Geology - the science that pursues an understanding of planet Earth:

Physical geology - examines the materials composing Earth and

seeks to understand the many processes that operate beneath
and upon its surface
Historical geology - seeks an understanding of the origin of Earth
and its development through time
Geology, people, and the environment:
Many important relationships exist between people and the
natural environment
Problems and issues addressed by geology include:
o Natural hazards, Resources, World population growth,
Environmental issues
How or why things happen is explained using a:
Hypothesis a tentative (or untested) explanation
Theory a well-tested and widely accepted view that the
scientific community agrees best explains certain observable
facts
Earth is a dynamic planet with many interacting parts or spheres
Earth System Science:
Aims to study Earth as a system composed of numerous
interacting parts or subsystems
Employs an interdisciplinary approach to solve global
environmental problems
What

is a system:
Any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole
Examples: Cooling system in cars, nervous system in animals
Most natural systems driven by sources of energy that move
matter and/or energy from one place to another

Open system:
Energy and matter flow into and out of system i.e The Ocean
Closed system:
Energy moves freely in and out
Matter does not enter or leave system i.e Earth (with regards to
matter

Basic rock types:

Igneous rocks:
o Formed from cooling and solidification of magma (molten
rock)
o Examples include granite and basalt
Sedimentary rocks:
o Accumulate in layers at Earths surface
o Sediments are derived from weathering of preexisting
rocks
o Examples include sandstone and limestone
Metamorphic rocks:
o Formed by changing preexisting igneous, sedimentary or
other metamorphic rocks
o Driving forces are increased heat and pressure
o Examples include gneiss and marble
The Rock Cycle:
The loop that involves the processes by which one rock changes
to another
Illustrates the various processes and paths as earth materials
change both on the surface and inside the Earth
High temp melt rock to form magma when magma cool and
solidifies igneous rock is formed weathering breaks down
igneous rocks into sediment sediment is buried and converts
into sedimentary rock higher heat and pressure convert
sedimentary rock into metamorphic rock melting of
metamorphic rock produces magma
Our Solar System
Our solar system consists of the sun, 8 planets (Pluto recently
demoted), over 100 moons and a multitude of asteroids, comets
and meteoroids.
The orbits of the planets are elliptical around the sun.
The planets generally revolve in the same direction around the
sun and within the plane of the ecliptic
Most of the moons revolve around the planets in the same
direction as the planets revolve around the sun
Meteoroids, asteroids and comets also follow orbits around the
sun.

The rotations of the planets, moons and other bodies are

inherited from the rotation of the ancient gas cloud from which
they formed.

Terrestrial (Rocky) Planets

Closest to the Sun
Consists of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Small, rocky bodies with densities greater than 3 gm/cm^3
Composed mainly of silicates, Fe and Ni
The Jovian (Gaseous) Planets
Consists of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
Larger than terrestrial planets
have densities less than 3 gm/cm^3
Solid, rocky core surrounded by thick atmosphere of hydrogen,
helium, methane, ammonia and other gasses
Multiple moons
Has ring systems composed of dust to boulder sized particles of
ice
Early Evolution of Earth
Researchers believe that Earth and the other planets formed at
essentially the same time
Early Earth was hot and soft
- heavy iron sank to the center
- magma rose to the surface, cooled and solidified into a primitive
crust
- mantle composed of Mg-silicates
- light cases escaping earth's interior from the primitive
atmosphere
Nebular Hypothesis
Rotating nebula developed into a flat, disk shape with the protosun at the center
Inner planets formed from metallic and rocky substances
Larger outer planets formed from fragments of ices
Smaller bodies aggregated into larger bodies with aggregated
into planets

The Earth
compositionally layered
density of 5.5 g/cm^3
radius of 6,500 km
Earth's crust

o
o

Oceanic - basalt, 0-10 km thick

Continental - granite, 33-70 km thick

Lithosphere
crust and solid upper portion of the mantle
glides over asthenosphere
broken into a series of plates that is the surface of the earth
Asthenosphere
weak layer directly below lithosphere consisting of partially
molten mantle
Mantle
solid down to a depth of 2,900 km where it meets the outer core
composed of peridotite (Si, O, Mg, Ca) (consists of olivine and
pyroxene)
Outer Core
2,900 to 5,100 km
consists of molten iron
source of magnetic field
Inner Core
5,100 km depth
solid iron and nickel
Geographic Time
Absolute dating
o radioactive isotopes
Relative dating
o geologic events and materials are placed in their proper
sequence or order of occurrence without knowing their
ages in years
Plate
Alfred

