Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Flavia Agnes
The law of marriage in its essence is a law regulating economic transactions and woman's access to and control
over it The Islamic provisions of 'mehr' and marriage agreements, and right of property management have stood
Muslim women in good stead during litigation in the last century. However, gradual infiltration of Hindu notion
of sacramental marriage and English principles of morality and public policy have curtailed Muslim women's rights
granted under Islamic jurisprudence. Muslim leadership needs to give up its attitude of negating women's rights
if it aspires for support of secular and human rights forum in the period of aggressive Hindu communal propaganda
for uniform civil code.
THE law governing marriage and family
relationships in its essence is a law of property
settlement rather than a law governing sexual
morality. Hence, any proposal for reform
would have to necessarily redefine property
rights of women within the family. This
consciousness has led both conservative as
well as progressive forums now engaged in
drafting alternate codes to focus more upon
the economic rights of women rather than
confine the debate to issues of monogamy
and sexual control.
In this context, even the Hindu fundamentalist political parties like the BJP have
been forced to acknowledge that the Hindu
law of succession does not grant rights to
women and hence while enforcing a uniform
code, the concept of Hindu joint family
property may have to be abolished.
Most legal scholars concede that the
Muslim law of inheritance protects women's
rights better than the Hindu law based on
male coparcenary. But in the realm of
matrimonial law, it is presumed that the
Hindu law (which is a reflection of the
archaic British law) will be more favourable
to women than the Muslim law which
permits polygamy and triple talaq. In fact,
the rationale for a uniform code is based
on this premise, i e, liberation of Muslim
women.
The present Hindu law of marriage and
divorce is a curious mixture of Victorian
morality, Hindu notion of women's servility
and the modern concept of a contract between
equals, which collectively work towards the
subordination of women. Since it has nothing
to offer in the realm of economic rights, we
need to take recourse either to the Continental
system which is based on equitable
distribution of matrimonial property or to
the Islamic concept of mehr.
Unfortunately, due to the communal
undertones which usually accompany the
demand for a uniform civil code, the contribution of Islamic legal principles to the modern
matrimonial jurisprudence has not received
due recognition. For instance, the Islamic
principle of marriage as a dissoluble contract
was borrowed first by the Continental and
later by the British matrimonial juris-
2832
mehr is i n v a l i d . A c c o r d i n g to the H a n a f i
mehr, m e h r - e l - m i s l . T h e proper m e h r w o u l d
have to be d e t e r m i n e d d e p e n d i n g u p o n the
o f the w i f e .
is
marries a n o n - M u s l i m he is b o u n d t o pay
sources w o u l d be necessary.
While a minimum of
10 d h i r a m s
I s l a m i c l a w can be ascertained o n l y w h e n
While
judicial
Hindu
t i m e d u r i n g the marriage. M e h r is a m a r k
e c o n o m i c r i g h t s c o u l d not be
marriage. T h e R o m a n l a w o f marriage w h i c h
token
principles.
similarly
right
subsequently
to impose conditions
upon
their
upon
divorce. I f at the t i m e o f d i s s o l u t i o n
n o independent i d e n t i t y .
and in any
event
of
right'
W h i l e adjudicating over
matrimonial
was g r a n t e d the r i g h t
separate
to c l a i m 2 , 0 0 0 dhirams.
(kabin-nama)
1935.
to d i v o r c e h i m i f he remarried w i t h o u t her
to h o l d
discussed b e l o w .
T h e Q u r a n i c right o f m e h r is distinct f r o m
c o m m u n i t i e s i n A f r i c a and A s i a f o l l o w e d a
daughter's
Prophet
delegated p o w e r o f the w i f e to d i v o r c e
including
T h e c o u r t c o n c u r r e d w i t h this v i e w and r u l e d
o f his c o m m a n d s . T h e w i f e is e n t i t l e d to l i v e
is d i s t i n c t f r o m the right o f d o w e r . D o w e r ,
H e n c e the f o l l o w i n g j u d g m e n t ,
I s l a m i c right o f m e h r , w h i c h is a right u p o n
Mohammed
widowhood.
