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cover story

2 Commissioning

electrical systems in
mission critical facilities
Engineers should follow best practices to
overcome the inherent challenges of electrical
system functional performance testing.

Anticipating
the Smart Grid

Designers, building owners,


and operators should understand
how the emerging Smart Grid will
impact individual buildings.

Mitigating arc flash


hazards in mediumvoltage switchgear

18

Engineers should be aware


of design alternatives that
can reduce arc flash hazards in
medium-voltage systems.

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Comparing generator
sizing software

24

Generator sizing software can


help engineers optimize
emergency system designs for
various load types.

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ON THE COVER:
Commissioning is a programmed series of
design and construction documentation
and testing activities that are performed
specifically to ensure that the finished facility
operates as intended. This requires testing
several systems, such as generators as
seen at the top of the cover, and generator
paralleling switchgear at the bottom. The
results, shown on the dashboard in the center,
will determine the overall performance. As
represented with arrows, commissioning
should be an ongoing and routine process
to ensure facilities and their systems are
operating as intended.
Courtesy: Environmental Systems Design Inc.

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PURE POWER / / WINTER 2013

FEATURES

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Cover Story
By Joshua J. Gepner, PE, QCxP, LEED AP O+M,
Environmental Systems Design Inc., Chicago

Commissioning

electrical systems in
mission critical facilities
Engineers should follow best practices to overcome the inherent challenges of
electrical system functional performance testing.

he overall goal of commissioning must be to


ensure that a facility meets the design intent and
the owners requirements. For critical facilities,
this goal is generally achieved by proving to the
owner that the reliability, redundancy, and resiliency that
he or she paid for is indeed present and operational in the
finished facility.
Because there are so many failure scenarios and variables, it is rarely possible or cost efficient to reasonably test
each one, but the commissioning authority has an obligation to provide a level of testing that will allow the owner
to feel confident that each system is working and capable
of maintaining a proper planned operational state during
common external events.
As expected, the owner will want to use the commissioning process to be certain that the installation, performance, and operation of new equipment is acceptable
before it supports critical load, and he or she will strive to
do this as cheaply and as quickly as possible.
This article explores the best practices for testing several electrical systems, as well as some of the challenges
encountered. It also presents selected case studies observed
during the functional performance testing phase of the
commissioning process, as detailed in ASHRAE Guideline
0. Implementing these best practices and lessons learned
on future projects will improve the quality of the product
provided to the owner.

GENERATOR
Including the generators in the commissioning scope for
a critical facility is imperative because they are the only
source of long-term standby power when the utility becomes unavailable (see Figure 1).
When testing a generator, it is best practice to ensure that
the load for step loading and endurance testing has a power
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factor rating that matches the nameplate power factor on the


generator, as the generator will be tuned and calibrated to
operate best at its rated conditions. The manufacturer also
will not likely be able to provide documentation on how the
generator is expected to perform if the load used for testing
deviates from the name plate conditions. The tuning and
calibration is especially important when attempting a 0%
to 100% step load, and often the system will not respond
properly within acceptable tolerance if the power factor of
the load does not match the nameplate rating.
Due to new EPA regulations, generators are now limited
regarding the amount of pollution that they can emit under
all running conditions, including when responding to step
loads. This has been a challenge for generator manufacturers who in the past simply allowed the system to call
for more fuel, which resulted in billows of black smoke
entering the environment. In an effort to minimize pollution, manufacturers have had to finely tune the generators, resulting in the increased importance of testing the
generators at rated power factor. In addition, because the
generators are typically exercised under load for routine
maintenance and testing, the owner often buys a permanent resistive load bank (unity power factor) sized for the
rated capacity of the generator. It is important to explain to
the owner that the permanent load bank that will be used
for future load testing may not be appropriate to use during
commissioning if it is rated at unity power factor.
Generator commissioning case study: Two 13.8 kV 3
MW generators that were rated for 0.8 power factor were
each tested using a 3 MW unity power factor load bank.
In each case, when conducting the 0% to 100% load step,
the generators were able to support the load during only
one out of seven attempts. The load was resistive, but the
voltage drop induced by the step load caused the load
bank controller to lose power, which shut down the load

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Figure 1: It is imperative that transient testing for generators is conducted


at the nameplate power factor rating. All images courtesy: ESD

bank. Even when the load was maintained, the voltage


and frequency deviated beyond the published criteria for
100% of the step load because the generator performance
data was not based on a unity power factor load. This
problematic operation was not observed for the same generators when they were tested at the factory using a 0.8
power factor load bank.

AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SWITCH (ATS)

Figure 2: The UPS is a critical component to supporting critical loads, as it


is the primary system responsible for maintaining continuity of load during
a loss of utility.

The ATS is an important component of the critical facility because it is used commonly in critical facility designs
to transfer power from a primary source to a secondary
source after the loss of the primary source.
Open transition ATSs are designed to allow for an interruption to the load using a break-before-make transfer.
Because of this, loading the ATS during open transition
transfers during functional performance testing is not
required. Load is also not required when testing an ATSs
ability to perform closed transition transfers. During closed
transition transfers, the ATS will parallel the primary and
secondary sources prior to transferring. It is important to
ensure that the ATS can properly conduct closed transition transfers and will handle the transition in the same
manner, regardless of whether it is carrying load or not. A
power quality meter must be connected to the output of the
ATS to confirm that the transfer is completed within the

specified time for closed transition applications. It should


be noted that load is required for all ATSs when conducting
infrared scanning. It is recommended that all components
of the ATS are infrared scanned under full load on all
primary, secondary, and bypassed power paths after final
installation is complete. Load is also required for closed
transition applications when the secondary source of the
ATS is a generator. This testing is usually conducted as
an integrated system test to prove that the generator and
ATS work properly together under full load. The integrated
system testing is conducted after functional performance
testing for the ATS, generator, and other integral systems is
completed.
In most cases, for an ATS to be functionally tested, both
sources must be available because the ATS will usually inhibit any transfer if there is only one source. This problem
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PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Cover Story

UPS
The UPS is probably the most important
piece of equipment in the critical facility
because of its ability to maintain power to
critical loads, regardless of the operation
of all of the other supporting systems (see
Figure 2).
Monitoring the inputs to the rectifier of
the UPS, the static bypass within the UPS,
and the UPS output bus is considered best
practice during functional performance testing. After each transient, step load, or battery discharge test, the waveforms recorded
by the power quality meters set up on the
system should be reviewed to confirm
that no events were triggered and that the
output waveforms stayed within tolerance
and recovered within the specified time
frame. UPS systems are often placed into
service quickly after functional performance
testing, so it is best to check the power
Figure 3: Generator paralleling switchgear must be tested with resistance/reactive loads to
quality meter resultsincluding waveform
confirm the systems ability to properly share kVAR.
capturesduring on-site testing rather than
waiting
for
a
report
from the meter technician. This way,
can arise in situations where ATSs are added to existing
any problem discovered during UPS testing can be quickly
live facilities. Because of their integral role in the power
rectified as the manufacturer often has to consult the facdistribution system, they often cant be tied into the electritory on problematic internal UPS operation.
cal system without bringing down the loads that they will
Full load endurance tests should be conducted on UPS
serve. In an effort to minimize disruption to the live facilsystems after the system has been installed on-site, even
ity, the ATS testing will likely occur prior to connecting it
if full load testing was conducted in the factory. Many
to the live facility. However, the ATS can be connected to
components need to be disconnected for shipping and are
the secondary source if the secondary source is a generathen reassembled on-site. Electrical equipment can also
tor. When the primary source serving the load is restored,
be affected by problems that develop during shipping and
there is usually limited time for testing the ATS as it will
may not be detected without performing the endurance
immediately be required to provide power to critical loads.
test on-site. Generally, an 8-hr duration for a full load test
ATS commissioning case study: An ATS manufacturer
is considered adequate to confirm that the system will be
was required to start up and test the ATS on a project
capable of functioning at full rated load without problems.
before it was tied into the electrical system. To do this, the
In some cases, it can be difficult to monitor the logic
ATS vendor required both the primary and the secondused by the UPS to handle various operations because the
ary sources to be available for the start-up. The electrical
actions are carried out by microprocessors installed on
contractor added a jumper between the two sources and
circuit boards. This emphasizes the importance of propconnected the secondary source of the ATS to the generaerly setting up power quality monitoring equipment prior
tor. When the generator was started, the ATS saw both
to testing the UPS. If a problem is detected during testing,
the primary and secondary sources as available. A major
the manufacturer will have a much easier time solving it if
drawback was that there was no way to disconnect only
it is provided with significant data generated both by the
the primary source during start-up without also simulatUPSs internal monitoring system and the external power
ing the loss of the secondary source, so it was not possible
monitoring equipment used during testing. When a failure
to verify automatic transfer operations without simulation
occurs, it can be very difficult to understand what is haptechniques. The ATS also had a much easier time performpening inside the equipment. Captured test data almost
ing closed transition transfers because the two sources
always improves the issue resolution process.
were perfectly synchronized, as they both came from the
UPS commissioning case study: While setting up the
same generation point. All of the functionality was retested
system configuration for a battery discharge test, both batafter the final tie-in during functional performance testing
tery string breakers opened when load was applied to the
to ensure the system was operating properly in the actual
batteries. The event that caused this response was retested
design configuration.
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GENERATOR PARALLELING
SWITCHGEAR

Generator paralleling switchgear commissioning case


study: After a generator paralleling switchgear system was
tested, programming changes were made in response to
issues discovered during the testing. Retesting was conducted, but only a portion of the tests were repeated. Later,
during owner training, additional programming problems
were discovered as a result of the changes made prior to
the previous retesting. The PLC programming was changed
again after additional tweaks were required. To be sure
that both the PLC programming and the system were working properly, a retesting procedure was conducted including every possible user initiated transfer
and automatic transfer in both open and
closed transition scenarios. The retesting
was video recorded and documented,
and the PLC event log was extracted to
show the transfers that occurred. The
retesting was completed successfully
with no additional programming changes
required.

