differ substantially from the intrinsic true reaction kinetics. Under
these conditions, it is no longer correct to equate the Michaelis-Menten
constant, KM, to the substrate concentration at which the observed reaction rate
is equal to the half of the maximum observed rate. This can be most easily
seen from the above equation; when SB is low, the effective surface rate reduces
to the form, rapp = vm SB/KM- The overall reaction rate then becomes,
=
app
(v m /K M )S A
(v m /K M k S L ) + l
showing that the apparent rate of reaction depends on the magnitude of the
mass transfer coefficient
It is only possible to measure true reaction kinetics, by operating
experiments in a truly kinetic regime, such that any influence of the external
diffusional mass transfer is negligible. This can be achieved by ensuring that
the ratio of vm/ksL is sufficiently low. Under these conditions,
149
Transfer control
Kinetics control
Intermediate regime
All of above.
6.2
150
jA = -D A
dCA
dZ
'AO
'AO
Diffusion
Diffusion
'AO
Vr a p p = (j|z=o)A = r a v g A L
where the units of each term are kg/s. Here ravg represents an average value in
the matrix, which will increase with higher internal substrate concentrations.
Regarding the influence of diffusion for a particular situation, it is possible
to arrive at some quantitative guidelines without considering any mathematical
details. Obviously the concentration profiles are caused by a competition
between reaction and diffusion. The ratio of the maximum intrinsic reaction
rate (not influenced by transfer) to maximum diffusion rate provides a useful
dimensionless parameter,
max A L
r(C 0 ) A L
JA
D (Co/L) A
151
For first order reaction, r = k CQ, this dimensionless group becomes k L2/D,
and for zero order reaction, r = k, it is k L2/D CQ.
Therefore for any kinetic form of equation, the distance coordinate or length
of diffusion path, L, plays an important role since the ratio of maximum
diffusion rate to maximum reaction rate varies according to L2. The higher the
value of this ratio, the greater in magnitude are the substrate gradients. With
this qualitative feeling for diffusion-reaction phenomena, more quantitative
aspects can be considered.
6.2.1
Liquid
152
In
jn-1
n-1
>
,
I n+1
n+1
A magnified view of element n is shown in Fig. 6.6, where the flux, jn, depends
on the local concentration gradient, and the reaction rate, rsn, depends on the
local concentration in element n.
Jn-1
AZ
Figure 6.6. A single element n of volume AV and thickness AZ, showing the diffusion fluxes.
A component mass balance is written for each segment and for each
component as
/Accumulation^
V
rate
)
A AZ
(Sn-i ~ Sn)
s
+rSnAAZ
153
Dividing by A AZ,
dSn
T
(S n ,j -2S n + S n+ i)
s
+ rsn
as
a2s
+ rs
where,
154
dS dZ I z=o =
The direction of the positive diffusion is into the biofilm, since dS/dZ is
negative and (SR - Si) /AZ is positive. Here SR corresponds to So in Fig. 6.4,
and Si is the concentration in the first element. The boundary condition is
S = SR at Z = 0.
F,SF
F,SO
Figure 6.7. Coupling the biofilm model to the continuous tank model.
6.2.2
155
only between the values of zero and unity. Thus new dimensionless variables,
S=S/S 0 , Z = Z/L and dimensionless time, f = t / ( L I D ) , can be defined.
Substituting these new variables into the diffusion-reaction, partial differential
equation, for the case of a first order biochemical reaction, gives,
as
S
(L /D8)at
as
or
_
at - az2 " DS
_
s
Thus the solution depends only on the value of [lq L2/DsL which is a
dimensionless diffusion-reaction parameter.
For zero-order reaction the
equation becomes,
as a2s2
at " az
where ko L2/Ds SQ is the governing parameter.
It is seen that the dimensionless parameters in the model have the same form
and significance as was derived from the qualitative reasoning presented earlier.
For heterogeneous reaction systems this dimensionless group is known as the
Damkohler Number, and its square root is called the Thiele Modulus.
In the above equations, all the terms, excepting that of the reaction term, have
dimensionless parameters of unity. On this basis, it can be said that if the
reaction parameter for a first order reaction, [ki L2/DsL has a value of 1.0 or
greater, then the reaction will have a large effect on the solution, that is, on the
concentration gradients. Similarly, ko L2/D$ SQ will govern a zero order
reaction. Such "order of magnitude analysis" is important for physical
understanding and also to obtain information from differential equations
without having to actually develop an analytical solution.
Dimensionless formulation of equations is also explained in the simulation
example VARVOL, Sec. 8.3.1, and KLADYN, Sec. 8.5.5.
6.2.3
156
T|
Solutions of the above diffusion reaction model are available in the literature
for simple reaction orders (Satterfield and Sherwood, 1963). In Fig. 6.8 the
values of t| for zero, first and second reaction order have been plotted against
the Thiele Modulus ,<f>, where,
O = '\/L 2 kSo n - 1 /D
This figure shows that a zero order reaction is not influenced by concentration
gradients until the substrate falls to zero in the matrix, corresponding to O > \2
. The other reaction-types are influenced by low concentrations, as the curves
for T| indicate. It is seen, for example, that for a first order reaction a value of
O = l corresponds to t| = 0.8.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
A
A = zero-order
B = first-order
C = second-order
157
6.2.4
6.2.4.1
Case A.
For a biofilm or floe, whose oxygen uptake might be taken as a constant (zero
order), the corresponding group would be [L2 qo2 Xbi0fiim/D Co2L where qo2
Xbiofiim corresponds to the rate constant k and the oxygen concentration in the
outside liquid phase is Co2- Note that Xbiofiim is the biomass per unit of
biofilm volume and is not easy to measure. Substituting values obtained from
an aerobic biofilm nitrification experiment gives,
2
0
L2 qQ2 X
= D C02
For this order-of-magnitude analysis, the value of 1.0 can be used to separate
the regions of reaction and diffusion dominance. Thus it is seen if L = 0.1 mm,
then the dimensionless group will have a value of 1.0, and it could therefore be
expected that a film or floe thickness greater than 0.1 mm would be oxygen
limited. From the exact solution, as seen in Fig. 6.8, gradients would appear for
a zero order reaction at a value of <&2 = 2.0, instead of 1.0. This example
shows how the Thiele Modulus can be used to make useful estimates for
diffusion reaction problems, providing rate and diffusion data are available.
6.2.4.2
Case B.
158
The oxygen requirements for the first and second steps can be related to the
nitrogen content of NH4+ and NC>2~. These values are si = 3.5 mg 62 / mg
NH4+ - N and 82 = 1.1 mg 62 / mg NCV - N. The low yields and low growth
rates make it unnecessary to consider growth requirements and kinetics. In
previous work (Tanaka and Dunn, 1982) the intrinsic substrate uptake kinetics
for the two steps were shown to have a double Monod form for the first step,
rNH4 = v m i
. K NH4
( Production ^
Vrate ^ reactin J
3NH4+
= DNH4
For NO2",
aNQ2~3r
= D
NO2
^2
-wo
- TNH4
+ rNH4 - TNO2
159
For NO3%
32N03
3N03
For O2,
3202
" s l rNH4 ~
The stoichiometric oxygen requirements for the first and second reaction steps
are given by si and s2. The boundary conditions used represent the bulk liquid
phase or reactor concentrations and the zero gradient at the biofilm- solid
interface, as discussed earlier.
These equations can be written as differential-difference equations using the
finite-differencing technique (Sec. 6.2.1). Thus for each of N increments, four
component balances will be needed. Three simulation examples, BIOFILM,
ENZDYN, CELLDIFF in Sec. 8.7, demonstrate this approach.
This system was also analyzed in terms of dimensionless variables. A
comparison of the resulting dimensionless NH4+ and O2 balances reveals that,
when the second reaction is neglected, the equations are identical if
DNH4 = Do2 and if,
Q2R
where the subscript R refers to the concentrations in the bulk reactor liquid.
Under these conditions, to a good approximation, the penetration distances
of O2 and NH4+ would be the same. The ratio O2R/NH4+R, which can be varied
according to the reactor operating conditions, can thus be used as a criterion to
evaluate whether NtLj."1" or O2 might be penetration-limiting. The O2R/NH4+R
criterion indicates which component can be limiting, O2 if the ratio is less than
3.5 or NH4+ if the ratio is greater than 3.5. These conditions are not sufficient
for limitation, but indicate which component would be limiting. Simulation
results from a model that was developed using finite-differencing demonstrates
this phenomenon. The profiles in Fig. 6.9, are for the case O2R/NH4+R = 0.07.
160
NH 4 ,NO3,N0 2 (mg/L)
100
0 2 (mg/L)
20
80
60
NO
10
40
20
Figure 6.9. Steady state profiles for constant bulk concentrations showing incomplete
oxygen penetration.
Coupling the liquid and biofilm for a batch nitrification reactor as explained in
Fig. 6.7, gave the results in Fig. 6.10. Here the influence of oxygen limitation
caused the oxygen in the midpoint of the film to rise as the nitrogen substrates
were successively consumed.
NH4
0 2 [mg/L]
NO 3, NO2" (mg/L)
100
80
80
64
60
48
40
32
20
16
12
10
2
0
120
t (min)
Figure 6.10. Simulated biofilm nitrification profiles in a batch reactor. The N-component
concentrations are in the bulk liquid. O2 is in the midpoint of the biofilm and indicates
limitation during the first 60 minutes.
7.1
The simple temperature control of a fermenter shown in Fig. 7.1 illustrates the
essential idea of any automatic control system that the process and the
controller form a closed loop, which usually functions in a feedback fashion.
162
Controller
mechanism
Desired
value
I Measured
I value
I
Thermocouple
Fermenter
Figure 7.1. Simple feedback control system.
Load
Actuator
1 Com)jarator Controller
_
i'
$~
Desired+c
value | *A/
1
1
Measured
value
1
K
1
1
Process
-*U
Measuring
element
k
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
^A^A^AAA^A
Figure 7.2. Block diagram of the feedback control system in Fig. 7.1.
Controlled
variable
163
Similar temperature control systems are given for a simple water heater,
TEMPCONT, in Sec. 8.6.1 and for a batch fermenter, FERMTEMP, in Sec.
8.6.2
7.2
7.2.1
The most common and simplest type of control is an on-off or two position
action, sometimes called discontinuous control (Fig. 7.3). An example is a
contact thermometer, which closes or opens the heater circuit. The controller
changes the value of the controller output, or the manipulated variable, from
one extreme to the other, when the controlled variable moves above or below
the set point. This leads to oscillations that could become very fast, depending
on the speed of response of the process. The real on-off controller has
therefore a built in feature called a differential gap or a dead zone. It is a small
interval on either side of the set point, within which the controller does not
respond. When the controlled variable moves outside the dead zone, the
manipulated variable goes on or off. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.3. Such shifts
from the set point are known as offset. Such a controller is simple and
inexpensive, but the oscillatory nature of the action and the offset make it very
imperfect.
The usefulness of this type of control was demonstrated for a biological,
sequential batch process by Hediger and Prenosil, (1985). More sophisticated
function control modes consider the magnitude and time behavior of the
control error. Three principal functional modes of control generally employed
for process control are proportional (P), integral (I) and derivative (D) control.
164
100
Manipulated
variable
0
Control
variable
Xl___4/_
.Set point
Differential gap
7.2.2
165
Setpoint
7.2.3
P =
or for e = constant
dP
for t=Ti
dP
dF = K P
TI
166
where i\ is the integral time constant or reset time. This is the time required to
enable the controller to repeat the initial proportional output action (Fig. 7.6).
The integral part of the control mode eliminates the offset and it is especially
useful for correction of very small errors because the controller output P will
continue to change as long as an error persists. This can be understood by
considering a constant error, which would cause P to increase linearly (Fig. 7.6)
at a rate proportional to the error. This type of controller is found most often
and the simulation examples TEMPCONT, FERMTEMP, TURBCON and
CONTCON in Sec. 8.6 demonstrate the use of this control mode. The
examples also show the ease by which the programming of the PI controller
equations is made using the simulation language.
2Kp
Controlled
output
PI action
Kp
P action
Error
signal
7.2.4
A controller with derivative function projects the error in the immediate future
and the controller output is proportional to the current rate of the error change.
The output signal varies only if the error is changing.
167
d
P = P0 + Kp e + Kp TD gj-
P (alone)
t
Figure 7.7. Response of a PD-Controller to a constant rate of decrease in error. Comparison
with P and PID modes.
The drawbacks of the derivative control mode standing alone are that a constant
error (e ^ 0) gives no response at all, since de/dt = 0, and therefore an
unnecessarily large response might occur as a result of small but fast error
changes.
7.2.5
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
Controller
168
KD r
de
P = P0 + Kp e + ^ J dt+ Kp TD -gjTI
Figure 7.7. Response of controlled variable to a step change in error using different control
modes.
The selection of the best mode of control depends largely on the process
characteristics. Further information can be found in the recommended texts
listed in the reference section. Simulation methods are often used for testing
control methods.
7.3
169
Controller Tuning
The purpose of controller tuning is to choose the controller constants, such that
the desired performance is obtained.
This usually means that the control
variables should be restored in an optimal way, following either a change in the
set point or as a result of an input disturbance to the system.
Thus the
controller constants can be set by experimentation. A rational basis for such
experimental tuning is given in what follows. Other methods for tuning
combine process dynamic experimentation with theoretically-based control
methods; some of the standard methods are also described below. The
simulation example TEMPCONT, Sec. 8.6.1, provides exercises for controller
tuning using the methods explained below.
7.3.1
Controllers can be adjusted by changing the values of gain Kp, reset time i\ and
derivative time ID- By experimentation, either on the real system or by
simulation, the controller can be set by trial and error. Each time a disturbance
is made the response is noted. The following procedure might be used to test
the control with small set point or load changes:
1. Starting with a small value, Kp can be increased until the response is
unstable and oscillatory. This value is called the ultimate gain KPQ.
2. K p is then reduced by about 1/2.
3. Integral action is brought in with high i\ values; they are reduced by
factors of 2 until the response is oscillatory, and tj is set at 2 times this
value.
4. Include derivative action, increase ID until noise develops and set ID at
1/2 this value.
5. Increase Kp in small steps to achieve the best results.
7.3.2
Ziegler-Nichols Method
170
important for this method are given by the normalized slope of the tangent
through the inflection point, S = slope/A and by its intersection with the time
axis (lag time TL), as determined graphically in Fig. 7.9. The actual tuning
relations which are based on empirical criteria for the "best" closed-loop
response are given in Table 7.1.
Manipulated
Variable
X
Slope
Time
Figure 7.9. Process reaction curve as a response to a step change in manipulated variable.
7.3.3
Cohen and Coon observed that the response of most uncontrolled (controller
disconnected) processes to a step change in the manipulated variable was a
sigmoidal shape curve. This can be modelled approximately by a first order
system with time lag TL, as given by the intersection of the tangent through the
inflection point with the time axis. The theoretical values of the controller
settings obtained by the analysis of this system are summarized in Table 7.1
The model parameters for a step change A to be used with Table 7.1 are
calculated as follows:
K = B/A
T = B/S
where B is from Fig. 7.9 and S is the slope at the inflection point/A.
171
Kp
Ziegler-Nichols
1/TLS
0.9/TL S
1.2/TLS
P
PI
PID
3.33TL
2TL
TL/2
Co/ten-Coon
P
TL \
PI
4
30 + 3TL/T
TL \
32 + 6TL/T
Ultimate Gain
PI
PID
7.3.4
0.5 Kpo
0.45 Kp0
0.6 Kpo
l/1.2fp0
l/2fpo
l/8fpO
172
7.4
7.4.1
In control situations with more then one measured variable but only one
manipulated variable, it is advantageous to use control loops for each measured
variable in a master - slave relationship. In this, the output of the primary
controller is usually used as a set point for the slave or secondary loop.
This may be relevant for some wastewater treatment plants where the high
concentration of some substrate may be toxic for the microorganisms. For
example, the simulation Example TURBCON, Sec. 8.6.3, could be easily
adapted to this situation if the substrate concentration were subject to significant
changes, as shown schematically in Fig. 7.10.
173
|
1
lilllll
:
';S:'|||::||:|-
XI
. .. N
/6oncentrationV/Concentriilonl
Controller
)H f errand
x.
,s
\ transmitter
/
^
Biomass
controller
V^
illlll
ill lit:
J_
[ Turbidometer
7.4.2
174
prediction and the more complex "actual" process kinetics could then be taken
care of by a feedback control loop.
7.4.3
Adaptive Control
This control system can automatically modify its behavior according to the
changes in the system dynamics and disturbances. Especially systems with
nonlinear and unsteady characteristics call for use of this control strategy.
There are a number of actual adaptive control systems. Programmed or
scheduled adaptive control uses an auxiliary measured variable to identify
different process phases for which the control parameters can be either
programmed or scheduled. The "best" values of these parameters for each
process state must be known a priori. Sometimes adaptive controllers are used
to optimize two or more process outputs, by measuring these and fitting the
data with empirical functions, as employed on anaerobic treatment process, by
Ryhiner, et al. (1992).
7.4.4
Controlled
variable
175
7.5
176
7.5.1
Discrete
control
RQ
(Gas analysis)
Glucose
feed rate
Baker's yeast
production
Feedback
control
RQ
(Gas analysis)
Glucose
feed rate
Baker's yeast
production
Two point
control
DO
(electrode)
Feed rate,
agitation speed
aeration rate
177
Controlled
Manipulated
variable(s)
variable(s)
Sucrose cone, by Feed rate
enzyme thermister
Wastewater
treatment
Adaptive
control
DO
(electrode)
Aeration rate
Diverse
fermentations
Various
DO
(electrode)
Stirring speed,
gas composition,
aeration rate,
pressure
Bacillus subtilis
at low DO
Cascade
DO
(electrode)
Gas flow,
valve setting
Penicillin
production
Set-points
(growth and
production)
Growth rate
(CO2 rate)
Feed rate
a-Amylase by
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
Feed profile
Feed rate
(off-line)
Feed rate
Fed-batch
penicillin
Feed profile
Substrate and
biomass cone.
Feed rate
Baker's yeast
Feed profile
RQ
Feed rate
Cephalosporin C Profiled pH
pH, temp.
production
and temperature (electrode,
control
thermister)
Recombinant
E. coli
Growth rate
(pH)
Phenol uptake
(O2 uptake)
Flow rate
Conventional
with added
glucose
For constant value or set-point control usually constant control parameters are
used. Because of non-linearities or varying process dynamics (e.g. exponential
178
7.5.2
Selection of a control strategy and its parameters (e.g. for a PID controller)
may be difficult, since the process and controller dynamics are often not well
understood. If possible, it is useful to use dynamic models to select a control
strategy, and to use it for testing and tuning. An example with anaerobic
digestion is given by Heinzle et al. (1992). In Fig. 7.12 are shown the results of
a simulation and a corresponding experiment for the control of the propionic
acid concentration by manipulation of the feed flow rate.
179
1
I
0
6(
5(
4(
o
CD
O
3( -
"E
V2
20-
1(
2
Time [h]
Figure 7.12. Control of anaerobic digestion of whey wastewater. Simulation (A) and
experiment (B) of control after step change (Heinzle et al. (1992). Here the controlled variable
was the propionic acid concentration, and the manipulated variable was the feed flow rate.
References
References
181
182
References
References
183
Prenosil, J., Dunn, I.J., and Heinzle, E. (1987) Biocatalyst Reaction Engineering,
in: Biotechnology Vol.7a, (Ed.: HJ.Rehm and R.Reed) VCH, Weinheim, 489545.
Roels, J.A. (1983) Energetics and Kinetics in Biotechnology. Elsevier
Biomedical Press, Amsterdam.
Ruchti, G., Dunn, I.J., Bourne, J.R. and v. Stockar, U. (1985) Practical
Guidelines for Determining Oxygen Transfer Coefficients with the Sulfite
Oxidation Method. Chem. Eng. J. 30, 29-38.
Russell, T.W.F., Denn, M.M. (1972). Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Analysis. Wiley, New York.
Ryhiner, G., Dunn, IJ, Heinzle, E, Rohani S., (1992) Adaptive On-line Optimal
Control of Bioreactors: Application to Anaerobic Degradation, J. BiotechnoL.
22, 89-106.
Ryhiner, G., Heinzle, E, Dunn, IJ. (1991) Modelling of Anaerobic Degradation
and Its Application to Control Design: Case Whey, in: Dechema Biotechnology
Conferences Vol.3, (Ed.: Behrens, D. and Driesel, A.J.), 469-474.
Saner, U., Bonvin, D., Heinzle, E. (1990) Application of Factor Analysis for
Elaboration of Stoichiometry and its On-line Application in Complex Medium
Fermentation of B. subtilis, in: Dechema Biotechnology Conferences Vol.3,
(Ed.: Behrens, D. and Driesel, A.J.), 775-778.
Satterfield, C.N. and Sherwood, T.K. (1963) The Role of Diffusion in Catalysis.
Addison-Wesley, N.Y.
Shioya, S., Dang, N.D.P. and Dunn, IJ. (1978). Bubble Column Fermenter
Modeling: A Comparison for Pressure Effects. Chem. Eng. Sci., 33, 1025 1030.
Tanaka, H. and Dunn, IJ. (1982). Kinetics of Biofilm Nitrification. BiotechnoL
Bioeng., 24, 669 - 689.
Tanaka, H., Uzman, S., Dunn, IJ. (1981). Kinetics of Nitrification Using a
Fluidized Sand Bed Bioreactor with Attached Growth. BiotechnoL Bioeng., 23,
1683 - 1702.
Ziegler, H., Meister, D., Dunn, IJ., Blanch, H.W., Russell, T.W.F. (1977). The
Tubular Loop Fermenter: Oxygen Transfer, Growth Kinetics and Design.
BiotechnoL Bioeng. 19, 507.
184
References
Biochemical
Engineering
Aiba, S., Humphrey, A.E. and Millis, N.F. (1973) Biochemical Engineering.
Academic Press, N.Y.
Atkinson, B. and Mavituna, F. (1991) Biochemical Engineering and
Biotechnology Handbook., 2nd. Ed., Stockton Press, New York.
Bailey, I.E. and Ollis, D.F. (1986) Biochemical Engineering Fundamentals.
2nd. Ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y.
Blanch, H.W., Clark, D.S. (1996) Biochemical Engineering; Marcel Dekker,
N.Y.
Bu'lock, J. and Kristiansen Eds (1987) Basic Biotechnology Acad. Press,
London 1987.
Doran, P. M. (1995) Bioprocess Engineering Principles; Academic Press
Limited: London.
Glick, B.R., Pasternak, J.J. (1995) Molekulare Biotechnolgie; Spektrum,
Heidelberg.
Grady, C. P. L. and Lim H. C. (1980) Biological Wastewater Treatment, Marcel
Dekker.
Hastings, A. (1997) Population biology. Concepts and models; Springer, N.Y.
Heinrich, R., Schuster, S. (1996) The Regulation of Cellular Systems; Chapman
& Hall, New York.
Klefenz, H. (2002) Industrial Pharmaceutical Biotechnology; Wiley-VCH.
Ladisch, M.R. (2001) Bioseparations Engineering: Principles, Practice and
Economics. Wiley, New York.
Lee, J. M. (1992) Biochemical Engineering. Prentice Hall.
Moo-Young, M., Ed. (1985) Comprehensive Biotechnology, Vols. 1-4
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
References
185
186
References
References
187
Metabolic Engineering
Lee, Papoutsakis (1999) Metabolic Engineering, Marcel Dekker: New York,
Basel.
Stephanopoulos, G. N., Aristidou, A. A., Nielsen, J. (1998) Metabolic
Engineering. Principles and Methodologies, Academic Press: USA.
188
References
References
189
Fish, N. M., Fox, R.L, and Thornhill, N.F. (1989) Computer applications in
fermentation technology: Modelling and control of biotechnological processes.
Elsevier, London.
Halme, A. (1983) Modelling and Control of Biotechnical Processes. Pergamon
Press, Oxford.
Johnson, A. (1986) Modelling and Control of Biotechnological Processes.
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Luyben W. L. (1973) Process Modeling, Simulation, and Control for Chemical
Engineers, McGraw Hill, New York.
Pons, M.-N., Ed.(1991) Bioprocess Monitoring and Control. Hanser, Munich.
Snape, J. B., Dunn, I. J., Ingham, J., Prenosil, J. E. (1995) Dynamics of
Environmentel Bioprocesses, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim,.
Stephanopoulos, G. (1984) Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to
Theory and Practice, Prentice Hall.
Weber. W. J., Jr., DiGiano, F. A. (1996) Process Dynamics in Environmental
Systems, Wiley.
8.1
Introductory Examples
8.1.1
System
The system is represented in Fig. 1, and the important variables are biological
dry mass or cell concentration, X, substrate concentration, S, and product
concentration, P. The reactor volume V is well-mixed, and growth is assumed
to follow kinetics described by the Monod equation, based on one limiting
substrate. Substrate consumption is related to cell growth by a constant yield
factor YX/S- Product formation is the result of both growth and non-growth
associated rates of production, where either term may be set to zero as required.
The lag and decline phases of cell growth are not included in the model.
194
Model
Mass Balances:
(Rate of accumulation)
= (Rate of production)
For cells
VTT = r xv
or
dX
For substrate
V
dS
dF
or
dS
dF = rS
For product
dP
V-3T =
or
dP
dF = r?