f u l f i l her marital o b l i g a t i o n s
upon
I n a p p e a l , an I s l a m i c j u r i s t ,
Moulvi
v Husseini
Khwaja
Begum4 discussed i n
2833
2834
T h e c o u r t then a p p l i e d t h i s p r i n c i p l e t o
an agreement r e g a r d i n g m a i n t e n a n c e i n Bai
Fatima's
case. 9 W h i l e c o n t r a c t i n g a s e c o n d
passage
Mohammedan
Ali's
o u t o f the s t i p u l a t e d a m o u n t o f Rs 1,50,000
from
Ameer
m e d a n l a w , the m a i n t e n a n c e ( n a f k a h ) o f
w e r e not s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y the e n t i r e
a w i f e includes everything
connected
the d o w e r p u b l i c l y
f o o d , r a i m e n t , l o d g i n g , etc, and m u s t be
intended t o be p a i d and o n l y a s m a l l e r a m o u n t
m o n t h as maintenance. A f t e r separation, t h e
first
w i f e sued f o r r e c o v e r i n g arrears o f
c o u n c i l v a l i d a t e d the Kabin-nama
m a i n t e n a n c e . R e l y i n g u p o n the p r e c e d i n g
e n t i t l e d m e r e l y to m a i n t e n a n c e i n the
some
t o c l a i m a habitation f o r her o w n e x c l u s i v e
means. I t is i n c u m b e n t o n the h u s b a n d
policy.
wife's
s m a l l e r sum.
habitation
t o be s o l e l y
and
o f 1877
A s can be observed, M u s l i m w o m e n w e r e
e x c l u s i v e l y a p p r o p r i a t e d b y her, because
o n a f i r m f o o t i n g i f the c o u r t s a p p l i e d I s l a m i c
p r i n c i p l e s . T h e d e c i s i o n o f the O u d h h i g h
T h e p r i v y c o u n c i l c o m m e n t e d : " M e h r has
maintenance
God
i m p o r t a n t uses w h i c h a f f e c t the d o m e s t i c l i f e
a subsistence".
court i n Mansur
v A z i z u l 1 0 is yet another
burt
l a i d d o w n an i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e r e g a r d i n g
and the w o r d
of
This judgment
is s i g n i f i c a n t
for
its
T h e j u d g m e n t s discussed a b o v e i n d i c a t e
that a M u s l i m w o m a n ' s r i g h t u p o n m a r r i a g e
B u t recent research o n M u s l i m
societies
o f maintenance a m o u n t i n g to Rs 5 8 - 7 - 0 .
upper
to m a t r i m o n i a l h o m e .
i n s t i t u t i o n o f m e h r to c o n t r o l that
caste
Hindu
society
is
gaining
right.
acceptance. T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t is d i s t u r b i n g .
D u e to the r i t u a l i s t i c manner i n w h i c h m e h r
k e y s t o n e o f the M o h a m m e d a n l a w o f mehr
i n its p u r i t y " .
among women's
maintenance (guzara)
rights
is not against p u b l i c
d e s t i t u t i o n . B u t the reported j u d g m e n t s o f
p o l i c y " . T h e c o u r t d i f f e r e d f r o m the v i e w
a b y g o n e era bear t e s t i m o n y to a d i f f e r e n t
reality.
important
authorities on M u s l i m l a w r e g a r d i n g the
b e h i n d by the husband w e r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o
is
husband's
R e c o g n i s i n g the disability
separate
wife's
to the w h o l e a m o u n t stipulated, i r r e s p e c t i v e
h a b i t a t i o n to be s o l e l y and e x c l u s i v e l y
that a consent o b t a i n e d in a m o m e n t
relied
upon
passage f r o m
two
the Hedaya:
apartment
for
his
"It
I n Kamar-un-nissa
Bibi's
bed.
face
of
o f seven witnesses. L a t e r , he e x e c u t e d a
r e c o g n i t i o n to a w o m a n ' s i n a b i l i t y to c l a i m
maintenance
d o c u m e n t , mukhtar-nama
and
and
women
desire,
appoints
her p e r m i s s i o n
i l l n e s s o r o n his d e a t h
the w o r d
her a d w e l l i n g
of
God
to g i v e effect to
b y this action.