Generator paralleling switchgear is a


crucial component to a critical facility in
situations where the generator supported
load exceeds the capacity of one generator (see Figure 3).
Generator paralleling switchgear
systems should be tested at the rated
MAIN ELECTRICAL SWITCHGEAR
power factor of the generator paralleling
Main electrical switchgear is an imswitchgear systemtypically 0.8. This
portant component to a critical facility
is important to show that each generator
because it distributes power to all of
properly shares the kW and kVAR loads.
the downstream electrical distribution
Just because paralleled generators evenly
equipment.
share kW while serving a resistive load
Circuit breaker settings must be indoes not always mean that they will
putted, coordinated, tested, and verified
evenly share kVAR when serving a reacthroughout all main electrical distribuFigure 4: STSs are capable of seamlessly
tive load.
tion equipment. If there is a fault in the
transferring load automatically or manually
A major challenge with testing gensystem, it is imperative that selective
from one source to another within a few
erator paralleling switchgear systems is
coordination is implemented so that the
msec.
that they are often rated for very heavy
fault is isolated as far downstream as
loads due to the number of generators that can be conpossible. Main circuit breakers must be properly set up to
nected to them. In some cases, it may not be practical and
ensure that they will stay closed during fault conditions
may also be very expensive to load generator paralleling
and wait for downstream equipment to clear the fault. This
switchgear systems to rated capacity. It is recommended
will be ensured by implementing proper National Electrical
that enough load be provided so that it exceeds the capacTesting Association-recommended circuit breaker testing
ity of one generator. Ideally, the load banks provided will
including instantaneous pickup, short time pickup, short
be sized to the expected operational capacity of the generatime delay, long time pickup, long time delay, ground fault
tor paralleling switchgear, but not necessarily to its full
pickup, ground fault time delay, contact resistance tests,
design capacity.
and insulation resistance tests.
Generator paralleling switchgear systems rely heavily
While main electrical switchgear is an integral part of
on programming within the programmable logic controller
the electrical distribution system, the systems current car(PLC) for operation. Knowledge of how this program operrying capacity may increase the arc flash hazard. To avoid
ates is often limited to a handful of experts. Changes to PLC
injury, main electrical switchgear should be disconnected
programming must be documented in a PLC programming
before it is opened or worked on. Because the owner will
change log. The log should include the date of the change,
often not own a means of disconnect ahead of this equipthe reason for the change, a description of the change, and
ment, it usually requires involvement from the utility prothe new version number of the program that includes the
vider, which can be problematic and difficult to schedule.
change. Older versions of the program should be saved in
Main electrical switchgear commissioning case study:
the event that updates create additional problems and revertModifications were required to be made to the main electriing back to an earlier version of the program is required.
cal switchgear that serves a data center site. To ensure that

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PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

twice with no anomalies noted. During further testing, the


failure could not be recreated. The manufacturer replaced
parts within the UPS that could have failed and caused the
initial problem. After the replacement, the UPS was tested
at a variety of load step changes and was transferred to
static bypass, maintenance bypass, and back to inverter.
An additional 2-min battery discharge at 65% load was
then conducted while UPS screen calibration was performed. The manufacturer indicated that the repairs were
successfully executed and that the system was operating
properly, but was not able to explain why a crucial function
within the UPS dramatically failed.

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Cover Story

ELECTRICAL POWER MONITORING


SYSTEM (EPMS)

The EPMS allows all of the electrical systems within the


critical facility to be monitored from a single location,
giving the operator visibility to ensure that all systems are
not generating any alarms and are operating properly and
efficiently (see Figure 5).
When confirming that the EPMS is monitoring systems
correctly, multiple states must be checked for each point.
Points must be modified in the field
and checked to ensure that the same
values or statuses observed in the
field are properly reported back to
the EPMS.
One difficulty encountered in this
area
has to do with discrepancies
STATIC TRANSFER
with
points. Design engineers typiSWITCH (STS)
cally
specify points to be monitored
An STS is an important and useful
by the EPMS, but they often apcomponent for a critical facility
prove equipment submittals that
because it provides the ability to
are unable to provide these points.
seamlessly transfer load during
To avoid this problem, it is best to
both failure and maintenance situFigure 5: The EPMS allows the operator to view the
meet with the design engineer and
ations (see Figure 4).
electrical status of every system in the critical facility
the equipment manufacturers prior
STSs behave similarly to ATSs,
from a single location.
to the acceptance of the submittals
but because they are designed to
to ensure that the points that are important to the design
transfer within a few msec, there are several settings
engineer can be provided by the equipment.
that must be coordinated. STSs are commonly fed from
EPMS commissioning case study: Many points moniUPS systems. These UPS systems are present to prevent
tored by the EPMS, including voltage spikes and sags, are
interruptions to the downstream STSs. During a planned
very difficult to simulate. To simulate real voltage sags
maintenance event or during a utility power failure, the
on a project, the electrical system was placed on generaUPSs are designed to perform transfers to bypass or battor and large step loads were added with a load bank. The
tery within a certain time frame. Because the STSs are
generator struggled to maintain the voltage when required
set up to transfer on a loss of the primary source for a
to carry the large step load, which resulted in voltage sag
certain duration, the time frame must be longer than the
alarms and generation of waveforms captured at the EPMS.
allowable interruption seen from the UPS. If not coordinated properly, a routine transfer to bypass at the UPS
level can cause the downstream STSs to transfer to their
CONCLUSION
secondary source.
The equipment in the electrical distribution system of
On several occasions, phantom voltage and current
mission critical facilities must operate dependably. After
readings have been observed at the STS screens with no
commissioning challenges have been resolved and best
connected load. Rebooting the system typically corrects this
practices have been employed, these systems will meet the
problem. While the manufacturers generally indicate that
original design intent and owners requirements, ensuring
there are no operational risks, this anomaly is puzzling.
the owner that the facility embodies reliability, redundanSTS commissioning case study: At a site containcy, and resiliency.
ing eight STSs, one unit displayed current values on a
single phase with open load breakers and no current was
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
measured using portable power monitoring equipment.
Joshua J. Gepner is a senior associate at Environmental
Another STS unit showed 160 A in this scenario while
Systems Design Inc. He has more than 10 years of engineer0 A was measured with portable power monitoring equiping experience focusing on design, consulting, and commisment. The manufacturer assured the team that simply resioning. He specializes in commissioning mission critical
booting the screen would correct the problem and would
facilities and is knowledgeable in commercial, residential,
not jeopardize the load in any way. Rebooting the screen
and industrial electrical design as well as LEED and builddid correct the problem, and the unit was monitored to
ing energy code standards.
ensure that the problem did not return.
www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

all modifications were made correctly, infrared scanning


had to be conducted. Due to the current carrying capacity
of the main electrical switchgear, it was not safe to be within 6 ft of the equipment when it was open, and opening it
could be done only when the main electrical switchgear
was not energized. This required the lengthy process of
shutting down all of the loads in the building, opening the
main electrical switchgear, and restarting all of the systems
so the main electrical switchgear could be scanned at a
safe distance under load. The same
procedure had to occur to replace
the covers on the main electrical
switchgear after the infrared scanning was completed.

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Smart Grid
By Sunondo Roy, PE, LEED BD+C, Joshua Polasky,
and Blake Shanahan, CCJM Engineers Ltd., Chicago

Anticipating
the Smart Grid

Designers, building owners, and operators should understand how the emerging
Smart Grid will impact individual buildings.

Figure 1: High-voltage
ac power lines transmit
electrical power from
power generation
stations to the local
utility distribution grid.
Courtesy: Sunondo Roy

www.csemag.com/purepower

The electric power grid is comprised of three main


components: power stations, the transmission grid operating at 110,000 Vac or above connecting the various power
stations to their distributed substations, and the local
utility distribution grid operating at 33,000 Vac or less
(see Figure 2). The greatest challenge to the power grid is
transmitting the electricity from the power plants to the
local utilities where and when its needed. The production
of electricity is dynamic, varying by region and by capacity. Similarly, the use of that electricity is dynamic, also
varying by region and by demand.
Because there is virtually no storage capacity in the
transmission grid, it is up to the power producers, the
transmission grid operators, and the local utilities to
coordinate production capacity with user demand. By the
1980s, the substations were starting
to become automated with analog
switching, although they were still
controlled by human intervention.
By the 1990s, the automation was upgraded to digital controls with limited
human intervention. The growth of
renewable energy plants also added
impetus to improve the automation. Unlike fossil fuel
power stations, renewable energy plants have limited control over when they can produce power. If the wind stops
blowing at a wind farm or if nightfall or heavy cloud cover
puts a solar array below its production threshold, the grid
needs to be able to react virtually instantaneously to pick
up the lost supply from other sources.
The Smart Grid offers a design solution to this fundamental power grid problem. Where did the Smart Grid
actually come from? Its actually the existing distributed
power grid thats been around for the past 70 years or so.
Like the smartphone and all those other smart devices
we covet, the secret sauce that is making the old power
grid into the Smart Grid is interactivity. Whereas the current power grid is essentially a one-way stream of power
with relatively slow reaction to changes in demand, the

The electrical power


grid is one of the most
massive and complex
undertakings in the U.S.

SMART GRID PRIMER


The electrical power grid is one of the most massive and
complex undertakings in the U.S. Amazingly, the entire
grid was developed independently by countless local power
producers without significant coordination by the federal
government until fairly recently.

Table 1: Sample building power load classification and prioritization


Power

Lighting

HVAC

Emergency

Non-IT plug loads

IT plug loads

Non-egress lighting

Egress lighting

Non-essential HVAC

Essential HVAC

Life safety loads

Corridor receptacles

Workstation
receptacles

Storage rooms

Exits, stairs, and


corridors

Ventilation fans

Ventilation fans

Security

Office non-IT
receptacles

Data center PDUs

Toilets
(50% design FC)

Hydronic heating

Hydronic heating

Access control

General duty copiers/


printers

Critical copiers/
printers

Open offices
(50% design FC)

Emergency heating

Freeze protection

Emergency lighting

Non-IT plug loads

IT plug loads

Offices
(50% design FC)

HVAC that can freeze

HVAC that cant freeze

Life safety loads

General elevators
(50%)

Support
(50% design FC)

Egress lighting

Egress elevators

Source: CCJM Engineers


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PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

n these times of smartphones, smart cars, smart this,


and smart that, how is a building to compete? Well, its
no news to the readers of Pure Power that buildings are
already pretty smart with building automation systems
(BAS) that allow building managers to know exactly whats
happening to the myriad energy consuming components
required to make a building functional and comfortable for
its users and profitable for its owners.
Making buildings capable of reacting to their internal and
external surroundings has been evolving for more than 40
yearsfrom manually adjusting boiler and chiller outputs to
incremental advances in control and automation, and from
pneumatic controls to analog electrical controls to modern
direct digital controls. The next step is integrating buildings into the rapidly evolving Smart Grid. The Smart Grid is
transforming last centurys national
electrical grid from a local, one-way,
passive power distribution system to
a reactive, interactive, two-way power
distribution network.
The Smart Grid will allow regional
power producers at the macro level to
communicate directly with individual
commercial or residential buildings at the micro level.
This level of communication will enable the Smart Grid
to know where demand is requiredeven to the individual
building level. Knowing where and how much power is
needed allows the Smart Grid to adjust power distribution
in real time. The agility of matching power demand with
power production minimizes the amount of power that
generating facilities must dump, and keeps base-load plants
running at minimum capacity.