Kinetics:
rx = f i X
with the Monod relation, constant yield relation, and product formation
kinetics:
tx/s
rP = (ki + k2 |^) X
195
Biomass
Balance
4_
So
T*
Growth
Rate
PO
Substrate
Balance
4_
X
^
Monod
Kinetics
f'x
Substrate
Rate
Product
Balance
A
4
s
^
Product
Rate
-^M
,-_
It is seen in that all the variables required for the solution of any one equation
block are obtained as the products of other blocks. The information flow
diagram thus emphasizes the complex inter-relationship involved in even this
very simple problem. Solution begins with the initial conditions XQ, SQ and PQ
at time t=0. The specific growth rate |i is calculated, enabling rs, rx and rp to
be calculated, and hence the initial gradients dX/dt, dS/dt and dP/dt. At this time
the integration routine takes over to estimate revised values of X, S and P over
the first integration step length. The procedure is repeated for succeeding step
lengths until the entire X, S and P concentration time profiles have been
calculated up to the required final time.
Program
The following Berkeley Madonna program solves the above fermentation
problem:
{BATPERM}
{Batch
growth
{Constants}
UM=0 . 3
KS = 0 . 1
Kl=0.03
K2=0.08
Y=0. 8
with
product
;kg/m3
;kgP/kgX h
;kgP/kgX h
;kg X/kg S
formation}
196
X0=0.01
SO = 10
P0=0
/Initial
;Initial
;Initial
{Initial Conditions}
INIT X=XO
INIT S=SO
INIT P=PO
(Mass
X'=
S'=
P' =
Balances}
RX
RS
RP
;BIOMASS BALANCE
;SUBSTRATE BALANCE
;PRODUCT BALANCE
{Kinetics}
RX = U*X
U = UM*S/(KS + S)
RS = -RX/Y
RP= (K1 + K2*U) *X
Limit
S>=0.0
197
Nomenclature
Symbols
k ] and k2
KS
P
r
S
V
X
Indices
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
2
m
P
S
X
Exercises
1.
2.
Vary the product kinetics constants (Kj and K2>, and observe the
effects. Observe the P versus time curve when S reaches zero.
3.
198
Results
The plots of X, S and P versus T in Fig. 3 show that when substrate is depleted,
the growth stops, and the product continues to increase, but only linearly. The
results of Fig. 4 are obtained by varying the product formation rate constants,
ki in three runs using a slider, which is defined in the Parameter Menu.
Run 1:1500 steps in 0 seconds
.10
Figure 3. Plots of X, S and P versus time during batch growth and production.
^.......^
-10
"l"""'"*"'.^_
/
**
-S:2
P:2
-S:3
P:3
/*
-'7^'^
5
15
.5
..
\
20
cn
-4
.**&'*' \
0
/ /'
\ /s' \,"~'"
-rp^ fm
vtf*EV
9
-8
25
3()
TIME
Figure 4. Plots of P and S versus time created by varying the product formation rate constant
199
8.1.2
System
A continuous fermenter, as shown in Fig. 1, is referred to as a chemostat. At
steady state the specific growth rate becomes equal to the dilution rate, |a = D.
Operation is possible at flow rates (F) which give dilution rates (D = F/V) below
the maximum specific growth rate (|um). Washout of the organisms will occur
when D > (a. The start-up, steady state and washout phenomena can be
investigated by dynamic simulation.
S,X
D,S F
Model
The program BATFERM may be easily modified to allow for chemostat
operation with sterile feed by modifying the mass balance relationships to
include the inlet and exit flow terms. The corresponding equations are then:
For cells
dX
.= - D X + rx
200
For substrate
dS
3f
= D (SF - S) + rs
For product
dP
df
= -DP
+ rp
where D is the dilution rate and Sp the concentration of the limiting substrate in
the feed.
The same kinetic expressions as in BATFERM will be applied here.
Program
Note the conditional statement for D which allows a batch startup.
{CHEMO}
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
Startup
1/h
kg/m3
kgP/kgX h
kgP/kgX
kg X/kg S
Initial biomass inoculum, kg/m3
Initial substrate cone., kg/m3
Initial product conc.,kg/m3
Feed cone. ,kg/m3
Dilution rate, 1/h
Start time for the feed
(Initial Conditions}
Init X=XO
Init S=SO
Init P=PO
{Mass Balances}
X'=-D*X+RX
; BIOMASS BALANCE EQUATION
S =D* (SF-S) +RS
; SUBSTRATE BALANCE EQUATION
P'=-D*P+RP
; PRODUCT BALANCE EQUATION
as
201
{Kinetics}
RX = U*X
U = U M * S / ( K S + S)
RS=-RX/Y
RP= (K1 + K2*U) *X
D}
else
/Productivity
0
for
biomass,
kg/m3
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
ki and
KS
P
r
Dilution rate
Product formation constants
Saturation constant
Product concentration
Reaction rate
S
X
Y
Substrate concentration
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Time lag constant
ILL
1
Indices
F
MONOD
P
S
X
Refers to feed
Refers to Monod kinetics
Refers to product
Refers to substrate
Refers to biomass
1/h
1/h and kg/kg
kg/m3
mg/m3
kg/m3h and
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
202
Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Results
The graphical output in Fig. 2 shows three startups of the fermenter under
initially batch growth conditions, using three values for D l . The break in the
concentration-time dependency as feeding starts is quite apparent, and the new
transient then continues up to the eventual steady state chemostat operating
condition or washout in the case of one run. For the results of Fig. 3 the
program was changed by adding the line PROD = X*D, and the final, steady
state value of production rate was plotted versus Dl for twenty runs, using the
Parameter Plot feature of Madonna.
203
Figure 2. Startups of the chemostat after initial batch growth for 3 values of Dl.
Figure 3. Productivity in a chemostat. Steady states are shown for 20 runs using the Parameter
Plot.
204
8.1.3
System
In this case the model equations allow for the continuous feeding of sterile
substrate, the absence of outflow from the fermenter and the increase in volume
(accumulation of total mass) in the fermenter, schematically as shown in Fig. 1.
Simulation of fed batch fermenters can be used to demonstrate the important
characteristics of quasi-steady state, linear growth, and use of alternative feed
strategies.
F,SF
V
X
s
p
Model
For fed batch operation, the equations become as follows:
Total balance
dV
dT =
For cells
For substrate
205
For product
where F is the volumetric feed rate, Sp is the feed concentration and V is the
volume of the fermenter contents at time t. Thus the mass quantities, VX, VS,
and VP are calculated and are divided by the volume at each time interval to
obtain the concentration terms required for the kinetic relationships. The
kinetics are taken to be the same as in BATFERM.
Program
The "IF" statement in the program causes the continuous feed to start when time
reaches tfeed, at which point batch operation stops and the fedbatch starts.
(FEDBAT)
{Fermentation
{Flow rate is
time=tfeed.}
with
batch
initially
start
zero
up}
and
is turned
on at
{ Constants}
UM=0.3
; 1/h
KS = 0 . 1
; kg/m3
; kgP/kgX h
Kl = 0.03
K2 = 0.08
; kgP/kgX
; kg X/kg S
Y = 0.8
; Initial biomass inoculum, kg/m3
X0 = 0 .01
S0 = 10
; Initial substrate cone., kg/m3
P0 = 0
; Initial product conc.,kg/m3
; Feed conc.,kg/m3
SF = 10
; Feed flow rate, m3/h
Pl-1. 5
tfeed=22.5
; Start time for the feed
{Initial Conditions}
init V=l
init VX=V*XO
init VS=V*SO
init VP=V*PO
206
{Mass balances,
d/dt(V)=F
d/dt(VX)=RX*V
d/dt(VS)=F*SF+RS*V
kg/h}
d/dt(VP)=RP*V
{kg/h}
{Calculation
of
concentrations}
X=VX/V
S=VS/V
P=VP/V
{Kinetics}
RX=U*X
U=UM*S/(KS+S)
RS=-RX/Y
RP=(K1+K2*U)*X
D=F/V
{nominal
dilution
rate,
start
1/h}
up}
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
F
KS
ki, k2
M
P
r
S
X
V
Y
|i
T
Dilution rate
Flow rate
Saturation constant
Constants in product kinetics
Maintenance coefficient
Product concentration
Reaction rate
Substrate concentration
Biomass concentration
Reactor volume
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Time delay constant
1/h
m3/h
kg/m3
1/h and kg/kg
kg/kg h
kg/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
kg/kg
1/h
h
207
Indices
F
P
S
X
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to feed
to product
to substrate
to biomass
Exercises
Results
Operation begins under initial batch conditions, and feeding of substrate is
started at tfeed=22.5 h. In Fig. 2, the break in the batch growth transient, as
semi-batch feeding starts is very apparent, with the transient continuing to an
apparent "quasi" steady state operating condition. Under these conditions the
biomass concentration becomes constant, while the substrate concentration (not
shown) is below the KS value and decreases very slowly. As seen in the zoom
of Fig. 3, the values of D (= F/V) also decrease since V increases due to the
incoming feed, and D eventually becomes equal to p when S falls below K$.
The total biomass is determined by the yield coefficient times the total amount
of substrate that has been consumed, which is approximately equal to the
amount in the reactor initially plus the amount added during the feeding
period. During the quasi-steady state, the total biomass will increase linearly
with time if, as in this case, the feeding flow rate is constant. This is a "linear
208
growth" situation in which the growth rate is limited by the feeding rate. In
Fig. 3 the values of X, S, and P are plotted versus T for a switch from batch
(F = 0) to fed batch (F = 5) at time T = 20 h. The product production rate
depends linearly on biomass concentration, and thus even when ja becomes very
low, P will continue to increase linearly in mg/m3 amounts.
TIME= 34.13 X = 12.34
.^
10-.-
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.35-
-~, I
V
0.3-
0.25.
3
Q 0.2-
CO
0.15-
-J.
T
0.10.05027
28
29
30
31
32
TIME
33
34
35
36
37
8.2
8.2.1
209
Batch Reactors
Kinetics of Enzyme Action (MMKINET)
System
The intermediate enzyme-substrate complex is the basis for the simplest form
of enzymatic catalysis (Fig. 1):
E +S
ES
*-
E +P
k2
Model
The equations for substrate, enzyme-substrate complex and product in a batch
reactor are:
- = ki E S - k 2 ES
dt
dFS
^ = ki E S - (k2 + k3) ES
dt
Using the steady state approximation for the change of active complex,
dt
M +S
210
Program
The program with the detailed mechanism is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
E
ES
k
KM
P
S
Vmax
Enzyme concentration
mol/m3
Enzyme-substrate complex concentration mol/m3
Reaction rate constants
various
Michaelis-Menten constant
mol/m3
Product concentration
mol/m3
Substrate concentration
mol/m3
Maximum velocity
mol/m3 h
Indices
0
1
2
3
S
Mm
Exercises
211
Results
Figs. 2 and 3 give the results of the full model and the Michaelis-Menten
simplification, respectively
Run 1:119 steps in 0.0167 seconds
0.009.
0.0080.007-
Lx""""^"~
\
f'
\ /
0.006
^0.005-
0.7
^..]
...
8:1
0.6
ES:1
--
0.5
P:1
riL
t ~m
f \
LU
0.0040.003-
*i*
0.001 - i
0.4
0.3
0.002
-0.8
:.
tn
.0.9
fc
*v.
0.2
\. i
0.1
" %^
""""%-,
^*"'..._
.0
10
20
30
40
50
TIME
70
80
90
100
a
*
to
212
\
\
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
TIME
8.2.2
System
This program simulates the batch uptake of substrate using Michaelis-Menten
kinetics, of the form,
r
s = K^TS-
The inverse rate is plotted versus the inverse concentration (Fig. 1).
Comparison of this plot with the concentration-time plot together with the Km
value, demonstrates the importance of data in the Km region and the difficulty
of obtaining this in a batch reactor. It is useful to make specially-scaled graphs
in the KM region.
213
Model
The model is that of a batch reactor with Michaelis-Menten kinetics.
dS
dF = ~ r s
Program
To make the Lineweaver-Burk plot, the inverse values of S and rs are calculated
in the program on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
KM
r
S
Michaelis-Menten constant
Reaction rate
Substrate concentration
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
214
Si
V
m3/kg
kg/m3 h
m3 h/kg
Indices
0
m
S
Refers to feed
Refers to maximum
Refers to substrate
Exercises
Results
The results are shown in Fig. 2 (rates and concentrations versus time) for a
range of Michaelis-Menten constants KM and in Fig. 3 the corresponding
Lineweaver-Burk plots.
215
'0.5
0.45
.0.4
0.35
.0.3
.0.25
0.2
-0.15
0.1
0.05
140
160
Figure 2. Rate and concentration plots for KM = 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 (bottom to top curves).
Run 4:13710 steps in 0.133 seconds
Figure 3. Lineweaver-Burk plots for KM = 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 (bottom to top curves).
8.2.3
System
Some enzyme catalyzed reactions are very complex. For this reason their
rigorous modelling leads to complex kinetic equations with a large number of
constants. Such models are unwieldy and are usually not suitable for practical
216
purposes. One approach to simplify them is to neglect formation of enzymesubstrate complexes altogether and to deal only with overall reactions of the
react ants to products.
An example of such a reaction is the enzymatic lactose hydrolysis, a
complex process involving a multitude of sequential reactions leading to higher
saccharide (oligosaccharides) intermediates. The mechanistic model is rather
complex even when only trisaccharides are considered (Fig. 1).
La + E
Ga E + La
GaE + H2O
^-
LaE
**
E + Tr
E + Ga
Ga + GI + E
Figure 1. Complex and simplified models for the enzymatic hydrolysis of lactose, where the
symbols are La for lactose, Ga for galactose, Gl for glucose, Tr for trisaccharide and E for
enzyme.
1L.a
a
f^i
Ga T. V3II
to
^ Tr
i
La -i- Ga
fcaCl
The simulation of this model is easy, and the constants can be adjusted to
achieve good agreement with experimental data.
Model
This simple batch reactor model is equivalent to the Michaelis-Menten product
inhibition model.
217
dLa
-gjdGa
- K! La - KI La Ga + K2 Tr
= Kj La - KI La Ga + K2 Tr
dTr
= KI La Ga - K2 Tr
Program
It was found that K2 must be two orders of magnitude greater than KI in order
to bring the simulation into agreement with the experimental data. The
program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
Ga
Gl
K2
La
Tr
Galactose concentration
Glucose concentration
Reaction rate constant (La > Ga + Gl)
Reaction rate constant (La + Ga -> Tri)
Reaction rate constant (Tri -> La + Ga)
Lactose concentration
Trisaccharide concentration
Indices
0
mmol/L
mmol/L
1/min
L/(mmol min)
1/min
mmol/L
mmol/L
218
Exercises
Results
The outputs in Figs. 3 and 4 show the influence of KI, KI and Lao on the sugar
concentration profiles.
Run 1:10000 steps in 0.05 seconds
100.
r100
90.
80.
70
60.
. 50.
40
30
20
10
0
20
100
TIME
180
200
219
80
'
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Reference
Prenosil, J. E., Stuker, E. and Bourne, J. R. (1987) "Formation of
Oligosaccharides during an Enzymatic Lactose Hydrolysis Process", Parts I and
II: Biotechnol. Bioeng. 30, 1019-1031.
8.2.4
System
Heinzle and Lafferty (1980) have presented a structured model to describe the
batch culture of Alcaligenes eutrophus under chemolithoautotrophic growth
conditions, as discussed in Case C, Sec. 3.3.1. Growth and storage of PHB are
described as functions of limiting substrate S (NH4+), residual biomass R and
product P (PHB) concentrations.
220
Model
In the model seen in Fig. 1 the whole cell dry mass (X) consists of two main
parts, namely PHB (P) and residual biomass (R), where R is calculated as the
difference between the total cell dry weight and the concentration of PHB (R =
X - P). R can be considered as the catalytically active biomass, including
proteins and nucleic acids. With constant concentrations of the dissolved gases,
two distinct phases can be recognized: growth and storage. During the growth
phase there is sufficient NH4+ to permit protein synthesis. When the limiting
substrate NH4+ (S) is exhausted, the protein synthesis ceases, and the
production rate of PHB is increased. During the storage phase only PHB is
produced. The limiting substrate NH4+ (S) is essential to produce R and limits
its synthesis at low concentrations.
For the batch process,
dR
dF
= r
R = MR
where n is the empirical Hill coefficient (see Sec. 3.1.2), having a value of 4 in
this example.
This is based on the postulate that there are two different mechanisms for the
assimilation of NH4+ in procaryotes. This formulation is not a mechanistic one,
221
dF = rs = -YR/S **
= rp = r P j + rP,2
where r P j = YP/R rR
The non-growth associated term of the synthesis of P(rp,2) is assumed to be a
function of the limiting substrate S, of the residual biomass R and of the
product P. When the PHB content in the cells is high, the rate of synthesis of P
is decreased, which can be formally described as an inhibition.
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
KI
KS
n
P
R
rp
TR
rs
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/(m3 h)
222
X
YP/R
YR/S
Indices
1
2
m
Exercises
Refers to reaction 1
Refers to reaction 2
Refers to maximum
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
kg/kg
1/h
1/h
223
Results
Run 1: 416 steps in 0.0167 seconds
4-1
-16
3.5-
3-
-.^
1.5-
y
/ "
y "
1-
^^
*"^
0.50-
-10
"."T.-'V/T
I
J
'""
ISi$%
M*
/
*"'"
12
T
'"U--b
of
-*'
2.5-
14
^"~'"~*" "
'. .'
-8 a.
-'
'*"
-6
f'
-2
_j__ *%
10
_n
15
20
25
30
35
40
TIME
Figure 2* Profiles of residual biomass concentration R, substrate S and product P in the batch
fermentation.
Run 4: 41 6 steps in 0.01 67 seconds
35- ...
5
'"'V^
4.5
^.^.-
30-
-4
'v
25-
\
\
20-
a
15-
.._.. 3:3(2,3)
~- P:3(2.3)
/
1
-*.
P:4 (5)
3.5
3
-2.5 (/)
-2
"""-,
10-
"\ ""
.*""r-'"
-1.5
\"' /^i''^'
-1
-0.5
^^";:^
0.
10
15
-n
20
25
30
35
40
TIME
References
Heinzle, E., and Lafferty, R. M. (1980) Continuous Mass Spectrometric
Measurement of Dissolved H2, O2, and CC>2 during Chemolitho-autotrophic
224
8.3
8.3.1
System
Semi-continuous or fed batch cultivation of micro-organisms is common in the
fermentation industries. The fed batch fermenter mode is shown in Fig. 1 and
was also presented in the example FEDBAT. In this procedure a substrate feed
stream is added continuously to the reactor. After the tank is full or the
biomass concentration is too high, the medium can be partially emptied, and
the filling process repeated. Since the variables, volume, substrate and biomass
concentration change with time, simulation techniques are useful in analyzing
this operation. This example demonstrates the use of dimensionless equations.
Model
The balances are as follows:
Volume,
dv
dT = FO
Substrate,
224
8.3
8.3.1
System
Semi-continuous or fed batch cultivation of micro-organisms is common in the
fermentation industries. The fed batch fermenter mode is shown in Fig. 1 and
was also presented in the example FEDBAT. In this procedure a substrate feed
stream is added continuously to the reactor. After the tank is full or the
biomass concentration is too high, the medium can be partially emptied, and
the filling process repeated. Since the variables, volume, substrate and biomass
concentration change with time, simulation techniques are useful in analyzing
this operation. This example demonstrates the use of dimensionless equations.
Model
The balances are as follows:
Volume,
dv
dT = FO
Substrate,
Biological Reaction Engineering, Second Edition. I. J. Dunn, E. Heinzle, J. Ingham, J. E. Pfenosil
Copyright 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30759-1
225
- = F0S0
Biomass,
d(VX)
dt
= rx
The kinetics are
rx = MX
|LimS
** - (Ks + S)
and
rx
rs = -Y
The dilution rate is defined as
In order to simplify the equations and to present the results more generally, the
model is written in dimensionless form. Defining the dimensionless variables:
v
V
X
X< =
F =
- _ JL
Mm
tft' = t
226
Biomass
dX'
dt'
Substrate
dS'
dt
= (l-S)D-jiX
227
Quasi- steady
Programs
The program VARVOL is based on the model equations with normal
dimensions. The program VARVOLD is based on the dimensionless equations
as derived above. Both are on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
F
KS
r
S
V
Dilution rate
Flow rate
Saturation constant
Reaction rate
Substrate concentration
Reactor volume
1/h
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
m3
228
X
Y
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Indices
0
f
m
S
X
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Dimensionless Variables
S'
V
X1
t'
Exercises
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
229
Results
During the quasi-steady state, \l becomes equal to D, and this requires that S
must decrease steadily in order to maintain the quasi-steady state as the volume
increases (Fig. 3). Increasing flow rates from 0.01 to 1.0 causes a delay in the
onset of linear growth and causes the final biomass levels to be higher (Fig. 4).
Run 1:105 steps in 0 seconds
4.5
Figure 3. Fed batch concentration and growth rate profiles, showing quasi-steady state.
Run 7:105 steps in 0 seconds
2.5
10
C/>
230
Figure 4. Influence of flow rate on growth. Flow rate increase from 0.01 to 1.0.
References
Dunn, I.J., and Mor, J.R. (1975) Variable Volume Continuous Cultivation.
Biotechnol. Bioeng. 17, 1805.
Keller, R., and Dunn, I.J. (1978) Computer Simulation of the Biomass
Production Rate of Cyclic Fed Batch Continuous Culture. J. AppL Chem.
Biotechnol. 28, 784.
8.3.2
System
This example is based on the publication of Heijnen et al. (1979), and
encompasses all the principles of elemental balancing, rate equation
formulation, material balancing and computer simulation. A fed batch process
for the production of penicillin as shown in Fig. 1 is considered with
continuous feeding of glucose. Ammonia, sulfuric acid and o-phosphoric acid
are the sources of nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorous respectively.
Ophosphoric acid is sufficiently present in the medium and is not fed. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged by the organism. The product of the
hydrolysis of penicillin, penicilloic acid, is also considered, thus taking the slow
hydrolysis of penicillin-G during the process into account.
231
Glucose
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Precursor
Phenylacetic acid
Sulfuric acid
Ammonia
232
Model
a) Elemental Balancing
Knowing the composition of all chemical substances and the biomass mycelium
(Table 1) allows the following steady state balances of the elements in terms of
mol/h:
For carbon
6 RI + R6 + 16 R3 + 8 RH + 16 RH + R2 = 0
For oxygen
0.00 46 R2 + R3 + R4 + R9 = 0
233
For hydrogen
12 RI + 1.64 R2 + 18 R3 + 20 R4 + 3 R8 + 2 R9 + 3 RIO + 8 R n + 2 R12 = 0
For phosphorus
0.0054 R2 + RIO = 0
A steady state enthalpy balance gives the following
- 303 RI - 28.1 R2 - 115 R3 - 183 R4 - 94 R6 - 19 R8 - 194 R9 -
- 3 1 9 R i o - 6 9 R n -68Ri 2 + rH = 0
where TH is the rate of heat of production (kcal/h).
A total of 12 unknowns (Ri through R6, Rg through Ri 2 and TH) are involved
with a total of 7 equations (6 elemental balances and one heat balance). The
five additional equations are provided by five reaction kinetic relationships.
The remaining rates can be expressed in terms of these basic kinetic equations.
From the carbon balance
- R6 = 6 RI + R2 + 16 R3 + 16 R4 + 8 RH
234
To complete the model, equations for glucose uptake rate (-Ri), biomass
formation rate (R2), rate of penicillin formation (Rs), precursor consumption
rate (-Rn), and rate of penicillin hydrolysis (R4) must be known. Note that the
reaction rates are defined with respect to total broth weight, since the process is
the fed-batch type and broth weight is variable with respect to time.
where Y2 is the maximum growth yield and m is the maintenance rate factor
(mol glucose/mol mycelial biomass h).
Some sugar is used in the formation of the product. Hence,
- Rl = Yj R2 + m M2 + YJ (R3 + R*)
- R l l = R 3 + R4
where - RH is the precursor consumption rate.
235
R 4 = K 3 M3
c) Balance Equations
Total Mass Balance
The individual feed rates of glucose, sulfuric acid and ammonia are adjusted to
equal their molar consumption rates. Water lost by evaporation is neglected.
The change in mass due to gas uptake and production is neglected. The mass
flow rates are calculated from the molecular weights, the uptake rates and the
mass ratio compositions.
Feed rate of glucose stream (kg/h)
F
l =
180
500
F
2.78
= T4JT
R9
~ 2.55
"dT = Tn
R9
235"
Component Balances
Expressed in mol/h the dynamic balances are,
Rg
TTTT
236
Glucose
~3T = R l + F
Biomass
dM2
Penicillin
~ar = R2
dM3
Penicilloic acid
dM4
M2
Tr
M3
M4
c4 =
where the masses MI, M2, M3 and M4 are in mol units.
d) Metabolism Relations
The various metabolic relationships are given from
Specific growth rate for cells
R2
* = Ml
Respiration quotient
R
Re
Q = R7
Fraction of N2 in mycelium
237
R2
f 2 = 0.16 R|
N2 fraction in penicillin
f3 = 1-F 2
Fraction of sulfur used for mycelium
R2
f 4 = 0.046 R|
Sulfur fraction used for penicillin
f5 = 1 - F4
Fraction of glucose for cell growth
=
R2
S3 = - Y3 R!