Tectonics
Wegener - fitted together separate continents to form Pangaea
mountain belts aligned
proposed continental drift hypothesis in 1915
o evidence used at the time are fossil, rock type, fit of
continents
published Origins of Continents and Oceans

Paleomagnetism
Study of the Magnetic Properties of Ancient Rocks Provide Further
Evidence That Continents Drifted Over Time
Today the magnetic lines of force travel from the South Pole
towards the North Pole

Lava Flows Become Magnetized in the Direction of the Earths

Magnetic Field Existing at the Time the Lavas Solidified

Seafloor Has Complex Bathymetry

trenches, fracture zones, submerged volcanoes
mid-ocean ridges (mountain ranges in the ocean)
o Sites of Rising Thermal Convection Cells
o where new oceanic lithosphere is created
o extend the length of entire ocean basins and can be
hundreds to thousands of kilometers long
o Iceland is where the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is exposed above
sea level
Shallow earthquakes common along faults

Hot spots and mantle plumes

Caused by rising plumes of mantle material that impinge on the
base of the lithosphere
Volcanoes can form over them (Hawaiian Island chain)
Mantle plumes:
o Long-lived structures
o Some originate at great depth, perhaps at the mantle-core
boundary
Polar Wandering Curves
Lava Flows Become Magnetized in the Direction of the Earths
Magnetic Field Existing at the Time the Lavas Solidified
Magnetic stripes of normal and reverse polarity parallel to the
mid-ocean ridge
New oceanic lithosphere moves laterally away from spreading ridges at
rates ranging from 1-18cm/yr:
Youngest oceanic lithosphere occurs along the ridge axis
Oceanic lithosphere becomes progressively older away from the
ridge axis
Oldest oceanic lithosphere occurs along edge of the ocean basin
adjacent to a subduction zone and/or continental margin
Three Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent (constructive): Two plates move apart from one another
Convergent (destructive): Two plates collide with one possibly
subducting beneath the other

Transform (lithosphere conserved):Two plates slide laterally past

one another

Parts of a Subduction Zone

Trench, Wedge, Forearc Basin, Volcanic Arc
Three Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries
Ocean-ocean convergence: Oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath
another oceanic plate
Ocean-continent convergence: Oceanic lithosphere subducts
beneath continental lithosphere
Continent-continent convergence: Two continental plates collide
Collage Tectonics
A collage is an assemblage of micro-continents, arcs, and other crustal
fragments accreted along the edge of a continent adjacent to a
subduction zone

There

are several models proposed that drive plate tectonics:

Slab Pull
Ridge Push
Whole-mantle convection
Layer-cake convection

Minerals
Mineralogy is the branch of geology that studies the composition,
structure, occurrence and characteristics of minerals
Definition of a Mineral
Naturally occurring and therefore generally found in nature
Solid within the temperature range normally found at Earths
surface
Orderly crystalline structure where atoms are arranged in an
orderly, repetitive manner
Well-defined chemical composition
Generally inorganic even though some may contain carbon
Atoms
smallest unit of an element that retains the physical and chemical
properties of that element

consists of Proton (positive), Neutron (no charge), Electrons

(negative)
Protons and neutrons comprise the nucleus of an atom while
electrons orbit the nucleus

Properties of an Atom
number of protons is known as its atomic number (always the
same)
The sum of the masses of all the protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom = atomic mass or weight
Electrons have no mass
Valence electrons occur in the outermost electron shell
Isotopes
Atoms of different atomic mass (weight) for a given element are
said to be isotopes of that element
Differences in atomic mass (weight) of isotopes due to variations
in the number of neutrons in the nucleus