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

10

Smart Grid

major piece of an HVAC system allows for


more flexibility when taking advantage of
dynamic electricity pricing or negotiating
a demand response (DR) contract.
Currently, the most common opportunities are related to DR agreements with
utilities. The Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission defines demand response
as: Changes in electric usage by end-use
customers from their normal consumption patterns in response to changes in the
price of electricity over time, or to incentive payments designed to induce lower
electricity use at times of high wholesale
market prices, or when system reliability
is jeopardized. It is important to note that
DR agreements are negotiated contracts
between businesses and utilities. As such,
they are purely optional and intended
Figure 2: The U.S. electrical power grid connects power stations, the transmission grid, and the
to be a flexible way for large electricity
local utility distribution grid. Courtesy: CCJM Engineers
customers and utilities to mutually benefit
from
the
real-time
information smart meters can now proquickly evolving Smart Grid will be able to react to power
vide. Whether done manually or remotely through installed
demand changes in real time and realign power production
automatic demand response (ADR) components, it is a
and distribution to match. It can also react to power inputs
contractual agreement between two parties, and both parfrom customers producing off-grid renewable power and
ties must understand the expectations and benefits before
crediting the microproducers in real time. Although this is
moving forward.
a gross simplification of the process, the concept provides
Aside from DR, owners/managers can use building
the necessary background for the purpose of this article.
smart meters to benefit from dynamic electricity pricing by
running equipment with strategic intent. BAS can be set to
POTENTIAL IMPACT
limit cooling, for example, when power prices hit a setpoint
ON THE COMMERCIAL BUILDING MARKET
or pre-cool a space when prices are low. This is another
While the Smart Grid as a market is still in its infancy,
scenario where proper technology (smart meter + BAS /
smart owners/managers are monitoring the trends, staying
BEMS) can yield financial benefits and justify investment.
alert for opportunities to cut costs, and planning to keep
Also, smart meters, and the advanced metering infratheir buildings compatible in the future. The grid continues
structure (AMI) necessary to effectively use them, have not
to get smarter, presenting building owners/managers with
yet achieved widespread use. Much remains in both the
greater tech-based opportunities for cost savings. ConcurR&D pipeline and regulatory negotiations before the fully
rently, more sophisticated financial tools and legal strucfunctional AMI is ready for prime time. The transition to a
tures are beginning to evolve to support the technology,
fully integrated Smart Grid will take time, but it is a matter
slowly creating a stronger business case for investments in
of whennot if. As this structure evolves technologically
this sector. Major Smart Grid investment this early should
as a market concept, there will be more opportunities.
be done only with significant research, but the day is comBuilding owners should prepare their buildings now to take
ing when those unfamiliar or unprepared to interact with
advantage of the opportunities that are on the horizon.
a Smart Grid will be at a competitive disadvantage in the
commercial building market.
Becoming familiar with available technology is the first
HOW THE SMART GRID WILL
step. Smart meters, BAS, and building energy management
AFFECT BUILDING OWNERS
systems (BEMS) are basic tools building owners/managers
To capitalize on these rapidly evolving business opportucan use to cut costs internally as well as take advantage
nities of the emerging Smart Grid, building owners and
of external opportunities. The degree to which a building
managers should ensure their building infrastructure is
is centrally controlled/monitored and able to interact with
set up to take advantage of them. Although there are many
the outside world determines its potential to benefit from
emerging technologies associated with the Smart Grid,
Smart Grid-related opportunities. For example, knowing
most are related either to power stations or to transmission
and being able to isolate the individual energy use of each
and distribution networks. Because this article is intended
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PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

12

Smart Grid

for building owners, managers, and designers, those technologies are not addressed in this article. Rather, the focus
is on those emerging technologies that will be implemented
at the micro-level of individual buildings up to a campus
of related buildings. The common thread at this end of the
power spectrum is targeted metering of power usage, disciplined and orderly power distribution within the facility,

Smart panel and breaker


implementation notes
1. The utility level smart meter is the gateway from the utility
to the customer and is provided by the utility. Depending on the

and, to the extent it is applicable, local renewable power


production.
Traditional metering is a one-way stream of usage data
from the utility meter up to the local utility and eventually the power producer with a significant time lag from
days to weeks. On the fully functional Smart Grid, a smart
meter will be the communication gateway between the
building and the local utility and also the other two parts
of the grid: the transmission and the power stations. The
goal of the Smart Grid is to allow all these components of
the power gridmajor producers, power transmitters, and
end usersto react in real time to the aggregate power
demands across their domains.

level of control that a customer is comfortable ceding to the utility


in exchange for financial incentives, the gateway modem or other

HOW THE SMART GRID WILL AFFECT BUILDING


OPERATORS, DESIGNERS

communication device can communicate with other smart controllers further down the distribution, either directly or indirectly
through customer-initiated and directed BAS curtailment actions.

Now that a basic understanding of how the Smart Grid


will eventually operate has been established, and the
fi nancial incentives have been identified, an intelligent
determination of the features an individual building will
need to reach its full potential on the Smart Grid can be
explored. Without the preceding background information,
the uninformed operator and designer could fall for the
next fad touting Smart Grid integrationwhether costand operationally effective, or not.
Advanced metering infrastructure: AMI is the power
industry term for the overall infrastructure including electronic hardware, data management software, and local
building smart meters that will allow all the market players to communicate power usage data securely, efficiently,
and, most importantly, in real time. For building operators
and designers, the component of interest and responsibility is the smart meter.
For the data that a smart meter collects to be useful
upstream, it has to be as targeted as possible. To take
advantage of peak demand saving incentives, the peak demand loads must be isolated from all other metered loads.
Examples of these peak demand loads include major
power consuming HVAC equipment such as chillers, air
handlers, and pumps and cooling towers. In larger facilities and campus facilities, these loads should be submetered further to enable determination of power usage, not
only by building or area, but also by operational priority.
Examples of the need to categorize based on operation priority include mission critical servers for financial
institutions or major life safety equipment in a larger
commercial building that cannot be shunted for any reason
regardless of the financial incentive from the utility. If they
are on the same power infrastructure as general tenant
spacesor support spaces in the case of owner occupied
buildingsthe entire power demand of the co-mingled
systems is taken off the table for eventual utility incentives.
As such, it is imperative for building operators and designers to be able to segregate critical systems from noncritical

2. Lower level panelboard smart controllers are provided by the


customer.
3. The designer must ensure that the communication protocols
of the entire smart power system are compatible. Coordinate with
the utility meters communication protocol.
4. The distribution level panelboards typically have RS-232
and/or dry contacts for local computer and/or BAS interfaces. Most
manufacturers offer multiple channels to control a discrete number of breakers or groupings of breakers to allow zoning or variable
levels of programmable control authority.

Figure 3: This single line diagram shows a typical smart panel


and breaker implementation. Courtesy: CCJM Engineers

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PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

14

Smart Grid

and support systems. Typically, for most businesses, the


cost impact of reduced productivity from even noncritical
systems may be too great compared to the potential utility
incentives that are being offered. As such, it is important
for the entire building management and operations team to
establish the true costs and benefits of any DR scheme and
agree to cutbacks only where the impact of the reduction
makes overall financial sense. After the determination of
appropriate systems is made, then only those sub-systems
need to be isolated and tracked through the AMI.
Design, renovation of power distribution: The critical
issue at the local building level is the efficacy of the power
distribution infrastructure. The promise of the Smart Grid
is to allow buildings to help their local utilities manage
peak power demand in return for financial incentives.
The facility electrical designer has a number of options to
implement a smart metering infrastructure into new and
existing buildings. The common feature among all solutions involves a central signal from the utility that a curtailment event is required. Typically, this communication
component is by the utility and is a part of the actual utility
meter. The two general approaches the building owner can
implement include a more rigid solution and a more flexible
solution. Each has its pros and cons. In the rigid solution
approach, the designer provides smart breakers for various
power circuits for non-emergency, non-essential loads that
he or she can actively disable based on a hierarchy similar
to Table 1. This rigid solution, though more invasive to the
buildings power infrastructure and thus higher first cost,
ensures a higher level of certainty that curtailment loads
will meet contractual requirements of a DR agreement.
Alternatively, a more flexible solution is to allow the BAS
to send signals to various equipment controllers or even
to smart panelboards to either raise setpoint temperatures
or other parameter settings that will produce the desired
demand reduction in HVAC systems, selectively shutting
off particular lighting circuits to create step dimming (most
economical), or sending a signal to a lighting control panel
to dim all or specific lighting fi xtures or circuits to achieve
desired lighting reductions. The risk to this solution is that
the reductions may not always meet the reduction targets
based on the intricacies of BAS sequencing, safeties, and
overrides. The following describes the general design considerations to implement these options.
For the rigid solution, the challenge to implement smart
breaker load shedding is the redesign and re-installation of
existing power distribution to the extent necessary to allow
isolating non-essential power loads at the scale that meet
the requirements of the utility offering the DR incentive.
The solution is a balancing act. In some situations, it will
require selective re-feeding of feeders from comingled panels to dedicated panels that are on the smart metered nonessential feed. In most instances, the most cost-effective
solution may be to isolate the non-essential loads, wherever
www.csemag.com/purepower

they may be fed from, using smart breakers that have a


shared communication protocoltypically wirelesswith
the smart metering system. This allows the maximum penetration into the buildings power distribution infrastructure and allows multiple levels of control over non-essential
and even noncritical loads, depending on the incentives
that are being offered.
For new buildings, it is imperative for electrical designers, building owners, and building operators to establish a
hierarchy of specific targeted and critical loads to segregate
those that the building owner has determined are on the
table during eventual DR agreement negotiations. After
the loads are classified, the electrical designer can proceed
with a power distribution scheme that not just allows
originally installed components to be properly segregated,
but also anticipates future growth of the loads by category.
Table 1 offers an example of the categories and sample
loads that may be established to help define the overall
power distribution system and provide guidelines for future
expansion and renovation within the building.
The flexible solution also requires some level of upgrade
to the power distribution. However, most of the curtailment
actions can be implemented through modifications to BAS
sequence of operations and lighting controller sequencing.
In new construction, the designer may choose to include
smart panelboards and smart breakers to allow a hybrid solution that includes BAS sequences of operations tailored to
lowering power demand through raised thermal setpoints
in the cooling season and lowered setpoints in the heating
season, and also implementing direct shunting of specific
power circuits where it makes more economical sense to
isolate non-essential loads and simply turn them off instead
of variably reducing capacity.
Most small commercial HVAC equipment does not have
an option to variably reduce performance; it is simply on/
off. For those devices, shutting power off through a smart
breaker may be the most practical approach. For HID lighting, the only practical load reduction scheme is to segregate
a portion of the lighting to specific circuits that can be shut
off when required. Fluorescent lighting may be dimmed
using dimming ballasts, but the cost of the premium ballasts may outweigh any utility-based financial incentive
or extend the payback beyond acceptable limits. The more
practical solution is to simply route certain fi xtures to
dedicated circuits that can be selectively shut off through
lighting controller relays or smart breakers to simulate a
step dimming solution that is acceptable to the building occupants, life safety requirements, and curtailment requirements (see Figure 3). Alternatively, where light levels must
remain more uniform, fi xtures may be provided with dual
ballasts to reduce a portion of lamps within each fi xture in
certain coverage areas.
Wireless, smart meter and panel/BAS integration,
renewable energy sources, and electric vehicle are tech-

15

tocol for emerging Smart Grid technologies commercially


referred to as the wiSUN protocol, an open-source protocol based on IEEE 802.15.4g-2012, IEEE Standard for Local
and Metropolitan Area NetworksPart 15.4: Low-Rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs) Amendment 3: Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications for Low-DataRate, Wireless, Smart Metering Utility Networks, that
operates in the 896-901 MHz, 901-202 MHz, 902928 MHz,
928-960 MHz, 1427-1518 MHz, and 2,4002,483.5 MHz
bands within the U.S.
Integration of BAS with smart meters, power panels:
To achieve a flexible power reduction scheme, it will be
essential that HVAC and lighting controls are able to react
to the Smart Grids AMI. This communication will allow
selective shunting of segregated loads or partial reduction
of targeted loads, depending on operational and life safety
requirements. The nuances of the various categories in
Table 1 and Figure 3 will require intimate communication
between the AMI and not just the building level smart
meter, but also with contractually defined specific powerconsuming devices within a building under ADR schemes.
Without a solid understanding of these systems and
hierarchy, there is great potential for abuse and unintended release of operation control for nonproportional

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PurePower_Reliability_Summer13_A1.indd 1