Fraction of glucose for maintenance
M2
g4 = -M R^-
Program
The Madonna program covers a fermentation time of 200 h starting from the
initial conditions of 5500 mol glucose, 4000 mol biomass, 0 mol penicillin and
0.001 mol penicilloic acid in an initial broth weight of IxlO 5 kg. The program
is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
a, b
C
CPR
F
various
mol/kg
mol/h
kg/h
238
h
fl
f5
G
82
g3
g4
Kl
K3
M
m
OUR
Q
R
RQ
rq
Y
Indices
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
Exercises
initial
glucose
biomass
penicillin
penicilloic acid
oxygen
carbon dioxide
ammonia
sulfuric acid
phosphoric acid
phenylacetic acid
water
kg
mol/kg
1/h
mol
mol/(mol h)
mol/h
mol/(mol h)
mol/h
kcal/h
1/h
239
Results
The results of Fig. 2 show the substrate MI to pass through a maximum, while
the penicillin M2 develops linearly, for this constant feeding situation.
Increasing the feeding linearly with time (F = 500 + 5* time) gave the results in
Fig. 3, where it is seen that maintenance accounts for about 70 % of glucose
consumption at the end of the fermentation.
Run 1:215 steps in 0 seconds
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
TIME
Figure 2. Penicillin fed batch fermentation with total masses of glucose (M]) and biomass
(M2).
240
0.9-,
0.80.7-
0.6-
r- 0.40.30.20.1-
020
60
80
100
120
TIME
Reference
Heijnen, J., Roels, J. A., and Stouthamer, A.H. (1979). Application of Balancing
Methods in Modeling the Penicillin Fermentation. Biotechnol. and Bioeng., 21,
2175-2201.
8.3.3
System
Yeast exhibits diauxic behavior with respect to the glucose and ethanol in the
medium as alternative substrates. In addition, the glucose effect, when glucose
levels are high, will cause fermentation, instead of respirative oxidation, to take
place, such that the biomass yields are much reduced (Fig. 1). In this example
the constant a designates the fraction of respiring biomass and (1 - a) the
fraction of biomass that ferments. The rates of the process are controlled by
three enzymes.
24 1
^^
C02 + X
Glucose
^^^*-
Ethanol + X
Model
The rates of the processes are as follows:
Respirative oxidation on glucose,
R, =
Glu+K sl
Fermentation to ethanol,
R2 = K2 (1 - a) X
Glu + KS2
242
dt
The component balances are written by separating the accumulation term,
noting that
d(VC) _ VdC
CdV _ VdC
- +
- dt
dt
dt
dt
Thus,
dt
V
f
^o
dt
E0Q
V
f -*-.-*
Program
Note that the program on the CD-ROM is formulated in terms of C-mol for the
biomass. This is defined as the formula weight written in terms of one C atom,
thus for yeast CHL667Oo.5No.i67-
243
Nomenclature
Symbols
C
E
EtOU
Glu
K
Q
R
V
X
Y
a
Component concentration
Enzyme concentration
Ethanol concentration
Substrate feed concentration
Rate constants
Feed flow rate
Reaction rate
Reactor volume
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Fraction of respiring biomass
Indices
0
1
2
3
4
5
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to feed
to reaction
to reaction
to reaction
to reaction
to reaction
1
2
3
4
5
mol/m3
mol/m3
mol/m3
mol/m3
various
m3/h
mol/m3 h
m3
C-mol/m3
mol/mol
244
Results
Seen in Fig. 3 are the simulation results giving the concentrations (glucose,
ethanol and biomass) during the fed batch process. In Fig. 4 the maximum in
ethanol concentration as a function of feedrate is given from a Parameter Plot.
Run 1: 605 steps in 0.0167 seconds
30
25
60
245
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Reference
This example was contributed by C. Niklasson, Dept. of Chemical Reaction
Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, S - 41296 Goteborg,
Sweden.
8.3.4
System
A single cycle of a repeated fed batch fermentation is shown in Fig. 1. In this
operation a substrate is added continuously to the reactor. After the tank is full,
the culture is partially emptied, and the filling process is repeated to start the
next fed batch. The operating variables are initial volume, final volume,
substrate feed concentration and flow rates of filling and emptying.
246
Model
The equations are the same as given in the example FEDBAT (Section 8.1.3),
where the balances for substrate and biomass are written in terms of masses,
instead of concentrations. The only difference is that an outlet stream is
considered here to empty the fermenter at the end of the production period.
Program
Since in a Madonna program, the initial conditions cannot be reset, an outlet
stream is added. The inlet and outlet streams are controlled by conditional
statements as shown below. The full program is on the CD-ROM.
{Statements to switch the feed and emptying streams)
Fin=if time> = 10 then Flin else 0
{batch start up}
Flin= if time> = 33 then 0.5 else if time> = 32 then 0
else if time> = 21 then 0.5 else if time> = 20 then 0
else 0.5
Fout= if time>=33 then 0 else if time>=32 then 5.39
else if time> = 21 then 0 else if time> = 20 then 5.39
else 0
247
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
F
Kl and K2
KS
Dilution rate
Flow rate
Product kinetic constants
Saturation constant
P
S
X
V
V
0
VX
VS
Y
|i
Product concentration
Substrate concentration
Biomass concentration
Reactor volume
Initial volume of liquid
Biomass in reactor
Substrate in reactor
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Indices
S
X
0 (zero)
initial
in
out
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to substrate
to biomass
to initial and inlet values
to initial values
to inlet
to exit
1/h
m3/h
various
kg/m3
g/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
m3
kg
kg
kg/kg
1/h
248
Results
Shown below are results of a simulation with three filling cycles.
60 -|
.-80
A
pr^Ti
/- 70
| "vsi|
, go
/ I
/ I
/"(
/
.50
/ I
'
J
-40
f
I /
\
/
I /
i /-V
/
I/
I / ^\
\l
XV
,*
\
-10
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
--*'"-'
0-
10
15
20
25
30
35
L
40
45
-Q
50
TIME
Figure 2. Masses of substrate and biomass during filling and emptying cycles.
249
10
Figure 3. Concentrations of product, substrate and biomass during filling and emptying
cycles. The volume is also shown.
References
Dunn, I.J., Mor, J.R., (1975) Variable Volume Continuous Cultivation
Biotechnol. Bioeng. 17, 1805.
Keller, R., Dunn, I.J. (1978) Computer Simulation of the Biomass Production
Rate of Cyclic Fed Batch Continuous Culture J. AppL Chem. Biotechnol. 28,
784.
8.3.5
System
Slow-growing animal and plant cell cultures require certain growth factors and
hormones which begin to limit growth after a period of time. To avoid this,
part of the entire culture is replaced with fresh medium. A single cycle of
repeated replacement culture is shown in Fig. 1. In this procedure part of the
medium volume (with cells) is removed after a certain replacement time and
replaced with fresh medium. Each cycle operates as a constant volume batch in
250
Replacement
VX
Final Conditions
VS
Initial Conditions
Figure 1. One cycle for medium replacement culture.
Model
The equations are those of batch culture, where for convenience the total
masses are used.
dVS = r
"dT
sV
dvx
* VR
f=
VX = (1 - ) VXF
251
VS= ( l - f ) V S F + V R S 0
where f is the volume fraction replaced.
Program
The program as shown on the CD-ROM makes use of the PULSE function to
vary the biomass and substrate concentrations corresponding to the
replacement of a fraction F of the culture medium. The time for each batch is
the value of INTERVAL.
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
f
KS
X
V
v
vx
vs
VR
Y
Dilution rate
Fraction of volume replaced
Saturation constant
Substrate concentration
Biomass concentration
Reactor volume
Initial volume of liquid
Biomass in reactor
Substrate in reactor
Volume replaced
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Indices
F
S
X
0
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
1/h
g/m3
g/m3
g/m3
m3
m3
kg
kg
m3
1/h
252
Exercises
Results
Fig. 2 shows how the biomass increases, until after six cycles the time profiles
become almost identical.
TIME= 19.29 X = 1.26
10
20
30
40
50
TIME
60
70
90
100
Figure 2. Oscillations of biomass and substrate concentrations with replacement cycles for
Interval 10 and F=0.8
253
8.3.6
Model
As explained in the example FEDBAT the balances are:
Total mass
dt
Biomass:
d(MassX)
= Vr-X
dt
Substrate:
d(MassS)
= FSf+Vrs
dt
Product:
254
dt
_.
= V fp
p
Dissolved oxygen, neglecting the content of the inlet stream is calculated from
d(MassO)
= K L a*(O sat -0) + Vr 0
dt
The influence of biomass concentration
approximated here by
on
the
oxygen
transfer is
KX+X
The concentrations are calculated from
_MassX
V
1\. """""""""""""^ ,
MassS
,
V
MassP
,
V
MassO
V
o
The substrate uptake kinetics includes that amount used for growth, for product
and for maintenance
J*o ~
Jft o _/V
V
Y
XS
V"
Y
PS
Product production involves two terms whose constants are turned on and off
according to the value of |ii, as seen in the program.
=-TT
Y
xo
255
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
F
KLa
Ko
KS
KX
Mass
mo
ms
Osat
Sf
V
'max
YPS
YXO
YXS
H-max
Exercises
Feed flowrate
Oxygen transfer coeff.
Monod constant for oxygen
Monod constant for glucose
Constant for biomass effect on
Component mass
Maintenance coeff. for oxygen
Maintenance coeff. for glucose
Saturation for oxygen
Feed cone, of glucose
Volume
Maximum volume
Yield product to substrate
Yield biomass to oxygen
Yield biomass to substrate
max.specific growth rate
m3/h
1/h
kg/m 3
kg/m 3
kg/m3
kg
kg O/kg X h
kg S/kg X h
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
m3
kg/kg
kg/kg
kg/kg
1/h
256
II!
References
K. Mutzall, "Modellierung von Bioprozesses", Behr's Verlag, 1994.
Program and model developed by Reto Mueller, ETH Zurich.
Results
Run 1: 2023 steps in 0.117 seconds
0.008
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
257
120
0.007
100
! I
i I
80
0.006
0.005
: I
Li I
I
- 60
40
0.004 O
-0.003
-0.002
20
-0.001
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
TIME
Figure 3. Influence of initial KLa value from 100 to 160 h"^ on the S and O profiles.
8.4
8.4.1
Continuous Reactors
Steady-State Chemostat (CHEMOSTA)
System
The steady state operation of a continuous fermentation having constant
volume, constant flow rate and sterile feed is considered here (Fig. 1).
257
-0.008
120
-0.007
100
1I
80
\
. ll
'-, 1
- 60
\\
40
-0.006
I
I
. !i
i1
-0.005
-0.004 O
v i
-0.003
|\ i
I i '\ *
\ \! \l
!
\\ \
20
-0.002
-0.001
-0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
TIME
Figure 3. Influence of initial KLa value from 100 to 160 h"^ on the S and O profiles.
8.4
8.4.1
Continuous Reactors
Steady-State Chemostat (CHEMOSTA)
System
The steady state operation of a continuous fermentation having constant
volume, constant flow rate and sterile feed is considered here (Fig. 1).
258
D,S
Model
The dynamic balance equations may be modified to apply only to the steady
state by setting the time derivatives equal to zero. The corresponding equations
are then:
For biomass,
0 = - D X + rx
For substrate,
0 = D (S0 - S) + rs
Growth kinetics,
rx = ^ X
259
Program
In Madonna programs, time can be used as a variable which will increase from
the starting time. Here it is renamed D. Thus equations will be solved for
increasing values of the dilution rate. Fortunately X and S can be explicitly
solved for in this problem. If not, the ROOT FINDER facility of Madonna can
be used. The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
The nomenclature is the same as the example CHEMO, Sec. 8.1.2.
Exercises
260
Results
The steady state curves of X, S, and XD versus D are given Fig. 2. The results
in Fig. 3 were obtained by varying K$ in each run. An interesting effect can be
observed on the position of the washout point.
Run 1:113 steps in 0 seconds
-4
10 9-
3.5
87-
6v-
*S**~\ !I
\1 i
Y.-I
m ^r
~s;i
f*r
mm
\!
-2.5
S"
"
-3
4-
1.5
3-
//
2-
/{
0.5
1-
0-
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
261
8.4.2
System
Inhibitory substrates at high concentrations reduce the specific growth rate
below that predicted by the Monod equation. The inhibition function may be
expressed empirically as
262
to two possible steady states, as defined by the steady state condition JLI = D and
as in shown Fig. 1.
D=
One of these steady states (A) can be shown to be stable and the other (B) to be
unstable. Thus, only state A and the washout state (S = SQ) are possible.
Model
A model of a chemostat with its variables is represented schematically in Fig. 2.
F,S 0
+-
F,S,X
263
^VX
-~^f
or,
dS
dT
MX
= D (S0 - S) -
Program
When the system equations are solved dynamically, one of two distinct steady
state solutions are obtained, the stable condition A and the washout condition.
The initial substrate and organism concentrations in the reactor will determine
the result. This is best represented as a phase-plane plot X versus S. All results
indicate washout of the culture when the initial cell concentration is too low;
higher initial substrate concentrations increases the likelihood of washout.
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
KI
KS
Dilution rate
Inhibition constant
Saturation constant
1/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
264
S
Smax
X
Y
Substrate concentration
Maximum in S for inhibition function
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
Indices
0
I
m
Exercises
Refers to inlet
Refers to initial value
Refers to maximum
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
265
Results
Run 1:2000 steps in 0 seconds
1-1-2
10
15
20
TIME
25
30
35
40
5 i
4.5 -
4
3.5
3
e/> 2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
2.5
Figure 4. Phase-plane plot of X versus with varying ST from 0 to 5 kg/m3 using Batch Runs
with overlay.
266
5-
X,
4.5-
4 -
^^^>
*"
^ *t %%
3.5-
* * C^1 v
\
"|
f/ // // /;^',--^,
. *x
2
1.5-
0.5-
"%
\ ^ x
i ! l
</) 2 . 5 -
3:2 (0.5)
3:3 (0.5857)
_ - - 3:4(0.6714)
3:5(0.7571)
3:6(0.8429)
3:7(0.9286)
3:8(1.014)
3:9(1.1)
t**
j* S ^
f f / t / ,f
rf'^T
:' / /
* / Jf*'^
* \ f 1 C & (
"^ -s^^-
"^"^>*i'^' ** -^
^^^*^^$^S? **
^^*^^ **
0.5
Figure 5. Phase plane plot of influence of the initial biomass Xi from 0.5 to 1.1 for
Steady states upper left and lower right.
= 0.0.
Reference
Edwards, V.H, Ko, R.C. and Balogh, S.A. (1972). Dynamics and Control of
Continuous Microbial Propagators Subject to Substrate Inhibition Biotechnol.
and Bioeng. 14, 939-974.
267
8.4.3
System
Nitrification is the process of ammonia oxidation by specialized organisms,
called nitrifiers. Their growth rate is much slower than that of the heterotrophic
organisms which oxidize organic carbon, and they can be washed out of the
reactors by the sludge wastage stream (Fs). In an activated sludge system
(Fig. 1) when the organic load (F So/V) is high, then the high biomass growth
rates require high waste rates. Nitrification will not be possible under these
conditions because the concentration of nitrifiers (Ni) will become very low.
O,F O
2, F4
Reieto*
2, F3
Figure 1. Configuration and streams for the activated sludge system.
Model
The dynamic balance equations can be written for all components around the
reactor and around the settler. The settler is simplified as a well-mixed system
with the effluent streams reflecting the cell separation.
Organic substrate balance for the reactor:
= F 0 So + F 2 S 2 -
268
R2Vt
= p2 O2 FI QI + RI Vj_
= F 2 N 2 - F i N i + R2Vi
di
j^
= F i S i - F3S2 - F4S2
3t
= F A
I I -
- F4A2
= Fl l - F3 02
V2 dN2
34 = F i N i - F 3 N 2
The equations for the flow rates are given below.
Recycle flowrate:
F2 = F 0 R
where R is the recycle factor.
Reactor outlet flow:
Flow of settled sludge:
FI = F2 + F0 = F O R + FO
269
F4 = FI - F3>
Flow of exit sludge wastage:
F5 = F3 - ?2.
l^2max
2 = ^Ni =
Program
The program is given on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
A
C
F
Fo-5
KI
K2
N
O
R
270
Rl
R2
V
Y
Hi
Indices
Flow and concentration indices referring to Fig. 1 are as follows:
0
Refers to feed and initial values
1
Refers to reactor and organic oxidation
2
Refers to settler and ammonia oxidation
3
Refers to recycle
4
Refers to settler effluent
5
Refers to sludge wastage
m
Refers to maximum
Exercises
271
Results
The results in Fig. 2 demonstrate the influence of flow rate on the effluent
organics 82- The ammonia in the effluent A2 is seen, in Fig. 3, to respond
similarly to FQ, but for a very high value of FQ = 1000 m3/h the nitrification
ceases, and A2 becomes the same as the inlet value AQ. This corresponds to
washout of the nitrifiers, which would be seen by plotting NI versus time.
Run 4: 405 steps in 0.0167 seconds
0.9 ,
0.8 -I
,/"
M if
If J
II /
It
0.3- rr
J
II
"
0-1 JM
02.
" .
6
10
12
82:1(20)
82:2(180)
82:3(340)
82:4(500)
14
16
18
20
TIME
Figure 2. Transient of S2 at various flow rates F0 (20 to 500m3/h, bottom to top).
0.090.08-
3 0.06 -|-_005 J*
1
A2:1(20)
A2:2(180)
-_A2:3(340)
I
A2:4(5QO)
S.
0.040.03-
0.02J
0
10
TIME
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 3. Ammonia in the effluent (A2) at various flow rates F0 (5 to lOOOm^/h, bottom to
top).
272
8.4.4
System
A tubular, packed-bed, immobilized-enzyme reactor is to be investigated by
simulation. The flow is assumed to be ideal plug flow. The distribution of the
enzyme is not uniform and varies linearly from the inlet to higher values at the
outlet, as shown in Fig. 1.
Enzyme
concentration
Enzyme distribution
Model
The equations for steady state operation are given below.
Substrate balance,
dS
dZ
1
~v
Kinetics,
The linear flow velocity is increased by the presence of the solid enzyme carrier
particles according to
273
V7
L
F
Ae
~
Program
The model is solved by renaming the independent variable, TIME, to be the
reactor length coordinate Z. The program is given on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
A
F
K
KM
m
r
S
vm
vz
Z
e
E
m2
m3/h
1/h
kg/m3
kg/m3 m
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
kg/m3h
m/h
m
kg/m3
274
Indices
0
S
Refers to inlet
Refers to substrate
Exercises
Results
Flow rate is the primary operating variable, along with enzyme loading and
inlet concentration. In Fig. 2 the influence of F is seen in the steady-state, axial,
substrate profile.
275
10
12
14
16
18
20
8.4.5
System
In defined-nutrient growth media, one substrate can usually be made to be
limiting by adjusting its concentration relative to those of the other medium
components. In general, however, more than one substrate may limit the cell
growth rate. In this case the yield coefficients for the various components,
Yxsi> may vary depending upon the growth regime. This situation was
discussed by Egli et al. (1989), who examined results at steady state with dual
nutrient limitation. The present mathematical model simulates the transient
behaviour of such a dual (Si -carbon, 82 -nitrogen) nutrient-limited system
when carried out in a chemostat. The model assumes that the yield coefficients
are each a function of the ratio 81/82, i.e. the ratio of the carbon-nitrogen
substrate concentrations in the vessel. The original paper took the carbonnitrogen ratio in the feed stream as the controlling parameter. Here the
concentrations in the reactor are assumed to be controlling.
Model
Assuming a perfectly mixed, constant volume continuous-flow stirred-tank
reactor, the mass balance equations for the cells and for the two limiting
substrates are as follows:
276
= D
(SlFeed - Si) -
/O
O \
I ^__i^^_ I i i "V
where D = F/V.
The specific growth rate is modelled as
Si
The yield coefficients are assumed to vary with the carbon-nitrogen ratio in the
reactor.
Si
RATIO = ^
The yield coefficients are varied according to RATIO using the following logic:
Y X Sl=Yi m i n
and
and
YXS2 = Y2min
YXS2 = Y2max
if
if
RATIO < B i
RATIO > B2
where,
_
Y2min
Y 2max
Bi = \r
1 - and Bo = 1v~,T"
Imax
- 1mm
The boundaries of the three growth regimes in Fig. 1 are defined by the
quantities BI and B2.
277
C limitation
N limitation
Double limitation
10
XSi
0.8
r
XS1
B2
S2
Figure 1. Limitation regions for carbon and nitrogen showing influence on yield.
The yield coefficients for biomass on nitrogen and carbon take maximum or
minimum values when only one substrate is limiting and vary linearly with
opposing tendencies in the double-limitation region.
Program
Note that the programing of this example is rather more complicated than usual
owing to the need to allow for the logical conditions of carbon limitation,
nitrogen limitation or both substrates together causing limitation. A partial
listing is seen below and the full program is on the CD-ROM.
(CALCULATION
OF
YIELD
VALUES)
278
Nomenclature
Symbols
Bi
B2
Cc
Cn
D
F
KS
R
Si
S2
X
Y
H
Indices
1
2
Exercises
_
-
kg/m3
kg/m3
1/h
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
279
Results
The startup of a continuous culture is shown in Fig. 2. Note that the nitrogen
level 82 in the reactor drops to a low level after 15 h and causes a change in the
yield coefficients. The influence of dilution rate on the system was investigated
by varying D from 0 to 1.5 as shown in Fig. 3.
3-c
X 1.5
280
Reference
Egli, Th., Schmidt, Ch. R. (1989). "On Dual-Nutrient-Limited Growth of
Microbes, with Special Reference to Carbon and Nitrogen Substrates", in
Proceed. Microb. Phys. Working Party of Eur. Fed Biotech. Eds. Th. Egli, G.
Hamer and M. Snozzi, Hartung-Goree, Konstanz, 45-53.
This example was developed by S. Mason, ETH-Zurich.
8.4.6
System
The process involves the removal of dichloromethane (DCM) from a gas stream
and the subsequent degradation by microbial action. The reactor consists of
biofilm sand bed column with circulation to an aeration tank, into which the
substrate and oxygen enters in the gas phase, or the substrate can be fed in a
liquid stream, as shown in Fig. 1. The column is approximated by a series of six
stirred tanks. The reaction is treated with homogeneous, double saturation
kinetics with dichloromethane (DCM) inhibition. The oxidation of one mole of
DCM produces 2 moles of HC1, making a hydrogen ion balance for pH important. The yield with respect to oxygen is 4.3 mg DCM/mg 62. In practice,
care must be taken to prevent stripping of DCM to the air stream.
281
SR6>
SRin C jn , pH jn
Model
The model does not include a gas balance on the aeration tank, since it is
assumed that the gas phase dynamics are comparatively fast and hence an
equilibrium with the inlet concentration of oxygen and DCM may be assumed.
The biomass is assumed to grow slowly, and growth rates are therefore also not
modelled. The model for pH changes does not include buffering effects.
For the inlet section 1 at the bottom of the column the balances are as follows:
O2 balance,
dCQ1 ^
dt
282
DCM balance,
dC
Srl _
dt
Srin~ C Srl
H ion balance,
i -CHI
dCHi
2r S i
84900
Here T is the residence time of the liquid in one section of the column. The
constant 84,900 converts grams to moles and includes the stoichiometry.
pHi = -0.434 log |Cm|
Evaluation of rates for the inlet section 1:
maxCSrl
-01
KI )
dC
R
V
-~ = (CSr6 - CSrin )
at
DCM (Cs2eq -
Program
The program constants describe DCM entering the reactor in the gas stream.
The DCM concentration in the liquid feed is set to zero. The program is on the
CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
oin
srin
CSFO
CSG
F
KI
KLa
KS
pHn
R
VR
VT
Vmax
YSO
Exercises
11
283
284
Results
The concentrations in the stream leaving the top of the column (CSr6) during
startup of the fluidized bed are shown in Fig. 2 for four values of F (0.5 to 10)
The change of the pH for one flow rate (F = 0.5) is shown in Fig. 3.
285
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.35
0.5
0.45
TIME
Figure 2. Fluidized bed startup for four values of F (0.5 to 10, bottom to top).
3
2.5
CSR6:1
... PH6:1
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
TIME
Figure 3. Change of carbon substrate and pH in the top section 6 during startup.
Reference
D. Niemann Ph.D. Dissertation 10025, ETH, 1993.
286
8.4.7
System
Two chemostats are arranged in series (Fig. 1) with the intention that the first
operates at a relatively high rate of cell growth, while the second operates at low
growth rate, but high cell density, for secondary metabolite production.
Additional substrate may be fed to the second stage.
, 810
X1.S!
Hi
US
Model
The balance equations are written for each component in each reactor.
Stage 1 with sterile feed,
= F[S O -S!] -
287
Stage 2 with additional substrate feed and an input of cells and substrate from
Stage 1,
V2
- [F + Fi]X2
Yv
KS + S2
V,
Both stages,
Prod2 =
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
F
KS
Prod
S
V
X
Y
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
288
Indices
0
1
2
10
m
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to tank 1 inlet
to tank 1 and inlet of tank 2
to tank 2 and outlet of system
to separate feed for tank 2
to maximum
Exercises
Results
The results in Fig. 2 give biomass concentrations and productivities for both
tanks during a startup with a constant feed stream to the first tank (F = 0.5). In
Fig. 3 the influence on X2 of feed to the second tank Fl (0 to 1.0) with
constant F is shown.
289
35
40
Figure 2. Biomass (Xj X2) and productivities for both tanks (F = 0.5).
5
4.5
4
3.5
32.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
TIME
Figure 3. Influence on X2 of feed to the second tank (Ft = 0 to 1.0, curves right to left).
290
8.4.8
System
Products may inhibit growth rates. Under such conditions a multi-staged
continuous reactor as shown in Fig. 1 will have kinetic advantages over a single
stage. This is because product concentrations will be lower and consequently
the rates in the first tank will be higher as compared with a single tank. This
effect may be conveniently investigated by simulation. Batch cultures can be
expected to have similar kinetic advantages for product inhibition situations.