The
courts
have
also
granted
due
h o u s e as a
subsistence a n d as it is i n c u m b e n t u p o n
u n p a i d d o w e r o f Rs 51,000. H o w e v e r , it was
the husband to p r o v i d e a h a b i t a t i o n f o r
w o u l d be i f a m a r r i e d w o m a n was o b l i g e d
his w i f e , so h e is not at l i b e r t y to a d m i t
be i n j u r i o u s to her; n e i t h e r is the h u s b a n d
married life.14
at l i b e r t y to i n t r u d e u p o n his w i f e , his
c h i l d b y another w o m a n . I f the h u s b a n d
T h e Sultan
Begam
case o f 1936 ( A I R
property,
this d i r e c t i o n . T h e w i d o w c l a i m e d Rs 5 0 , 0 0 0
to
retain
2835
2836
M u s l i m h u s b a n d is r e q u i r e d t o v i s u a l i s e o r
contemplate
c i v i l code.
f i l e d s e v e r a l c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t the
requirements
the extent
and
of
make
the
future
ill
Fauzdari
preparatory
arrangements i n a d v a n c e f o r m e e t i n g the
c o u r t a n d f i n a l l y o b t a i n e d p e r m i s s i o n to v i s i t
same. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n seems to be i n
is the apex b o d y o f M u s l i m j u r i s p r u d e n c e
in
T h e K e r a l a h i g h c o u r t reiterated t h i s v i e w
a n d h e l d that e v e n a m i l l i o n a i r e w i f e w h o
issue. M a u l a n a M u j a h i d u l I s l a m Q a s m i , a
l i v e s i n l u x u r y a n d a f f l u e n c e is e n t i t l e d to
l e a d i n g M u s l i m t h e o l o g i a n , m a d e a plea f o r
' n o t b e i n g able to m a i n t a i n h e r s e l f is n o
India,
in
its
recently
concluded
W h i l e this is o n e area' o f l a w
another
area
which
the
reform,
women's
organisations are p u r s u i n g is s m a l l s p e c i f i c
o f the M u s l i m l e a d e r s h i p t o w a r d s its w o m e n
Khoolanama
c o n t r o v e r s y o f the u n i f o r m c o d e a n d at the
i n g the p r o - w o m e n j u d g m e n t s as c o n c u r r i n g
recovery
w i t h the I s l a m i c p r i n c i p l e o f p r o v i d i n g f u t u r e
D o m e s t i c V i o l e n c e A c t and the R i g h t to
Rs 2 6 , 0 0 0 ( t h e 1,000 g o l d mohurs
s e c u r i t y to w o m e n , t h e M u s l i m
r e l i n q u i s h i n g the m e h r dues.
her
mehr
dues v a l u e d
at
valued
Personal
L a w B o a r d f i l e d appeals to the s u p r e m e
c o u r t c h a l l e n g i n g the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l v a l i d i t y
of
matrimonial
d a n l a w , a Khoolanama
these
judgments.
In
1992,
Syed
been
cannot be p r o v e d
m e n t . It w i l l i n d e e d be t r a g i c and i r o n i c i f
the
divorce cannot
the
leadership pleads f o r e x e m p t i o n f r o m t h e i r
application
a n d iddit
l u m p s u m settlements. 2 0
B u t c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the aggressive H i n d u
on
the
pretext
of
state
Hence
dynmohur.
a l l o w a n c e . I n an appeal filed b y
c o m m u n a l p r o p a g a n d a i n the p o s t - A y o d h y a
phase a n d its d e m a n d f o r a u n i f o r m c i v i l
be g i v i n g legal effect to I s l a m i c p r i n c i p l e s
u p h e l d the t r i a l c o u r t ' s d e c i s i o n .
code, the M u s l i m
today
o f w o m a n ' s s e c u r i t y , in a s i m i l a r m a n n e r the
c o m p e l l e d to f o c u s a t t e n t i o n to the p r o b l e m s
p r i n c i p l e o f m a r r i a g e as a d i s s o l u b l e contract
c o u n c i l w h i c h c o n f i r m e d the l o w e r court
name o f p r o t e c t i n g its c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , i f
last c e n t u r y .
recognises t w o f o r m s o f d i v o r c e , talaq
leadership
is
i t pursues its o s t r i c h l i k e a t t i t u d e o f n e g a t i n g
khoola.