4/18/13 4:35 PM

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

nologies on the horizon that will directly affect commercial


buildings and are worth further exploration.
Wireless technologies: In the U.S., the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been tasked
under the Energy Independence and Security Act of
2007 with creating the overall master plan of Smart Grid
interoperability standards. Within that framework, IEEE
is at the forefront of standards development to ensure uniformity and interoperability of the various components of
the power production, metering, and data tracking on the
Smart Grid. Of particular interest to building designers
is a group of specialized standards developed under the
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee. The various
working groups under this committee are developing the
protocols for local area networks and metropolitan area
networks that are the foundation of the interconnectivity
and communications needed to ensure secure, reliable
data transfer from buildings all the way up to the power
producers as part of the AMI. Of the myriad wireless
protocols, most of the major technology vendors are using
this technology instead of the technology used for cellular
telephony. As such, there may be interoperability issues
within the growing field of BAS wireless controls. As of
last 2012, IEEE has adopted a new dedicated wireless pro-

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

16

Smart Grid

compensation through utility incentives. Many of these


instances of apparent utility takeover of private residences and commercial properties litter the typical Internet
searches for the term demand response. In virtually
every case, it was a situation where the building owner
was uninformed about the agreements he or she was
signing and what was expected in
return for the fi nancial incentives that
were so gladly received.
Electrical and HVAC designers
should be aware of standards that are
being developed to establish an agreedupon protocol for the communication of
these systems with the technologies being developed within the AMI domain, which will intersect with the facility engineering domains at the smart
meter. Of particular note will be ASHRAE Standard 201P
(proposed)Facility Smart Grid Information Model,
which is currently under development in conjunction
with NEMA to create uniformity in the communication
between HVAC equipment, BAS, smart breakers and panels, lighting controls, and the AMI. This eventual standard, along with IEEE 802.15.4g, will enable the discrete
control of virtually all energy consuming equipment to
allow variable reduction in power consumption to meet
negotiated power reduction targets of ADR agreements.
By properly categorizing load centers and establishing a
communication protocol between controlled equipment
and the power source without and beyond the building
envelope, all parties can benefit without surprises or
sensational headlines in the media.
Locally produced renewables at the building level:
Currently, an increasing number of large-scale renewable production facilities are being developed by the
major power producers and their affi liates. Because
they are developed with direct interaction with the
power producers, they are directly connected to the
power grid and integrated through the AMI. Point-ofuse renewable energy technologynamely solar photovoltaic and wind poweris beginning to turn buildings
into micro power generators. This brings opportunities
for energy arbitrage through net metering while creating a more complex legal situation. The promise of a
fully functional Smart Grid must also include a fairer
and more interactive marketplace for locally produced
renewable power at this micro scale of 10 MW or less.
At present, customers may produce on-site wind or solar photovoltaic power to offset local building loads and
back feed unused power to the local utility grid and
reverse power usage charges. This activity is known in
real time by the utility or the power producers to determine the magnitude of the aggregated regional load to
establish a utility-level response back to the power producer whether or not additional power station resources

are required for real-time loads. Similarly, weather


predictive loads such as forecasted heat waves, high
wind events, or similar meteorological forces can affect
not only demand, but also local production capacity.
However, utilities currently do not know the specific
production at the individual building level unless smart
meters are installed. Without that
discrete knowledge, it is not possible to
provide targeted incentives to individual customers.
IEEE has developed Standard 1547:
Standard for Distributed Resources
Interconnected with Electric Power
Systems to help standardize the technologies and processes necessary to integrate these
small organic producers into the overall AMI of utilities
and power producers.

The emerging Smart


Grid offers tremendous
promise for all levels
of the power grid.

www.csemag.com/purepower

OPPORTUNITIES ON THE HORIZON


The emerging Smart Grid offers tremendous promise for
all levels of the power grid, but can also cause tremendous pain if not properly understood and implemented.
Consider this introduction to some of the basic technology, developments, and pitfalls that owners, operators, and designers of the individual building should
understand to position the building to take advantage
of everything the emerging Smart Grid has to offer.
By designing the power distribution system properly
and understanding what operation controls owners are
willing to cede to the power producers and utilities, the
Smart Grid can offer significant fi nancial incentives to
building owners. The proactive owner who makes his
or her buildings as smart as the grid is the one who
will reap the rewards.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Sunondo Roy is vice president of CCJM Engineers. He is a


cross-disciplinary engineer who has worked in educational,
commercial, aviation, industrial, and institutional facilities
for the past 25 years.
Joshua Polasky is an associate at CCJM Engineers, where
he specializes in business process assessments and energy
audits.
Blake Shanahan is an electrical engineering intern at CCJM
Engineers who is pursuing his electrical engineering undergraduate degree at Northern Illinois University.

For further reading


 The Smart Grid: An Introduction. Prepared for the U.S. Department of
Energy by Litos Strategic Communication under contract No. DE-AC2604NT41817, Subtask 560.01.04
 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI).Document # 1014793. Electric
Power Research Institute, February 2007.

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SM

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

18

Arc Flash Mitigation


By Syed M. Peeran, PhD, PE, CDM Smith, Cambridge, Mass.

Mitigating arc flash


hazards in medium-voltage
switchgear
Engineers should be aware of design alternatives that can reduce arc flash hazards in medium-voltage systems.

he term arc, which literally means part of a


circle, is attributed to Humphrey Davis, an English
scientist. In 1802, Davis demonstrated that electric
current can flow between two carbon rods separated in air by a short distance in the form of a band of
ionized air that looks like an upward bow. In fact, electrical science started with the study of the electric arc. Soon,
a number of inventions came forth, such as arc lamps, arc
furnaces, spark plugs, arc welders, and others. Today, the
electric arc is again a subject of great interest and study because of the hazards it creates in electrical distribution systems due to its intense heat, which can destroy equipment
and cause severe or fatal injuries to unprotected personnel
who are unfortunate to be in close proximity to it.
In all electrical equipment, a serious hazard exists for
operating personnel due to possible arcing between energized parts and between energized parts and grounded
metal enclosures. Hazardous arcing can take place in electrical equipment because of one or more of the following:
 Accidentally dropping metal tools in energized parts

Line-to-line arcing fault in a 3-phase system

Ia = (EAB - Va)/2Z

Figure 1: This diagram shows a line-to-line arc in a 3-phase system.


Courtesy: CDM Smith
www.csemag.com/purepower

 Incorrect alignment of contacts in draw-out circuit


breakers
 Loose connections can cause overheating and minor
arcing, which can escalate to an arcing fault
 Rodents and vermin in switchgear enclosures
 Defective cable and bus insulation.
The arc behaves like a flexible conductor and consists of
ionized air at very high temperature, in the order of
35,000 Fmore than three times hotter than the surface
of the sun. It can burn holes in copper bus bars. It can
vaporize copper, which when condensed on other parts can
cause secondary faults. It can cause pressure buildup and/
or an explosion in enclosed equipment. It can cause severe
burns and can ignite clothing.
OSHA and the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) have adopted specific requirements with regard to
the arc flash hazard. OSHA requires that all equipment be
marked with a label that indicates the arc flash boundary,
the incident energy in the arc, the safe working distance,
and the category of clothing and other protective equipment to be used by personnel. Article 110.16, which states
that the equipment be clearly and visibly labeled to warn
personnel of the potential arc-flash hazard, was introduced
in NFPA 70: National Electrical Code in 2002. In 2004,
NFPA 70E: Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace
required that shock and arc-flash hazard analyses be completed to determine the level of personal protective equipment required in each location.

INCIDENT ENERGY, WORKING DISTANCE,


AND HAZARD RISK CATEGORY
Incident energy is the measure of the severity of the hazard
to workers. This quantity is defined as the energy density
in calories/cm2 or Joules/cm2 to which the workers face
or body is exposed in an arc flash event at the working

distance. The working distance is the typical distance


between a potential source of the arc in the equipment and
the face or body of the person performing the work on the
equipment. The value of the incident energy determines
the type of mandatory protective clothing to be worn by
the worker. Typical working distances defined by IEEE Std.
1584 include:
 15 kV switchgear: 36 in.
 5 kV switchgear: 36 in.
 Low-voltage switchgear: 24 in.
 Low-voltage motor control centers and panel boards:
18 in.
 Cables: 18 in.
Arc flash hazard is quantified by a number called the
hazard risk category (HRC). According to NFPA 70E, the relationship between the HRC, the available incident energy,
and the type of protective equipment is listed in Table 1.

ARC FLASH EQUATIONS, SOLUTION


In 1982, Ralph H. Lee published a paper in the IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications on calculation of the incident
energy in open air arcs, such as in outdoor substations. This
paper triggered renewed interest in the arc flash phenomenon.
In 2002, the IEEE Industry Applications Society published
IEEE Standard 1584: IEEE Guide for Performing Arc Flash
Hazard Calculations and issued subsequent amendments
in 2004 and 2011 as 1584a and 1584b. The equations in this
standard are empirically derived using statistical analyses and
curve-fitting algorithms on a huge collection of experimental
data (see Calculating arcing faults). The equations can be
used for systems from 208 to 15 kV, 50 to 60 Hz, available
short-circuit current from 700 to 106,000 A, and for arcing
distances from 0.5 to 6.0 in.
For any electrical equipment, there are two significant parameters that determine the incident energy and,
therefore, the type of protective clothing to be used. These
parameters are the arcing fault current Ia and the duration of the arc t. The arcing fault current Ia is less than
the bolted fault current (Ibf) because of the voltage drop
across the arc or because of the arc resistance. For a given
arc length, the arc voltage drop is almost constant for a
wide range of current. Consequently, the arc exhibits negative incremental resistance. The term bolted signifies a
fault through zero resistance, as when the 3-phase wires
are stripped, lugged, and bolted together.
Figure 1 simplifies the relationship between the arcing
fault current and the arc voltage drop. The drawing shows
why the arcing fault current Ia is considerably less than
the bolted fault current Ibf in low-voltage equipment, while
it is about 90% of Ibf in medium-voltage and high-voltage
equipment. This is because the arc voltage drop, which is
approximately 200 V for a 2-in. arc, is a significant part of
the circuit voltage in 480 V equipment, while it is less than

Figure 2: This diagram shows bus differential protection of medium-voltage switchgear. Courtesy: CDM Smith

10% of the circuit voltage in 4.16 kV and 13.8 kV equipment.


The arc voltage drop depends on several factors including
the clearances in different classes of equipment. The relation
between Ia and Ibf and the relation between the incident
energy E and Ia and t are given in Section 5 of IEEE 1584.
These equations are programmed into the arc flash evaluation programs of most distribution system analysis software.
These programs require that a short-circuit study be performed first to determine Ibf at the equipment in question.

DURATION OF THE ARC


The duration of the arcing fault has a direct impact on the
available incident energy. Arcing faults, like all other faults,
must be detected and cleared by the first upstream circuit
protective device. Therefore, the total arcing time is the total clearing time of the device, which, in the case of circuit
breakers, equals the sum of the relay or sensor time and
the breaker operating time. Relay or sensor time depends
on the setting of the relay and the fault current. Typical
circuit breaker operating times are listed in Table 2.