Model
The inhibition function is expressed empirically as
When product concentrations are low, the equation reduces to the Monod
equation.
The product kinetics are according to Luedeking and Piret, with dependence
on both growing and non-growing biomass,
Biological Reaction Engineering, Second Edition. I. J. Dunn, E. Heinzle, J. Ingham, J. E. Pfenosil
Copyright 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30759-1
291
an - a"Q
~ 1i-r+rPn
When product concentrations are low, a = ano.
Kinetics for growth:
_ _rxn
where Y is the yield factor.
Mass balances:
Stage 1,
j- = F[So-Si] +r S iVi
jp = F[P 0 -Pi] + rp^j
Stage 2 with additional substrate feed FI,
dX2
V 2 -gjT- = F Xj - [F + F!]X2 + rX2V2
dS2
V2 -gj- = F [Si - S2] + FI [Sio - S2] + rS2V2
dP2
- =FPl- [F + Fi]P2 + rp2V2
292
Prodi =
Both stages,
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
F
KI
KS
P
Prod
r
S
V
X
Y
a
OC0
Indices
n
0
1
Refers to tank n
Refers to tank 1 inlet
Refers to tank 1 and inlet of tank 2
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
kg P/kg X h
kg P/kg X h
kg/kg
1/h
1/h
2
10
293
Exercises
Results
The startup and approach to steady state for the two stages is shown in Fig. 2.
The influence of the inhibition can be tested by varying KI from 0.1 to 10.0, as
shown in Fig. 3. The higher the KI the lower is the degree of inhibition and the
greater is the product concentration P2-
294
r 10
3.5
3
2.5
,
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
15
TIME
Figure 2. Startup and approach to steady state for the two stages.
Run 4: 255 steps in 0.0167 seconds
1.4.,
1.3
1.2.
1.1
I
1
0.9.
0.8
0.7 J
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
TIME
Reference
Herbert, D. (1961). A Theoretical Analysis of Continuous Culture Systems.
Soc. Chem. Ind. Monograph No. 12, London, 2L
295
8.4.9
System
A fluidized bed column reactor can be described as 3 tanks-in-series (Fig. 1).
Substrate, at concentration SQ, enters the circulation loop at flow rate F. The
flow rate through the reactor due to circulation is FR. Oxygen is absorbed in a
well-mixed tank of volume VT. The reaction rate for substrate (r$) depends on
both S and dissolved oxygen (CL)- The rate of oxygen uptake (ro) is related to
S by a yield coefficient (Yos)- The gas phase is not included in the model,
except via the saturation concentration (CLS)- The oxygen uptake rate of
reactor can be determined by the difference in CL inlet and outlet values.
? So , Fn
Fluidized
Bed
F,S
296
Model
The model balance equations are developed by considering the individual tank
stages and the absorber separately. The gas phase in the absorber is assumed to
be air.
Substrate balances:
For the absorption tank
dS
FR
dF =
Oxygen balances:
For the absorption tank
r
FR
V
(CLn
-! ~ C Ln) ~ rOn
V Tm
K n +Sn K 0 +C Ln
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
297
Nomenclature
Symbols
CL
CLS
F
FR
KLa
Ks
Ko
r
S
V
VT
^m
x
Y
T
Indices
0
l,2,3,n
m
O
S
T
X
Exercises
Refers to feed
Refer to the stage numbers
Refers to maximum
Refers to oxygen
Refers to substrate
Refers to aeration tank
Refers to biomass
g/m3
g/m3
m3/h
m3/h
1/h
kg/m3
g/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
m3
m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
kg/kg and g/kg
1/h
298
Results
Note from the results below that the steady state for oxygen is reached rather
quickly, compared to that of substrate.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 2. Oxygen concentrations in fluidized bed reactor. Top of column is the lower curve.
299
35
tf
8.4.10
System
Nitrification is an important process for wastewater treatment. It involves
the sequential oxidation of NFLt"1" to NO2~ and NC>3~ that proceeds
according to the following reaction sequence:
NH4+ + 1 02 -> N02- + H20 +2H+
NO2~ +
O2 - NO3~
Both steps are influenced by dissolved oxygen and the corresponding nitrogen
substrate concentration. Owing to the relatively slow growth rates of nitrifiers,
treatment processes benefit greatly from biomass retention.
300
Model
The model balance equations are developed by considering, separately, the
individual tank stages and the absorber. Component balances are required for all
components in each section of the reactor column and in the absorber, where the
feed and effluent streams are located. Although the reaction actually proceeds
in the biofilm phase, a homogeneous model with apparent kinetics is employed
rather than a biofilm model, as in the example NITBEDFILM.
03.
Fluidized
bed
In the absorber, oxygen is transferred from the air to the liquid phase. The
nitrogen compounds are referred to as Si, 82, and 83, respectively. Dissolved
301
Similarly for the absorption tank, the balance for the nitrogen-containing
components include the input and output of the additional feed and effluent
streams, giving
The oxygen balance in the absorption tank must account for mass transfer from
the air, but neglects the low rates of oxygen supply and removal of the feed and
effluent streams. This gives
For the first and second biological nitrification rate steps, the reaction kinetics
for any stage n were found to be described by
v
r
r2n
ml Sin
Qn
K + S K + O
m2 S2n
n
S
K
2+ 2n O2+n
The oxygen uptake rate is related to the above reaction rates by means of the
constant yield coefficients, YI and 2, according to
ron = - H n Y i -r 2 n Y 2
The reaction stoichiometry provides the yield coefficient for the first step
302
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
F
FR
Kj^a
K
KI
K2
O
Os and O*
OUR
r
S
V
VA
L/h
L/h
h
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L h
mg/L
L
L
vm
Y
Maximum velocity
Yield coefficient
mg/L h
mg/mg
Indices
1,2,3
1,2,3
A
F
ij
m
Ol and O2
S1,S2
S and *
Exercises
303
304
Results
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
P 2.5
270
260
250
1^240.
,230<
220
M I
210
200
0.5
190
180
15
20
25
30
35
40
KLA
Figure 3. Parametric run of continuous operation showing oxygen and ammonia in the effluent
versus
305
8.4.11
System
This example, schematically shown in Fig. 1 involves a continuous, constant
volume, enzymatic reactor with product inhibition in which soluble enzyme is
fed to the reactor.
EO.FE
I S 1f P 1 F1
Model
The mass balance equations are formulated by noting the two separate feed
streams and the fact that the enzyme does not react but is conserved.
Total flow:
FS + FE =
Mass balances:
dSi
= FsSo-FiS1+rsV
306
r = -FiP1+rpV
S - - v mK M + S + (P/Ki)
vm = EI K2
rP = - 2 r s
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
E
F
KI
KM
K2
P
r
S
V
vm
Enzyme concentration
Flow rate
Inhibition constant
Saturation constant
Rate constant
Product concentration
Reaction rate
Substrate concentration
Reactor volume
Maximum rate
Indices
0
kg/m3
m3/h
kg/m3
1/h
kg/m3
kg/(m3 h)
kg/m3
m3
kg /(m3 h)
307
1
E
P
S
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Exercises
Results
Variations in the flows FE (Fig. 2) or Fs (Fig. 3) cause the product levels to
change.
308
1.8
1.6
--
0.8
.0.6
0.4
tS
P1:2(0.2)
P1:3(0.3)
,-'"
0.2
10
20
30
40
TIME
50
60
70
80
r4.5
3.5
x--'
3
2.5
.2
-1.5
r *>"*
-^ - **" ~ ""
jft
. P1:2(1.5)
.. P1:3(2)
<*/r
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
TIME
8.4.12
System
Biocatalysts usually deactivate during their use, and this has to be considered in
the bioreactor design. One of the methods to keep productivity fluctuations
low, and hence to efficiently utilize the biocatalyst, is to use a series of reactors
with biocatalyst batches having different times-on-stream in each reactor. In
309
this example a series of three stirred tanks of a constant equal volume with
biocatalyst deactivating by first order reaction kinetics is investigated (Fig. 1).
After a time period ILAG? ^e biocatalyst from the tank with longest time-onstream (first tank in the cascade) is discarded and replaced by a fresh batch.
The streams are switched over so that tank 1 becomes tank 3, the last reactor in
the series. Other tanks are switched over correspondingly. This is equivalent to
replacing the used enzyme with fresh enzyme in tank 3 and moving the used
enzyme upstream from tank 3 to tank 2 to tank 1, which is easier to simulate.
(3-galactosidase was taken as an example of the biocatalyst. This obeys
Michaelis-Menten kinetics with competitive product inhibition, and the kinetic
constants were determined with considerable accuracy. The same constants are
used also in this substrate inhibition model.
F,S 0
F,Si
F,S 2
F,S 3
Model
Using the stoichiometry, S > P, the mass balances for the ith tank (i = 1, 2, 3)
with the volume V can be written
Substrate
Product
dt
Enzyme (active)
= F(P M -Pi)
310
=r Ei v
where rate of substrate consumption
(competitive)
is given by product
inhibition
s
i
Si = ' v max b i -7-Z~^\
inh
-i
This equation can be applied by changing the initial conditions for each tank
when the enzyme is moved from tank to tank. Thus the final value in tank n
becomes the initial condition in tank i-1. The initial conditions can also be
calculated by analytical integration of the enzyme deactivation equation at
times corresponding to the respective ages of the biocatalysts in the respective
reactors (multiples of TLAG)- Fresh enzyme with the activity EQ is in the third
tank. The other tanks start with the following enzyme activities:
EI = E0 e C- (3 - i) ko TLAG]
Program
In the program on the CD-ROM note that the cost calculation at the end of the
program is included only as a comment but could be incorporated into the
program with the corresponding values for the constants.
311
Nomenclature
Symbols
COST
E
ECOST
F
ICOST
kD
Kinh
Km
OCOST
P
RC
m
rs
S
T
t
TDOWN
TLAG
v
max
Indices
0
i
Exercises
$/kg
kg/m3
$/kg
m3/h
$/kg
1/h
mol/m3
mol/m3
$/kg
mol
$/kg
kg/(m3 h)
mol/(m3 h)
mol/m3
h
h
h
h
mol/kg h
312
Results
The results from DEACTENZ show an exponential decrease of the biocatalyst
activity (Fig. 2), which causes dynamic changes in the substrate and product
concentrations (Fig. 3) in all three reactors.
313
0.5-,\
0.45-
-4000
\
\
%
0.4-
i**
*.
0.35-
"%
03
a '
.0.25-
"*
s
-'
-.
0.1-
^ -"
0
100
200
-3000
^
-2500 3
I
-2000 Q_
_- Totalproduct:1
-1500 p
0.050-
-3500
. E2:1
*"">cr
^r "'"'"-'"*. |
j+
_/
" . -i..
0.15-
s ***
"''
0.2-
r*
j**
-1000
i...
300
400
500
.500
-0
600
700
800
900
1000
TIME
Figure 2. Exponential biocatalyst deactivation and total product during one run.
140-i
120-
100
10080
l
C/l
^
cn
a-
60
40
40-
20
20
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
TIME
900
1000
314
References
Prenosil, I.E., Peter, J., Bourne, J.R. (1980). Hydrolytische Spaltung des
Milchzuckers der Molke durch immobilisierte Enzyme im Festbett-Reaktor.
Verfahrenstechnik 14, 392.
Prenosil, J.E. (1981). Optimaler Betrieb fur einen Festbett- und einen FliessbettReaktor mit desaktivierendem Katalysator. Chimia 35, 226 .
Prenosil, J.E., Hediger, T. (1986). An Improved Model for CapillaryMembrane, Fixed-Enzyme Reactors. In Membranes and Membrane Processes,
Plenum, N. Y., 515.
8.4.13
System
This example considers a two-stage process for the production of PHB, a
biopolymer. The kinetics of this fermentation is presented in the example PHB.
The structured kinetic model involves a Luedeking-Piret-type expression and
also an inhibition by the product. From this it might be expected that two stages
would be better than one, and it is the goal of this example to optimize the
process. The volume ratio and the feed rate are the obvious design and
operating parameters.
Sfeed,
> 82, F0
315
Model
The details of the structured model will not be repeated here (See PHB). The
biomass consists of a synthesis part R and the intracellular product P. The
biomass growth rate of R is proportional to the specific growth rate, which is
given by a two-part expression
S
(S/Ks,2)n
(KS,i + S) -*
The synthesis rate of PHB is given by a two-part expression
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM
Nomenclature
Symbols
FO
KI
KS
n
P
PROD
R
rp
TR
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/(m3h)
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
316
Sfeed
Vi and V2
X
YP/R
YR/S
MP
Indices
1
2
m
Exercises
kg/(m3 h)
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
kg/kg
1/h
1/h
317
Results
Run 1:119 steps in 0.0167 seconds
90
100
Figure 2. A run showing the dynamic approach to steady state for X, S, P in both tanks.
0.2
Figure 3. Here with FO set at the optimum value of 1.24, the influence of VRAT is investigated
giving a value for the maximum in PROD corresponding to the OPTIMIZE results. VRAT is seen
not to be very important. Thus equal-sized tanks are adequate.
318
8.5
8.5.1
System
The influence of gassing rate and stirrer speed on an enzymatic, aerated reactor,
as shown in Fig. 1, is to be investigated. The outlet gas is assumed to be
essentially air, which eliminates the need for a gas balance for the well-mixed
gas phase.
gas
Hi
Ill
+ 02
ii
air
Figure 1. Schematic of the enzymatic oxidation batch reactor.
Model
The reaction kinetics are described by a double Monod relation:
_S
CL
319
dS
dF
dCL
= r
= K L a(C L * -CL) - r s Y o /s
dP
dF
~ r s Y P/s
KLa varies with stirring speed (N) and aeration rate (G) according to:
KLa = kN 3 G- 5
where k = 4.78 x 10-13 with N in 1/h, G in m3/h and KLa in 1/h.
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
CL
CLS>CL*
G
KCL
^a
KS
k
N
P
r
S
vm
Y
g/m3
g/m3
m3/h
kg/m3
1/h
kg/m3
complex
1/h
kg/m3
kg/(m3 h)
kg/m3
g/(m3 h)
kg/kg
320
Indices
0
o
p
s
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to feed
to oxygen
to product
to substrate
Exercises
Results
The results in Fig. 2 show the influence of stirrer speed N on the dissolved
oxygen level. Variations from 30,000 to 5,000 1/h were made with the Batch
Run facility. Runs to obtain the results in Fig. 3 were made by varying the gas
flow rate G from 25 to 5 m3/h (curves top to bottom).
321
7s"
--'/
_..-....._..-..._
7 -
*
*
.***
6 5
CL1 (3e+4)
CL:2 (2.1676+4)
-- CL:3 (1.3336+4)
-^_CL:4 (5000)
*
1
/
4
2 -
-"-''
0
C
TIME
<j 6.5
5
TIME
8.5.2
System
Cell growth is limited by the oxygen mass transfer rate, and hence by the
dissolved oxygen concentration. It is also inhibited by an inhibitory substrate S.
Liquid phase balances for X, S and 62 in the liquid phase are therefore used,
together with a gas phase oxygen balance to determine the rate of O2 supply.
322
To avoid washout of cells, it is important that the reactor should never enter the
range of inhibitory behavior. Schematic representation of a continuous aerated
fermenter is given in Fig. 1.
feed F, S 1
gas G, CG2
liquid F,S 2 , X
air, G, CG1
Figure 1. Schematic of the continuous fermentation with oxygen transfer.
Model
The liquid phase mass balances are as follows:
For biomass,
dX
rxVL
For substrate,
dS2
For oxygen,
dCL2
The kinetics are as follows:
L2
KS+S2+(S22/KI)K0+CL2
rx = |a X
323
rs =
The oxygen equilibrium relates the concentration in the gas phase to the liquid
phase saturation concentration,
CL2* = MC G2
The gas holdup fraction is,
VG = eV L
Proportional control of the feed rate, based on exit substrate concentration, can
be added with,
F = Fo + KpE
with E = S2set ~ $2- Here the sign must be adjusted depending on the substrate
region above or below the maximum kinetic rate.
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
CL
CLS
E
F
G
KI
mg/L
nig/L
g/L
L/h
L/h
g/L
324
KLa
Ko
KP
KS
M
OUR
r
S
V
X
Yx/s
Yo
8
H
Transfer coefficient
Oxygen saturation constant
Proportional control constant
Saturation constant
Equilibrium coefficient
Oxygen uptake rate
Reaction rate
Substrate concentration
Reactor volume
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Mole fraction of oxygen in outlet gas
gas/liquid volume ratio
Specific growth rate
Indices
0
1
2
G
I
L
m
O
P
S
X
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to feed
to inlet
to outlet
to gas
to inhibitor
to liquid
to maximum
to oxygen
to product
to substrate
to biomass
to equilibrium
1/h
mg/L
L/h/g/L
g/L
mg/h
g/Lh
g/L
L
g/L
g/g
1/h
325
326
Results
Run 4: 10003 steps in 0.367 seconds
8-
0.1
^
7.
0.09
L
S2:1 (1)
.. CL2:1 (1)
S2:2 (4)
6-
S2:3 (7)
5-
a'
4-
CL2:3(7)
82:4(10)
-CL2:4(10)
|N ^^
% *%- N**
-0.08
-0.07
-0.06
-0.05
0.04
-0.03
3" -^ .^^
0.
1.
i)
-0.02
.**-*uT-ZZ_H.r. r 0.01
"-""'
0
K)
TIME
DJ
5
TIME
Figure 3. Influence of the control on the reactor. The setpoint 82 is 5.0 kg/m^.
8.5.3
327
System
Nitrification in a biofilm fluidized bed is to be modelled.
oxidation of NtLj.* to NC>2~ and NC>3" proceeds according to:
The sequential
NH4+ + 02 -> N02O2 -> NO3The two steps are shown schematically in Fig. 1.
Ammonium ion -^
The stoichiometry is for the first step YI = 3.5 g O2/ (g NPfy-N) and for the
second step Y2 = 1.1 g O2/(g NO2-N).
Model
Neglecting the details of the biofilm diffusion, the apparent kinetics of this
biofilm process can be approximately described with homogeneous kinetics
that follow a double Monod limitation:
Si
CL
*
I + S| KOI +C
= vm2
S2
K 2 +S 2
CL
328
~dT = - f i
= ri - r2
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
CL
CLS
K
KLa
r
Si
S2
S3
Vm
Indices
0
1,2,3
O
Refers to feed
Refer to reaction steps
Refers to oxygen
Refers to substrate
g/m3
g/m3
g/m3
1/h
kg/m3
g/m3
g/m3
g/m3
g/m 3 h
g/g
Exercises
329
330
Results
100
+*
90
80
70
CO
X *'
...X'-''
60
$ 50
5) 40
30
20
10
0
1.5
TIME
Figure 2. NH4+, NO2~ and NC>3" and dissolved oxygen in a batch nitrification with KLa = 40 h"1/
Run 3: 313 steps in 0.0167 seconds
2.5
Figure 3. NH 4 + and dissolved oxygen in batch nitrification using three values of KLa from 20
8.5.4
331
System
The aeration of a batch culture (with essentially constant biomass X) is stopped
and the dissolved oxygen (CL) is allowed to fall zero before re-aerating. The
slope of the CL curve is the oxygen uptake rate and it is approximated by the
slope of the electrode response curve CE curve. The dynamics of the electrode
are known, and it is desired to investigate the lag effects as shown in Fig. 1.
Model
The following equations represent the model:
Oxygen uptake rate,
OUR = q 0 2X
Specific OUR,
qo2m CL
102 - KQ + CL
Oxygen balance,
dCL
*
T = K L a(C L *-C L ) -OUR
332
C (mg/L)
20
40
60
80
time(s)
Figure 1. Typical response of the batch oxygen uptake and reaeration experiment.
Measurement dynamics for the liquid film may be important with a viscous
culture,
dCp
CL - Cp
TF
and for the electrode lag,
dt
Program
Experimental data, in the file OXDYNDATA, and the program are found on
the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
C
KLa
Oxygen concentrations
Transfer coefficient
g/m3
1/h
333
KO
OUR
Q
X
T
Indices
E
F
L
m
02,0
S
*
Exercises
Refers to electrode
Refers to liquid film
Refers to liquid
Refers to maximum
Refer to oxygen
Refers to saturation
Refers to saturation
g/m3
g/m3s
g/kgs
kg/m3
334
Results
The results shown in Fig. 2 demonstrate the effect of changing K^a. Runs
varying the electrode time constant TE gave the results of Fig. 3.
70
80
90
100
335
10
20
30
40
50
TIME
8.5.5
System
A simple and effective means of measuring the oxygen transfer coefficient
(^a) in an air- water tank contacting system involves first degassing the batch
water phase with nitrogen (Ruchti et al., 1981). Then the air flow is started and
the increasing dissolved oxygen concentration is measured by means of an
oxygen electrode.
336
VQ.CQ
Hii
G> CGO
As shown below, the influence of three quite distinct dynamic processes play a
role in the overall measured oxygen concentration response curve. These are
the processes of the dilution of nitrogen gas with air, the gas-liquid transfer and
the electrode response characteristic, respectively. Whether all of these processes
need to be taken into account when calculating K^a can be determined by
examining the mathematical model and carrying out simulations.
Measurement
CF
Gas phase
Liquid phase
Electrode
diffusion film
Electrode
Model
The model relationships include the mass balance equations for the gas and
liquid phases and equations representing the measurement dynamics.
Oxygen Balances
The oxygen balance for the well-mixed flowing gas phase is described by
VG
dCG_ _
= G (CGO - CG) - KLa (CL* - CL) VL
dt
337
= K L a(C L *-C L )V L
and CL* is the oxygen concentration in equilibrium with the gas concentration,
CG- The above equations can be solved in this form as in simulation example
KLAFIT. It is also useful to solve the equations in dimensionless form.
Oxygen Electrode Dynamic Model
The response of the usual membrane-covered electrodes can be described by
an empirical second-order lag equation. This consists of two first-order lag
equations to represent the diffusion of oxygen through the liquid film on the
surface of the electrode membrane and secondly the response of the membrane
and electrolyte:
dC F _ C L -C F
dt
TF
and
dCg
Cp ~Cg
dt "
TE
Tp and TG are the time constants for the film and electrode lags, respectively. In
non- viscous water phases Tp can be expected to be very small, and the first lag
equation can, in fact, be ignored.
Dimensionless model equations
Defining dimensionless variables as
C =
CG
CGO
CL =
C GO (RT/H)
TG
338
dt'
'
VG H
and
C' L =C' G =0
L-CF
dt
and
dC
E
dt'
C
=
F-CB
TE/^G
C GO (RT/H)
and CE is the dimensionless electrode output
CE
C GO (RT/H)
As shown by Dang et al. (1977), solving the model equations by Laplace
transformation gives
1
,RTVL
= =
V
-. + 1) TO + TE + TF
KLa + ( H
G
where oc is the area above the CE versus t response curve, as shown in Fig. 3.
339
1.0
CE'
Time (s)
Figure 3. Determination of the area a above the CE' versus time response curve.
Program
The program KLADYN can be used to investigate the influence of the various
experimental parameters on the method, and is formulated in dimensionless
form. The same model, but with dimensions, is used in program KLAFIT and
is particularly useful for determining K^a in fitting experimental data of CE
versus time. A set of experimental data in the text file KLADATA can be used
to experiment with the data fitting features of Madonna. All are on the CDROM.
The program ELECTFIT is used to determine the electrode time constant in
the first-order lag model. The experiment involves bringing CE to zero by first
purging oxygen from the water with nitrogen and then subjecting the electrode
to a step change by plunging it into fully aerated water. The value of the
electrode time constant, TE can be obtained by fitting the model to the set of
experimental data in the file, ELECTDATA.
The value found in this
experiment can then be used as a constant in KLAFIT.
Nomenclature
Symbols
Oxygen concentration
g/m3
340
G
H
KLa
RT/H
t
V
Indices
E
F
G
L
Exercises
Refers to electrode
Refers to film
Refers to gas phase
Refers to liquid
Prime denotes dimensionless variables
341
Results
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
TIME
160
180
200
342
TIME
Figure 5. A fit of experimental data (open circles) as dimensionless CE versus time (s) to
determine KLA using KLAFIT, which gives 0.136 1/s.
References
Dang, N.D.P., Karrer, D.A. and Dunn, IJ. (1977).Oxygen Transfer Coefficients
by Dynamic Model Moment Analysis, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 19, 853.
Ruchti, G. Dunn, IJ. and Bourne J.R. (1981). Comparison of Dynamic Oxygen
Electrode Methods for the Measurement of KLa, Biotechnol. Bioeng., 13, 277.
8.5.6
System
Biofiltration is a process for treating contaminated air streams. Moist air is
passed thrpugh a packed column, in which the pollutants in the contaminated
air are adsorbed onto the wetted packing. There in the biofilm solid phase the
resident population of organisms oxidizes the pollutants.
343
L, S
G, C1T6
Tank6
Gas
Transfer
TriT6
wifsp#K
iS:Tl;niiiS?'
Illllpll
G.Q1T5
*
Tanks
Gas
I
I
I
I
Tank4
illlii
llllll
Transfer
tlwilffi
I
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Gas
fankS
'"';:"H? H'MK'SK
Transfer
i
illlll
Illlllll
Transfer
Gas
Tank 2
Transfer
Gas
Tank1
Gas
^^iiiriS
i;|tii^|;i;||
I
Transfer
^
TriT1
^^iinS^p:
OliiulllI
L, S1T1
Such columns can be run with a liquid phase flow (bio-trickling filter) or only
with moist packing (biofilter). The work of Deshusses et al. (1995) investigated
the removal of two ketones, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) and methyl ethyl
ketone (MEK), in such a biofilter. The kinetics of this multi-substrate system is
especially interesting since both substances exhibit mutual inhibitory effects on
their rates of degradation.