Talaq
and
P R E D I C A M E N T S OF W O M E N A N D
secular a n d h u m a n r i g h t s f o r u m s , w h o h a d
M A N I P U L A T I O N S BY H U S B A N D S
o w n pleasure, w i t h or w i t h o u t cause. B u t i f
stood b y the c o m m u n i t y
i n its h o u r
of
t r i b u l a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the d e m o l i t i o n o f B a b r i
M a s j i d . T h i s p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y has led to s o m e
s t i r r i n g s w i t h i n the M u s l i m leadership.
A t the b i a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f the A l l I n d i a
Muslim
Personal
Law
Board
held
in
her d o w e r . A d i v o r c e b y khoola
is a d i v o r c e
rights.
But
A h m e d a b a d i n O c t o b e r , 1995, a g r o u p o f
M u s l i m w o m e n w e r e i n v i t e d to present t h e i r
Islamic
v i e w s . T h i s g r o u p has been w o r k i n g o n a
f o r m a t o f standard nikahnama
h u s b a n d ' s m a n i p u l a t i o n s to d e p r i v e t h e m o f
was
r e p u d i a t i o n o f the w i f e . H e n c e he was b o u n d
the I s l a m i c
the
p r e d i c a m e n t s o f w o m e n o f the last c e n t u r y
m e h r s h o u l d be s t i p u l a t e d i n g o l d , s i l v e r o r
framework.
which could
Some
of
nikahnama
dyn-mohur
(mehr) in
khoola,
it does not c o n s t i t u t e a d i v o r c e . T h e d i v o r c e
effected
through
the
husband's
Shamsoonnisa
Begam,23
Buzul-ul-
10,000
i n N o v e m b e r , 1847. A f e w m o n t h s p r i o r to
w e r e settled as
v Luteefutoon-Nissa22
a n d Rs 1,000 g o l d mohurs
Hence,
effectively
rights.
p r i n c i p l e s c o u l d be
Rs
1842. I n
1847 the
B u z l o o r R u h e e m . D u e to i l l treatment, i n
h i m s e l f t o d i v o r c e t h r o u g h an a r b i t r a t i o n
h u s b a n d r e m a r r i e d . T h e second w i f e l a i d
f o r u m , the h u s b a n d s h o u l d not
contract
d o w n a c o n d i t i o n that the h u s b a n d s h o u l d
the husband
b i g a m o u s m a r r i a g e w i t h o u t the c o n s e n t o f
a n d release
So he treated her w i t h c r u e l t y a n d d e n i e d
h e r s e l f o f t h e m a r r i a g e b o n d a n d c l a i m her
her f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g i n o r d e r to i n d u c e her
m e h r dues. T h e r e is a l s o a s u g g e s t i o n that
to ask f o r d i v o r c e , khoola,
rights.
i n the e v e n t o f a r b i t r a r y o r a l t a l a q , t h e
w o u l d be c o m p e l l e d to f o r f e i t her r i g h t t o
m a n s h o u l d be c o m p e l l e d t o pay p e n a l t y
dower.
t h e w i f e c a n p r o n o u n c e khoola
i n w h i c h case she
retained the
government
from
conjugal
m e h r , d o u b l e o r t r i p l e the s t i p u l a t e d s u m .
A l l t h e s u g g e s t i o n s are w i t h i n t h e I s l a m i c
f a v o u r r e g a r d i n g the p r o p e r t y detained b y
precepts a n d s u b s c r i b e t o the t h e o r y
t r e a t m e n t a n d requested the m o t h e r t o h a n d
her h u s b a n d v a l u e d at Rs 2,34,800. T h e
of
c o u r t . T h e w i f e o b t a i n e d a decree i n her
2837
2838
Notes
1 Khurshid Bibi v Mohammad Amin PLD 1967
SC 97.
2 See Dr Qamar Murtaza Bokhari v Mst
Zainab Bashir PLD 1995 Lah 187 and Shah
Begam v District Judge, Sialkot and Ors
PLD 1995 Lah 19.
3 Badarannissa Bibi v Mafiattala (1871) 7 BLR
442.
4 (1910) 37 1A 152.
5 Muhammad Muin-ud-din v Jamal Fatima AIR
1921 All 152.