MITIGATING HAZARDS IN MEDIUM-VOLTAGE


EQUIPMENT
There are many reasons why mitigation of arc flash hazards is of greater concern in medium-voltage equipment.
First, medium-voltage switchgear occupies a higher hierarchical position in most radial distribution systems. Consequently, medium-voltage protective devices must be set to
operate with a greater time delay to allow the low-voltage
downstream devices to operate first in the event of a fault.
Second, medium-voltage circuit breakers take more time to
clear a fault than do low-voltage circuit breakers. In addition,
the arcing fault current is very nearly equal to the bolted
fault current. The increased arcing time and the higher arcing fault current contribute to greater incident energy and
HRC. Because of the higher hierarchical position, dewww.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Bus differential
protection of
medium-voltage
switchgear

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

20

Arc Flash Mitigation

Figure 3A: Line-side arcing fault

Figure 3B: Fuse replaced with vacuum


breaker and differential relay

Arcing fault current: Ia = 15.9 kA


Bolted fault current Ibf = 28.7 kA
HRC level: Dangerous
Arc duration: 2.4 sec

Figure 3: Diagram A shows a system in which a line-side fault creates


excessive incident energy. Diagram B shows how differential protection for
this system reduces the incident energy Courtesy: CDM Smith

energizing the medium-voltage switchgear for maintenance


work is often not an option because it would shut down a
significant portion of a facility. Therefore, one must look
seriously at various methods of reducing the HRC.
Design alternatives that can reduce arc flash hazards in
medium-voltage systems include:
 Use of smaller and higher impedance transformers
 Bus differential and transformer differential protection
 Current limiting fuses
 Maintenance switch
 Arc flash detecting relays
 Arc-resistant switchgear
 Crowbar methods
 Remote operator panels.
The engineer must evaluate each option and select one
or more most appropriate for a given system.
Smaller and higher impedance transformers: Most
distribution systems are radial. Instead of specifying one
large-capacity, medium-voltage transformer to feed the
plant, two or more small-capacity, higher-impedance
transformers can be used to supply individual areas of the
plant. The idea is to reduce the available bolted fault current and the arcing fault current. Reducing the arcing fault
current does not necessarily increase the fault clearing
time. Relays can be set to minimize the fault clearing time.
For example, a 3,000 kVA, 13.8 kV/4.16 kV transformer
with typically 6% reactance would be a source of 6,940
www.csemag.com/purepower

Arcing fault current: Ia = 15.9 kA


Bolted fault current: Ibf = 28.7 kA
Incident energy E: Ia = 5.8 cal/cm2
Arc duration: 0.1 sec
HRC level: 2

A of short-circuit current at the 4.16 kV switchgear, while


a 1,500 kVA transformer with 8% reactance can supply
only 2,603 A of short-circuit current. The incident energy
in the event of an arcing fault would be reduced by 62%.
However, the capital cost and the space requirements for
two 1,500 kVA transformers would be more than those for
the 3,000 kVA transformer. In addition, higher transformer
impedance would cause a greater steady-state voltage drop
and a greater transient voltage dip during motor starting.
These drawbacks must be evaluated and weighed against
the advantage of reduced arc flash incident energy.
Bus differential, transformer differential protection:
Differential protection is a means of clearing the fault inside
the zone of protection without intentional delay and without
interfering with the overcurrent protective device coordination. The zone of protection is defined by the location of
the current transformers (see Figure 2). Another common
instance where differential protection would considerably
reduce the arc flash hazard is shown in Figure 3A. Transformer primary protection is provided by a fuse. The fuse
is chosen to provide adequate protection to the transformer
and to permit the magnetizing inrush current. A fault at the
line side of the secondary main breaker must be cleared by
the primary fuse only. Often the HRC for the line side fault
in this situation is excessive. If the fuse is replaced by a circuit breaker and differential protection is provided, the line

21

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Figure 4A: Medium-voltage


distribution system
Figure 4: Diagram A shows a single-line diagram of
a medium-voltage distribution system. Diagram B
shows the benefit of using a maintenance switch.
Courtesy: CDM Smith

side fault would be cleared without delay and the HRC can
be brought down considerably (see Figure 3B).
Current limiting fuses: Current limiting fuses have
the capability to clear faults within a half cycle (less than
0.0083 sec) in addition to limiting the let-through current. Current limiting action of the fuse results from the
melting of the silver filaments inside a sand filling inside
the fuse, thus creating multiple arcs inside. Great reduction in the available incident energy is possible because of
the fast clearing of the fault. However, this is possible only
when the fault current lies in the current-limiting range
of the fuse characteristic. For example, in a 15 kV 300 A
current limiting fuse, the current limiting action takes
place for fault current in excess of 6,000 A. The benefit of
current limiting fuses can be realized only if the available
short-circuit current is in excess of 6,000 A. One must also
recognize that it is difficult to coordinate current limiting
fuses with downstream protective devices.
Maintenance mode on solid state protective relays: A
maintenance switch is now available in most mediumvoltage circuit breakers as a means of temporarily adjusting the settings of the solid state protective device during
scheduled maintenance such that arcing faults are cleared
without delay, while still maintaining the desired settings
for coordination with downstream protective devices.
Figure 4 shows the application and the benefit of a maintenance switch in 4.16 kV switchgear. Figure 4A shows the
single-line diagram of the switchgear. Figure 4B shows the

Figure 4B: Time-current curve

Reference voltage: 4,160 V


Current in Amps x 1
Bus fault current (InitSym 3P)

Maintenance switch resets


instantaneous trip from 16 kA to
6,000 A. Trip time for arcing fault
of 8.44 kA reduced from 1.22 sec
to 0.15 sec.

www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

22

Arc Flash Mitigation

Table 1: Hazard risk categories


Hazard risk
category

Typical protective
equipment

Table 2: Typical circuit breaker operating times


Incident energy
Cal/cm2

Nonmelting flammable material

Fire resistant pants and fire resistant


shirt, or fire resistant coverall

Cotton underwear plus fire resistant


shirt and fire resistant pants

Cotton underwear plus fire resistant


shirt, fire resistant pants, and fire
resistant coverall

25

Cotton underwear plus fire resistant


shirt, fire resistant pants, and multilayered flash suit

40

1.2
4

Operating time, msec


(number of cycles at 60 Hz)

Low-voltage molded-case breakers


(less than 1,000 V)

25 (1.5)

Low-voltage power circuit breakers


(integral trip or relay operated)

50 (3.0)

Medium-voltage circuit breakers


(1 kV to 35 kV)

83.3 (5)

High-voltage circuit breakers


(greater than 35 kV)

133.3 (8)

Source: IEEE Standard 1584-2002, Table 1

Source: NFPA 70E

Figure 5: High-speed grounding


switch application

Figure 5: This diagram shows a typical high-speed grounding switch application. Courtesy: CDM Smith

time-current curves of the main and the feeder breaker


relays. The calculated arcing fault current is 8.44 kA for a
bus fault. The fault is cleared by the main breaker in 1.303
sec (including the breaker time), the incident energy is 12
cal/cm2, and the HRC level is 3.
When the maintenance switch is engaged, the main
breaker relays instantaneous setting is reduced from 80
(16,000 A) to 30 (6,000 A), below the expected arcing fault
current. The arcing fault will now be cleared in 0.015 sec,
www.csemag.com/purepower

Circuit breaker type

the incident energy is reduced to 1.2 cal/cm2, and the HRC


level is reduced from 3 to 1.
While using the maintenance switch, plant supervisors must enforce an error-proof method of ensuring that
the maintenance switch is disengaged after the scheduled
maintenance work is completed. Otherwise, there will be
nuisance tripping of the main breaker.
Arc flash protective relays: Light emitted by the arc can
be used to detect an arcing fault instead of current sensing. This is the principle of operation of arc flash protective
relays now being marketed by some companies in the U.S.
The result is the same as that of the maintenance switch
except that no human action is necessary. Arcing inside the
switchgear enclosure is detected by either a photoelectric
receptor or a length of fiber-optic cable. The input is given
to a single-function or a multifunction electronic protective relay, which can trigger instantaneous tripping of the
breaker. This method is independent of the magnitude of
the arcing fault current and can detect arcing in the early
stage of its development. One company claims that the
detection takes place in 1.0 msec. These relays have not
gained wide acceptance yet, but they surely present a better way of detecting arcing and immediate tripping than
current sensing.
Arc-resistant switchgear: In extreme cases, severe arcing in enclosed equipment can cause tremendous pressure
buildup and may result in an explosion. The explosion will
relieve the pressure buildup but will not quench or terminate the arc, which will proceed to cause thermal damage
to the bus bars and enclosures until it is cleared by circuit
breakers. This is the most probable scenario that resulted
in several low-voltage and medium-voltage switchgear
being completely gutted by internal arcing. Arc resistant
switchgear is available that is structurally strong and has
means of relieving the pressure buildup. The means consist
of louvers and vents in the back of the enclosure, away
from the operators, to exhaust the rapidly expanding air.
There are many environments in which the extra expense of the arc resistant switchgear is justifiable. In many
industries, the additional cost is much lower than the cost
of repair, downtime, compensations, and litigation.

23

The following equations are used in calculating the arcing fault current:
For system voltage under 1 kV:
lg(Ia) = K + 0.662 lg(Ibf) + 0.0966 V + 0.000526 G + 0.5588 V (lg Ibf) 0.00304 G (lg Ibf)
Where:
lg = the log10 (logarithm to the base 10)
Ia = arcing current, kA
K = -0.153 or open air arcs; -0.097 for arcs-in-a-box
Ibf = bolted three-phase available short-circuit current (symmetrical rms), kA
V = system voltage, kV
G = conductor gap, mm
For system voltage greater than or equal to 1 kV:
lg (Ia) = 0.00402 + 0.983 lg (Ibf)
Figure 6: The photo shows a typical remote operator
panel for a 4,160 V switchgear unit. Courtesy: CDM
Smith

The incident energy E is calculated using the following equation:


E = 4.184 Cf En (t/0.2) ( 610x/Dx)
Where:
E = incident energy, J/cm2
Cf = calculation factor
=1.0 for voltages above 1 kV
=1.5 for voltages at or below 1 kV
En = incident energy normalized
t = arcing time, sec
x = distance exponent
D = working distance, mm

Crowbar methods: A radically different


method of dealing with arcing faults is
what is known as the crowbar method.
This method is well known in Europe
and is recognized as a viable method
in medium-voltage switchgear by the
International Electrotechnical Commission Standard 62271-200. Unfortunately,
The normalized incident energy is given by the following equation:
no U.S. standard has yet been developed
lg En = k1 + k2 + 1.081 lg(Ia) + 0.0011 G
as a guideline for the application of this
In these equations, the values of G and the exponent x depend on the voltage and the type of
method. Essentially, the crowbar method
equipment. For example, for 480-V switchgear, G = 32 mm and x = 1.473. For other voltages
consists of high-speed detection of arcing,
and other equipment, Table D.7.2 of IEEE Std. 1584 gives the values of G and x.
intentional creation of a 3-phase bolted
fault, and clearing of the bolted fault by the
Source: IEEE Std. 1584-2002 IEEE Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations
circuit breaker. The bolted fault is created
by a grounding switch. The circuit voltage
is brought to zero and the arc collapses. In the U.S., this
separate room. If space is available for the remote panels,
method is marketed as a high-speed grounding switch (see
the equipment itself is not expensive. All circuit breakers in
Figure 5). Arcing is detected by an optical sensor. An electhe switchgear must be electrically operated. In addition, a
tronic relay energizes an actuator, which closes the 3-phase
motor-operated draw-out mechanism must be provided. All
grounding switch, thus creating a 3-phase bolted fault. The
breaker control switches, auto/manual switches, indicator
bolted fault is sensed by the system protective relaying and
lamps, ammeter and voltmeter switches, meters, and an
the circuit breaker is tripped. Another company is marketoperator interface terminal can be installed in the remote
ing a scheme in which, instead of creating a bolted fault, a
operator panel (see Figure 6).
second arc is created inside a confined and mechanically
strong drum-like enclosure. This second arc being parallel
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
with the fault arc serves the same purpose as the bolted
Syed M. Peeran is a senior electrical engineer at CDM Smith.
short-circuit.
He has more than 20 years of experience in the design of
Remote operating panels: Safety of personnel from
electrical distribution systems. For several years, he was an
arc flash hazards can be ensured by providing remote
adjunct professor at Northeastern University, Boston, and is
operating panels from which all manual operation of the
a member of the Consulting-Specifying Engineer editorial
switchgear can be performed. The remote panels must
advisory board.
be located at a safe distance from the switchgear or in a
www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Calculating arcing faults