344
Model
The model requires stagewise mass balances in the gas and liquid phases for
both components. Transfer takes place from the gas to liquid phases with
reaction in the liquid phase. The symbols used for the concentrations of
substrates 1 and 2 in the n th tank are for the liquid phase Sixn and S2Tn and
for the gas phase CiTn and C2Tn- The reaction rates are RiTn and R2Tn and the
transfer rates are designated TriTn and Tr2TnG, C1Tn, C2Tn
G,C1Tn-1,C2Tn-1
L, S1Tn+1, S2Tn+1
L, S1Tn, S2Tn
m
nth
Figure 2. Single n
stage for the biofiltration countercurrent column.
Referring to above figure, the mass balances for a single tank can be written as:
Gas phase
^OL~(G(C2Tn.1-C2Tn)-Tr2Tn
Liquid phase
-^ = ^- (L(SlTn+l - SlTn ) +TrlTn -rlTn VS )
345
1Q
n =
Vs = (1 - EG - e L ) ^E.
Tr
For the reaction rate terms the following equations are used to describe the
mutual inhibition. Note that oxygen is assumed to be in excess.
For substrate 1 (MEK) in tank n:
v
r
lTn = "
mi SlTn
2Tn V
m2 S2Tn
|1+
i i SlTn |
Program
The program developed by M. Waldner, ETH, is given on the CD-ROM.
346
Nomenclature
Symbols
C
G
Ki
KLa
Km
L
M
N
r
S
Tr
VC
VG
VL
vm
VS
z
e
kg/m3
m3/s
kg/m3
1/s
kg/m3
m3/s
kg/m3s
kg/m3
kg/s
m3
m3
m3
kg/m3s
m3
m
Indices
Eq
G
in
L
M
n
Tn
1
2
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to equilibrium value
to gas
to inlet
to liquid
to maximum
to nth stage
to nth tank
to methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
to methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK)
347
Exercises
Reference
Deshusses, M. A, Hamer, G. and Dunn, I. J. (1995) Part I, Behavior of Biofilters
for Waste Air Biotreatment: Part I, Dynamic Model Development and Part II,
Experimental Evaluation of a Dynamic Model, Environ. Sci. Technol. 29,
1048-1068.
348
Results
Run 1:533 steps in 0.667 seconds
1.2
0.0025-
0.8 ^
0.002-
0.6
. 0.0015-
0.001 -
&-
,0.4 W
H
'0.2 (0
5e+5
0.1
5e-5
1e-4
1.5e-4
2e-4
2.5e-4
3e-4
3.5e-4
4e-4
4.5e-4
5e-4
349
8.5.7
System
Measurement of dissolved oxygen in microtiter plates is of potential interest for
the screening of oxygen-consuming enzymes (e.g., oxidases), aerobic cell
activities, and biological degradation of pollutants, and for toxicity tests. John et
al. developed microtiter plates with the integrated optical sensing of dissolved
oxygen by immobilization of two fluorophores at the bottom of 96-well
polystyrene microtiter plates. The oxygen-sensitive fluorophore responded to
dissolved oxygen concentration, whereas the oxygen-insensitive one served as
an internal reference. As modelled in TITERDYN, oxygen transfer coefficients
were determined by a dynamic method in a commercial microtiter plate reader
with an integrated shaker. For this purpose, the dissolved oxygen was initially
depleted by the addition of sodium dithionite and, by oxygen transfer from air,
it increased again after complete oxidation of the dithionite. Available
commercial readers have an intermittent operation. After a certain period of
shaking, the plate is moved around to measure dissolved oxygen concentration.
During this period the plate moves more slowly and oxygen transfer rate is
reduced. This may lead to oxygen depletion during the measurement process.
It is essential to know the size of the errors that are introduced by this
intermittent procedure. This is evaluated by the simulation example TITERBIO.
Microtiter plate
Filter
Light
350
Model
where CL is the dissolved oxygen concentration, CL* is the saturation value and
OUR is the oxygen uptake rate in mM/min.
The experiment starts with high values of dissolved oxygen concentration,
CL After addition of dithionite OUR increases as calculated by
OUR
= ko CL CD
dC E ^C L -C E
dt
TE
The time constant TE was estimated to be about 1 s.
In further experiments this method was also applied to simulate a microbial
cultivation in the wells of a microtiter plate. In this case the OUR value was
taken to be a constant value as measured in a larger fermentation vessel. KLa
varied periodically simulating the high value during shaking and the lower
value during the measurement period. The questions of interest are how much
the measured OUR or KLa would differ from the actual one provided KLa or
OUR were already known.
351
Program
Two separate programs are given on the CDROM: TITERDYN for the chemical
oxidation with re-aeration and TITERBIO for the biological oxidation and reaeration dynamics during a cultivation in a microplate reader. For the program
TITERDYN there is experimental data on the file TITERDYNDATA available
to allow fitting the value of KLa. In TITERBIO KLa during measurement is a
fraction of KLa during shaking and is determined by the parameter kmax. KLa
during measurement is defined as,
KLameasure=KLashaking*(kmax-l)/kmax.
In the original model settings, kmax has a value of 2. The larger kmax, the
larger the error of KLa or OUR estimation.
Nomenclature
The program TITERDYN uses minutes and TITERBIO uses seconds.
Additional symbols are defined in the programs.
Symbols
CD
CL
ko
^a
KQ
OUR
Q
TE
Dithionite concentration
Oxygen concentration
Rate constant for dithionite reaction
Transfer coefficient
Saturation constant for oxygen
Oxygen uptake rate
Specific oxygen uptake rate
Time constant for measurement
Indices
E
D
L
S and *
Refers to electrode
Refers to dithionite
Refers to liquid
Refer to saturation
mM
mM
1/min mM
1/s
mM
mM/s
mM/ s
s
352
Exercises
353
Results
1:1019 steps in 0.0167 seconds
'0.1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
TIME
it
Figure 3.
Data fitting
Duration=0.48.
using
TTTERDYN, yielding
'VtV'tj " *
KLa=0.201,
Calcfact=102
and
Reference
John, G.T., Klimant, I., Wittmann, C., Heinzle, E. (2003). Integrated Optical
Sensing of Dissolved Oxygen in Microtiter Plates - A Novel Tool for Microbial
Cultivation, Biotechnol. Bioeng., 81, 829-836.
354
8.6
Controlled Reactors
8.6.1
System
A simple feedback control system involving a stirred tank, temperature
measurement, controller and manipulated heater is shown in Fig. 1.
T 0 ,F
IT*
F,T R
ip
Model
The energy balance for the tank is
dTR
where Q is the delayed heat input from the heater represented by a first order
lag
dt
TQ
355
Program
Random disturbances in flowrate or feed temperature can be generated using
the RANDOM function in Madonna, as explained in the HELP on the CDROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
cp
f
F
Kp
Q
T
V
8
p
TD
TI
TQ
Specific heat
Frequency of oscillations
Flow rate
Proportional control constant
Heat input
Temperature
Reactor volume
Error
Density
Differential control constant
Integral control constant
Time constant for heater
Time constant for measurement
kJ/(kg C)
1/h
m3/h
kJ/(h C)
kJ/h
C
m3
C
kg/m 3
h
h
h
h
356
Indices
C
R
sens
set
0
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to controller
to reactor
to sensor
to setpoint
to inlet or initial
357
Results
6000
3000
1000
70
80
90
100
358
1e+4
8000
100.
6000
4000
80
2000
60
0
-2000
-4000
20
40
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
TIME
Figure 3. Response to a step change in the inlet temperature TO at 120 h. The controller
constant Kp was set higher than in the run of Fig. 2.
8.6.2
System
Heat effects in fermentation can be important, especially on a large scale.
Shown in Fig. 1 is a batch fermentation process, during which the cooling water
flowrate is controlled by a feedback controller. The rate of heat generation is
related to rate of substrate uptake by a constant yield factor YQS. The cooling
coil is modelled as a well-mixed system.
359
Water
Figure 1. Feedback control of the temperature in during a fermentation.
Model
The batch fermentation model is given by,
dX
df =
dS
dt
-H
= Y
^ = Ks+S
The energy balance equation for the reactor is,
dT
dtR _
~
rQ
UA
(TR-Tc)
VpCp
360
where,
TQ = ^XY Q S /Y
For the well-mixed cooling coil, the energy balance equation is:
dTr
(Tcin TC) +
UA
(TR ~ Tc)
Program
As seen on the CD-ROM and below, the control equations can be written in
terms of the error and its integral.
{CONTROL EQUATIONS FOR
d/dt(EInt)=E
F=FO+KP*E+(KP/TI)*EInt
limit F> = 0
E=TR-TSET
FLOWRATE}
Nomenclature
Symbols
Cp
F
Kp
KS
UA
r
V
Heat capacity
Flow rate
Controller constant
Saturation coefficient
Reactor transfer-area constant
Rate of heat production and transfer
Reactor volume
kcal/(kg C)
m3/h
m3/(h C)
kg/m3
kcal/kg
kcal/(m3 h)
m3
361
X
Y
YQS
P
T
s
e
H
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Heat yield for substrate
Density
Time constant of controller
Substrate concentration
Temperature error
Specific growth rate
Indices
C
m
Q
R
S
O
P
set
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
kg/m3
kg/kg
kcal/kg
kg/m3
h
kg/m3
C
1/h
362
Results
TIME= 3.452
S = 18.25
TR= 24.6
Figure 2. Cooling flow starts when TR > Tset (25 C); after batch growth finishes at time=4.6 h
the reactor cools. Here Kp=0.6 and TI = 0.6.
363
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Figure 3. With Parameter Plot, the integral of the error and minimum water temperature versus
Kp for a fixed value of Tj=9.
8.6.3
System
Although not so widely used as the chemostatic type of operation of
continuous culture, the turbidostat may offer advantages for the investigation of
particular problems. As shown in Fig. 1, the flow rate of the incoming substrate
is controlled by the biomass concentration (more correctly, the turbidity) in the
vessel. In practice, this control is usually on-off or proportional, but more
sophisticated control would be simple to implement.
364
F,S0
Feed pump
X,S
Turbidometer
Model
For the well-mixed tank with Monod growth:
dS
M_X
FX
dT = -IT
Considering product production with Luedeking-Piret kinetics:
dP
FP
dT = -"V" +
365
8 = (X-X S et)
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
A
B
F
Fo
Kp
KS
P
S
V
X
Y
e
Growth-associated constant
Nongrowth-associated constant
Flow rate
Normal feed flow rate
Proportional controller constant
Saturation constant
Product concentration
Substrate concentration
Reactor volume
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Error
Specific growth rate
Integral control time constant
Indices
m
P
S and set
0
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to maximum
to proportional control
to setpoint
to inlet stream
1/h
m3/h
m3/h
m6/h kg
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
kg/m3
1/h
366
Exercises
Results
,3.5
5
TIME
c/>
367
3.5-
3.
45
4
2.5-
-3.5
2"
_X:1
-3
X"
"
1.5.
F:
C^
'
-2.5
,m
1
n e
VJ.O
0-
-2
i T...
-1.5
...^. ._..._. ._..._,,....
-1
' "
8
10
TIME
12
14
16
18
20
8.6.4
System
The continuous fermenter is equipped with feedback control based on substrate
measurement, as shown in Fig. 1. This type of controlled fermenter has been
referred to as an auxostat.
368
F,S,
Feed
pump
X,S
' Substrate
measurement
Controller
Model
The biomass and substrate mass balances are the same as in the previous
TURBCON model.
Kinetics:
Biomass balance,
V =
dt
VX-FX
or,
f
where D is the dilution rate (= F/V). Thus steady-state behaviour, where dX/dt
= 0, is represented by the conditions that |u = D.
Substrate mass balance,
or,
dt
f "><*>--f
369
where Y is the yield factor for biomass from substrate. Also from this equation
at steady state, since (j = D and dS/dt = 0, the steady-state cell concentration is
given by
X = Y(S 0 -S)
A continuous inhibition culture will often lead to two possible steady states, as
defined by the steady-state condition (a = D, as shown in Fig. 2.
Control equations:
Sset- S
Kp r
F = F0 + KP e + I edt
>
Program
When the system equations are solved dynamically, one of two distinct steadystate solutions is obtained, i.e., the reactor passes through an initial transient but
then ends up under steady-state conditions either at the stable operating
condition, or at the washout condition, for which X=0. The initial
concentrations for the reactor will influence the final steady state obtained. A PI
controller has been added to the program, and it can be used to control a
substrate setpoint below Smax. The controller can be turned on setting by
Kp>0. The control constants Kp, and the time delay tp can be adjusted by the
use of sliders to obtain the best results. Appropriate values of control constants
might be found in the range 0.1 to 10 for Kp and 0.1 to 10 for TJ. Note that
the control does not pass Smax even though the setpoint may be above Smax.
Another feature of the controller is a time delay function to remove chatter.
The program comments on the CD-ROM should be consulted for full details.
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
Dilution rate
1/h
370
F
KI
KP
KS
S
V
X
Y
H(U)
T
I
TF
Flow rate
Inhibition constant
Controller constant
Saturation constant
Substrate concentration
Volume
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate coefficient
Controller time constant
Time constant controller delay
Indices
0
I
m, max
Exercises
Refers to inlet
Refers to initial value
Refers to maximum
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
m 6 /kgh
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
h
h
371
Results
Run 1: 25009 steps in 3.13 seconds
r 0.3
0.25
0.2
1.5
0.15
TIME
References
Edwards, V. H, Ko, R. C. and Balogh, S. A. (1972) Dynamics and Control of
Continuous Microbial Propagators Subject to Substrate Inhibition, Biotechnol.
Bioeng. 14, 939-974.
Fraleigh, S. P., Bungay, H. R. and Clesceri, L. S. (1989) Continuous Culture,
Feedback Control and Auxostats. Trends in Biotechnology, 7, 159-164.
8.7
8.7.1
Diffusion Systems
Double Substrate Biofilm Reaction
(BIOFILM)
System
A biocatalyst is immobilized inside a solid matrix (gel or porous solid) through
which substrates diffuse and react. As shown in Fig. 1, for simulation purposes
371
Results
Run 1: 25009 steps in 3.13 seconds
r0.3
0.25
0.2
1.5
0.15
TIME
References
Edwards, V. H, Ko, R. C. and Balogh, S. A. (1972) Dynamics and Control of
Continuous Microbial Propagators Subject to Substrate Inhibition, Biotechnol.
Bioeng. 14, 939-974.
Fraleigh, S. P., Bungay, H. R. and Clesceri, L. S. (1989) Continuous Culture,
Feedback Control and Auxostats. Trends in Biotechnology, 7, 159-164.
8.7
8.7.1
Diffusion Systems
Double Substrate Biofilm Reaction
(BIOFILM)
System
A biocatalyst is immobilized inside a solid matrix (gel or porous solid) through
which substrates diffuse and react. As shown in Fig. 1, for simulation purposes
Biological Reaction Engineering, Second Edition. I. J. Dunn, E. Heinzle, J. Ingham, J. E. Pfenosil
Copyright 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30759-1
372
the matrix is divided into segments, and the diffusion flux, j, from segment to
segment, is expressed in terms of the concentration difference driving force.
Solid Biocatalyst Matrix with N Segments
Liquid
j n-1
n-1
^_ n
^
jn
^ n+1
Model
A multicomponent reaction whose reactants and products diffuse to and from
the reaction site, for example into an immobilized enzyme or biofilm, can be
described by diffusion-reaction equations. The original problem in terms of
non-linear partial differential equations, is described by a large number of
time-dependent differential-difference equations by discretizing the length
variable.
A component mass balance is written for each segment and for each
component:
[Accumulation |
^
rate
J
(Diffusion^ _ (Diffusion^
^ rate in J
^ rate out J
^Production rate^
v by reaction }
dSn
' F = J n - l A - j n A +r S n A A Z
S n -l ~ Sn
AZ
373
dSn
"dT = s
+ rs
position,
dS/dZ =
elements
oxygen
At steady state, the overall reaction rate or consumption rate of substrate can be
calculated from the gradient at the outer surface. To find the resulting change
of bulk concentration, the liquid phase can be coupled with suitable mass
balances. For a well-mixed, continuous-flow, liquid the resulting balance
equation would be
dS0
F
So)
- a DS
SQ-SI
^Z
= K L a(Os-0 Q ) - a Do
AZ
Program
As seen below, the program on the CD-ROM uses the array-vector form which
permits plotting the values at time=Stoptime versus the distance index. Also the
number of finite-difference elements N can be varied.
374
Nomenclature
Symbols
a
A
C
D
F
j
K
KLa
O
0S
R,r
S
V
vm
Yos
Indices
0
1 - 10
I
O
S
n
Feed
Exercises
375
376
Results
.1
Figure 2. Oxygen and substrate time profiles for a step change in KLA.
1.6-1
1.4-
10
Figure 3. Oxygen and substrate distance profiles at the end of the run in Fig. 2.
377
Figure 4. Dynamic response of oxygen and substrate mid-points caused by a step change in
KLA (as Fig. 2) followed at 3 h by a step reduction in Sfeed.
8,7.2
System
A rectangular slab of porous solid supports an enzyme. For reaction, substrate
S must diffuse through the porous lattice to the reaction site, and, as shown in
Fig. 1, it does so from both sides of the slab. Owing to the decreasing
concentration gradient within the solid, the overall rate is generally lower than
that at the exterior surface. The magnitude of this gradient determines the
effectiveness of the catalyst.
378
Biocatalyst Matrix
Substrate diffusion
diffusion
X = L -*
X = 0 ^
X=L
Model
Under steady state conditions:
f Rate of diffusion of
Uubstrate into the slab
dX
At X = 0:
dX
dX
379
KM(I+P/KI)+S
where k, KM and K\ are kinetic constants and E and P are the enzyme and
product concentrations. At steady state, the rate of diffusion of substrate into
the slab is balanced by the rate of diffusion of product out of the slab.
Assuming the simple stoichiometry S > P
dS
SdX
dP
-PdX
DS
=^ '
' =^
and X' =
gives
d^'
dX'2
L2R'
DSS0 ~
where,
R' =
kES'
(K M /S 0 )(1 +(S 0 F/K I ))
and,
P = (1 - S')
X' = 0
S' = 1
dS'/dX' = 0
380
~K M (i +P O /K I ) + SO
Program
The dimensionless model equations are used in the program on the CD-ROM.
Since only two boundary conditions are known, i.e., S at X = L and dSVdX' at
X' = 0, the problem is of a split-boundary type and therefore requires a trial
and error method of solution. Since the gradients are symmetrical, as shown in
Fig. 1, only one-half of the slab must be considered. Thus starting at the midpoint of the slab at X1 = 0, where dSVdX' = 0, an initial value for S1 is assumed
(SGUESS). After integrating twice, the computed value of S is compared with
the known value of SQ at X' = 1. A revised guess for S' at Xf = 1 is then made.
This is repeated until convergence is achieved.
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
E
K
k
L
P
R
S
X
Diffusion coefficient
Enzyme concentration
Kinetic constant
Reaction rate constant
Distance from slab center to surface
Product concentration
Reaction rate
Substrate concentration
Length variable
Effectiveness factor
Indices
I
M
Refers to inhibition
Refers to Michaelis-Menten
m2/h
mol / m3
kmol / m3
1/h
m
kmol / m3
kmol /(m3 h)
kmol / m3
m
381
0
GUESS
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to product
to substrate
to dimensionless variables
to bulk concentration
to assumed value
382
Results
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.6
0.7
1.86
1.84
Q.
1.82
1.8
1.78
1.76
1.74
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
8.7.3
383
System
This example involves the same diffusion-reaction situation as the previous
example ENZSPLIT, except that here a dynamic solution is obtained by finite
differencing. The substrate concentration profile in the porous biocatalyst is
shown in Fig. 1.
Model
With complex kinetics a steady state split boundary problem of the type of
Example ENZSPLIT may not converge satisfactorily, and the problem may be
reformulated in the more natural dynamical form. Expressed in dynamic
terms, the model relations become,
3S
dt
ap
a2p
+R
384
Center
Outside
S2
S3
S4
Using finite differencing techniques (refer to Sec. 6.2.1), these relations may be
expressed in semi-dimensionless form for any given element n by
dS'n
W
dP'n
ar
R'n
Sl
P'
n+l OP
^r n _i_
"* r
n+ A
'
2
AX'
R'n
I
+ S
where
D S S 0 1-S
L 2 R n AX'
and
S'n = Sn/SI; Fn = Pn/Si andAX' = AX/L
Sj is the external substrate concentration and AX is the length of the finite
difference element. Boundary conditions are given by the external
concentrations Sj and PI and at the slab center by setting SN+I = SN and PN+I =
PN.
385
(b) an estimate of the slope of the substrate concentration at the solid surface
_
o
D OQ
I
c)
1~ O1
^"L^RO AX'
Where the rate at the bulk conditions is
kES 0
+ P 0 /K I ) + S0
Program
The numerical results of example ENZSPLIT and should be essentially the
same as the steady state of ENZDYN. Both programs are on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
The nomenclature is the same as ENZSPLIT with additional symbols and
indices:
Symbols
AX
r|2
Increment of length
Effectiveness factor based on rates
m
-
386
111
K2
Indices
refers to segment n
Exercises
References
Blanch, H.W., Dunn, I.J. (1973) Modelling and Simulation in Biochemical
Engineering in Advances in Biochemical Engineering, Eds. T.K. Ghose, A.
Fiechter, N. Blakebrough, 3, Springer.
Goldman, R., Goldstein, L. and Katchalski, Ch.L (1971) in Biochemical Aspects
of Reactions on Solid Supports, Ed. G.P. Stark, Academic Press.
387
Results
1
0.9
* 0.8
B?' 0.7
0.6
81:1
,.. 82:1
.. 83:1
. 84:1
- 85:1
_ _S6:1
, 87:1
_S8:1
tf"
tfO.3
W0.2
</)
0.1
0
30
50
TIME
80
P5:1
-- P6:1
-ST-J7U.
_ -P8:1
, P3:1
-P4:1
10
20
30
50
TIME
60
70
80
90
100
388
8.7.4
System
This example treats a diffusion-reaction process in a spherical biocatalyst bead.
The original problem stems from a model of oxygen diffusion and reaction in
clumps of animal cells by Keller (1991), but the modelling method also applies
to bioflocs and biofilms, which are subject to potential oxygen limitation.
Sphere
Oxygen
Product
I/I
AV
Substrate
Rp
Rp
Diffusion and reaction takes place within a spherical bead of volume = 4/37cRp3
and area =47iRp2. It is of interest to find the penetration distance of oxygen for
given specific activities and bead diameters. As shown, the system is modelled
by dividing the bead into shell-like segments of equal thickness. The problem
is equivalent to dividing a rectangular solid into segments, except that here the
volumes and areas are a function of the radial position. Thus each shell has a
volume of 4/3 n (rn3 - rn_i3). The outside area of the nth shell segment is 4n rn2
and its inside area is 4n r n _i 2 .
389
in
Figure 2. The diffusion fluxes entering and leaving the spherical shell with outside radius rn
and inside radius r n _j.
Model
Here the single limiting substrate S is taken to be oxygen.
The oxygen balance for any element of volume AV is given by
Ar
S
jn-l =
n~ S n-l
Ar
Substitution gives
dSn
dt "'
3D
The balance for the central increment 1 (solid sphere not a shell) is
4
3 dS
. ,,
= J.
22
4
4
-
390
dS
3D
S /q
o N , p
I f - ^ S 2- S l) +R sl
r
where X is the biomass concentration (cell number/m3) in the bead, OUR is the
specific oxygen uptake rate (mol/cell s) and Sn is the oxygen concentration
(mol/m3) in shell n.
Program
As shown below, segments are programmed using the array-vector facility of
Madonna, numbered from the outside to the center. The effectiveness factor,
expressing the ratio of the reaction rate to its maximum, is calculated in the
program, part of which is shown below. The number of elements N is called
Array in the program, which is on the CD-ROM.
{Shells 2 to Array-1}
a/at (S [2. . (Array-1) ] )=3*D*( ((r[i]**2)*(S[i-l]/(deltar*( (r[i]**3)-(r[i+l]**3))
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
KS
OURmax
r
Rp
Diffusion coefficient
Saturation constant in Monod equation
Maximum specific oxygen uptake rate
Radius at any position
Outside radius of bead
m2/s
mol/m3
mol/cell s
m
m
RS
S
X
Ar (Deltar)
391
Indices
1
2
n
P
S
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to
to
to
to
to
segment 1
segment 2
segment n
particle
substrate
mol/s m3
mol/m3
cells/m3
m
392
Results
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 4. Doubling the bead radius causes oxygen deficiency inside the bead (lower curve) as
these radial profiles show.
Reference
Keller, J. (1991) PhD Dissertation No. 9373, ETH-Zurich.
8.7.5
393
394
O3, Si3
Fluidized
bed
SiA
Model
The column reactor is assumed to be described by three tanks. The model
balance equations for the liquid phase are developed by considering both the
individual tank stages and the absorber. Component balances are required for
all components in each section of the reactor column and in the absorber,
where the feed and effluent streams are located. For the solid biofilm phase,
where the reaction takes place, the concentrations change both with distance
and time. Therefore, a descretization of the length variable is required as
developed for the example BIOFILM.
395
t
S2ntO]
S3ntO]
On[0]
Because of the complexity involving four components in two phases and four
regions care must be taken with the nomenclature. The nitrogen compounds are
referred to as Si, 82, and 83, respectively. Dissolved oxygen is referred to as O.