Gaining and Losing Electrons

For an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons =
number of protons
After gain or loss of an electron, the atom is no longer electrically
neutral and is therefore called an ion
o Cation if it loses an electron therefore is positive
o Anion if it gains an electron therefore is negative
The most stable configuration for an atom is to have 8 electrons
(2 for the first energy level) in its outermost principal shell:
o Elements in first two columns of the periodic table have a
tendency to lose electrons (acquire positive charges)
o Elements in the two columns preceding the last column
(noble gasses) have strong tendencies to gain electrons
(acquire negative charges)
Ionic Bonds
Some types of reactions result in oppositely charged ions:
One element loses an electron to become positively charged
A different element acquires the electron to become negatively
charged
The oppositely charged ions then bond

Covalent Bonds
Electron orbits (shells) of elements can overlap with those of
adjacent elements
Electrons are therefore shared
Complex ions like CO32-, SO42-, and NO3- form through a
combination of ionic bonding and electron sharing
Metallic Bonds
metallic atoms pack together as cations
electrons free to move around
electrons are dispersed and shared amount the cations
Minerals
orderly arrangement of atoms
different minerals can have different atomic arrangements
Polymorphs are two minerals that have the same chemical
composition but different crystal structure
Graphite/Diamond
Calcite/aragonite
Silicates
Silicon ion (Si4+) surrounded by four oxygen ions (O2-) and
represented by the formula (SiO4)4 Basic building block is the Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron
Carbonates
Basic unit is the (CO3)2- complex
There are different carbonate minerals depending on which cation
is attached to the carbonate complex: (CO3)^2- + cations
Two most important carbonates are:
o calcite [CaCO3]
o dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]
Oxides
Cations are bounded to oxygen: O2- + cations
Two important oxides:
o Hematite (Fe2O3)
o Magnetite (Fe3O4)
Sulfates
Sulfur is present as the sulfate ion (SO4)2 Two important sulfates:
o Anhydrite (CaSO4)
o Gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O)

Sulfides
Many important ore deposits exist as sulfides: S2- + cations
Two important sulfides:
o Galena (PbS)
o Pyrite (FeS2)
Halides
Generally form ionic bonds
Many precipitate from saline water
Important halides:
o Halite (NaCl)
o Sylvite (KCl)
o Fluorite (CaF2)
Native Elements
Minerals composed of only one element
Some important native elements:
o Graphite (C)
o Diamond (C)
o Copper (Cu)
o Gold (Au)
o Sulfur (S)

Physical Properties of Minerals

Color
Streak - color left behind when scratching a mineral on a tile of
unglazed porcelain
Hardness - the measure of the ease with which the surface of a
mineral can be scratche
o Mohs scale
Tenacity describes a minerals toughness, or resistance to
breaking or deforming:
o Brittle: Shatters into small pieces when struck (e.g. fluorite
& halite)
o Malleable: Easily hammered into different shapes (e.g.
native copper)
o Sectile: Able to be cut into thin shavings (e.g. gypsum and
talc)
o Elastic: Returns to original shape after being bent or
twisted (e.g. micas)

Cleavage is the tendency of a crystal to break along flat planar

surfaces:
o Covalent bonds are generally strong and have poor
cleavage (e.g. quartz)
o Ionic bonds are relatively weak and yield good cleavage
(e.g. halite and calcite)
Fracture is the tendency of a crystal to break along irregular
surfaces other than cleavage planes
o Conchoidal (smooth, curved surfaces)
o Fibrous (similar to splitting wood)
o Irregular
Specific Gravity is a measure of the mass or weight of a mineral
Luster is the way a mineral reflects light:
o Metallic (strong reflections by opaque minerals)
o Vitreous (reflects like glass)
o Dull (earthy)
o Resinous (characteristic of resins like amber)
o Greasy (appearance of being coated with oil)
o Pearly (whitish iridescence like pearl)
o Silky (the sheen of fibrous materials like silk)
o Adamantine (brilliant luster of diamond)
The crystal form or habit is the shape in which a crystal grows:
o Bladed
o Plates
o Bands
o Prismatic
o Cubic
o Botryoidal
Magnetism
Feel
Taste