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

24

Generator Sizing Software


By Abby Lipperman, PE, LEED AP BD+C, and Danna
Jensen, PE, LEED AP BD+C, ccrd partners, Dallas

Comparing generator
sizing software
Generator sizing software can help engineers optimize emergency system designs for various load types.

ission critical facilities, such as hospitals, data


centers, financial institutions, and other data
processing facilities, are required to protect
against possible failures of normal electric utility power sources and provide a reliable alternate supply of
power. Engine-driven generators are the workhorses that
fulfill this need for emergency and standby power. With
critical operationsand many times, human liferelying
on these systems, it is important for the engineer to design
an emergency system that is sized correctly for the various
types of loads. If a generator system is undersized, it will
cause voltage fluctuations and damage to the generator or
equipment it serves, or worse, lose the load entirely. If it is
oversized, it may develop maintenance problems and other
issues such as wet stacking.
The most common method for sizing a generator system
is total connected load. However, there are various other

factors, such as altitude, temperature, fuel type, and application, that influence generator sizing. In todays mission
critical facilities, there are also number of different types
of loads, such as fire pumps, chillers, and UPS systems
connected to an emergency/standby power system, that
can impact the generator size. Each of these load types has
a different characteristic during start-up and run time, and
reacts differently under various electrical anomalies. Some
load types, such as fire pumps, have specific voltage drop
(less than 15%) or frequency dip requirements that must be
met during start-up. These factors must be considered and
analyzed when sizing a generator.
A detailed analysis of the load and sizing parameters to
manually size a generator can be a daunting task. However,
sophisticated software is available to assist the designer in
sizing and selecting the correct engine. Generator sizing
software programs in todays marketplace are intricately
developed to allow for a precise selection that is specifically catered to each application.
To take an in-depth look at their characteristics, this
article presents a hypothetical project using four popular
sizing software programs. The case study includes predefined load parameters and includes tips and techniques
to optimize the generator size.

EXAMPLE PROJECT
For this example, consider a facility that requires a standby
diesel genset to support various loads (see Figure 1). For
these loads, assume that the system can tolerate a maximum of 35% voltage dip and 10% frequency dip. The loads
that the genset must support are listed in Table 1.

CUMMINS POWER SUITE


5.0 GENSIZE

Figure 1: This one-line diagram represents an example facility that requires a genset to support various loads. All graphics/data courtesy: ccrd
www.csemag.com/purepower

Cummins Power Suite 5.0 GenSize is a software program


developed by Cummins Power Generation Inc. According
to developers, the goal of the program was to have a tool
that is easy to use, yet very flexible. The program allows
users to input specific parameters, such as voltage drop of

25

Type of load
Fire pump
Fluorescent lighting
UPS system
Transformer
Medical imaging
Chiller
Elevator
HVAC pump
HVAC fan
HVAC air handling unit fan

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2

Characteristics
100 hp motor, across-the-line starting (15% voltage drop as required by NEC)
100 kW connected load
12 pulse, 150 kVA, 90% loaded
200 kW connected load
MRI, 115 kVA momentary power, 20 kW running power
200 tons, 170 minimum circuit ampacity
60 hp motor (each elevator), variable voltage, variable frequency starting controllers
50 hp motor, across-the-line starting, 0.85 power factor, 90% full load efficiency
40 hp motor, across-the-line starting, 0.85 power factor, 90% full load efficiency
40 hp motor, across-the-line starting, 0.85 power factor, 90% full load efficiency
60 hp motor (each fan), across-the-line starting, 0.85 power factor, 90% full load efficiency

engine as well as building information modeling (BIM)


motor loads, which allows for maximum flexibility. The
results. There are several print features available directly
program also includes default parameters that help ensure
from the results page as well.
the designer does not undersize a generator. In addition, on
each page, it includes page-specific help tools that include
tips and direct links for contacting the local distributor.
CATERPILLAR ELECTRIC POWER SPECSIZER
The software is available as an online database that allows
SpecSizer is a software program developed by Caterpillar
the developers to provide current performance data, which
Inc. It is currently available as a downloadable program
is updated regularly to ensure the user is not using obsolete
from the Caterpillar website, and the software resides on
data. Cummins Power Suite GenSize includes an online
each individual computer. According to developers, the
tool that allows collaborative work in which projects can
system will be available as an online program by the end of
be shared on the online dashboard among designers or
2013. The program allows users to enter specific parameapplication engineers. The data are not visible to any other
ters, such as percentage of intermittent motor starts, which
user unless the project is specifically shared on the collaboallows the designer to account for real-world operating
ration site. The program is not available in a downloadable
conditions when working with systems that have a large
version, but projects that have been initiated in
earlier versions of the downloadable version can
be uploaded to the site.
The example project load data was entered
into the program based on a number of available presets (see Table 2). The loads were then
assigned to the quantity of steps applicable to
the project. After the data are entered and the
steps are assigned, the software first selects
the smallest genset that meets the performance
requirements. For the example project, the software recommended a single 1,500 kW/1,875 kVA
genset. In addition to this selection, the program
provided alternate selections of generators that
may meet the needs and highlights parameters
that wont meet the entered requirements. The
program highlights the parameters in two different colors: red if it wont meet the requirements,
and yellow if there are some cautionary items
the designer should consider. This feature helps
the user understand exactly what is driving the
size of the engine and provides guidance on some
design changes that could be made to reduce the
system size. On the results page, the specification Figure 2: This one-line diagram of the example facility represents selected strategies for
sheets are directly linked to the system-selected
optimizing emergency system designs for various load types.
www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Table 1: Genset loads for example project

26

Generator Sizing Software

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

project sizing reports and provides


a transient performance report
showing the true characteristics to
be expected per step. The software
also provides links where the user
can download the spec sheets or go
directly to the website. BIM models
are currently not available directly
through links from the software.
However, drawings and other application data are provided.

GENERAC POWER
DESIGN PRO
Power Design Pro is a software program developed by Generac Power
Systems Inc. The software can be
 Cummins Power Suite 5.0 GenSize reduced the required generator from 1,500 kW to 1,000 kWa
reduction of 33% and two full engine sizes.
downloaded from the Generac web Caterpillar Electric Power SpecSizer reduced the required generators from 2,000 kW to 1,500 kW
site to an individual computer. After
a reduction of 25% and one full engine size.
the registration process, program
 Kohler QuickSize did not change the result and still required a single 1,500 kW engine. However,
operation begins with the project
some of the parameters, such as voltage dip, were more favorable.
setup. This software includes very
 Generac Power Design Pro autoselect function reduced the required generators from six 500 kW to
thorough data preset options, such
four 400 kW generatorsa reduction of 47% and two full engines.
as NEC application, enclosure types,
fuel tank options, and run time.
A
user
settings
tab
offers
overall parameter data input
quantity of motors. Other features expected in the online
for future project use if desired. The software also offers
version include a specific chiller load parameter, which will
downloadable material from the start-up page including
help system designers model chiller loads more accurately
specifications, spec sheets, installation instructions, and an
than the currently available ac load feature.
engine emissions certificate for the recommended genset.
The load data from the example project was entered into
After the project setup is complete, the user adds loads
the program based on the available predetermined loads (see
from the predetermined load menu. This software offers
Table 1). As the loads are added, the software displays an
the largest selection of load options compared to the other
up-to-date report of the connected load on the load scenario
programs (see Table 2). After the load data are entered, the
screen. The loads are assigned a step when the load is enloads are assigned to either a group (non-concurrent load)
tered. After the data are entered and the loads are assigned,
or a step (concurrent load). The load summary page is
the program generates a selection based on the smallest
continually updated with the recommended generators as
generator that will meet the performance requirements.
loads and steps are added.
For the example project, the software indicated that no
A unique feature of Power Design Pro is the ability to
standard SINGLE genset is large enough under the specimanually select the generator. Instead of using an autosefied site conditions. Sizing will continue by paralleling
lect function, the designer may input a specific kW rating
the minimum number of generator sets necessary. The
and configuration. For the example project, after the loads
software recommended four 550 kW/687.5 kVA paralleled
were entered under the autoselect function, the program
units. The initial results were unexpected because Caterrecommended six 500 kW/625 kVA paralleled generators.
pillar offers larger size engines. After further discussion
When switched to the manual function, and 600 kW units
with the software expert, it was discovered that SpecSizer
were selected (the maximum kW rating offered by Genoffers three different input parameters for the genset duty.
erac), the program recommended three 600 kW/750 kVA
If emergency standby is selectedas opposed to standby
units. Although it wasnt recommended by the autoselect
or standby/ESPthe program limits the selection to a very
function, alternate quantities and sizes of generators were
narrow rating category that isnt applicable here. The softallowed to be selected that still met the project parameters.
ware expert indicated that this will not even be an option
If a system that will not meet the parameters is selected,
in the next revision of the software.
the entries are highlighted in red indicating that the
After the correct engine duty was selected, the software
manual selection would not meet the project parameters.
recommended one 2,000 kW/2,500 kVA genset. Under the
This is a very flexible option for the program, allowing the
technical section of the software, the program generates
Figure 3: This graph shows the results of applying the selected optimization strategies shown in Figure 2.

www.csemag.com/purepower

27

KOHLER QUICKSIZE
QuickSize is a software program developed by Kohler Power Systems. It is an
easy-to-use, Web-based application that
requires a login and password from a local
distributor. The login information is the
same for each member of a company for
easy file sharing. All projects developed
using this software are automatically
available to the Kohler representative and
can be viewed if additional help is desired.
Specification sheets and other PDF drawings are available through the site. However, CAD drawings and BIM models must
be requested through a representative.
After running through the sizing software,
a custom specification is available (as a
Word document) for the project based on
the parameters and genset selected. The
specification can be used as a whole, or
copied and pasted into another specification format to suit the users needs.
Similar to the other programs, QuickSize
uses preset pull-down buttons for entering
parameters, which can be revised during
any step of data entry. All of the information is shown on one screen, and all of the
data can be changed at any time.
First, the load steps are entered, and
then specific loads are added. The loads
can be moved up or down between the
steps at any time, and all information is
easily editable throughout the process.
After all data are entered and load steps
are assigned, a click of the search result
button yields a list of applicable gensets,
listed by model number, alternator, and
engine with the smallest recommended
size at the top. Engines that will not meet
the requirements are indicated in red at

Table 2: Sizing software feature comparison


Cummins
GenSize
Input Data
Min genset load (% of rated capacity)
Max genset load (% of rated capacity)
Voltage dip
Frequency dip
Voltage distortion
Altitude
Ambient temp
Alternator temp rise

Load Options
Air conditioning
Battery charging
Centrifugal pump
Chiller
Elevator
Traction
Hydraulic
Fire pump
Induction furnace
Office equipment
Lighting
Fluorescent
Incandescent
HID
UV
Medical imaging
Motor
Intermittent motor feature
Non-linear
Resistive
UPS
PC
Server
User defined/misc.
Welding

Fuel Options
Diesel
Propane
Natural gas
Dual fuel
Bi fuel

Emissions Options
EPA stationary non-emergency
EPA stationary emergency
EPA non-road (portable)
EU stationary
EU mobile

Adjust number of gensets in parallel


Design resources
Sizing report
Specification
Equipment cut sheets
BIM models
Drawings

Access
Online
Available off-line

x
x
x
x

Caterpillar
SpecSizer

x
x

x
x
x

x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x*
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Generac Power
Design Pro

Kohler
QuickSize

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x*
x

x**

x
x
x
x

x
x
x

x*

x
x

* Available soon
** Online program to launch 4th quarter 2013

www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

engineer to determine the quantity and


size of the generators for each specific application. Although the program does not
appear to automatically select the lowest
quantity and kW rating that can be used,
the flexibility is a benefit.
After the generator system has been
selected, the mechanical design tab assists
with gas and exhaust piping layout and
paralleled generator configuration. The
analysis tab provides direct access to several reports including a project summary
and transient and harmonic analyses.