Referring to the above figure, a single tank n is shown with the four
components. [0] refers to the liquid phase in contact with the solid. Transfer to
the biofilm is by diffusion to the first section, denoted [1].
Further diffusion brings substrate to all the biofilm sections, as shown above, for
a single substrate in section i. The reactions occur in these sections.
In the absorber, oxygen is transferred from the air to the liquid phase.
Additional subscripts, as seen in Fig. 1, identify the feed (F), recycle (R) and the
flows to and from the tanks 1, 2 and 3, each with volume V, and the absorption
tank with volume VAThe fluidised bed reactor is modelled by considering the component balances
for the three nitrogen components (i) and also for dissolved oxygen. For each
stage n, the liquid phase component balance equations have the form
dSin[0]
dt
396
-J0[0]
For the absorption tank, the balance for the nitrogen containing components
include the input and output of the additional feed and effluent streams, giving
ds
iA
-
_(S/QiF -SQiA )\
The oxygen balance in the absorption tank must account for mass transfer from
the air, but neglects the low rates of oxygen supply and removal by the
convective streams. This gives
For the first and second biological nitrification rate steps, the reaction kinetics
for any stage n are given by
v
ml Slni
ni
Kl+ S lni K O i + O ni
V
rs2n
m2 S2ni
2+ S 2ni
02+ni
The oxygen uptake rate is related to the above reaction rates by means of the
constant yield coefficients, YI and Y2, according to
i -r S 2niY2
The reaction stoichiometry provides the yield coefficient for the first step
YI = 3.5 mg 02/(mg N-NNH4)
and for the second step
Y2 = 1.1 mg O2/(mg N-NO2)
397
Nomenclature
Symbols
A
F
FR
KLa
K
KI
K2
L
N
0
Os and O*
OUR
r
S
V
VA
vm
Y
1/m
m3/h
m3/h
h
g/m 3
g/m 3
g/m 3
m
g/m 3
g/m 3
g/ m3 h
g/ m3 h
g/m 3
m3
m3
mg/L h
mg/mg
Indices
1,2,3
1,2,3
A
F
jn[I]
m
Ol and O2
S1,S2
S and *
398
Exercises
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
399
Results
Run 1: 133 steps in 13.7 seconds
'4.5
*C
3
A
.3.5 g
4
I 60 '
j,g 5 0 -
13
40-
2.5
.2
a?
3
S
1.5
520.
55 io-
o60
50
70
80
90
100
TIME
Figure 4. Time profiles of the nitrogen component bulk concentrations in the first tank and
the oxygen bulk concentrations in the three tanks.
4.5
4
3.5
0.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
TIME
Figure 5. Time profiles of the oxygen concentrations within the 10 segments of biofilm in
the first tank.
400
8.8
8.8.1
Multi-Organism Systems
Two Bacteria with Opposite Substrate
Preferences (COMMENSA)
System
Considered here (Fig. 1) is the batch growth of a two-organism culture on two
substrates, in which both species can utilize both substrates (Kim et al., 1988),
but where the organisms have opposing substrate preferences. The two
bacterial species involved are: Klebsiella oxytoca (XA) and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (XB). The two substrates are glucose (Y), which is preferred by K.
oxytoca, and citrate (Z), which is preferred by P. aeruginosa.
XA
XB
- The overall individual growth rate of each species at any time is the sum of
the rate of growth on glucose plus the rate on citrate.
- The specific growth rate on each substrate depends on the concentration
level of some key enzyme responsible for the rate-controlling step E.
- The key enzyme for the preferred substrate is assumed to be constitutive.
- The production of the key enzyme for the secondary substrate is subject to
induction and repression by the preferred substrate.
- An inhibitor I is produced from the growth of K. oxytoca on glucose and
inhibits the growth of P. aeruginosa on citrate. The inhibitor is thus a
growth-associated product.
401
Model
The growth rates, jny, for each organism are the sums of the growth rates on
glucose and citrate. The subscripts i and j have the following meaning: i refers
to the organisms (K. oxytoca - A and P. aeruginosa = B) and j refers to the
substrate (glucose = Y and citrate = Z). The levels of the key enzymes are
denoted by E.
The biomass balances for the batch system are
dXA
(MAY + MAZ) XA
dXB
I
The specific growth rate equations for the two organisms on each substrate are
given by:
A*maxAYSYEAY
K
SAY + S Y
MmaxAZSZEAZ
K
SAZ +S Z
A*maxBZSZEBZ I
M-BZ - K--
S
"FT
SBZ+ Z V I +
402
dS
Y =
SAY
I )
" YSAZ
XA
SBY
dSz
dt
- - YSBZ
XB
The balances for the key enzymes, which control the growth on secondary
substrates are given by:
Sz
KRAZ
- -*^--rt\iu
kpAZf\z^
EAZ
T-T
"
and
dE
BY
- "
SY
--Y
KRBY
KbY
OAZ
OBY
OBZ
CER =
Y
CAY
CBY
CAZ
CBZ
403
DOT = 100 1-
OUR
K L aC 0
X A + XB
FB = 1 - F A
Program
The program is given on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Symbols
CER
DOT
F
I
K
KLaC0*
OUR
S
X
Y
E
m
a
P
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
kg/kg h
kg/kg
kg/kg h
1/h
404
Indices
A
B
C
I
M
O
P
R
S
Y
Z
Exercises
Refers to K. oxytoca
Refers to P. aeruginosa
Refers to carbon dioxide
Refers to inhibitor
Refers to maximum
Refers to oxygen
Refers to dilution due to cell division
Refers to repression
Refers to substrate
Refers to glucose
Refers to citrate
405
Results
The graphical results in Fig. 2 show the dynamic changes in biomass fractions
FA and FB for two values of a: 0.007 kg/kg and 0.0007 kg/kg .
1
0.9.
0.8
0.7
0.6
s-0.45
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
4
TIME
Figure 2. Dynamic changes in biomass fractions FA and FB for a = 0.007 and 0.0007.
Reference
Kim, S. U., Kim, D. C, Dhurjati, P. (1988). Mathematical Modeling for Mixed
Culture Growth of Two Bacterial Populations with Opposite Substrate
Preferences. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 31, 144-159.
This example was developed from the original paper by J. Lang, ETH-Zurich.
406
8.8.2
System
The interactions between two microbial species (Ma and Mb) in a mixed
continuous culture are considered (Miura et al., 1980). The population
dynamics of the two microbes, is described by competitive assimilation of
substrate Si and commensalism, with the participation of growth factor Ga that
is excreted by microbe Ma and required by microbe Mb for growth. Mb also
consumes a second substrate 82 from the medium. These interactions are
represented in the Fig. 1.
,G
Model
For the chemostat shown above the unsteady-state material balances are as
follows:
Dilution rate:
407
Organism Ma:
dXa
j- = ftia-D)Xa
Organism Mb:
dXb
-gj- = (jib - D) Xb
ar = - "a
dS2
M-b Xb + D (S2
-ar = - ~YT"
"S2)
The yields for organism Mb on the two substrates are assumed here, for
simplicity, to have the same values, Yb.
The growth factor balance is
dGaa
"P
11
Jib Xb
T-X f*
The mass balance for the growth factor, Ga, is formulated by assuming a
formation rate, Pa |ia Xa, and consumption rate, (|Lib Xb)/Ybg. Here Xa and Xb
are the concentrations of microorganisms Ma and Mb, respectively. The
constants Pa and Ybg are the biological yield constants for the formation and
consumption of Ga, respectively. The specific growth rates of microbes Ma and
M b are expressed by:
Organism Ma:
Si
KSa+Si
Organism Mb:
Si
Ga
82
K Sb 2 + S2 Kg + Ga
408
where K$a and K$bi are the saturation constants of Ma and Mb for substrate Si,
Ksb2 is the saturation constant of Mb for substrate 82, and Kg is the saturation
constant of Mb for growth factor Ga. Setting \imb2 = 0 corresponds to the
consumption of only one substrate Si.
A rigorous stability analysis of the system has been carried out by Miura et.
al. (1980). This involves linearizing the mass balances by Taylor's method in
the vicinity of the steady state solution and determining the characteristic
eigenvalues of the resultant matrix. The following relationship for co-existence
of the two microbes can be derived for the case of a single substrate.
a aCmmbKSa - m ma K Sbl)
Also, a critical dilution rate, where the maximum dilution rates of the two
organisms cross-over can be written:
.
Cnt
_
"
Sa
Sbl
Four particular cases depending on the values of the maximum specific growth
rate and saturation constants of both microbes can be simulated for the single
substrate case (|imb2 = 0).
1- M-ma > l^mbli Ksa > K$bi:
2. |ima > Mmbi; Ksa < KSbi:
3. |ima < |imbi; Ksa > Ksbi:
K$a >
Program
The program is given on the CD-ROM.
409
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
F
G
K
P
S
V
X
Y
Dilution rate
Feed rate
Growth factor concentration
Saturation constants
Yield constant
Substrate concentration
Reactor volume
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rate
1/h
m3/h
g/m3
g/m3
g/m3
m3
g/m3
g/g
1/h
Indices
0
1
2
a
b
bl
b2
g
m
Exercises
Refers to feed
Refers to substrate 1
Refers to substrate 2
Refers to organism a
Refers to organism b
Refers to organism b growing on substrate 1
Refers to organism b growing on substrate 2
Refers to growth factor
Refers to maximum
410
Results
A simulation is given in Fig. 2 for the parameters as given in the program with
feed flow rate F = 0.24 m3/h, and the feed concentrations SIQ = 500 mg/L and
820 = 1500 mg/L. The oscillating concentrations are given for Xa and S\
versus time. It is seen that this solution is stable and homes into a steady state,
corresponding to case 1.
250
200
150 CD
100
300
Figure 2. Competition and commensalism of two organisms (F = 0.24 m3/h, S10 = 500 mg/L
and S2o = 1500 mg/L), showing the biomass concentrations.
411
Reference
Miura, Y., Tanaka, H., Okazaki, M. (1980). Stability Analysis of Commensal
and Mutual Relations with Competitive Assimilation in Continuous Mixed
Culture. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 22, 929.
Example developed from the original paper by S. Ramaswami, ETH-Zurich.
8.8.3
System
In genetic engineering, microorganisms are used as host cells to produce
important biochemicals by inserting a small portion of extra-chromosomal
DNA (on plasmids) into the cell. These plasmids carry the genetic instructions
to produce the desired product and tend to lose their engineered properties
during cell division because of non-uniform plasmid distribution. The
engineered or recombinant strain usually grows more slowly than the wild-type,
nonplasmid-bearing strain, so that engineered strain may be lost through
extinction. By exploiting the difference in the adaptation times of wild and
engineered strains, a possibility exists of maintaining a plasmid-bearing
population in continuous culture by cycling the substrate feed concentration or
the dilution rate. This dynamic problem is adapted from Stephens and
Lyberatos (1987 and 1988), based on the concept of plasmid stability from
Aiba and Imanaka (1981).
The Monod model assumes a balanced growth in which all cellular
components change in the same proportion at all times but does not account
for dynamic effects. Dynamic first order lag relations are added to account for
the response of the organisms to rapid changes in the medium. It is assumed
that the time constants for the two strains are different and that the responses to
changing concentrations are therefore different. As a consequence, the strain
with the smallest time constant has the advantage when the concentration of the
limiting substrate is oscillating. The simulation model based on Fig. 1 is used
to predict the stability in the competition between wild (Xi) and engineered
(X2) strains in continuous culture.
412
S.XLX2
Model
The following dimensionless parameters are defined: s = S/K, P = 0,1/0.2, t = treai
2, Rmd = torn/Ok, Dd = D/a2, xi = Xi/Y K, x2 = X2 A" K.
The mass balances in dimensionless form are:
= (ill (zi) xi - D xi + p [12 (Z2) X2
dx2
2 - D X2
ds
"SIT
Z2)
413
= P(S-ZI)
where p = ai/a2, and cxi and a2 are the adaptability factors or inverse time
constants. The effect of (3 is to delay the substrate for growth in the wild and
engineered organisms according to their first order time constants. For p > 1 the
wild type is delayed with a shorter time constant. At high values of oci and OC2,
the model describes an undelayed, instantaneous Monod growth model. It is
assumed, that (li^ > H2m .
The probability factor p represents the probability (or fraction) of
conversion to the wild strain during growth of the engineered strain. Thus the
growth rate of the engineered strain is multiplied by [1 - p].
Program
In the program on the CD-ROM, the square-wave input for SQ is generated by
the Madonna Conditional Operator, using the parameter MARK (ratio of the
time during which the function has the value 1 to the time of the complete
period) and PER (period).
{Square wave feeding generated by conditional
operator}
SO=IF(Time/PER-INT(Time/PER))<=MARK THEN SI ELSE
414
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
K
MARK
PER
R
S
s
X
X
Y
P
r
t
X
z
a
P
H
Dilution rate
1/h
Saturation constant
kg/m3
Ratio controlling step function
h
Time period
Biomass ratio
Substrate concentration
kg/m3
Substrate concentration, dimensionless
Biomass concentration
kg/m3
Biomass concentration, dimensionless
Yield coefficient
kg/kg
Probability factor
Growth rate
kg/m3 h
Dimensionless time
Indices
0
1
2
d
i
m
real
415
Exercises
The stability problem can be studied by the variation of several parameters.
Results
The output in Fig. 2 gives the substrate oscillations created by the square wave
feed concentrations, showing the engineered organism X2 being washed out. A
similar situation for sine wave feeding is given in Fig. 3.
416
100
250
200
150
TIME
100
150
200
TIME
Figure 3. Sine wave feeding. Similar to Fig. 2 but with longer period and a higher b value.
References
Aiba, S., Imanaka, T. (1981) in Annals of the New York Acad. of Sciences, 369,
1-15.
417
8.8.4
System
The growth of a predator-prey mixed culture in a chemostat can be described
with a reaction kinetics formulation. In this growth process, the dissolved
substrate S is consumed by organism Xi (the mouse), while species X2 (the
monster) preys on organism Xi, as shown in Fig. 1.
Model
The model involves the chemostat balances for each species with the
corresponding kinetics. The variables are given in Fig. 2.
418
Sl,X-|,X2
^*
S0 D
1
II
Substrate balance,
dS
= D(So-Si) Species 1 (prey) balance,
^2X2
dX2
- DX 2
~"v
The kinetics are given by Monod relations,
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
419
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
F
K
S
V
X
Y
Dilution rate
Flow rate
Saturation rate constant
Substrate concentration
Reactor volume
Biomass concentration
Yield constants
Specific growth rate
Indices
0
1
2
m
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to feed stream
to prey
to predator
to maximum
1/h
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
420
Results
Stable steady states for the system are shown in Fig. 3 for |LLmi = 0.5 and
|Lim2 = 0.11. Oscillations in the biomass populations are achieved by setting the
specific growth rates nearly equal (\im\ = 0.5 and |Lim2 = 0.49) as shown in
Fig. 4 and also by the phase plane plot of Fig. 5.
Run 1: 5005 steps in 0.1 seconds
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
50
100
150
200
250
TIME
300
350
400
450
500
421
450
422
8.8.5
System
Consider organism A and organism B with their respective specific growth rates,
(HA and ILLB, which both grow independently on substrate S. Assume:
S/(KSA + S)
S/(KSB + S)
Depending on the values of |LIM and K$, these two functions may occur in two
different forms, as shown in Fig. 1.
M
inter
inter
Figure 1. Comparison of growth rate curves for the competitive chemostat growth.
It is clear that the curves B and A will cross each other if (IMB < MMA and KSB
< KSA- In Fig. 1, the situation on the left indicates that B will grow fastest at
any value of S. For this case, in chemostat cultures with dilution rate DI, after
an initial start up period, a substrate concentration S i will be reached at which
(LIB = DI and for which |LIA < DI. Organism A will then be washed out, and
only organism B will remain in the reactor.
The situation in the right of Fig. 1 shows (IB crossing (IA- The point of
intersection can be found easily by simple algebra where:
423
Wnter =
Solving for S at the intersection,
Sinter
For this case a chemostat can theoretically operate stably at D = Jiinter such
that both A and B will coexist in the reactor. This however is an unrealistic
metastable condition, and with D < Hunter* A will wash out. With D > Hunter A
will grow faster, causing B to be washed out.
Model
The equations for the operation of chemostat with this competitive situation are,
d*A
dXB
jp = 0 - D XB + JIB XB
dT = D(S0 - S) In addition, the Monod relations, |IA = f(S) and |LLB = f(S), are required.
Solution of these equations will simulate the approach to steady state of A and
B competing for a single substrate.
Program
The program is given on the CD-ROM.
424
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
F
KS
S
V
X
Y
Dilution rate
Flow rate
Saturation constants
Substrate concentrations
Reactor volume
Biomass concentrations
Yield coefficient
Specific growth rates
1/h
m3/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
Indices
A
B
M
0
inter
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to organism A
to organism B
to maximum
to inlet stream
to the intersection of the ju versus S curves
425
Results
Run 1:1004 steps in 0.0333 seconds
4.5
4
3.5
3
!
2.5 '
2
1.5
1
0.5
9
10
8.8.6
System
Wastewater with toxic chemicals is often treated directly at the source with
specialized microbial cultures in small-scale biofilm reactors. A model may
help to understand, optimize, and control such reactors. In a paper by Soda et
al. a simple biofilm model was developed to simulate the competition between
two microorganisms for a common inhibitory substrate. In the model the
following assumptions were made: (i) the biofilm has a uniform thickness and
is composed of 5 segments, (ii) each microorganism A and B utilizes a
common substrate, and the growth rates are expressed by Haldane kinetics with
a spatial limitation term but is otherwise independent of the other
microorganism and (iii) the diffusion of the substrate, movement of the
microorganisms, and continuous loss of the biomass by shearing are expressed
by Pick's law-type equations.
425
Results
Run 1:1004 steps in 0.0333 seconds
4.5
4
3.5
3
!
2.5 '
2
1.5
1
0.5
9
10
8.8.6
System
Wastewater with toxic chemicals is often treated directly at the source with
specialized microbial cultures in small-scale biofilm reactors. A model may
help to understand, optimize, and control such reactors. In a paper by Soda et
al. a simple biofilm model was developed to simulate the competition between
two microorganisms for a common inhibitory substrate. In the model the
following assumptions were made: (i) the biofilm has a uniform thickness and
is composed of 5 segments, (ii) each microorganism A and B utilizes a
common substrate, and the growth rates are expressed by Haldane kinetics with
a spatial limitation term but is otherwise independent of the other
microorganism and (iii) the diffusion of the substrate, movement of the
microorganisms, and continuous loss of the biomass by shearing are expressed
by Pick's law-type equations.
426
Sf
S0
Wall
Figure 1. Schematic of the continuous reactor with biofilm, showing the descretization into
five layers.
Model
Fig. 1 illustrates an idealized flat biofilm with a uniform thickness Lf (m). The
biofilm is divided into N segments for simulation purposes and each has a
thickness of AZ = Lf/N (m). Wastewater containing the substrate is fed to the
reactor at a constant feed rate and a concentration Sf (mg/L). The bulk liquid in
the reactor is mixed throughout the tank and the substrate diffuses into the
biofilm. The substrate is transported from the bulk liquid having a
concentration S[0] (mg/L) to the surface of the biofilm having a concentration
S[l] (mg/L). A diffusion layer of a thickness Lj (m) is used to represent the
external mass transport resistance.
Using the same approach as in the example BIOFILM, the mass balances in
the bulk liquid for the substrate and microorganisms A and B with a continuous
flow are simply described as following:
dS[0]
dt
Wll
v f
427
_,
'
S[0]-S[1]
" DZ
,
XA[0]-XA[1] ,
}
- -DXA|0] - aDXA
(mALO] - bA JXA[0]
/\/1
s[0]-sm
dt
LjAZ
dX A [l]
dt
AZ2
XA[0]-XA[1]
XA[1]-XA[2]
- -- DXA -
LZXZ,
at ~
dX B [l]
=: \j v"-p
XB
XB[0]-XB[1]
L,AZ
XB[1]-XB[2]
n
LJ YT3
^
XB
AZ2
Component mass balances are written for each segment (i = 2, .., N-l), where:
428
dS[i]
dt
5>[i-l]-2S[i]+S[i+]L]
AZ2
DS
MA[i]XA[i]
/iB[i]XB[i]
YA
YB
dXA[i]
X A [i-l]-2X A [i] + XA[i
t~DXA
2
dXB[i]
^t-DXB
XB[i-l]-2XB[i] + XB[i
The mass balances of the boundary segment on the support wall are described
by the following equations:
dS[N] = p S[N-1]-S[N]
S
dt
AZ2
..
429
m_
K IA
[i]=
K IB
where KI? Ks, and (im are inhibition constant (mg/L), half saturation constant
(mg/L), and maximum specific growth rate (day" ). Xm (mg/L) is the maximum
capacity of total biomass of microorganisms A and B in a segment.
The formulation of the spatial limitation term used here is the most simple
one possible with non-restricted growth at zero biomass concentration and zero
growth at maximal biomass concentration Xm.
Applying the above model it was found (Soda et al., 1999) that the
qualitative behavior of the biofilm reactor is characterized by 5 regions,
depending on the operating conditions, the substrate concentration in the feed
and the dilution rate. In region I, both microorganisms are washed out of the
biofilm reactor. In region II, microorganism B is washed out, and in region III,
microorganism A is washed out of the biofilm. In region IV, both
microorganisms coexist with one another. In region V, both microorganisms
coexist with a sustained oscillatory behavior. Convergence to regions I-V
depends on the initial conditions. In regions II-V, washout of either or both
microorganisms is also observed when the initial conditions are too far away.
Nomenclature
Symbols
a
b
D
DS
Dx
K!
KS
m"
day"
day"
m /day
m /day
mg/L
mg/L
430
LI
Lf
N
S[i
Sf
Y
AZ
Indices
A
B
refers to microorganism A
refers to microorganism B
Numbers in brackets
0
1-5
Exercises
m
m
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
m
"
day
431
References
Soda, S, Heinzle, E,, Fujita, M. (1999) "Modeling and simulation of
competition of two microorganisms for a single inhibitory substrate in a
biofilm reactor." Biotechnol. Bioeng., 66, 258-264.
Han, K. and Levenspiel, O. 1988. "Extended Monod kinetics for substrate,
product, and cell inhibition." Biotechnol. Bioeng. 32: 430-437.
Program
Shown below is a portion of the program. The full program is on the CD-ROM.
{BALANCES FOR BIOFILM IN 10 SEGMENTS}
d/dt (S[2. .nslabs-1] )=DS* (S[i-l] 2*S[i]+S[l+l])/ (Z*Z)-UA[i] *XA[i] /YA-UB[i] *XB[i] /YB
d/dt (XA[2. .nslabs-1] ) =DSA* (XA[i-l]2*XA[i] +XA[i+l] )/(Z*Z)+(UA[i] -kdA) *XA[i]
d/dt ( X B [ 2 . . n s l a b s - 1 ] ) =DSB* ( X B [ i - l ] ) / ( Z * Z ) + ( U B [ i ] -kdB) * X B [ i ]
2*XB[i]
432
Results
Run 1:1017 steps in 0.967 seconds
/ \
/-
^^'
sr^^"
'
0.035
-0.03
\,
2 40-
m
/
-0.025
\
I
x 20
0.02
XAmid:1
. . XBmid:1
Smid:1
(A
-0.015
i
\
-0.01
g.
-0.005
---. '--.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
TIME
Figure 2. Results corresponding to Case 2: UmB=0.4, KSB=0.1, KIB=10.
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
(A
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
8.8.7
433
System
As already discussed in Chapter 3, anaerobic processes can be described by
multi-substrate, multi-organism kinetics. As shown in Table 1, organic acids
are formed from monomeric and polymeric substrates contained in wastewater.
These are then converted into hydrogen, CO2 and acetic acid. In a last step,
acetic acid and H2 with CO2 form methane.
Table 1. Stoichiometry of Anaerobic Reactions.
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
2 CO2
2 H2O
2 H2
Methane production
CH3COOH -> CH4 + CO2
4 H2 + C02 -> CH4 + 2 H20
434
The model was developed to aid the design of the measurement system and in
the interpretation of the data.
Model
A five organism model with lumped hydrolysis and acid-generating bacteria
was established. Substrate, intermediate and product balances of the batch
reactor are
dSi
"dT = IrSi
where rsi are the rates of consumption and synthesis of S[.
The respective reaction rates rj for the consumption of substrate Si and for
the formation of product Pj in each step are those from the reactions in Table 1
as follows:
The individual equations for each substrate Si are given in the program,
Thermodynamic equilibrium constraints on the Step 3 reactions (Table 1)
are also included in the model.
435
Reaction Equilibrium
In the acetogenic step (Step 3 reaction in Table 1), acetic acid, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide are produced from propionic and butyric acid.
The
thermodynamic equilibria for these reactions are incorporated by estimating
the chemical equilibrium limits for butyric acid:
CH3(CH2)2COO- + 2 H2O 2 CH3COO- + 2 H2 + H+
AGo = 48.3 kJ
From this the equilibrium constant is KBU = 2.02 x 10~3 (mol4 nr12) given by
KBU
"
The factor 4/3 is necessary because concentrations here are given in C-mol.
An empirical approach was chosen to slow the reactions down on
approaching the equilibrium, and they were not allowed to proceed to the right
side when the equilibrium condition was reached. Using the actual
concentrations, the parameters KBU* and Kpro* were estimated.
*
KBU
C A c 2 C H2 2 CH +
~~
CBu
The ratio of these values to the true equilibrium constant, K*BU/KBU, and
K*pro/Kpro will be greater than unity if the equilibrium has not yet been
reached. Using these ratios with the empirical S-shaped curve of Fig. 1, the
factor FEQ was determined and was used to modify the growth rates. This
somewhat arbitrary function starts from FEQ = 0 at K*/K < 1 and rises to FEQ
= 1 at K*/K > 2. The factor FEQ causes the reaction to the right to stop when
436
1.00.8.
a
uj
u_
0.60.40.2.
0.
-0.2K*/K
Figure 1. Equilibrium factors (FEQ) to slow the growth rates near equilibrium.
The kinetics of biomass growth butyric acid, and propionic acid were modified
by these empirical equilibrium factors, FEQ, according to
i =FEQi
I + CH+
Thus CH+ is varied iteratively until 8 becomes essentially zero. This numerical
solution is not always trivial using conventional methods for non-linear
437
titr Qtitr
Program
The program nomenclature is rather extensive and is defined within the
program. The Berkeley Madonna ROOTS feature is used to calculate the pH,
as shown below. The full program is on the CD.
(PH>
GUESS CHPLUS = le-4
ROOTS CHPLUS =
KW/CHPLUS+KdBu/(KdBu+CHPLUS)*BU/4+KdPr/(KdPr+CHPLUS)
*Pr/3
+KdAc/(KdAc+CHPLUS)*Ac/2
+KdC/(KdC+CHPLUS)*Cg
+KdBuf/(KdBuf+CHPLUS)*BUFFER-lonen-CHPLUS
LIMIT CHPLUS >= 0
LIMIT CHPLUS <= 1000
pH=-loglO(chplus)+3
Nomenclature
The nomenclature of the program is partially defined within the program.
Symbols
C
Cons
F
FEQ
Ftitr
Concentration
Consumption rate
Stoichiometric coefficients
Equilibrium factor
Titration flow rate
C-mol/m3
C-mol /m3h
(-)
(-)
m3/h
438
KD
Ks
S
P
Pro
X
YP/S
YX/S
1^
Dissociation constant
Inhibition constant
Saturation constant
Substrate concentration
Product Concentration
Production rate
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient, product from substrate
Yield coefficient, biomass from substrate
Specific rate of biomass synthesis
mol /m3
C-mol /m3
C-mol/m3
C-mol /m3
C-mol /m3
C-mol /m3 h
C-mol /m3
C-mol /C-mol
C-mol /C-mol
1/h
Indices
Ac
Bu
Buf
d
Hy
i
in
Mo
Pr
titr
Tot
Results
The first of the three graphs in Fig. 2 shows dynamic profiles of substrate whey
(Mo), CH4 (CH), dissolved CO2 (CO) and dissolved hydrogen (Hy). The whey
is almost instantaneously consumed. Hy reaches a maximum very soon and is
then quickly reduced to almost zero. CH4 is produced with varying rates. CC>2
reaches a maximum, which is partly caused by pH changes and by
consumption by hydrogen-consuming organisms. The peaks in the CC>2 curve
originate from numerical inaccuracies in the stiff system. In the second graph,
Fig. 3, the total concentration of volatile acids acetate (Ac), propionate (Pr) and
butyrate (Bu) are given. The thermodynamic inhibition of acetogenesis is
clearly seen in the early phase of the experiment. Ac reaches a maximum much
later than Pr and Bu, since it is produced from these two acids. In the third
graph, Fig. 4, the pH versus time profile is given, exhibiting an early decrease,
followed by almost constant pH during the rest of the simulation.
439
0.06
-0.3
0.05
-0.25
0.04
-0.2
' 0.03
0.15
0.02
-0.1
0.05
0.01
0.005
0.025
0.03
Figure 2. Dynamic profiles of substrate whey (Mo), CH4 (CH), dissolved CO2 (CO) and
dissolved hydrogen (Hy). Zoomed to show the early period.
Run 1:4389 steps in 1.43 seconds
0.3
0.25
r 0.2
0.15 -
-0.05
0.35
Figure 3. Total concentration of volatile acids acetate (Ac), propionate (Pr, lower curve) and
butyrate (Bu). The whey (Mo) peak is hardly visible at T = 0.
440
6.18
-0.2
6.16
0.18
6.14
0.16
6.12
.0.14
6.1
.0.12
0.1
: 6.08
0.08
6.06
0.06
6.04
6.02
..'
0.04
0.02
5.98
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Exercise
References
Heinzle, E., Dunn, I.J. and Ryhiner, G. (1993) "Modelling and Control for
Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment." Adv. Biochem. Eng. 48, 79-114.
Yamada, N., Heinzle, E. and Dunn, I.J. (1991) "Kinetic Studies on
Methanogenic Cultures Using Mass Spectrometry." in: Biochemical
Engineering - Stuttgart (Eds. Reuss, M., Chmiel, H., Gilles).
441
8.8.8
System
Oscillations in continuous cultures of baker's yeast have often been observed.
An example of measurements is shown in Chapter 3, whose oscillations were
modelled by the reaction scheme in Fig. 1.
Model
The balance equations for continuous culture with dilution rate D are as
follows:
dR
dE
442
dG
dT
= - D G + [ rSG(S,E) - rGE(R,G,E) ] R
= - D T + [ rTi(R,G,E) - rT2(R,G,E) ] R
The species in parenthesis indicate the dependencies of the rates. The kinetic
expressions used in the balance equations are as follows:
GEm E
/KGX\n
l /
S
Ks + S
TEX =
ME)
1 + ( KG/G + KET/E )n
rT2 =
Many of the parameters were determined independently from experiments,
some were taken from the literature, and some, especially those describing the
enzyme activity (T), had to be chosen during simulations. This model leads to
oscillations whose existence and dependency on operating conditions
qualitatively agree with experimental results. Also the directions in the phase
plane plot agree with the experiments.
443
Nomenclature
Symbols
D
E
G
K
n
R
r
S
sig
T
X
Dilution rate
Ethanol concentration
Storage material
Growth rate constants
Empirical exponent in rate model
Residual biomass without G
Growth rates
Glucose concentration
Rate constants. Example: sigGEm = TGEM
Enzyme concentration
Biomass concentration
Specific growth rate
Indices
E
G
m
S
T
X
Exercise
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to ethanol
to storage material
to maximum
to glucose
to enzyme
to biomass
1/h
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
g/m3
kg/m3 h
kg/m3
various
g/m3
kg/m3
1/h
444
Results
The influence of dilution rate is given below in plots from simulations: Fig. 2
with D = 0.05 and Fig. 3 with D = 0.1. In Fig. 4 the phase plane from the run
of Fig. 2 is shown.
Run 1:40012 steps in 3.3 seconds
-0.45
35-
0.4
30-
0.35
250.3
20-
0.25
(
0.2
15-
-0.15
10
0.1
50-
M..JL.JL...
20
40
0.05
-0
60
100
TIME
120
140
160
180
200
1.8
-1.6
1.4
1.2
-1
0.8
.0.6
.0.4
0.2
20
40
60
80
100
TIME
120
140
160
180
200
</>
445
0.09-|
0.080.070.060.05-
i
0.040.030.020.01 -
012
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Figure 4. Phase plane giving S versus X from the run of Fig. 3. Zoomed in for detail.
Reference
Heinzle, E., Dunn, I.J., Furukawa, K. and Tanner, R.D. (1983). Modelling of
sustained oscillations observed in continuous culture of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. in Modelling and Control of Biotechnical Processes (ed. A.Halme),
Pergamon Press, London, p.57.
8.8.9
System
Modeling of mammalian cell cycle control is of great importance for
understanding development and tumor biology. Hatzimanikatis et al. (1999)
presented a model in the literature using simplified molecular mechanisms as
depicted in Fig. 1.
446
cycE+cdk2
CycE:cdk2-P+1 f>
Rb+E2F
cycE:cdk2-P:1
Rb-P+E2F
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the molecular mechanism of components and
interactions believed to be most important in controlling the Gl-S transition. cycE- cyclin E;
cdk2 - cyclin dependent kinase 2; Rb - pRb, a pocket protein; E2F - a transcription factor; P phosphate.
Model
For this reaction scheme the dynamic mass balances become
= V2 -Vl
dt ~
dK
dKr
dt
447
dRE
dt
^=v 6 > r -v 6 , f
The symbols are defined as follows:
V are reaction rates.
C is the cyclin E concentration.
K is the cdk2 concentration.
KP is the phosphorylated cyclin E-cdk2 complex concentration.
K P I is the concentration of cyclin E-cdk2 phosphorylated complex bound to
inhibitor.
R is the concentration of the hypophosphorylated form of pRb.
RP is the concentration of the hyper-phosphorylated form of pRb.
RE is the concentration of the hypo-phosphorylated form of pRb that binds
to E2F.
E is the E2F concentration.
I is the concentration of the cyclin E-cdk2 complex inhibitor.
The subscipts "f' and "r" denote the forward and the reverse step,
respectively, of the reversible reactions.
The assumption of near equilibrium operation of reversible reactions (V5 and
V6) and of invariant total amounts of cdk2, pRb, E2F and inhibitor gave the
following dimensionless equations, consisting of 3 differential and 6 algebraic
equations.
=v
vd
dT~ s
y\
dk
drp
di
-= Va3 VA
4
k + k p + k p j =1
r + rp + r^ = 1
448
=1
i + A,kPI=l
re
0I= JPJL
kpi
Nomenclature
Dimensionless symbols as used in the program are listed here.
c
e
i
k
kP
kP,I
r
rE
rP
g
s
1
t
Cyclin E concentration
E2F concentration
Concentration of cyclin E-c
ckd2 concentration
Phosphorylated cyclin E-cdk2 complex
concentration
Concentration of phosphorylated cyclin
E-cdk2 complex bound to inhibitor
Concentration of hypophosphorylated form
of pRb
Concentration of hypophosphorylated form
of pRb that binds to E2F
Concentration of hyperphosphorylated form
of pRb
Ratio of total concentrations of cdk2 and cyclin E
Ratio of total concentrations of pRb and E2F
Ratio of total concentrations of cdk2 and inhibitor
Dimensionless time
449
Exercises
Program
The program is given on the CD-ROM.
Results
Run 1: 50233 steps in 3.08 seconds
0.5
Figure 2. Profiles of concentrations k, rp and c versus time as obtained from the rate constants
in the program.
450
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
"o.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.32
0.33
0.34^
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.4
0.41
0.42
Reference
V. Hatzimanikatis, K. H. Lee, and J. E. Bailey. (1999) "A mathematical
description of regulation of the Gl-S transition of the mammalian cell cycle".
Biotechnol. Bioeng., 65, 631-637.
8.9
8.9.1
System
Consider a reactor whose outlet stream passes through a membrane that retains
only the biomass as seen in Fig. 1.
The growth is assumed to follow substrate inhibition kinetics with constant
yields. The oxygen transfer rate influences the growth at high cell density
according to a Monod function for oxygen.
F,S 0
Gas
\"
Membrane modi
module
illiiil
Air
452
Model
The reactor-membrane system is modelled as a well-mixed tank, except that
biomass is retained in the system batchwise. The balance region is chosen to
include both the reactor and the membrane separator, but the separator volume
is neglected.
Biomass balance:
dX
dT = rx
Substrate balance:
dS
-r s
dCL
-gj- =K L a(CLS-C L )-ro
Kinetics:
S
rx
__
~ ^m
CL
x
s = rx YS/X + MS X
= r
x YQ/X + MO X
MS
M0
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
YS/X
453
Nomenclature
Symbols
CL
CLS
F
KI
KLa
Ko
KS
M
r
S
V
X
Y
ILL
Indices
0
1
m
O
S
X
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to feed
to reaction 1
to maximum
to oxygen
to substrate
to biomass
g/m3
g/m3
m3/h
g/m3
1/h
g/m3
kg/m3
kg/(kgh), g/(kgh)
kg/(m3 h)
kg/m3
m3
kg/m3
kg/kg
1/h
454
Results
Oxygen transfer has a pronounced influence on performance as seen in Fig. 2
for variations of K^a. The dissolved oxygen may reach values below KQ as
shown in Fig. 3 for K^a values from 0.5 to 5.
20
455
\\.
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
TIME
Figure 3. Profiles of dissolved oxygen influenced by KLB (0.5 to 5, curves bottom to top).
8.9.2
System
The metabolic pathways for the production of acetoin and butanediol are well
known, as shown in Fig. 1. A kinetic model for a Bacillus subtilis strain has
been established from continuous culture experiments using an approach
involving overall stoichiometric relationships and energetic considerations. The
influence on the culture of product removal by pervaporation was investigated
by simulation methods.
Knowledge of these pathways allowed the following overall equations to be
written:
Respiration (reaction RI):
C6Hi2O6
> 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O
456
Complex Compounds
Biomass
Substrate
Sugars
Carbon Dioxide
(Total Oxidation)
Pyruvate
Lactate
Acetoin
i
+ Carbon
Dioxide
Butanediol
Model
Growth
The sugar (S) and dissolved oxygen effects were described in terms of a double
Monod function and the product inhibition by a simple inhibition kinetic term.
Diauxic effects were observed, but the diauxic components were unknown, and
for simplification only one diauxic switchover was assumed. The preferred
457
C2
Membrane
Recycle
Feed
*pl
Pervaporation Module
Condenser
Bioreactor
Permeate
Fpe
ACpe , Bu
Pump
1
Bu_cc Bu
and
i
1+ [_^_]Ac 1+ |
and
i
Bu_iaBu
458
Ac
Bu
To avoid an algebraic loop, the kinetics for the rate of butanediol production
was assumed to be dependent on the deviation from equilibrium,
TBU = qX4 X = kAcBu (Ac - Bu fAcBu)
The constant kAcBu was set high enough to ensure equilibrium conditions.
The specific reaction rate q^3 for product formation was obtained as,
~ YR2/R1 qX,l - YR2/R4
Reaction Rates
The specific reaction rates for each component were obtained from the specific
reaction rates q^ and the stoichiometric coefficients, Vy (component j in
reaction i) as follows,
i
The volumetric rates rj [mol L"1 Ir1] for components X, S, Ac, Bu, 62 and CC>2
were related to the specific rates as,
rj = qj X
459
V 2 , X MG X
where V2,x is the stoichiometric coefficient, and MGx is the C-mol mass of
biomass.
The rate for the respiration reaction, q^i, was found to be influenced by the
dissolved oxygen, and was described as follows:
qxi =
The yield coefficients for the complex components GI and C2 , were assumed
to be 1 g of each component for 1 g biomass, and the molecular weights of the
components were assumed to be the same as for the biomass.
The initial
amounts of these components in the molasses medium were adjusted in the
simulation. The corresponding rates were proportioned according to the
growth rates as
rri = - rv
and
rr2 =
Pervaporation Model
The mass transfer in the pervaporation module was described as an equilibrium
process using constant enrichment factors. Thus the concentrations of product
in the reactor, Ac and Bu, were related to the concentration in the permeate,
Acpe and Bupe as,
Acpe = PAC Ac
and Bupe = PRU Bu
Dynamic
where D, Dpu, Dpe were the flows for the feed, purge, and permeate, respectively
intr 1 .
460
Biomass
dx
"3T = rx - X Dpu
Sugar
dS
df = S0 D - S Dpu - rs
Acetoin
dAc
~dT = rAc ~
Ac D
dBu
~dt~ =
Bu D U
pu ~ Acpe Dpe
Butanediol
rBu
Complex components
dCi
~dT = Ci>0 D - Ci Dpu - rCi
where Q = 1 and 2.
Oxygen transfer from the gas phase and the oxygen uptake rate determine the
DO in percent saturation as,
dDO
-HT~
= KLa (100 - DO)
m
100
^r OUR
2.34xlO"4
Nomenclature
Symbols
ACPE
Ac
ATP
Bu
Ci
CPR
D
DO
g/L
g/L, mol/L
g/L, mol/L
g/L
mol/L h
1/h
% saturation
461
UcBu
lAcBu.max
F
FM/P
kAcBu
kci
KLa
KS
Kprod
MGX
OUR
P
rpm
Ri
RQ
S
vvm
V
X
Yi/j
Acetoin/butanediol ratio
Max. Ac/Bu ratio
Flow rate
Permeate / purge flow rate
Kinetic const. Ac/Bu
Monod-const., growth on component i
Monod-const., growth depending on DO
Inhibition constant product i
Gas -liquid transfer coefficient for O2
Monod-const. for respiration depending on
DO
Repression const., complex substrate 1 on
component 2
Monod-const., Growth on substrate
Empirical const, for Ac/Bu-equilibrium
Mol mass for biomass (1 C-mol) = 24.6
Oxygen uptake rate
Product, sum Acetoin + Butanediol
Specific rate of component j
Specific rate reaction i, where i =lto 4
Formation or uptake rates, components j
(Ac, Bu, O2, CO2, X and S)
Stirrer speed
Chemical reaction i, where i = Ito 4
Respiration quotient qcO2/(lO2
Substrate concentration (e.g., sugar)
Gas rate per volume liquid
Reaction volume
Biomass concentration
Yield coefficient (i formed/j used)
L/h
mol/g(acetoin) h
g/L
% saturation
g/L
1/h
% saturation
g/L
g/L
g/mol
mol/L h
g/L, mol/L
mol/g(biomass) h
mol/g(biomass) h
mol/L h
1/min
g/L, mol/L
1/min
L
g/L, mol/L
Greek symbols
ai
pi
\i
R,max
Vi j
1/h
1/h
462
Indices
Ac
Bu
CO2
i
j
inh
02
pe
pu
P
Ri
S
X
0
Ai
Acetoin
Butanediol
Component i (unknown components 1 or 2)
Carbon dioxide
Refers to reactions, i (1 to 4)
Refers to components j (Ac, Bu, C>2, CC>2, X and S)
Refers to inhibition
Oxygen uptake
Permeate
Purge
Product
Chemical reaction i (1 to 4)
Sugar
Biomass
Feed or initial concentration
Refers to reactions 1 to 4
Reference
Dettwiler, B. Dunn I. J., Heinzle E., and Prenosil J. E. "A Simulation Model
for the Continuous Production of Acetoin and Butanediol Using B. subtilis with
Integrated Product Separation by Pervaporation" Biotechnol Bioeng. 41, 791
(1993).
Program
The program is found on the CD-ROM.
Results
The results of Fig. 3 show the influence of the FM/P ratio, which corresponds
to the membrane area per unit reactor volume, on the biomass concentrations.
463
Here the enrichment factor was kept constant (pAc = 2.0), corresponding to the
values found for one of the membranes. In a second set of runs the enrichment
factor was varied for constant FM/P ratio = 1.0.
Run 14: 2013 steps in 0.317 seconds
110
100
60
50
6
10
12
14
16
18
20
(D=l,
0.15
..p.-'*""
j- *~ "*"
0.05
Figure 4. Influence of the enrichment factor on the acetoin and butanediol in the permeate.
(D=l, FMP=1 BETAAC=1, 3, 5).
464
8.9.3
System
This example is based on a paper (1) in which a two stage fermentor-membrane
system for the continuous production of lactic acid was modelled. Membrane
retention of the active biomass can be expected to increase the productivity, but
the biomass concentration must be controlled in each reactor with a bleed
stream. The kinetics for this process, in which glucose is converted to lactic acid
by the bacteria Streptrococcus faecalls is described in the literature (2). Since
the rates are inhibited by product, it can be expected that a multistage system
will be advantageous.
(1-B2XB1F1+I?)
X 2 ,S 2 ,P 2
465
Model
The model assumes completely-mixed stages and complete cell separation. The
operating parameters are feed flow rates or dilution rates and the bleed stream
fractions. The bleed stream from the first fermenter is led to the second
fermenter. The model equations are developed neglecting the volume of the
lines and separators. Note that the retentate streams are returned to their
respective reactors and can be considered as part of the well-mixed system.
The kinetics is given by a product inhibition
S
ii ii
KLP
qs
M-
466
dt
fl
BAS1 - ( 8 ! +f)D 1 S 2 -q 2 X 2
UC
(JC
1 .
>
2+V2X2
(JC
467
Substrate Conversion
From stage 1
From stage 2
Xco =1
82
(B 1+ f)S 2
--
B^+fSfz
--
f 1 + fSf 2
Program
In the simulation product-free feed streams are assumed with flow rates between
10-30 kg m 3 . The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
a
B
D
f
F
kd
Death constant
Bleed ratio
Dilution rate
Flowrate ratio, F2/F1
Volumetric
flowrate
Specific death rate
Basis specific death rate
m 3 kg"1
s'1
m3 s'1
s"1
s"1
468
KP
KS
P
Pr
qs
s
t
V
*s
xt
a
YP,YS
8P,8s
H
V
Exercises
kg nr3
kg nr3
kg nr3
kg nrV1
kg kg-V1
kg nr3
s
m3
kgnr 3
kgm~ 3
kg kg-1
kg kg-1
s-1
kg kg'1 s-1
469
References
A. Nishiwaki and I. J. Dunn, "Performance of a two stage fermentor with cell
recyle for continous production of lactic acid", Bioprocess Engineering 21;
299-305, 1999.
H. Ohara, K. Hiyama, T. Yoshida, "Kinetics of growth and lactic acid
production in continuous and batch culture" Appl.Microbiol.Biotechnol. 38,
403-407, 1992.
Results
Run 1: 405 steps in 0.0167 seconds
-30
^Xt1:1
...Xt2:1
20-
25
... S2:1
20
P2:1
rsj 15X
gioH
10 CO
10
15
20
30
35
1
40
TIME
Figure 2. Results showing the steady state for biomass substrate and product in both stages.
470
160
-1
140
0.9
| 120-I
B
X
1
flf
0.8
100
-0.7 rf
80
0.6 tfT
X
60
-0.5
40
A..
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.4
0.5
B1
Figure 3. Results showing that the productivity changes slightly with bleed ratio but that the
biomass concentration and the substrate conversion depend highly on bleed ratio.
8.9.4
System
This tubular reactor- radial diffusion model assumes a series of nine well-mixed
tanks to describe a single hollow fiber module. Flow of lactose substrate passes
axially through the inner region of the fiber lumen. By diffusion the substrate
is transported radially outward from the lumen through the membrane and into
the cylindrical porous support surrounding the membrane. The reaction takes
place in this support region, where the immobilized enzyme is located. The
products of hydrolysis are glucose and galactose, which diffuse back toward the
liquid phase in the lumen. The parameter N can be used to adjust the number
of shells required. The module is assumed to consist of a large number of
identical fibers*
471
Model
The model is developed by finite-differencing both the axial and radial
directions. Thus there are axial stages in series, here nine plus the recycle tank,
and there are multiple cylindrical sections of porous support in the radial
direction. As depicted in the figures below, there is a convective liquid flow
from each stage to another. Diffusional flows carry substrate and product
radially from one cylindrical section of the porous support to another. Figures
1, 2 and 3 give the geometrical details.
FRfiber
LAfiber
LAtank
FRfiber
Figure 1. Hollow-fiber module showing only a single fiber as modelled by nine stages.
472
Fig. 3 shows a cross-section of the hollow fiber membrane showing the inner
hollow fiber region (white) and the outer porous support (shaded). The finitedifference shell of volume V2 (white) is shown with diffusion fluxes of lactate
JLAI entering and leaving JLAI- It is important to account for the radial
variation of volumes and diffusional areas. Note that the segments are
numbered from outside to inside, 1 to N.
For each tank the component balances account for the accumulation, the flow
in and out and the diffusion in or out from segment N of the porous
membrane. For lactose in tank 1
LA
lumenl _
H
ai
473
FR
v
v
fiber */ T A
x , JlAltN]* Aj[N]
T A
v^^tank ' L/Mumenl ) +
77
v
lumen
lumen
For the external recycle tank, the flow leaving all of the fibers enters it and also
the feed stream enters it. The total flow rate leaving must equal the sum of these
rates. Thus for lactate
Number * FRfiher
tank
Ffeed / A
T
T
. LAtank ) + -Jeed_(LA
feed - LA tank )
V
tank
Taking the component balances for each segment in the enzyme zone account
for accumulation, diffusion in and reaction.
Thus for lactose in the enzyme regions of the first tank
where Aj is the area available to diffusion and TLAI!^] is the reaction rate for
lactose in the ith enzyme segment of the first tank. Note that the above
equations do not include the balance for segment 1. The wall condition
requires that this balance contains only the rate of diffusion from segment 1 to
segment 2, as seen in the program.
The reaction rate is assumed, as confirmed by experiment, to have the form of
*!__
LAt[i]
Here the units are mole lactose per cm3 of porous support volume per second.
Program
Repeated here for the first tank section are the lactose balances, fluxes and rates
as given in the program on the CD-ROM.
JLA1[1. . (N-l) ]=-DLA* ( L A l E i + 1 ] -LAl[i] ) /DR
474
Nomenclature
Additional symbols for the geometrical factors are defined in the program on
the CD-ROM
Symbols
DGA
DGL
DLA
EO
FR
GAfeed
GLfeeci
Ki n hib
cm2/h
cm2/h
cm2/h
mg E in each fiber
cm3
mole/cm3
mole/cm3
mol/cm3
475
LA, GA, GL
Number
V
Kinetic constant
Kinetic constant for vmax
Length of fiber,
Lactose, galactose and glucose
Number of fibers
Volumes
Maximum rate
Indices
fiber
lumen
tank
Exercises
Refers
Refers
Refers
Refers
to lumen
to lumen
to tanks or segments
to recycle tank
mol/cm3
mol/mgE h cm3
cm
mol/cm3
cm
mol/cm3 h
476
Results
Run 1:619 steps in 53.4 seconds
100
200
400
500
600
TIME
9.393e-5
Figure 5. Radial concentration gradients for the lactose and glucose. The left axis corresponds
to the outside of the fiber.