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

28

Generator Sizing Software

the bottom with an explanation for the programs rejection.


For the example project, the software recommended a single 1,500 kW/1,875 kVA generator. From here, a direct link
to a summary report of all the inputs and other parameters
used is available, and specifications may be created.
Kohler indicated it will continue to develop its software program to provide the necessary tools and options
to enhance the users experience by making the program
comprehensive and intuitive.

Applying some of these changes in the design can have


a huge impact on the generator size. These items may also
be higher in cost, but if the results reduce a generator size
or even the quantity of generators required for the project,
it may provide significant financial benefits to the project
as a whole. In the example project, a few of these elements
were applied to the loads as shown in Figure 2 with the
results shown in Figure 3.

RESULTS ANALYSIS
OPTIMIZATION STRATEGIES
After initial project data are entered into the system, there
are several tips and tricks for reducing the required system
size. A partial list of tips includes:
 Provide higher quality rectifiers on equipment to
reduce harmonics.
 Include VFDs or reduced voltage starters on motor
loads to allow soft starting and minimize the starting
impact.
 Allow for additional load steps on the project by
adding automatic transfer switches, programmable
logic controllers, or time delays.
 Load the system with the largest motor loads first.
 Disable capacitors on emergency loads.
 Include a UPS upstream of medical imaging or other
sensitive loads to reduce their voltage and frequency
dip requirements.

AD INDEX
Baldor Electric Company - C-2
479-646-4711

RS 400
www.baldor.com

Caterpillar - Northeast - pg 6

RS 401
www.NECatDealers.com/power

Eaton Corp - pg 11
877-423-0065
Kohler - pg C-4
800-544-2444

RS 402
www.switchon.eaton.com/93PM
RS 407
www.KOHLERPOWER.COM/INDUSTRIAL

MTU Onsite Energy - pg 13


507-625-7973

RS 403
www.mtu-online.com

Russelectric Inc. - pg C-3


800-225-5250

RS 406
www.russelectric.com

Schneider Electric - pg 17
847-397-2600

RS 405
www.schneider-electric.com

Schweitzer Engineering Labs - pg 15


509-336-7946

RS 404
www.selinc.com

As illustrated in the analysis, each software program


yields different results. Each manufacturer has a unique
way of modeling the load parameters with built-in
baseline defaults. The only defaults changed for the example project are those called for in the example project
description.
Each program models the operating functions of the
gensets differently. For example, when calculating the
sustained voltage dip for the project parameters, some
programs use an average voltage dip over several cycles
while others use an instantaneous voltage dip. Therefore, the internal modeling differs because of the inherent properties in the equipment.
The most important factor in using generator sizing
software is to know as much as possible about the loads
and remember that sometimes it can be more of an art
than a science. The more exact the data inputas opposed to using the system default parametersthe more
accurate the required generator size will be. Using a generator sizing program properly will provide the designer
with a higher level of confidence for specifying a system
that is large enough to meet the project needs, but not
oversized. However, even with sophisticated software
solutions, the designer must use his or her engineering
judgment in selecting the proper genset size.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Abby Lipperman has 8 years of electrical engineering experience with ccrd in Dallas. Her primary project
experience is in the health care industry, but she is also
involved in many different project types including data
centers, technology labs, museums, schools, banks, and
commercial and office spaces. Lipperman was also a Consulting-Specifying Engineer 40 Under 40 winner in 2009.
Danna Jensen is associate principal at ccrd in Dallas.
With 13 years of electrical engineering experience, most
of her work consists of designing electrical distribution
systems for hospitals; however, she also designs electrical
systems for office and retail facilities. Jensen was a 2009
Consulting-Specifying Engineer 40 Under 40 winner and
is a member of the Consulting-Specifying Engineer Editorial Advisory Board.

www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

DE-5

Electrical design software


By Alberto G. Cordero, PE, LEED AP, and Candace
Dolan, Affiliated Engineers Inc., Madison, Wis.

Evaluating software
tools for electrical
system design
Software tools and online resources are available for designing electrical systems.

any tools are available to the electrical and


power professional to assist in the design of
electrical systems for buildings and facilities.
This article focuses on specific proprietary
software tools for unique design applications.
To help illustrate and demonstrate the available tools
and online resources for electrical systems design, this
article presents a hypothetical example project with various challenges, and surveys the tools that would be most
appropriate to address them.

All images courtesy:


Affiliated Engineers Inc.

www.csemag.com/purepower

PROBLEM DESIGN APPROACH


Project X is a 400,000-sq-ft facility consisting of multiple
buildings to be constructed in the heart of an urban college campus. The project will require a new electric utility
service routed to a new central utility building and backup
generator plant. There is significant distance between
the buildings; therefore, multiple distribution points are
needed, and voltage drop must be considered. The client
has requested that a short circuit/arc flash hazard analysis
be completed for the entire electrical system. Selective co-

Figure 1: This diagram shows the site plan of Project X, highlighting the design
requirements and the associated tools that can be used to assist in the design.

DE-6

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

ordination will need to be considered as part of this study.


The local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) will require
plan review documentation, specifically as it pertains to
lighting (see Figure 1).

DESIGN CHALLENGES
Cable pulling: The site electrical infrastructure distribution
for Project X presents existing utility conflicts. The result
is a service and feeder duct bank system with many bends,
elevation changes, and offsets. This presents a challenge in
terms of cable pulling and determining the proper location
for pulling points along the system.
For complex cable pulls or simply to document a cable
pull run, the software tool Cable 3D from SKM System
Analysis models complex three-dimensional cable-pulling
tension and sidewall pressure calculations, allowing rapid
and accurate design decisions. The Cable 3D program
provides both forward and reverse pull results for each
cable profile modeled. For Project X, the Cable 3D program
is used to document sections of the utility service entrance
duct bank, and to adjust bends of cable profiles between
sections of medium-voltage cable runs. It also helps demonstrate that a manhole is not necessary as a pulling point for
the duct bank routing from the central utility building and
the main electrical room, thus informing the designer so
that the proper installation is constructed (see Figure 2).
QUICK TIP
SIMpull Cable Pull Calculator from Southwire is a convenient online tool
for cable pulling calculations and estimating support in a spreadsheet
format. It is an Excel-based calculator specific to Southwire products.
Pull Planner 3000 from American Polywater Corp. is a software tool
for performing cable pulling tension calculations and conduit system
design. The Windows-based software is available online for purchase
and download.

Cable ampacity: For the same service and feeder duct


bank sections modeled for cable pulling at Project X, the
burial depths of these conductors are continually adjusted
due to structural and other utility coordination. As of the
2011 version, the National Electrical Code (NEC) publishes
ampacity tables in Article 310.60 for medium-voltage (2,001
V to 35,000 V) cable installations for a few directly buried
cables and several duct bank profiles. The NEC does not
publish similar ampacity tables for buried low-voltage (0 V
to 600 V) conduit. These tables provide basic current-carrying limitations of conductors at assumed earth temperatures, and thermal resistances for conductor temperatures
of 90 C and 105 C, all at assumed burial depth of 30 in. to
top of duct bank, and 36 in. to the top of directly buried
cables. AmpCalc (cable ampacity software for underground
systems) from CalcWare Company is a computer program
that calculates power cable ampacity ratings and/or cable
operating temperatures for user-defined underground cable

Figure 2: This screen shot shows the Cable 3D program data input screen
with an image of the cable design.

installations (see Figure 3). The latest version has also


added a feature for aerial calculations. For underground
systems, the effect of burial depth, type of burial (direct or
concrete encased), and soil thermal resistivity (RHO) will
determine the cable temperatures and ampacities for a given scenario. An effort should be made to confirm the RHO
value of the soil. Lower RHO values indicate a low thermal
resistivity. Therefore, the cable ampacity is optimized. A
conservative value of 90 RHO should be used if actual data
are not available.
The load factor is another major component to the calculation. The load factor is the average load in kW supplied
during a designated period divided by the peak load in kW
taking place in that period. It is the engineers responsibility to determine if a load factor less than 1.0 is appropriate
for the cable design. The program uses the Neher-McGrath
calculation procedure to determine underground cable temperatures or cable ampacity ratings for virtually any duct
bank or direct burial cable configuration.
At Project X, a concrete-encased medium-voltage duct
bank is designed to enter the building and snake under some water pipes, and enter the electrical room just
above a structural footing. This scenario has a worst-case
burial depth of 19 ft as it enters the building and traverses
through some site grade elevation changes. As discussed,
the tables in NEC Article 310.60(C)(77) through (80) list
ampacities for burial depths of up to 30 in. For example, for
a 500 MCM 5 kV cable, NEC Table 310.60(C)(78) lists 295 A
for three aluminum conductors in a 27 in. by 11.5 in. crosssection duct bank (30 in. burial depth) . For a similar duct
bank at 19 ft deep, the AmpCalc result was 225 A, a 24%
reduction of current carrying capacity from the NEC value
based solely on burial depth. For this scenario, a second
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PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

DE-7

Electrical design software

and circuit length. A software program that


contains a load flow design module will have
the necessary computational equations to calculate voltage drop. Power Tools for Windows
(PTW), from SKM Systems Analysis, is a very
powerful program that is used throughout
the industry to meet the rigorous demands
of electrical system design. The DAPPER
module consists of the load flow and voltage drop module. This software requires the
proper input of data, including conductor type
and length, as well as loads up to the branch
circuit level. The program will provide a
consolidated report, which can be very useful
in documenting the results of the voltage drop
calculations. It also supports Crystal Reports,
a report-writing application that creates userfriendly and attractive customizable reports.
Another usable feature of PTW is the ability
Figure 3: This drawing shows a section view of the Project X duct bank using the AmpCalc
to adjust transformer taps to compensate for
software calculator. The duct bank depth and size, earth resistivity, conduit size, cable size,
voltage drop situations. This is very useful
and cable ampacity are depicted for analysis.
because it presents an alternative solution to
cable upsizing. The load flow report will include the adrun of conductors is implemented to form an additional
justed voltages, including tap adjustments (see Figure 4).
parallel run of conductors in the duct bank to accommodate
the considerable cable current-carrying capacity reduction
QUICK TIP
due to burial depth.
Voltage drop: Voltage drop is an often overlooked requireVoltage Drop Calculator from Southwire provides simple voltage drop
ment for electrical systems. The NEC provides language
calculations for individual cable runs in direct buried conduit and overin informational notes regarding voltage drop criteria for
head installations. It provides results based on minimum conductor
branch circuits and feeders to provide reasonable efficiency
size or maximum conductor distance.
of operation. The criteria imposed is to prevent a voltage
drop of 3% at the farthest outlet or load, where the maxiGenerator sizing: At Project X, a backup generator plant
mum total voltage drop on both feeders and branch circuits
is required to support all of the emergency and legally
does not exceed 5%. Voltage drop is also a requirement for
required standby loads, as well as a large number of opbuildings seeking U.S. Green Building Council LEED protional standby loads defined by the client. Given the large
gram certification, as it is indirectly dictated as a prerequiamount of motor loads connected to the backup systemin
site under ASHRAE 90.1-2010: Energy Standard for Buildings
addition to the design requirement for redundancythe
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings as a mandatory provichallenge is to determine the generator capacity and the
sion of the few electrical requirements listed under Section
optimum number of diesel generators to support the load.
8: Power. ASHRAE 90.1 lists maximum voltage drop values
Proper generator sizing depends on understanding
for feeders at 2%, and branch circuits at 3%, both at design
steady-state and transient load on engine and alternaload. To accommodate voltage drop requirements, some
tor, sequence of load changes during backup operation,
electrical designers apply across-the-board rules by dictating
power quality requirements, and the effect of harmonics
in the contract specifications that cable sizes be increased
induced by nonlinear electronic loads. Generator sizing
according to linear feet of circuit length. For example, for
tools provide the ability to select generators based on
208 Y/120 V circuits, increase conductor size by one size
voltage dip, frequency dip, and voltage total harmonic
for every 100 ft; and for 480 Y/277 V systems, every 150 ft.
distortion. This allows the designer to select the generator
This conservative design approach may be suitable only
that best fits his or her project requirements. The designer
for branch circuits and is difficult to present during permit
can select different types of loads including motors, VFDs,
applications to a code official who might be looking at the
UPSs, battery chargers, office equipment, air conditionspecific feeder voltage drop language from the NEC. Yes,
ing, miscellaneous loads, lighting, and medical imaging
some AHJs will request that voltage drop calculations be
equipment, to name a few.
submitted along with a code plan review.
For Project X, a generator sizing tool is used to deterVoltage drop is a function of circuit load, cable size,
mine the number of appropriate load steps corresponding
www.csemag.com/purepower

DE-8

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Figure 4: This partial single-line drawing of Project X indicates associated voltage-drop information as calculated using the PTW program. Voltage-drop
information is automatically added to the single-line diagram in the PTW program by applying a data-block tag.

to the priority levels for the automatic transfer switches


(ATSs) in the system. First, all the loads are grouped by
emergency system category (emergency, legally required,
and optional standby). Then each group is identified by
load category (motor, lighting, air conditioning, UPS). An
initial generator software report selects multiple gensets
to meet the criteria of supporting the large number of motors in the system. The project requirement is for N + 1
redundancy, so the desire is to keep the required numbers
of paralleled generators to a minimum.
By analyzing the effects of across-the-line motor starting vs. soft starting or VFDs for motors, and providing
additional load steps for the motor loads, the size and
quantity of the generators needed is reduced. Load steps
are implemented by adding ATSs and sequentially adding
loads via the building automation system. Also relevant is
the impact of the VFDs and UPSs in the system. These nonlinear loads have a significant impact on alternator sizing
for the gensets due to the detrimental effects of increased
power system component losses and heating; objectionable neutral current in 3-phase, 4-wire systems; excessive
generator voltage distortion; and control interaction and
instability. These programs provide very good options for
including available filtering tools for the VFDs and UPS
technologies (6 pulse vs. 12 pulse rectifiers and filters),
and aiding the consulting engineer in making system-wide
decisions based on all of these components.
The larger generator manufacturers provide free generator sizing software, available online or by contacting the

local representative for each manufacturer. In addition to


generator selection and sizing, these software tools can
also provide specification cut sheets, installation drawings,
emission information, product specification in text format,
and the ability to link directly to a supporting dealer for
budgetary quoting and additional support. In alphabetical
order, the available generator software packages include:
 Caterpillar: Electric Power SpecSizer
 Cummins: Power Suite
 Generac: Power Design Pro
 Kohler: Quick Size and Quick Spec
 MTU Onsite Energy: PS-SPEC
Lighting calculations: Project X requires unique lighting
solutions for the different space types throughout the building. The light levels must meet the specific design criteria
as defined by the owner and energy codes to perform the
required tasks within the space. The local code authority
requires an egress lighting calculation submission to prove
the designed lighting levels will meet the code minimum
egress light levels.
The AGi32 software from Lighting Analysts Illumination Engineering Software is a calculation tool for accurate
photometric predictions and can assist in the selection and
layout of lighting fi xtures. The program allows selection
of specific IES files that represent the photometric data
for the luminaires specified. The software allows users
to create a rendering of the exact dimensions and ceiling
height of a room, including obstructions such as shelving
www.csemag.com/purepower

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

DE-9

Electrical design software

ent has requested that the engineer of record


complete short circuit, selective coordination, and arc flash hazard studies for Project
X. These studies require extensive, complex
calculations and numerous iterations may be
required. To complete these calculations for
Project X, a system model is created using
PTW software from SKM System Analysis.
This software is able to perform the aforementioned calculations within the single model.
The Project X one-line diagram is modeled
within the software including all utilities,
generators, cables, transformers, panelboards,
switchboards, overcurrent protective devices/
settings, motor loads, and branch circuit loads.
The software has a large library database,
which includes information from multiple
Figure 5: This rendering was created using AGi32 software to show a room lighting scenario.
manufacturers.
The DAPPER module performs load flow, voltand furniture. There are default reflectance values for walls
age drop, complete fault analysis, and demand load
and ceilings that are inherent to the software. However, if
analysis. The fault analysis provides a network soluthe room finishes and material types are known, the actual
tion of 3-phase, single-line-to-ground, line-to-line,
reflectance values can be changed to influence a more acand double-line-to-ground fault currents. It calculates
curate calculation.
both symmetrical and asymmetrical fault duties. The
Lighting fi xtures can then be added to the model based
output gives accurate fault current values for each bus,
on the lighting layout and mounting heights. After all
informing the minimum kAIC rating of the electrical
criteria are entered, the software will calculate the pointequipment.
by-point lighting levels in the space, with an option to
According to NEC Article 700.27, emergency syscreate a 3D-rendered image of the model (see Figure 5). The
tem overcurrent protective devices (OCPD) shall be
results of the calculation can improve lighting designs by
selectively coordinated with all supply side overcurvalidating design criteria or indicating areas with deficienrent protective devices. The CAPTOR module produces
cies. The software also has a report tool that allows users
time-current curve (TCC) coordination drawings that
to format and formalize a point-by-point calculation. The
can inform users of the selection of OCPD to meet
reports can be tailored to include numerous values, such
selective coordination. The TCC curves are displayed
as minimum, average, max/min ratios, and maximum
on a screen with interactive graphics that allow users
foot-candle levels, fi xture type, and Watts/sq ft lighting
to manipulate the OCPD settings to achieve selective
power density values. There is also a program function that
coordination.
allows users to export the point-by-point calculations to an
After the OCPD setting and selective coordination
Autodesk CAD file.
are set, the arc flash analysis can be performed. The
QUICK TIP
Arc Flash Evaluation module calculates the incident
energy and arc flash boundary for each location in the
ElumTools is another software tool available from Lighting Analysts Illupower system. The calculation automatically determination Engineering Software and is a fully integrated lighting calculamines trip times from the protective device settings
tion tool for Autodesks Revit 2012 and newer. ElumTools runs in Revit
and arcing fault current values. The incident energy
and provides a toolbar for access to analysis tools for application to any
and arc flash boundaries are calculated following the
Revit room or space. It is available as an add-on for Revit.
NPFA 70E, IEEE 1584, and NESC standards. The softLitePro 2.0 from Hubbell Lighting is a free comprehensive tool for lightware also has the capability of creating customizable
ing designers and provides easy methods to design lighting systems.
arc flash labels.
It also features reports and rendering tools. Visual is lighting design
software from Acuity Brands Lighting Inc. It is a comprehensive tool for
lighting design that brings productivity to the lighting design process.
Tools within the software package are tailored for specific aspects of
lighting design. There is also an economic tool that can be used to
determine the most economically viable lighting strategy.

Arc flash, short circuit, selective coordination: The cliwww.csemag.com/purepower

QUICK TIP
ETAP is another electrical power systems design and analysis software
tool. It can be used in design, analysis, maintenance, and operation of
electrical power systems. There are both ac and dc databases, and it
can perform calculations for both types of systems.

DE-10

according to IEEE Standard 519 and IEC61800-2 standard.


The values indicate the effect the drive load has on the
electrical network at the point of common coupling. By
analyzing the drives on an individual basis, the high harmonic loads can be identified, allowing for a more custom
solution to be implemented for the project.
QUICK TIP
The Harmonic Calculator from Allen-Bradley (Rockwell Automation)
provides an Excel-based calculator for determining how much voltage
and current distortion may exist on the electrical system when operating nonlinear loads. HI_WAVE is a component of the SKM Systems
Analysis software package that simulates harmonic distortion in an
electrical system. The power system and harmonic effects can be addressed during design.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Alberto G. Cordero is a senior electrical engineer with Affiliated Engineers Inc., where he specializes in complex higher
education, health care, and research facilities.
Candace Dolan is an electrical engineer with Affiliated Engineers Inc., where she specializes in higher education and
research facilities.

PURE POWER // WINTER 2013

Harmonics: Project X has a complex mechanical


system that requires a large number of VFDs for variable
speed control of motors for pumps and other pieces of
equipment. VFDs are nonlinear loads, which cause harmonic distortion on the electrical system of the building.
Harmonics can be harmful to sensitive communication
and data processing equipment. Therefore, consideration
must be given during electrical system design to reduce
the effects of harmonics on these systems. IEEE 519 recommends a limit of 3% to 5% total harmonic distortion
(THD) at the point of common coupling, and 5% to 20%
total demand distortion. To achieve these limits, there are
design strategies that can be implemented to mitigate the
harmonics imposed by nonlinear loads. The application of
harmonic fi lters at either the VFD or the service entrance
is one solution. Another is the use of 12- and/or 18-pulse
VFDs. The application of fi lters and multipulse drives can
become costly. It is important to thoroughly analyze the
system and select the most appropriate solution. Simply
providing all motors with 18-pulse drives may not be the
most effective solution and may incur undue cost to a
project. DriveSize is a free program from ABB that can
be used to compute network harmonics and to create
dimensioning documents. The program calculates THD

The best power control systems


are equipped with redundant PLC controllers

The typical power system is controlled


by one PLC.
Russelectric power control systems come
standard with dual PLC controls for fully
redundant operation, ensuring no interruption
of control should either malfunction.
Dont settle for less than the best power
control systems Insist on Russelectric.

Made in USA

www.russelectric.com
1-800-225-5250
An Employee-Owned Company
An Equal Oppor tunity Employer

input #406 at www.csemag.com/information

TOTAL SYSTEM INTEGRATION


generators

transfer switches

switchgear

controls

this is a Kohler power system. and its built to perform. how do


we know? we engineered it ourselves. generators, transfer switches,
switchgear, controllers you name it, we make it. every part is designed
to work with the entire system.
so when the grid goes down, youll be glad you specd Kohler.

spec your job at KOhLERPOwER.cOM/INduSTRIAL


input #407 at www.csemag.com/information

Power Systems

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