477
8.9.5
System
This example is based on experiments with immobilized BHK cells in a
fluidized bed of solid or porous carriers. The fluidized bed itself has an
expanded volume of 700 mL, The complete reactor system contains a volume
of 3.5 L. As seen in the figure below, the arrangement of the electrodes at the
inlet and outlet of the reactor allows an accurate difference measurement of the
oxygen uptake rate. Oxygen transfer takes place only in the conditioning
vessel, while oxygen consumption is only in the fluidized bed column, where
the cells are located.
GAS
OUTLET
GAS INLET
FILTER
AIR
OXYGEN
CARBON
OXIDE
OXYGEN
j (MEASUREMENT
CHAMBER
SAMPLE
PORTM .
VESSEL
THERMOSTAT
478
j3, FR
Spent medium
Figure 2. Schematic of the model structure, where Ci refers to any component concentration.
For the tanks-in-series description of the column, 3 (or more) tanks in series are
used. The mass balance for one component in tank 2 is then
Here V is the volume of one tank and r is the reaction rate of the component.
The circulation flowrate is FR. This balance equation form would apply to all
components, but not for the biomass since it is immobilized.
The kinetic model assumes the following:
1. Growth of cells is linked to the consumption of glucose and Yx/s = 0.28g
biomass produced per g glucose consumed.
2. Lactate is produced in proportion to the glucose uptake rate with
YiacG=2.0.
3. Oxygen, glutamine, lactate and glucose concentrations influence the rates.
4. Multiple Monod kinetics can be applied.
5. The medium is in contact with air and the solubility of oxygen is 8 mg/L.
From the data in the dissertation of Keller (1) can be calculated the yield of
lactate with respect to glucose, giving Yiacc = 2.0 mmol lactate/mmole glucose
or 1.1 g sodium lactate/g glucose. This can be used to calculate the production
rate of lactate. Also calculated from the dissertation is YgiutG=:36mg
glutamine/g glucose.
Thus the glucose uptake rate becomes
K lac
"OX
w
sox
K sglut
4-C lac
479
Note that the last term in the equation models an inhibition by lactate.
The growth rates are based on the specific substrate uptake rates. Other specific
rates are related by yield coefficients and biomass concentration.
For example for growth rate,
rx = qG X Yxg
Program
The program is on the CD-ROM.
Nomenclature
Cgiutf
CgiutF
Cox
Coxsat
F
FR
GUR
g/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
L/h
L/h
mmol/h
480
KLa
Klac
K sg
KSglut
KSOX
OUR
qCmax
QOxmax
V
V4
X
YoiutG
YLacG
YoxG
YXG
Exercises
1/h
g/L
g/L
mg/L
mg/L
mmo 1/h
g/h g cells
mg/g cells h
L
L
g/L
mg glut./g glue.
g lactate/g
mg oxygen/g
g/g
481
References
Keller, J. Dissertation No. 9373, ETH, 1991.
Keller, J., Dunn, I. J. and Heinzle E. "Improved Performance of the Fluidized
Bed Reactor for the Cultivation of Animal Cells" in Production of Biologicals
from Animal Cells in Culture, Ed. Spier, Griffiths, Meignier, ButterworthHeinemann, 10th ESACT Meeting, 513-515 (1991).
Keller, J. and Dunn, I. J. "A Fluidized Bed Reactor for the Cultivation of
Animal Cells", In: Advances in Bioprocess Engineering, Eds. E. Galindo and O.
T. Ramirez, Kluver, pp 115-122 (1994).
Results
Run 1:1618 steps in 1.03 seconds
11 '
10'
6 O
O
9'
8
?
7
6
5
iliii X[3]:1
4
3
20
40
80
TIME
100
140
160
Figure 3. Batch run showing the difference in dissolved oxygen between the tank sections.
482
20
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 4. In this run with F=0.05 L/h first oxygen limitation develops and later glucose
limitation. The immobilized biomass in the three sections increases at different rates due to the
glucose gradient in the column.
9.1
Computer Requirements
Two Berkeley Madonna versions are supplied with this book on a CD, one for
PC with Windows and one for the Power Macintosh. More information with
downloads can be found on the following website:
http://www.berkeleymadonna.com
Installation from CD
The files are compressed on the CD in the same form as they are available on
Internet. Information on registering Madonna is contained in the files.
Registration is optional since all the examples in the book can be run with the
unregistered version. Registration makes available a detailed manual and is
necessary for anyone who wants to develop his or her own programs.
Running Programs
To our knowledge, Madonna is by far the easiest simulation software to use, as
can be seen on the Screenshot Guide in this Appendix. Running an example
typically involves the following steps:
Start Berkeley Madonna and open a prepared program file.
Biological Reaction Engineering, Second Edition. I. J. Dunn, E. Heinzle, J. Ingham, J. E. Pfenosil
Copyright 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ISBN: 3-527-30759-1
484
485
the graph gives the steady-state profile with distance. More on running
programs is found in Sec. 2 of the Appendix.
486
487
DTMAX higher than DT, but sometimes the resulting curves are not smooth if
DTMAX is too high. In most cases, good results are obtained with AUTO and
DT set to about 1/1000 of the smallest time constant.
If no success is found with AUTO, then try STIFF and adjust by the same
procedure. Oscillations can sometimes be seen by zooming in on a graph; often
these are a sign of integration problems. Sometimes some variables look OK
but others oscillate, so look at all of them if problems arise. Unfortunately
there is not a perfect recipe, but fortunately Madonna is very fast so the trialand-error method usually works out.
Checking results by mass balance
For continuous processes, checking the steady-state results is very useful.
Algebraic equations for this can be added to the program, such that both sides
became equal at steady state. For batch systems, all the initial mass must equal
all the final mass, not always in mols but in kg. Expressed in mols the
stoichiometry must be satisfied.
What is a "Floating point exception"?
This error message comes up when something does not calculate correctly, such
as dividing by zero. This is a common error that occurs when equations
contain a variable in the denominator that is initially zero. Often it is possible
to add a very small number to it, so that the denominator is never exactly zero.
These cases can usually be located by outputting a table of all the variables.
Plotting variables with distance and time.
Stagewise and finite-differenced models involve changes with time and
distance. When the model is written in array form the variable can be plotted as
a function of the array index. This is done by choosing an index variable for
the Y axis and the [ ] symbol for the X-axis. The last value calculated is used in
the plot, which means that if the steady-state has been reached then it is a
steady-state profile with distance. An example is given in the"Screenshot
Guide" in Sec. 2 of the Appendix and in the example CELLDIFF.
Notation for the differential.
In this book the differential form d/dt(x) is usual. However the x' form has the
advantage that it appears in the Choose Variables menu and can be plotted. It
can also be used directly in another equation.
Writing your own plug-in functions or integration methods.
Information on using C or C++ for this can be obtained by making contact
through the BerkeleyMadonna homepage.
488
9.2
(CHEMQSTATST
(FILE/CHEMCr1)
{Constants}
UM=OJKS=OJK1
8F*10 D1=0.25
Stoptime=80
{Conditional equation for 0}
!nrfX=1
lnt P=0
{Mass Balances}
; 81OMASS BALANCE EQUATION
; SUBSTRATE Q^ANGE EQUATION
; PRODUCT BALANCE EQUATION
489
Figure 1. The example CHEMO has been opened and the Menu (From left: File, Edit, Flowchart
active only for flowchart programs, Model, Compute, Graph, Parameters, Window and Help) and
Graph Buttons (From left: Run, Lock, Overlay, Table, Legend, Parameters, Colors, Dashed Lines,
Data Points, Grid, Value Output and Zoom).
490
UP AND QPEFIAT1GW
3T6RTTIME
iTOPTIMI
Kl=Q.03K2=O.OBY=fl.B
BF=10 D1=OJS
MTOUT
LJM
0,02
0
0.3
KS
Kl
0.1
0,03
DT
o.oa
0.8
10
01
toil 8=10
initP=G
HITX
NITS
N1TP
{Mass Balances}
EQ
BALANCE
0,34
5
1
10
Figure 3. The Model/Equations was chosen. Seen here is also the Parameter Window.
Figure 4. If a new graph is chosen under Graph/New Window then the data must be selected
under Graph/Choose Variables.
491
4J-,
4-
-9,5
3,5
8.5
-8
2.5
2-
-7.5
7
1.5
f-
-8.5
0,5-
5.5
20
40
80
SO
108
120
140
ISO
130
200
TIME
Figure 5. A graph window for variables on the left and right-side Y axis with Legend Button
selected.
7.
6-
-7
5-
X 4-
01
-4
3-
-3
4-2
1-
20
40
80
100
120
140
180
!80
200
Figure 6. An Overlay Graph for three values of Dl as selected in the Parameter Window.
492
Figure 8. A graph of two slider runs, showing the Parameters Menu pulled down.
493
Figure 10. A Parametric Plot was chosen for 40 runs changing values of Dl to give the
final, steady-state values. The Data Button was pressed to give the points for each run.
494
Figure 11. The Optimize Window, with the value of Dl being selected to minimize the
expression -D*X. The value found was 0.27, corresponding to the Parameter Plot results.
Figure 12. Two Parameter Plots overlaid showing the effect of reducing Y from 0.8 to 0.6.
495
Figure 13. A program written in an array form allows plotting all the values versus time by
choosing the variable vector, here S[ ] versus TIME for the program CELLDIFF.
Figure 14. From the same program as Fig. 13, radial profiles of three runs are plotted in an
overlay plot. The [i] values can be selected in the Choose Variables. Here the parameter
Radius has been changed to demonstrate the large influence of diffusion length.
496
Figure 15. Here the program file KLAFTT is run and fitted to data in the text-file KLADATA.
The data consists of two columns: time and CE at equal intervals as seen by the open circles on
the plot. Note that the fit variable is CE and the parameter varied to minimize the difference in
least squares is KLA.
10
ACTNITR
267
ANEAMEAS
433
ANIMALIMMOB
476
BATFERM
193
BIOFILM
372
BIOFILTDYN
342
CELLDIFF
388
CHEMO
799
CHEMOSTA
258
COMMENSA
400
COMPASM
406
CONINHIB
261
CONTCON
367
DCMDEG
280
DEACTENZ
308
DUAL
275
ELECTFIT
335
ENZCON
305
ENZDYN
383
ENZSPLIT
377
ENZTUBE
272
ETHFERM
240
FBR
295
FEDBAT
204
FERMTEMP
358
FILMPOP
425
INHIB
327
KLADYN
335
KLAFIT
335
LACMEMRECYC
464
LACREACT
470
LINEWEAV
272
MAMMCELLCYCLE 445
MEMINH
450
MIXPOP
477
MMKINET
209
NITBED
299
NITBEDFILM
393
NITRIF
OLIGO
OXDYN
OXENZ
PENFERM
PENOXY
PHB
PHBTWO
PLASMID
REPFED
REPLCUL
STAGED
SUBTILIS
TEMPCONT
TITERBIO
TITERDYN
TURBCON
TWOONE
TWOSTAGE
VARVOL
VARVOLD
YEASTOSC
327
275
337
378
230
253
279
374
477
245
249
290
455
354
349
349
363
422
286
224
224
447
11
Index
Absorption, 117
Absorption tank, 136
Accumulation, 125
Accumulation terms, 135
Acetogenic step, 89
Acid-base equilibria, 47
Acidogenic step, 89
Active, 110
Adaptive Control, 174
Adaptive tuning, 178
Aerated tank, 130
Aerated tank with oxygen electrode, 336
Aeration, 117, 137
Aeration efficiency, 123
Aeration rates, 126
Aeration systems, 126
Aerobic sewage treatment, 128
Agitation, 137
Air or oxygen sparging, 134
Air saturation, 126
Air supply, 128
Airlift bioreactor, 139
Algebraic loop, 49
Alginate, 149
Alginate bead, 149
Allosteric kinetics, 74
Ammonia, 134
Ammonium, 300
Ammonium ion, 133
Anaerobic degradation, 89
Analogous, 114
Analogy, 114
Analytical solution, 19
Analytically, 108
Animal cell culture, 128
Apparent reaction rate, 133
Approximation, 113, 141
Aqueous phase, 118
Arithmetic-mean, 141
Automatic process control, 161
Automatic reset, 165
Auxiliary variable, 174
Axial, 114
Axial profiles, 114
Axial segments, 115
Backmixing, 137
Backmixing flow contribution, 142
Backmixing stream, 140
Balance region, 23
Balances, 101
Batch, 57, 64
Batch aeration, 126
Batch fermentation, 11, 103
Batch reactor periods, 57
Batchwise, 134
Bed, 134
Biocatalysis, 118
Biocatalyst diffusion model, 153
Biocatalytic reaction, 147
Biofilm, 154
Biofilm, 134, 145
Biofilm nitrification, 160
500
Index
Cells, 117
Centrifugation, 110
Chemical reaction, 126
Chemostats, 104
Circulating liquid supply, 129
Circulation time, 55
Closed-loop response, 170
Coalescence, 126
Cocurrently, 139
Cohen-Coon controller settings, 170
Column systems, 135
Commensalism, 87
Comparator, 162
Competition, 150
Competitive, 74
Completely mixed gas or liquid phases, 137
Complex diffusion-reaction processes, 157
Complex kinetics, 115
Complex models, 123, 138
Complexity, 138
Component, 122
Component Balances, 22
Components, 113
Computer Solution, 19
Concentration driving force, 122
Concentration gradient approximation, 151
Concentration gradients, 119, 137
Concentration inhomogeneities, 137
Concentration profile, 114
Conical sand bed, 134
Continuous, 64, 109, 118
Continuous Baker's Yeast Culture, 94
Continuous feed and effluent stream, 134
Continuous Operation, 60
Continuous phase, 118
Continuous-cycling, 171
Contois Equation, 82
Control, 111
Control point, 165
Control region, 23
Control strategy, 176
Index
501
Diffusional limitation, 146
Diffusional mass transfer, 145
Diffusional mass transfer coefficient, 147
Diffusion-reaction parameter, 155
Diffusion-reaction phenomena, 151
Diffusion-reaction systems, 151
Diffusive mass transfer, 138
Digital simulation, 14
Digital simulation languages, 14
Dilution rate, 105
Dimensionless, 108
Dimensionless form, 391
Dimensionless group, 151
Dimensionless parameter, 150, 154
Dimensionless variables, 155, 159, 337
Discontinuous control, 163
Disks of liquid, 113
Dispersed, 117, 118
Dispersed phase, 118
Dissociation equilibrium constant, 47
Dissolved oxygen concentration, 123, 335
Dissolved oxygen electrode, 126
Distance, 116
Distance coordinate, 151
Double Michaelis-Menten Kinetics, 73
Double-Monod kinetics, 83, 158
Driving forces, 119
Droplet, 118
D-value, 77
Dynamic, 115
Dynamic component balances, 104
Dynamic kla, 126-127
Dynamic Method, 335
Dynamic simulation, 49
Dynamics of measurement, 127
Dynamics of the liquid phase, 128
Effective diffusivity, 30, 121
Effective rate, 148
Effective reaction rate, 146
Effectiveness Factor, 155, 391
Efficiency, 110
502
Electrode measurement dynamics, 127, 129
Electrode membrane, 337
Electrode response characteristic, 336
Electrode time constant, 127, 129
Elemental balances, 23
Energy balances, 49
Entrance, 113
Enzymatic, 112
Enzyme, 112, 118
Enzyme loading, 148, 149
Enzyme reactor, 115
Enzyme-substrate complex, 69
Equations, 113
Equilibrium, 10, 122
Equilibrium oxygen concentration, 337
Equilibrium relationships, 46
Equilibrium value, 132
Errors, 161
Exit, 113
Experimental reactor, 130
Exponential, 108
Exponential and limiting growth phases, 103
External film, 145
External mass transfer, 145
External transport rate, 153
Extraction, 118
Fed Batch, 58, 64
Feed Forward Control, 173
Feedback, 161
Fermentation, 101
Fermentation media, 137
Pick's Law, 29, 120
Film coefficients, 122
Final, 109
Final control element, 162
Finite difference, 30
Finite difference Model, 151
Finite differencing, 388
Finite differencing technique, 159
Finite-differencing, 115, 153
First order, 65
Index
Index
503
Interphase transfer, 26, 125
Intraparticle transfer, 145
Intrinsic reaction rate, 150
Ion charge balance, 47
Ion exchange resins, 149
Kinetic, 106
Kinetic control, 147
Kinetic model, 136
Kinetic rate constant, 147
Kinetic regime, 148
Kinetic relationship, 65
Kinetics control, 149
Kla, 335
Lag phase, 103
Lag time, 170
Laplace transformation, 338
Large bioreactors, 137
Large scale, 137
Length, 115
Length of diffusion path, 151
Limiting, 140, 159
Limiting substrate, 103, 106
Limiting substrate concentration, 78
Linear gradients, 120
Linear growth, 108
Lineweaver-Burk diagram, 72
Liquid, 117
Liquid balance, 125
Liquid balance equation, 128
Liquid film, 337
Liquid film control, 123
Liquid flow terms, 135
Liquid medium, 117
Liquid phase, 117
Liquid recycle stream, 134
Liquid surface, 137
Liquid velocities, 137
Liquid-liquid, 118
Liquid-phase impeller zones, 141
Logistic Equation, 82
Luedeking-Piret model, 85
504
Maintenance coefficient, 10
Maintenance factor, 84
Mammalian Cell Cycle Control, 445
Manipulated variable, 161
Mass balance equation, 16
Mass Transfer, 117, 119
Mass transfer capacity coefficient, 122, 123
Mass transfer coefficients, 121
Mass transfer control, 147
Mass transfer resistance, 145
Material balance equations, 101
Mathematical, 150
Mathematical model, 12, 137
Mathematical modelling, 151
Matrix elements, 151
Maximum, 109
Maximum observed rate, 148
Maximum rates, 158
Maximum reaction rate, 70
Measurement dynamics, 126, 128, 336
Measurement signal, 127
Measurements, 106
Measuring element, 162
Mechanical agitation, 137
Mechanical energy, 137
Medium, 106
Membrane, 112, 127
Membrane filtration, 110
Methanogenic step, 89
Michaelis-Menten constant, 70, 148
Michaelis-Menten kinetics, 148
Microbial interaction, 86
Microbial physiology, 106
Microbiological, 133
Mixing, 113
Mixing zones, 140
Mode of control, 168
Model, 109
Modelling, 113, 388
Molar flow rate of air, 133
Molar reaction rates, 136
Index
Molecular diffusion, 29
Molecular diffusion, 120
Molecular diffusion coefficient, 121
Monod equation, 67
Monod kinetics, 10
Monod-type equation, 390
Monod-type rate expressions, 105
Multiphase reaction, 117
Multiple impeller, 140
Multiple-organism populations, 86
Multiple-substrate Monod kinetics, 82
Multi-stage, 138
Mutual inhibition, 343
Mutualism, 87
Natural logarithmic, 127
Nernst-diffusion film, 146
Nitrate, 300
Nitrate ion, 133
Nitrification, 133, 299
Nitrification reactions, 157
Nitrite, 300
Nitrite ion, 133
Nitrobacter, 134
Nitrogen, 127
Nitrosomonas, 134
Non-competitive, 74
Non-porous carrier, 146
Numerical solution, 19
Objective function, 178
Offset, 163
Oil phase, 118
One-dimensional diffusion, 158
On-line adaptive optimizing control, 178
On-line monitoring, 126
On-Off Control, 163
Open-loop tuning technique, 169
Operation, 110
Order of magnitude analysis, 155
Organism balance, 102
Oscillations, 355
Oscillations of continuous culture, 94
Index
Outlet, 106
Output rate, 102
Overall mass transfer capacity coeff., 123
Overall mass transfer rate equation, 123
Overall order of reaction, 148
Overall rate of reaction, 62
Overall resistance to mass transfer, 123
Oxidation steps, 134
Oxygen, 117, 122, 388
Oxygen balances, 123
Oxygen depletion, 132
Oxygen diffusion effects, 157
Oxygen electrode, 335
Oxygen electrode dynamic, 337
Oxygen gas phase concentrations, 128
Oxygen gradients, 139
Oxygen limitation, 388
Oxygen requirements, 158
Oxygen transfer, 125
Oxygen transfer coefficient, 136, 335
Oxygen transfer rate (OTR), 10
Oxygen uptake rate, 38, 125, 128, 136, 390
OUR, 38
Oxygen-enriched air, 131
Oxygen-sensitive culture, 97
Packed, 149
Parameter, 111
Parameter estimation, 131
Partial differential equation, 116, 153
Partial pressure, 122
Penetration, 149
Penetration distance, 159, 388
Penetration-limiting, 159
Perfect mixing, 137
Perfect plug flow, 137
Performance, 113
pH control, 49
Phase interface, 120
Phases, 117
Physical model, 12, 137
Physical properties, 122
505
Plant cell culture, 128
Plug flow, 113, 141
Poly-6-hydroxybutyric Acid (PHB), 93
Porous, 119
Porous biocatalyst, 119
Porous solid, 145
Power inputs, 137
Predator-Prey Kinetics, 86
Pressure, 137
Process control, 10, 56, 161
Process dynamics, 127
Process optimization, 12, 56
Process reaction curve, 169
Process response, 128
Product, 118
Product inhibition, 113
Product inhibition kinetics, 63
Production rate, 102
Productivity, 105, 110
Programmed, 174
Proportional, 143, 163
Proportional control constant, 355
Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller, 166
Proportional-Integral controller, 355
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
Controller, 167
Proportlonal-Reset-Rate-Control, 167
Pulse, 113
Quadratic equation, 148
Quasi-homogeneous, 135
Quasi-homogeneous reaction, 158
Quasi-steady state, 107
Radial variations, 140
Rate expressions, 103
Rate of accumulation, 21, 102
Rate of fermentation, 126
Rate of mass transfer, 121
Rate of oxygen transfer, 123
Rate of oxygen uptake, 123
Rate of substrate uptake, 83
Rate of supply, 148
506
Reactants, 117
Reaction, 114, 117, 118
Reaction capability, 149
Reaction control, 133
Reaction Heat, 51
Reaction parameter, 155
Reaction rate constant, 132
Reaction rate control, 133
Reaction site, 118, 145
Reaction surface, 147
Reaction-rate limitation, 136
Reactor, 101, 138
Reactor cascade, 62
Reactor column, 135
Reactor efficiency, 111
Reactor modes, 63
Reactor operating conditions, 159
Reactor outlet, 136
Re-aerated, 126
Recycle loop, 134
Recycle loop configuration, 134
Recycle rates, 134
Recycle ratio, 111
Regimes, 133
Research, 106
Reset time, 166
Residence time, 105, 116
Residence time distribution, 137
Residual error, 167
Resistance to mass transfer, 120, 123
Respiration quotient (RQ), 10
Response, 127
Response curve, 126
Retention, 110, 145
Riser, 139
Sample, 128
Sampled data control, 174
Sampling frequency, 175
Sampling interval, 174
Sand, 134
Saturation, 127
Index
Saturation constant, 10
Scheduled adaptive control, 174
Second-order response lag, 337
Sections, 138
Sedimentation, 110, 111
Semi-Continuous Reactor, 314, 349
Separation, 110
Separator, 111
Series of tank reactors, 62
Set point, 161
Shear, 55
Simulation, 107
Simulation example, 104
Simulation methods, 140
Simulation programming, 153
Simulation programs, 14
Simulation results, 159
Simulation software, 15
Simultaneous diffusion and reaction, 150
Single stage, 138
Single-pass conversion, 135
Slab, 151
Slope, 18, 127
Solid, 118
Solid biocatalyst, 119
Solid carrier, 145
Solid phase, 135
Solid-liquid interfacial area, 135
Solubility, 122
Solution, 143
Spatial variations, 123
Specific area for mass transfer, 121
Specific carbon dioxide production rate, 11
Specific carbon dioxide uptake rate, 84
Specific death rate, 78
Specific growth rate, 10, 78, 105
Specific interfacial area, 122
Specific oxygen, 11
Specific oxygen uptake rate, 84
Specific product production rate, 84
Specific substrate uptake rate, 84
507
Index
System, 110
Tank, 101
Tank sizes, 113
Tanks-in-series, 112
Teisser Equation, 81
Temperature, 148
Temperature measurement, 354
Theoretical basis, 112
Thiele modulus, 155
Thin film, 120
Time, 109
Time constant for heater, 355
Time constant for measurement, 355
Time constant measurement, 340
Time constants, 128
Time constants for transfer, 340
Time-varying, 114
Titration, 126
Total interfacial area, 121
Total mass balance, 102
Total system, 134
Toxicity, 134
Tracer, 113
Tracer experiment, 140
Tracer techniques, 137
Transfer control, 133, 149
Transfer parameters, 138
Transmission lines, 162
Transport of material, 117
Transport streams, 26
Transport-reaction process, 147
Trial and error method, 169
Tubular, 113
Tubular reactor, 62, 113
Turbine impeller, 134
Turbulence, 120
Turbulent flow, 120
Two position action, 163
Two-Film Theory, 120
Ultimate gain, 169
Ultimate period, 171
508
Uncompetitive, 74
Uptake rate, 111
Variable, 106
Viscosity, 149
Volumetric flow rate, 101
Washout, 105
Wastage, 110
Waste water, 111
Water, 122
Index
Well-mixed, 24, 101, 123
Well-mixed gas phase, 133
Well-mixed liquid zones, 140
Well-mixed tank, 25
Whole cells, 149
Yield coefficient, 10, 32, 102
Zero order, 65, 147, 148
Zero-order kinetics, 391
Ziegler-Nichols Method, 169